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COLUMBIA ALUMNI SERVING AS NAVAL SURGEONS in the WAR of I8 I 2 PAUL CUSHMAN, JR. in the War of 1812, As in Most Major Wars That

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COLUMBIA ALUMNI SERVING AS NAVAL SURGEONS in the WAR of I8 I 2 PAUL CUSHMAN, JR. in the War of 1812, As in Most Major Wars That 5 0 COLUMBIA ALUMNI SERVING AS NAVAL SURGEONS IN THE WAR OF i8 I 2 PAUL CUSHMAN, JR. Department of Medicine St. Luke's Hospital Center New York, N. Y. In the War of 1812, as in most major wars that have involved the United States, the medical services were provided by a small nucleus of surgical officers remaining from the peace-time navy plus a large supplement of surgeons recruited from civilian life. As the navy in- creased its number of ships and shore stations in the War of i812, its medical needs increased markedly. It should be recalled that the navy's record of achievements was actually obtained by a very small number of ships and naval personnel. There were only i9 major ships commissioned at the start of the war,' and only six small naval shore stations. The navy relied mainly upon its six large frigates, which were manned medically by one surgeon and two surgeon's mates. The one small frigate and the nine vessels rigged as sloops, brigs, or schooners required only one surgeon's mate in addi- tion to the ship's surgeon. The three other major vessels were rotting hulks, hopelessly beyond repair. The total personnel in the entire navy has been estimated at about 5,000.2 In contrast, the English had about 150,000 seamen, 245 frigates, hundreds of ships in the brig-sloop cate- gory and, in addition, i9i ships-of-the-line.3 Completely lacking in the United States Navy, the latter constituted a mighty weapon; they had at least 70 guns in three tiers and were counterparts of modern battle- ships. The expansion of the United States Navy was somewhat belatedly authorized by Congress in i813,* nine months after onset of the war. Moreover, the actual construction of the ocean-going ships went slowly. Therefore few of them were available for service by the end of the war; hence most of the naval war on the ocean was fought with the handful *Paul Hamilton, secretary of the United States Navy when the war commenced, was E poor administrator and did not press for naval expansion. William Jones, his successor, took over early in 1813. Under his leadership Congress appropriated the necessary funds to start the shipbuilding and personnel recruiting for an expanded navy. Bull. N. Y. Acad. Med, COLUMBIA ALUMNI IN WAR OF 1812 55'I of ships actually in commission at the start of hostilities.t It is all the more credit to the navy and its sailors that they managed to make their comparatively meager ocean-going fighting force into such an effective weapon. The naval medical roster was appropriately small. At the outset a reasonable estimate might be 20 surgeons and 24 surgeon's mates, al- though exact data are lacking. By January i, 1815, accurate figures first became available and the medical roster had enlarged to 44 surgeons and 46 surgeon's mates.4 It is remarkable that i8 of these commissioned medical officers were associated with Columbia College and that x6 had been or were to be educated, as least in part, by the College of Physicians and Surgeons or its predecessors. The two institutions merged in I 813. The British, however, had a well-organized naval medical service with 855 physicians or surgeons and 6oo assistant surgeons.5 There were no systematic procedures for the recruitment of medical personnel. Much of the recruiting was carried out by the individual commanders for the requirements of their ships. The navy department often processed an individual's application long after the start of actual service. Therefore the high percentage of Columbia men in the war as naval surgeons must have been fortuitous. While it is recognized that only a handful of medical schools were in operation in 181 5,* it is very unlikely that any other medical schools produced as many naval sur- geons in the war. Further, the high representation of Columbia men is all the more impressive when it is recalled that the tradition of learning medicine by apprenticeship continued strongly in the early i 9th cen- tury. About three fourths of the physicians licensed by New York County had been apprentices and only about one fourth had received formal medical training. Therefore the fact that 2 0% of the naval Sur- geons in the War of 1812 had an association with one university is remarkable. Why so many Columbia men served as naval surgeons can only be conjectured. Whatever attractions naval surgery may have held for them, most of the Columbia men seemed to maintain a high degree of tA few ships, notably the frigate Guerriere, were launched in 1814; however, the effectiveness of the British blockade prevented these vessels from playing any significant role in the war. The situation on the lakes was different. Local fleets were constructed on each of the three lakes of local timbers still standing as trees when the war began. These ships were, of course, of shallow draft, smaller, and lower in rating than the ocean- going ships. *In addition to The College of Physicians and Surgeons, Dartmouth, Yale, Harvard, Pennsylvania, Columbia, Queens, and Kentucky were in operation in 1812. Vol. 47, No. 1, January 1971 5 2 P. 52 P. GUSHMAN,CUSHMAN, JR.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~JR. interest in naval medicine in that they continued voluntarily in the navy after the war had ended. Like most of the students entering Columbia Medical School in the first decade of the i9th century, they listed New York City as their address of record in the Columbia Reg- ister. Perhaps it was their residence in New York City that was the major factor in their developing naval medical careers. New York was probably the most prominent city of the era, but its particular emi- nence as a seaport and a naval base may have stimulated the interest of these Columbia men in naval medicine. Perhaps the efficacy of recruit- ing naval medical officers may have resulted simply from greater expo- sure of the city's doctors to the naval recruiters. Since most were enlisted by direct recruiting by the commanders themselves, it might be expected that the relatively large reservoir of potential surgeons in the city would have been canvassed thoroughly. Undoubtedly the exposure of rural doctors, doctors in other cities, and alumni of other medical schools to these naval recruiters would have been far less extensive. The surgeons mentioned in this report were discovered largely by comparisons of the i 8 i 5 list of naval medical personnel in naval affairs4 with Columbia University's records for the appropriate decades.5 Addi- tional data emerged from accounts of the war, histories of the navy, rosters of the ships, letters to and from the secretaries of the navy, obituaries, and genealogies. In all instances substantiation of the Colum- bia association with the appropriately named naval surgeon was made. Comparison of signatures in the Columbia registry with those on naval documents was carried out in most instances. Other corroborating data were sought in letters, obituaries, and genealogies. The Columbia men were called upon to perform a variety of naval surgical services in the war. Eight went to sea as medical officers on ocean voyages during the war and six were known to be involved in single-ship battles with the British in which they had ample opportuni- ties to perform battle surgery. Three others served in support of cam- paigns against the British. Unfortunately, the medical details of these encounters are almost completely lacking. Most of the available data consist merely of a statement of the number of wounded and dead without further itemization and do not permit reliable conclusions to be drawn regarding the actual battle surgery performed by any of these surgeons. It is difficult to determine what contributions the Columbia men Bull. N. Y. Acad. Med. COLUMBIA ALUMNI IN WAR OF i812 5 3 in this report may have made to naval surgery. Since there are no sur- viving records and since none of these surgeons seems to have published anything, it is impossible to delineate what role, if any, they played in advancing the techniques or principles of naval surgery. In a minor administrative advance, Dr. Richard K. Hoffman was one of five dis- tinguished naval surgeons to sit on the first board in i8I7 to examine several surgeon's mates regarding their medical knowledge and accom- plishments as candidates for advancement to the rank of surgeon. Dr. George Davis may have made an important contribution to naval medi- cine as a result of his study of the need for naval hospitals. Together with Drs. Thomas Ewell, Edward Cutbush, and Samuel R. Marshall, Davis tried to persuade the Navy Department and Congress of the need. Davis' report, requested by and submitted to Congress in I812, outlined the importance of the hospitals and included extensively de- tailed descriptions of the personnel, instruments, and even the anatomy of projected naval hospitals. Congress failed to act in that year; but a decade later, under continuous pressure, it authorized and funded the construction of naval hospitals. Although these assumed many of the features outlined in Davis' earlier report, it is difficult to determine how much influence Davis' ideas actually had. In the accompanying table are listed the names of men who served as surgeons and as surgeon's mates in the War of i81 2, their dates of commissions, their associations with Columbia and their most important loci of service during the war. The dates of commission are those of the official authorization by Congress and may lag slightly, or even several months to two years, behind the actual onset of service.
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