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Adam Uryniak Jagiellonian University in Kraków, Poland

The Last Samurai. Transcultural Motifs in ’s Ghost Dog: The Way of the Samurai

Abstract

Ghost Dog: Way of the Samurai by - tions of USA, Europe and . Jarmusch’s work can be example of contemporary culture trend named by Wolfgang WelschaJim Jarmusch transculturality. is a film combining According tocinematic his theory tradi the identity of the man is dependent on foreign elements absorbed by the culture in which he lives. Two main inspirations for the director are samurai tradition and bushido code origins of these elements, Jarmush is able to construct a coherent, multi-level narra- tive,on one at thehand, same and time tradition maintaining of gangster distance film ontowards the other. American Despite traditions. the culturally Referencing distant works by transgressive directors (J. P. Melville, ) Jarmusch becomes the spokesperson for the genre evolution and its often far-fetched influences.

Ghost Dog combines the tradition of American gangster cinema and Japanese samurai (1999) is a collage of various film motifs and traditions. Jarmusch films. The shape of the plot refers to the Blaxploitation cinema, andyakuza direct moviesinspiration, by Seijun expressed Suzuki. by Allspecific this isquotations, spiced up arewith the references gloomy crime to Japanese novels literatureby Jean-Pierre and zen Melville, philosophy. as well In as an brutal interview and withblack Janusz humour-filled Wróblewski di- rector commented on his actions: 138 Adam Uryniak

I mix styles up in order to get distance. Not in order to ridicule the hero. And why does the gangster style dominate? I will answer indirectly... I like music a lot. Es-

pecially bebop and hip hop. There is space for a quotation in it, for a jump, which Jorku”for the 2000:uninitiated 51). sounds like grinding. Music similarly like my films resembles a code, which a sensitive recipient is able to put together (“Don Kichot z Nowego - Ghost Dog, not unlike a few years later Quen- tin TarantinoAt a first glance in Kill Jarmusch’sBill (2003), worktakes isinspiration a postmodern liberally play from with Japanese conven tions of cinema. Director of with only brutal and exotic entourage. Jarmusch discreetly hides certain culturalcinema. However,tracks which in contrast point the to spectator his fellow to filmmaker, a whole range he is ofnot concealed satisfied meanings and associations.

It is possible to make this reconstruction in many dimensions, both in the appeal to the old cinema, and to aspects of American culture or multiculturalism. Thanks to

such a game with the spectator/reader, the text-film requires complementing […], and encourages co-forming the identity of the protagonist (Hańderek 2013: 69). by Wolfgang Welsch transculturality. According to his theory the identity of manJarmusch’s is dependent work fitson foreigninto the elements course of absorbed contemporary by the culture culture named which he lives in.

Cultures today are extremely interconnected and entangled with each other. Life- styles no longer end at the borders of national cultures, but go beyond these, are found in the same way in other cultures (Welsch 1999).

This way elements until recently regarded as exotic become an integral part of lives of a contemporary man. According to Welsch the concept of transculturality is spreading not only on the level of macro-culture, but also on an individual level. People become cultural hybrids formed not only by their own homeland, but also other countries. “It belongs among the mustiest assumptions that an indi- vidual’s cultural formation must be determined by his nationality or na- tional status” (Welsch 1999). In the light of these views Ghost Dog appears as an audio-visual illustration of Welsch’s concepts. according to principles of bushido and considering himself as a contem- poraryThe samurai protagonist. The ofethos Jarmusch’s of Japanese film knightsis an Afro-American turned out to hitman be unusually living The Last Samurai. Transcultural Motifs in Jim Jarmusch’s... 139 attractive for the culture, becoming a symbol of the Land of the

) widelyRising Sunknown quickly. and appreciated.A sudden increase In the USA in the resemblance popularity of thethis Japanesegenre to cinema in the 1950s made film stories about masters of sword ( The Magnificent Seven (basedwestern on was Seven quickly Samurai noticed – Shichinin which resultedno Samurai in aby few Akira Hollywood Kurosawa, remakes 1954) of popular Japanese films: (1960) by byJohn A. KurosaSturges- wa, 1950). In later years Americans started exploiting samurai attributes or The Outrage (1964) by Martin Ritta (based on The Hunted (1995) by J. F. Lawton and Blind Fury (1989) by Philip Noyce. Usingas a way samurai to enhance or “B” inclass the actionplot served films. as One a pretext can quote for introducing such titles likethe striking and brutal exoticism making clichéd story plots more attractive. More seriously the subject was treated by the creators of The Last Samurai (2003, dir. Edward Zwick). They attempted to introduce the Japanese war- mainly an epic show. rior ethos to the Western spectator,ken-geki – but drama in spite with of swords) this the were film beingremained pro-

In Japan samurai films ( - eledduced on from numerous the very beginning theatre of playsexistence devoted of film to samurai. industry The in this action country. took They were produced in companies based in . These films were mod- tagonist was usually a hurt and declassed samurai who avenged his injus- tice,place but in feudalhas always days, beenmost faithfuloften in tothe the Tokugawa code of honourera (1601–1868). – bushido (literallyThe pro was Sadao Yamanaka, author of Sazen Tange and the Pot Worth a Million Ryo (translatedHyakuman as ryo “road no oftsube the ,warrior”). 1935) and The Humanity first great and director Paper ofBalloons samurai ( Ninjofilms kami fusen for adventure, as well as drama genre (Kletowski 2005: 133). , 1937). The films became models for later samurai cinema, both occupation authorities since they could be associated with feudal-milita- risticAfter spirit. the After World occupation War II production ended in of1950s, historical historical films cinemawas banned enjoyed by a period of great popularity. It was characterised by confronting the beau- tifying image of bygone eras, undermining social and moral norms, dis- playing a variety of psychological traits of protagonists. Among others, directors like (), Kenji Mizoguchi (Legend of the Taira Clan - Shin heike monogatari, 1955) or Masaki Kobayashi (Re- bellion – Jôi-uchi: Hairyô tsuma shimatsu of masters of samurai cinema. , 1967) won the worldwide fame 140 Adam Uryniak

- thresholdIn 1960s of 1990sand 1970s it seemed the genre that plungedartistic samuraiinto a gradual cinema process had died of comonce andmercialisation. for all. Two Samurai great historical became frescoes heroes ofby brutal Akira B-classKurosawa films. were On sup the- posed to be epigones of the genre: The Double (Kagemusha, 1980) and Ran (1985). -

ZatoichiUnexpectedly, (2003), Yoji at Yamada’sthe turning Twilight point of Samurai the 21st (Tasogare century aSeibei few films, 2002) con or Yorijofirmed Takita’s the return When of thethe Lastsamurai Sword genre. is Drawn Such ( Mibufilms gishilike Takeshi den, 2003) Kitano’s con- stituted a contemporary version of ken-geki which allowed more space for

It might seem that mixing a samurai genre with a story about a black a wide social panorama of late feudalism Japan (Bobrowski 2012: 140). work. However, the use of Japanese warrior tradition in Ghost Dog is killer fighting against Italian mob would result in a rather peculiar B-class Hagakure. Book of samurai. The book, written in 1710 a carefully thought over process. The sequences in the film start with- quotations from - shige.by Tashiro After Tsuramoto, his master’s is deatha set ofhe reflections lived in a remoteof a hermit place called and spentYamamo the restto Joho of his (1659–1719). life codifying He the used rules to ofbe conduct a clan member of warriors. of Nabeshima Mitsu the Ghostlast scene, Dog treatscommenting this book and as complementing a source of principles, the scenes. according Criminals to which fol- he lives. Quotations are present in the body of the film from the very first to merely replaced the vendetta law or “honour of the thief” with bushido lowing a specific moral code are not something new to cinema. Jarmusch of the available models of behaviour. code. Living in global world the protagonist of the film simply chooses one The story about an Afro-American who lives according to the code of samurai, faithfully reconstructing the model described in the book and accepting mentality

onof thea book “East” Road more of the and Samurai more firmly,, chooses becomes his cultural an excellent patterns illustration by himself, of drawing mutual frominfluences the possibilities and tangle ofgiven cultures. by the The contemporary character introduced open form by of Jarmusch, multiculturality based

(Hańderek 2013: 59). - ough psychological construction of the protagonist only proves it. Ghost But the samurai code is not only an exotic plot element and the thor

Dog turns out to be a perfect samurai. This not only includes his ability The Last Samurai. Transcultural Motifs in Jim Jarmusch’s... 141 to use the sword or loyalty to his master, but above all – his attitude to- wards the world surrounding him and the concern about spiritual de- velopment. reading. He takes human relations very seriously, too. His friendship with the GhostFrench Dog speaking spends Haitian his free Raymond time on meditations,belongs to most fencing beautiful practice in andthe

There is a strong bond between them and they consider themselves good friends.entire film. They Men don’t are know able totoo communicate much about eachin spite other, of the but language this doesn’t barrier. stop them from feeling mutual respect. girl carrying books in her lunch box. The girl is a keen devotee of liter- Another close person for Ghost Dog is Pearline, a smart ten-year-old teaches her his way of seeing the reality. Just before dying he hands Pearl- ineature. his Theycopy of hold Hagakure, philosophical making conversations her the heiress about to the life samurai and Ghost code. Dog These motifs prevent the main character from being perceived as a cold-blooded murderer and a loner. A new image emerges in these few scenes – one can see how great an importance he attaches to the spiritual and emotional development. muchIn themore Tokugawa than just period triumphantly (1603–1868), return when from after victorious several battles.dozen years The of ceaseless wars came peace in Japan, the samurai were required to do- stant improvement from himself. Thus, taking part in various sophisti- real warrior was a practicing Buddhist and required self-control and con theatrecated forms and regularlyof art was held a frequent tea ceremonies activity, (Hall like writing1979: 187). poetry, arranging flowers or painting. The samurai frequently visited performances of No attitude helps him feel every moment deeper and appreciate even small To Ghost Dog physical existence is not of paramount importance. This - and fleeting things. He rejects the past and does not care about future. purgatory,Buddhism Zen,but turned religion into adapted e.g. four by elementsthe society (Tubielewicz of Japan, rejected 1980: 70).the con The cept of afterlife. The follower of Zen Buddhism didn’t go to heaven, hell or- perfect samurai was not afraid of death. Dying for somebody or some contentthing he of recognised a traditional as worthJapanese sacrificing religious his system, life for, was appeared indeed aas victory, divine becausebehaviour. it freedBeautiful from death absurdities (e.g. defending of earthly one’s existence. honour), Paradoxically, constituting thelife fully manifested itself in death. 142 Adam Uryniak

- tion – seppuku timeThere its status appeared changed. a specific It proved celebrating bravery and of faithfulness suicide in Japanese of the samurai, tradi . At first it was only a way of avoiding captivity, but with howeven mostin the effectively situation ofto a hold lost fight.this ceremony When the (Szymankiewicz samurai class gained 1997: more 21). Seppukuindependence, consisted seppuku in splitting became one’s its intestines privilege. open. Dozens However, of schools it was taught such - ing. It was allowed to decapitate the samurai, when he had already cut his stomacha cruel death, open. that Lack the of attachmentritual was later to life modified and fear in of order death to made spare the suffer sam- urai an extremely tenacious and dangerous opponent. Adhering to princi- ples of bushido Following orders of Louigo, a second-rate gangster that once saved his life, became his, Ghostpurpose Dog of becamelife. the most effective soldier of the mafia. In medieval Japan the overlord – vassal system started to develop after the collapse of the imperial authority at the beginning of the Kam- akura age (1185–1333). In this period local magnates started growing in strength and gathered private armies and a big new social group ap- peared in the process – bushi (a warrior; samurai were the most senior bushi in the Tokugawa period, a 250 years long time of peace, new laws divid- ed the) (Hallsociety 1979: making 69). socialAt first mobility they came impossible. from different In this social period layers, the class but of samurai was fully formed and the rules of bushido became something of a national ideology. They turned out to be essential to keep the peo- ple of war calm when a long-term peace period ensued. They found their most unabridged summary exactly in Hakagure. The Tokugawa shoguns of its aspects helped maintain the power. It is worthwhile remembering thatsaw greatJoho and significance Tsuramoto in spreadingwrote down the the code principles amongst of samurai, bushido sincealmost some one

Ken-geki - hundred years after the last major battles (Szymankiewicz 1997: 13–16).- res especiallyfilms to yakuza contributed eiga, Japanese to keeping variety the ofsamurai gangster ethos cinema. in contem Yakuza porary popular culture. Their influence quickly spread to other film gen sword, ronin and small crooks. On the other side, they drew strong inspi- films originated from traditional stories about travelling masters of the The Japanese gangster cinema developed after the World War II and was ration from American noir film, both in visual as well as outlook sphere.- a consequence of pessimistic moods amongst the society. Alienated, una ble to find themselves in a post-war reality men became heroes of films. The Last Samurai. Transcultural Motifs in Jim Jarmusch’s... 143

Their maladjustment results partly from their obsessive adhering to for- mer codes which in the new democratic society cease to have any value (Loska 2013: 171). Although gangster cinema is a genre created in the USA, Jarmusch is

Suzuki’s (Koroshi no rakuin - ville’smore interested Le Samouraï in Japanese-French (Le Samouraï traditions. Main influences are Seijun for the works of both directors on many occasions., 1967) “Myand all-timeJean-Pierre favourite Mel Le ,Samouraï 1967). Jarmusch and Branded stressed to Kill his worship Jim Jarmusch interviewed by Geoff An- filmdrew killers are the ones from . I quoted these films in a few different ways” ( 2014). Director’s attachment to these authors is proved by the fact- apolisthat he ( Onincluded the Road them with in aJim list Jarmusch: of his favourite Recommended films prepared viewing for). a booklet published for a retrospective ofBranded his films to held Kill in in February scenes where 1994 inthe Minne hero

Jarmusch directly quotes leaves to fight the gang. They are almost an identical copy of scenes from- Suzuki’s film. In the first one, hidden in the forest Dog Ghost observes his enemies, waiting for Mr Vargo to arrive. When he finally appears, the pro tagonist cannot fire a shot since the bird sat on the barrel of his rifle and covered the target. In the second scene taken from the same film is the Nikkatsukilling of Sonny(a production Valeria. companyGhost Dog specializing shoots his victimin production through of a drainpipe.cheap, se- Born in 1923 in , Seijun Suzuki in years 1956–1967 directed for rial gangster films, modeled on American Western and adventure series) Theyas many decided as forty-two to focus onfilms. contemporary The production topics, company with a special had only emphasis started put at the time and could not afford production of the very popular samuraiyakuza films.– the thaton gangster time portrayed cinema gangsters(Desjardins as 2005:heirs to 145). the samuraiMembers and of thethe bushido code. AJapanese typical protagonistequivalent of of the yakuza mob eigabecame main characters. Films produced at- ble man. Scenes of them committing crimes were generally omitted. of the 1960s was a brave and honoura Lonely and brave members of the yakuza were heroes of these gangster series, who betrayed by everyone fought against gangs of criminals, threatening innocent - ry – the hero was usually in love with the daughter of his biggest enemy. This type people. Very often the main topic of the film was intertwined with a tragic love sto - lovedof films (Kletowski ended with 2001: a compulsory 77). bloodbath, in which everyone died – including the brave gangster, who mortally wounded finished his life in the arms of his be 144 Adam Uryniak

It was demanded of Suzuki that he conformed to the rules, too. How-

- multaneouslyever, during ten not years bearing he created responsibility a few unusually for going original against gangsterstheir superiors. films. Heroes of his detective films were rebels opposing standard rules and si ronin: (Tôkyô nagaremono Branded to Kill. The Two films are regarded as his biggestyakuza achievements who takes revenge about on a gangsterhis perpe –- trators while travelling across Japan. , 1966) and first one is a story of a betrayed

withAt a first wistful glance ballades Suzuki’s sung film by isthe a clustermain character of film rolls or constituting from American background genre cinema. score (KletowskiThere is a western, 2001: 78). a , and even a musical here – the film is peppered

Branded to Kill is a story about a contract killer who after an abortive - - selfassault and must loyal faceto his an master. entire eliteHe is of absorbed mafia hired by completely assassins. Suzuki’sdifferent protag things. Firstly,onist by he no wants means to issave trapped his own in alife conflict by all betweencost, and beingsecondly faithful his greatest to him ambition is to become “Murderer No. 1”. Moreover, he cannot refuse him- self two biggest pleasures – the perverted sex and inhaling the smell of cooking rice. A yakuza driven by his own, very down-to-earth desires and

- etics.enjoying The quite director bizarre clashed activities yakuza was eiga a real with novelty. , elements of kabuki theatreThe aforementionedand pop – art aesthetics. Suzuki’s films Musical were references characterized and byostentatiously specific po Tokyo Drifter or atonal , animated in- terludes and new wave aesthetics in Branded to Kill - artificial decorations in presented plot and as a result is unable to emotionally make commit the tofilms the grosto- ry.tesque Ironic and and surrealistic. self-conscious The approachviewer senses not only a total towards conventionality the plot, but of also the Nuberu-bagu - the (Richie 2001: 181). to film form places Suzuki’s works close the

Similarly to his previous films, the plot seems secondary to the way the story of a killer for hire is told. The logic of events and the consequence of conducted plots are unimportant to the director who focuses on a small, seemingly insignificant details, shocking the spectators with violence-filled images (Loska 2013: 177). chaos and erotic perversion. The director didn’t hide his fascination with The vision presented in Suzuki’s films was a world full of violence, The Last Samurai. Transcultural Motifs in Jim Jarmusch’s... 145 the American popular culture, mainly with noir - re. Reality of the noir and their total inapplicability to the real life. Suzuki films strenuouslyof the gangster tracked gen and stigmatized remains film of portrayed the feudal the tradition disintegration functioning of former in the values Japa- nese society seeing it as a threat to the contemporary man. In the process yakuza members as honourable heirs the samurai tradition. he criticisedAfter the filmspremiere which of presented Branded to Kill management deemed - the film as completely incomprehensible what in consequence led to Su inzuki cinemas being dismissed.in the West He and had later not videoshot another editions film caused for ninethat years.the world The audiencefilm was appreciatedhad discovered only his a few production. years after Suzuki’s the premiere. near blasphemous Redistribution ap- proach towards many sanctities of the Japanese cinema and an often re- curring theme of rebellion against social conventions had a large impact

Takashi Miike) who in the 1990s shaped Japanese cinematography. on theThe generation second inspiration of film-makers for Suzuki, (Takashi Le Samouraï Kitano, Shinya Tsukamoto, and Melville, is often compared with the work discussed earlier (Antoniou (1967) by Jean-Pierre

Le2004: Samouraï 94). A similar vision of the world and a figure of a perfectionist ofcontract a night killer club. forcedHe fails to to fightstay unnoticed for his life – linkleaving both the films. room Protagonist of the victim of he faces a club – Jef pianist. Costello After (Alain a policeDelon) hunt – has Costello the task gets of killing arrested. the owner Mob- sters who hired him in fear of being exposed decide to get rid of the killer. Costello doesn’t remain passive – he tracks and then kills the man who issued a death sentence on him. Wounded and chased both by the gang as well as the police, he goes to the club where he carried out the previous execution. In the club he points an empty gun towards the pianist and lets

bushido code: There is no greaterpolice officers solitude shoot than him. the solitude of a samurai, apart from the solitude of a tigerFilm’s in the action jungle is preceded (in fact the by authora quotation of this from line is the director himself). In Ghost Dog

there is a similar commentary made to the film plot by use of economicalquotations from with the words samurai and secretive.code. From the very few sentences said by himJef Costello, it is possible just asto theprove protagonist little about of his Jarmusch’s motives andfilm, emotions is very much pro- voked by the dramatic events. Interpretation of the ambiguous behav- Adam Uryniak

146 iours of the character is left to the spectator. A ceremony of moves with which Costello puts on his hat before leaving and pulls on white gloves before committing murder are examples of such idiosyncrasies. In Ghost

For both murderers a car theft is essential to complementing murder – Jarmusch’sDog’s life there character is place only for exchangessimilar rituals huge – bunche.g. prayer of keys or fencingfor an electronic practice. gadget. city, far from the nature and still, while describing them other people use animalRelation metaphors. to nature “Costello is also similaris compared in both to films. a wolf, They not both only live lonely, in a butbig also wounded – that is even more dangerous, because already sentenced animal patron – ice-cream vendor Raymond, telling small Pearline about to death” (Helman 1990: 187). The hero of Jarmusch’s film also has his

GhostA bird Dog kept compares by Jef is him an onlyto a companionbear. This motive of his solitary is later lifestyle. repeated It whenis the Ghost Dog encounters two poachers who have just shot a bear. birdsonly creature are much towards more to which him than he has only any a means warm offeelings. communication. Ghost Dog A breeds proof ispigeons given whenand thanks the slaughter to their of help the hepigeons can contact by gangsters his principals. is an impulse But the to rise against the mob. - mittedly, bullets that reach them are shot from their opponents’ weapons, Heroes of both films not only similarly live, but also similarly die. Ad carrying guns with empty magazines. but their deaths are in fact suicides – they both leave forLe theSamouraï final battle and Branded to Kill social alienation of the three is another strong common trait.When They comparingall live according Ghost to Dog codes, with principles protagonists of which of nobody respects. Even though the rules of conduct they are faithful to are inappropriate to to them. reality, they appeal to them and try to find their own moral path thanks - pressing, consciously or not, our attitude to certain values. I mean the world that weBehaviour choose ofas aadult man people, is a continuous rather than proving the one of some imposed idea. by Taking parents action or upbringing we are ex

are an extreme example. Strict codes of honour of samurai or the order of brave Shaolinand tradition. monks Gangs are the and opposite mafia structures, side of the based same on phenomenon. very specific Nowadays system of rituals,hardly anyone decides on such radical choices. People lack codes they would hold on to

(„Don Kichot z Nowego Jorku” 2000: 53). The Last Samurai. Transcultural Motifs in Jim Jarmusch’s... 147

The most important values for a samurai were supposed to be loyalty to his overlord and his honour, which the warrior was expected to sacri- fice his life for. In later years a frequent subject of Japanese art – literature, theatre,A classic and confrontation later film – wasbetween the conflictduties, constituting between thesea common two subjectvalues. of Japa- gimu – loyalty and obedience to the ones standing higher in the social hierarchy by age or position, and giri – loyalty to one’snese novels name (Kletowskiand films, is 2001: conflict 59). between

- venge is his duty, but it will mean a disobedience to his master. For a sam- uraiIn the such only a solutionsituation after Ghost such Dog a findsrevenge himself. was seppuku He was, betrayed,protecting so warri a re- or’s honour in spite of breaking the duty of loyalty. Along with the hero die

Hagakure his principles, methods and customs. Director presents this thought with a quotationIt is said that from what is called “the which spirit appears of an age” at is the something end of theto which film: one cannot return. That this spirit gradually dissipates is due to the world’s coming to an end. For this reason, although one would like to change today’s world back to the spirit of one hundred years or more ago, it cannot be done. Thus it is important to make

the best out of every generation (cited directly from the film plate). - acter is a believer of old, dying rituals. His opponents make an impression of peopleGhost Dog’sbeing worldin an uncomfortableis a world of passing time. values. This is Not how only Jarmusch the main himself char a dreamer – poet living according to the rules of a different century” describes the hero: “Prototype of the hero of my latest film is Don Kichot – the postmodern world seem to outgrow the adaptability of the characters. („DonQuotations Kichot z andNowego borrowings Jorku” 2000: from non-American54). Transformations traditions that break occur the in and letting Jarmusch look at it from an outside perspective. archaic form of the building a distance to American myths I would like to integrate differing elements that in some way were important to -

createsme – genre the context,films, books, opens melodies to the huge […]. Ghostlaboratory Dog isfrom indeed which spiked I draw with my referenc cinema. es; direct – Melville, Suzuki – and less visible […]. In the film frame the reference- sion “original idea” should not exist. I never believe great lonely concepts that It is not a collage, it is rather a re-creationcreation of the genre […]. For me the expres

strengthen the idea of the uniqueness of (quote from J. Jarmusch after Wiącek 2001: 121). 148 Adam Uryniak

- muschSimilarly combines as in American the case traditionof his earlier with motifsfilms when from ascinematography a starting point of otherhe picked parts traditional of the world. genres “The likeability western, to transculturally prison film cross or road over film, barriers Jar will guarantee us identity and competence in the long run” (Welsch 1999) Crossing borders of traditional gangster cinema the director becomes by elements from different and often distant sources. a spokesman of the evolution of the genre and its development influenced

Bibliography The Cinema of Japan and Korea Antoniou A. (2004), “Branded to Kill”, in: J. Bowyer (ed.), Estetyka i Krytyka, nr 29. , New York: Wallflower Press. Akira Kurosawa. Artysta pogranicza, Kraków: Nomos. Hańderek J. (2013), „Droga samuraja”, The Cinema of Japan and Korea Bobrowski M. (2012), Outlaw Masters of Japanese Film Bowyer J. (ed.) (2004), , New York: Wallflower Press. Hall J. W. (1979), Japonia od czasów najdawniejszych do dzisiaj ewska- Desjardins Ch. (2005), , New York: I. B. Tauris. , tłum. K. Czyż Helman A. (1990), Film gangsterski, Warszawa: Wydawnictwa Artystyczne i Filmowe. -Madajewicz, Warszawa: Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy. Poli- tyka, nr 7. „Don Kichot z Nowego Jorku” (2000), J. Jarmusch interviewed by J. Wróblewski, Machina, nr 2. Jim Jarmusch interviewed by Geoff Andrew - „Droga samuraja” (2000), J. Jarmusch interviewed by R. Niemojewski, (2014), http://film.guardian.co.uk/Guard Kwartal- ian_NFT/interview/0,,110607,00.html [accessed 05.07.2014]. nik Filmowy, nr 51. Kletowski P. (2005), „Sfilmować duszę – wstęp do historii kina japońskiego”, Kletowski P. (2001), Śmierć jest moim zwycięstwem. Kino , Kraków: Rabid. Loska K. (2013), Nowy film japoński, Kraków: Universitas. A Hundred Years of Japanese Film, Tokyo: Kodansha International. Szymankiewicz J. (1997), Samuraje, Warszawa: Cibet. Richie D. (2001), Tubielewicz J. (1980), Mitologia Japonii, Warszawa: Wydawnictwa Artystyczne i Filmowe. Mniej ucz szczane ścieżki do raju. O filmach Jima Jarmuscha, Kraków: Rabid. Wiącek E. (2001), ę Welsch W. (1999), Transculturality – the Puzzling Form of Cultures Today, http://www2.

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