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The Shifting Politics of Enlistment

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The Shifting Politics of Enlistment The Politics of Enlistment, Empire, and the “U.S.-Philippine Nation”: Enlisted and Civilian Filipino Workers in and beyond the United States Navy, 1941-1965 by Jason Luna Gavilan A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (History) in the University of Michigan 2012 Doctoral Committee: Associate Professor Scott T. Kurashige, Chair Professor Rudolf Mrázek Associate Professor Nadine C. Naber Associate Professor Damon I. Salesa, University of Auckland Associate Professor Maria Sarita See, University of California, Davis ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, I would like to send my deepest gratitude to my dissertation committee for their intellectual guidance, moral support and most fruitful critiques over the course of this long-term dissertating process at the University of Michigan: Scott Kurashige (committee chair), Damon Salesa (committee member), Rudolf Mrázek (committee member), Sarita Echavez See (committee member), and Nadine Naber (cognate member). Secondly, I would like to thank the following UM departments for their material and financial support of my research, writing, and completion process of this dissertation: the Department of History, the Rackham School of Graduate Studies, the College of Literature, Science, and the Arts (LS&A), and the Program in American Culture. Thirdly, many thanks go out to the various libraries that I visited during the year- long field research phase of this dissertation project—especially their archivists who kindly offered their time and resources which further propelled my research. These places include the Bentley Library, Gerald Ford Library, the Serials/Microform/Documents Center, and Labadie Collection at U of M; the Nimitz Library in Annapolis (Maryland); and the various branches of the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), especially those in College Park (Maryland), Washington (DC), Independence (Missouri), Kansas City (Missouri), and the Pacific Region in San Francisco, California. ii Fourthly, I would also like to send my deepest gratitude to friends, colleagues, and mentors who have generously devoted their time to read, discuss, and critique previous drafts and rough outlines of my dissertation chapters. Without their encouragement and our engaging conversations on these chapters, I might not have been able to stay as necessarily regimented in the daily writing and final completion process of this dissertation. My deepest thanks go out to these folks as well! And last but certainly not least, I would also like to send my deepest regards to my family and relatives whose stories and lived experiences have very much shaped— and been shaped by—the U.S. Navy. My father, mother, uncle, and grandfather (and likely more) all enlisted in the U.S. Navy from the Philippines, and their lived experiences, wisdoms, and rarely told triumphs have greatly influenced the values that they have bestowed upon their descendants (myself included)—most especially the value of a good education. With my subsequent desire to complete this PhD, coupled with my simultaneous drive to recover, historicize, and learn from the policies and politics of enlistment shaping our lived histories, I hope that this dissertation project does not disappoint. And, just as—if not most—importantly, I would like to thank you, the reader for making the time to engage in this dissertation. If there are any questions, concerns, or other comments pertaining to this project, please do not hesitate to reach me by email at [email protected]. All errors in this dissertation are my own. Many thanks to you, once again! Hope you enjoy reading this dissertation. iii PREFACE This dissertation is the first historically balanced and comparative study on civilian and enlisted Filipinos in the U.S. Navy (USN), and in other branches of the U.S. military. Filipino civilians were native-born Philippine locals recruited by U.S. military officials to work under indefinite civilian contract within U.S. military bases in the Philippines, Okinawa, Guam, and elsewhere in Asia and the Pacific. These civilians often worked in positions of manual and technical labor within these bases. In turn, Filipino enlistees were native-born locals in the Philippine archipelago who U.S. military officials recruited in its enlisted force. The terms of their enlistment normally lasted between four to six years, with probable chances for re-enlistment. Drawing upon the oral historical records of such Filipino American historians as Fred Cordova and Riz Oades, I examine how the experiences of Filipinos shaped—and were facilitated by—the United States Navy since the end of the nineteenth century. In addition, I build on their works methodologically by investigating more than 1,500 pages of written correspondences, letters, and memorandums within—and between—U.S. and Philippine military officials, political officials, military personnel, and civilian citizens regarding Filipino enlistment policies. Historiographically, this dissertation departs from the previous work of a plethora of scholars—including Yen Le Espiritu, Paul A. Kramer, and Gary Gerstle—by assessing and theorizing the conflations of race, gender, and nationalism in the imperial politics of Filipino enlistment and the bi-national imaginaries iv of U.S.-Philippine relations. I coin this bi-national condition as the ―U.S.-Philippine nation.‖ Nevertheless, while previous scholars have assumed a linear imperial history of U.S. empire in the Philippines from formal (1898-1945) to informal (1946-present), I make an underlying argument that the U.S. Empire behaved formally in certain ways, and informally in other contexts that were contingent upon the degrees of U.S. officials‘ anxiety and immediacy in securing their imperial project within the same region and time period: including and beyond the colonial Philippines. Subsequently, the simultaneous formal—and informal—practices of the U.S.-Philippine nation state further shaped the restrictive politics of Filipino enlistment, including the recruitment and marginalization of Filipino enlistees and civilians in the U.S. forces. Although Filipino enlistees were more geographically and upwardly mobile than their civilian counterparts within the global U.S. nation-state, their initial assignments in menial forms of labor (as cooks or stewards) often made the conditions of their enlistment parallel to the Filipino civilian workers. By closely investigating the unique historical distinctions and comparisons between enlisted and civilian Filipinos within (and beyond) the U.S. Navy, I explore the following questions within the contexts of empire, militarism, and bi-national recognition. When and why did U.S. military officials enlist Filipinos in the first place? Second, what political implications did Filipino recruitment serve in expanding U.S. practices of war, occupation, and colonial governance in the Philippines—and elsewhere in Asia and the Trans-Pacific? And third, to what extent did these recruited Filipinos shape their own terms of enlistment, upward mobility, and subjectivity beyond their v parametrical restrictions by the U.S. military and the nation-state? Based from these underlying questions and frameworks within this dissertation, I argue that the inclusive and restrictive politics of Filipino enlistment, coupled with the intricate bi-nationalities of U.S.-Philippine relations vitally contributed to the Cold War imperial politics and multiethnic alliances within the U.S. Empire nation-state. These seemingly contradictory politics of enlisting Filipinos played a key role in shaping militarized formations of the U.S.-Philippine nation state during and following the Second World War. vi Table of Contents Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………. ii Preface…………………………………………………………………………………. iv List of Figures………………………………………………………………………… ix List of Appendices…………………………………………………………………….. x Introductory Chapter: “If it weren’t for the Navy…”….……………....................... 1 The Politics of Enlistment…………………….……………………………….. 5 “The U.S.-Philippine Nation”……………….……………………………….... 6 The United States Empire………………….…………………………………. 11 Contributions of this Dissertation Study….…………………………………. 13 Chapter Outline………………………….……………………………………. 18 Part I: The Origins of Filipino Enlistment…...……………………………................ 25 Chapter One: Historicizing the Politics of Filipino Enlistment........................25 Introduction……………………………………………….…………… 25 Historical Overview of the Colonial U.S.-Philippine Relationship.... 28 The Case of Jesus Bautista…………………………………………… 39 Labor Movements, Laws and Policies……………………………….. 47 Chapter Two: U.S. Navy Enlistment in a Time of War: 1941-1945…............ 67 Prologue………………………………………………………………... 67 The Politics of Enlistment…………………………………………….. 71 Historiographical and Historical Overview…………………………. 73 The Politics of U.S.N. Minority Enlistment: 1941-1945……………. 80 “Inflammatory Matter”……………………………………………… 87 From “Cooks” to “Steward’s Mates”……………………………….. 91 The Politics of Diplomacy……………………………………………. 98 Part II: The Enforcement of the “U.S.-Philippine Nation”………………………. 112 Chapter Three: Postcolonial USN Filipino Subjectivities…………………. 112 “Alleged Collaborator”……………………………………………… 115 Jesus Bautista Revisited……………………………………………... 121 “Out-of-Bounds” Areas ……………………………………………... 124 The Case of Leonicio Arceo…………………………………………. 145 Conclusion……………………………………………………………. 159 Chapter Four: Politics of Recognition and Jurisdiction…………………… 164 Introduction…………………………………………………………..
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