Translated excerpt

Michael Hampe Die Lehren der Philosophie. Eine Kritik

Suhrkamp Verlag, Berlin 2014 ISBN 978-3-518-58605-1 pp. 10-30

Michael Hampe The teachings of

Translated by Michael Hampe

© 2014 Michael Hampe On Asserting, Narrating and Educating*

Suppose the world consists of particulars, which occasionally form patterns. We can narrate them, but we can also assert something about them in order to develop a doctrine. Narration seems prima facie to focus on the specific, such as how and when something has appeared. Assertion, by contrast, is concerned with general patterns that concern many particulars. Narration can be personal: “I sat on this chair once many years ago.” Assertions tend toward the impersonal form: “This chair is a Chesterfield from 1920.” So at first glance there is no obvious connection between activities of asserting and narrating; they seem to run in parallel. In a simplifying, distorted image, asserting is expressed as a serious and rigorous activity, which serves the true knowledge of the world and the correct explanation of its phenomena. Narration, by contrast, is a rather relaxed pastime, one might think; one which comes after the rigidity of asserting and educating, relieves us of it, and which at the very most serves our moral instruction, provided we are dealing with stories which have a moral. The art of narration – we could say in this simplifying fiction following Horace – like all art, is occasionally morally useful in the sense of edifying, but for the most part it is merely a form of entertainment. Science, with its assertions, teaches the rigorous and sometimes unpleasant truth about the world. The art of narration distracts the mind from confrontation with the harshness of reality, regaling it with pleasant or exciting fictions. Social conditions also differ depending on whether one is in a teaching or a narrating situation. Someone who must acknowledge an assertion learns about something, is in the position of the learner, facing the teacher, who lays claim to the authority of being able to make an assertion. Someone receiving a narrative is being regaled; the narrator seems to serve her.

Suppose the world consists of particulars, narration – we could say in this simplifying which occasionally form patterns. We can fiction following Horace – like all art, is narrate them, but we can also assert occasionally morally useful in the sense of something about them in order to develop edifying, but for the most part it is merely a a doctrine. Narration seems prima facie to form of entertainment. 1 Science, with its focus on the specific, such as how and assertions, teaches the rigorous and when something has appeared. Assertion, sometimes unpleasant truth about the by contrast, is concerned with general world. The art of narration distracts the patterns that concern many particulars. mind from confrontation with the Narration can be personal: “I sat on this harshness of reality, regaling it with chair once many years ago.” Assertions pleasant or exciting fictions. Social tend toward the impersonal form: “This conditions also differ depending on chair is a Chesterfield from 1920.” So at whether one is in a teaching or a narrating first glance there is no obvious connection situation. Someone who must between activities of asserting and acknowledge an assertion learns about narrating; they seem to run in parallel. In a something, is in the position of the learner, simplifying, distorted image, asserting is facing the teacher, who lays claim to the expressed as a serious and rigorous authority of being able to make an activity, which serves the true knowledge assertion. Someone receiving a narrative of the world and the correct explanation of its phenomena. Narration, by contrast, is a 1 In the sense of Verse 333 of Horace’s Ars rather relaxed pastime, one might think; poetica: “aut prodesse volunt aut delectare one which comes after the rigidity of poetae.” (“Poets aim either to benefit, or to asserting and educating, relieves us of it, amuse,” trans. H. Rushton Fairclough). and which at the very most serves our Quintus Horatius Flaccus, Satires, Epistles and moral instruction, provided we are dealing Ars Poetica: With an English Translation by H. with stories which have a moral. The art of Rushton Fairclough, London, W. Heinemann; New York, G. P. Putnam's sons, 1926. 1 © 2014 Michael Hampe is being regaled; the narrator seems to world is eternal, whereas Aquinas claims serve her. that it was created. Descartes claims that It has never been put quite so plainly and there are two substances, while according with such simplicity. But characterising to Spinoza there is only one. Kant claims disciplines such as physics or chemistry that there is a clear difference between as “hard” sciences while referring to prose, analytic and synthetic judgements, and theatre or poetry as “soft” activities, as is Quine contests this assertion. The list often the case in school or at university, could go on and on. Claims such as these would seem to suggest at least implicit are responses to the world – a world of assessments of these activities, leaning in particularities, as will be claimed in our the direction indicated above. critique of doctrinal philosophy (apparently But the following is not concerned with paradoxically) later on. The way in which asserting, narrating (and finally, educating) people respond to the world, when this in general; rather these activities will be does not occur spontaneously, depends discussed in the context of philosophy. In on such factors as their . This doing so, a distinction is drawn between education is where people become asserting or doctrinal philosophy, and non- acquainted with the universal concepts doctrinal philosophy. Philosophers working that they ought to use in their claims. The in doctrinal philosophy want to educate persons to be educated are taught what other people with or on the basis of their can and what cannot be claimed about the assertions, to persuade them to subscribe world. And sometimes, albeit a somewhat to their assertions as a doctrine. rare occurrence, they learn to react to the Representatives of non-doctrinal world through a narrative. philosophy try to claim either as little as Philosophy has gone to great lengths to possible or nothing at all. Their main attend to these educational processes. For intention, rather, is to find out and show example, in Plato’s The Republic, paideia the asserters themselves why they think is a potentially lifelong process which, for they have to assert something and what certain distinguished people, culminates in consequences this has. Philosophical the knowledge of the idea of goodness as activities of this kind are occasionally the decisive generality, and can only narrated, for example in Plato’s dialogue, actually be controlled by the philosophers where Socrates questions Theaetetus, appointed to govern the state, who have who must still be educated. In Theaetetus, perceived this generality and can apply it we are told the surprising story of how, as in judgements. (Rousseau’s Cultural a result of Socrates’s questioning, the Criticism and Wittgenstein’s Critique of young man to be educated gives up on Metaphysics are other well-known making assertions. This is a pedagogical examples of educational philosophy. Their text which presents doctrinal philosophical aim is to re-educate those who have been activity in all its futility, but it is not simply corrupted by culture or, in the case of an entertaining narrative about a Wittgenstein, to bring about a therapeutic philosopher; instead it is itself a canonised philosophy as a way of educating those philosophical text. Given that, in this way, adults (with a background in philosophy) non-doctrinal philosophy sometimes who are unaware of the multifarious provides a narrative about asserting and workings of ordinary language and how someone is taught that it is better not therefore invent new concepts or want to to make claims about knowledge or virtue, try and find the meaning of terms such as the relationship between philosophy, “understanding”, “having pain”, “wishing”, education and narration to be addressed and so on, which are allegedly difficult to by this study is both complicated and fathom. Wittgenstein’s therapeutic unclear. philosophy continues to be used as a way of educating adults in contemporary Educating with new concepts philosophy, first and foremost by Stanley The fact that claims are made in Cavell. It also has roots in Kierkegaard’s philosophy is obvious, and clearer than the fact that there is also a non-doctrinal form of philosophy. Aristotle claims that the

2 © 2014 Michael Hampe existentialism, which is linked to understand anything at all, even if she Socratism2). already has a philosophical background. Philosophy deals with knowledge which Philosophers also sometimes create new can find its expression in assertions, but terms, i.e. they not only venture to give much like literature and in contrast to the familiar words different meanings, using empirical sciences, many of the so-called them in ways that deviate from current “great” doctrinal authors in philosophy also habit, but even coin new formations such seem to conceptually “start from scratch”, as “affection”, “thing in itself”, “actual as it were. So in philosophy, knowledge entity”, “noematic correlate”. This, in turn, does not simply build up in an increasingly makes the learning process particularly differentiated terminology, and the process difficult for the reader. Finally, readers are of engaging with a philosophical work that recommended to “abandon” certain strives to achieve certain innovations of concepts, as occurs in the criticism of thought can be compared to an metaphysics with Nietzsche and other educational process. Philosophy cannot authors’ treatment of the concepts of the be learned in the same way that physics “absolute” or “God” and those of “essence” can. Once someone has acquired the or the “soul”. In this case, readers not only concepts of mass, energy, force, electrical have to relearn; they must also learn charge, acceleration and so on, she something new or unlearn something if possesses a foundation of knowledge that they wish to understand the authors in she can rely upon. By contrast, someone question. Or, if they wish to make their who sets her wits to Spinoza or Whitehead way into the thinking of a philosopher they after having studied Plato and Aristotle or are unfamiliar with, they are re-educated Descartes and Kant must relearn. Such by the texts in question. If concepts are philosophers change the meaning of the regarded as differentiation habits, 3 then terms they have assumed from their the aim of these educational processes is predecessors because they respond to the to establish new differentiation habits. The world in a different way to their intention to expand philosophical predecessors or regard different knowledge is connected to the imposition experiences as exemplary to their thinking. of conceptual re-education, where only If we try to find a name for this, they are adults are involved, even if it is not dissident speakers. So at first, when a referred to as such; a process which, if reader opens a work written by an author successful, leads to people speaking and she is not yet familiar with, she cannot thinking about the world in a different way, and perhaps even acting differently in it

one day. 2 Cf. Plato, Politeia. Bd. 4 der Werke in acht Bänden. Greek/German. Ed. by Gunter Eigler, These processes of adult education Darmstadt 1971, 521c, p. 575. Jean-Jacques through the appropriation of new Rousseau, Émile ou de l’éducation. Nouvelle conceptual tools are not generally 4 édition, Livre I, Paris 2008. Emile, or On reflected in philosophical thinking itself. Education, New York 1979; , Philosophical Investigations, Blackwell, Oxford 1958, in particular §§ 109- 3 This follows Arno Ros, who addresses the 138. Sören Kierkegaard, Das Subjektivwerden. meaning of capabilities and habits of Abt. 16 der Gesammelten Werke. differentiation at many points in his work. See Abschließende unwissenschaftliche his recent text: Arno Ros, “Über einige Nachschrift zu den Philosophischen Brocken. methodische Fehler bei der neueren Ed. by Emanuel Hirsch, Hajo Gerdes and Diskussion um philosophische Aspekte des Hans Martin Junghans, München 1959, Geist-Materie-Problems”, in: e-journal pp.118-244. Sören Kierkegaard, Über den Philosophie der Psychologie 16 (2012) Begriff der Ironie mit ständiger Rücksicht auf (www.jp.philo.at), p.6 (last accessed on 9 Sokrates. Bd. 21, Abt. 31. der Gesammelten August 2013). Werke. Gütersloh 1984. Stanley Cavell, Must 4 However, sometimes it is; for example in We Mean What We Say?, Cambridge 1976, p. Plato’s Theaetetus dialogue (as mentioned xxxix; and Stanley Cavell’s recently published above) or in Hegel’s Phenomenology of Spirit ”pedagogical letters”: Stanley Cavell, Cities of from 1806. Education and its theory, Words. Pedagogical Letters on a Register of pedagogy, do of course play a very important the Moral Life. Harvard University Press, 2005. role – both implicitly and explicitly – for authors 3 © 2014 Michael Hampe Narratives, however, can reflect on them. attention to teaching and education brings On the one hand, narratives can change a political and social dimension of the world view of their readers using tools philosophy into play – one which is not other than those of conceptual variation; present in the epistemological disputes for example, it is accepted that literature about scepticism. “There is no can provide an emotional education for its revolutionary vision”, it has been noted, readers (in an éducation sentimentale). “which does not include a new vision of But independently of this, it can also education, and contrariwise.”7 Thus from a discuss the experience that brings about pragmatist perspective, the question of certain conceptual decisions and whether philosophy has something to responses. It can show us what we must teach us – and if so, what? – is far more experience in order to view the use of relevant than a definition of the concept of specific universal concepts as the correct knowledge and the problem of scepticism. way in which to respond to the world, or These epistemological investigations only why someone may reject a certain habit of relate to doctrinal philosophy from within, differentiation that is suggested to her. and to the conditions of the possibility of Thus literature only appears to be nothing science sought by certain philosophers. other than a programme of entertainment. But the social role of the kind of The focus on education is what makes the philosophy (and science) that makes consideration of the relationship between assertions is concerned with its claim to doctrinal and non-doctrinal philosophy instruction, which – when successfully differ from the debate about scepticism. realised – influences the way people The non-doctrinal form of philosophy respond to the world. investigated here is certainly close to An influence on the way in which human scepticism. Its primary concern, however, beings respond to the world, how they is not a dispute about the concept of perceive it and act within it, is also exerted knowledge or the question whether people by poetic works. It is no news that texts are actually able to know anything at all. from Sophocles to Beckett, Homer to The question is rather: “What is the Proust and Pindar to Celan create teaching of philosophy?”5 Does philosophy knowledge about and reflections on the even have something to teach? The world, and that like some philosophical presence of knowledge can indeed be discourses, they are associated with viewed as a condition for teaching. But on different ways of speaking. (One must the one hand, the sceptics also have “find one’s way into” Beckett and Celan something to teach, and there also exists just as much as when reading Spinoza a doctrine of ignorance, a docta and Deleuze). And except for the ignorantia. 6 On the other hand, paying formalities of the division of labour in academia, there is nothing to say that such as Rousseau, Kant and Cavell when one Sophocles, Beckett, Proust and Celan thinks of works such as Emile, Kant’s should not be referred to as philosophers. Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View It is, however, an uncommon or Cavell’s pedagogical letters Cities of Words. understanding that literary works are not 5 Cavell, Must We Mean What We Say?, p. only a form of entertainment, but as a xxxviii. 6 narrative reflection of philosophical "[…] desideramus scire nos ignorare. Hoc si thought itself, can also manifest ad plenum assequi poterimus, doctam fundamental philosophical insights in a ignoratiam assequemur. […] Et tanto quis doctor erit, quanto se sciverit magis way that is philosophically relevant. This is ignorantem" "[…] assuredly we desire to know precisely the issue at hand here. Only that we do not know. If we can fully attain unto rarely does literature change perspectives this [knowledge of our ignorance], we will on the world using new or reinterpreted attain unto learned ignorance. […] The more terminology; instead it employs other tools he knows that he is unknowing, the more to do so. The respective individual learned he will be." Nicolas of Cusa, Nicholas beginnings of philosophical thought and of Cusa on Learned Ignorance: A Translation and an Appraisal of De Docta Ignorantia by Jasper Hopkins. Banning 1985. Book I, ch. 1, 7 Cavell, Must We Mean What We Say?, p. p.6. xxxix. 4 © 2014 Michael Hampe argumentation, or fundamental conceptual Now, one of the notorious problems for decisions, can no longer be discussed in these kinds of transcendental- an argument. But we can narrate them; it philosophical investigations lies in is possible to explain how someone has justifying the very assumptions of a arrived at them by using a narrative to general cognitive instance (of a explicate the internal world of someone transcendental subject or a general who perceives reality, speaks and acts in discourse or language game) and the a particular way which is perhaps not open necessity of the alleged conditions for all or very alien to us. 8 Narratives like these, perception, assertion, argumentation and such as the one created by John Maxwell action. The fate of the Euclideanity of Coetzee in his book Elisabeth Costello spatial intuition is a prime example of (which will be discussed in detail here) these difficulties. While Kant regarded bring knowledge about the beginnings of Euclidean space as a necessary form of philosophical thought to light through intuition shared by all subjects, the non- narration. Euclidean geometries of the 19th century Narrative representations of this kind are – and most importantly the use of one the individualist mirror image of such geometry in Einstein’s general theory transcendental investigations. of relativity – show that either the Transcendental philosophical investigation assumption of this necessity is misguided searches for the conditions of perceptions, or that there is no intuition in these assertions and actions; however, it geometries in physics, or that Einstein was searches for them in a general sense and dealing with a Euclidean space which had starts from the premise of a general already been deformed by masses, or that subjective or linguistic structure which is the Kantian transcendental argument was shared by all human beings. Human intended in a far more general sense and beings agree in some respects – for does not strictly amount to Euclideanity.10 example, mathematics astonishingly works Similar difficulties arise in terms of the and is accepted in all cultures. Hence, alleged necessity of the category of according to the basic idea of causality in the contemplation and transcendental philosophy, there must be explanation of nature. If quantum something which unites human beings and mechanics changes something in our leads them to arrive at these understanding of the fundamental nature commonalities. Picking up from Kant here, of statistic explanations and random self-consciousness is traditionally events, which had not been addressed by regarded as one such starting point. On Kant, then this could also make us the one hand, it is designed to make a question the necessary and a priori status non-empirical investigation of human of the category of causality, something generalities possible in the first place and assumed for instance by Max Born.11 Even is thus viewed as a general cognitive ability, while on the other hand, it is also (1990), pp. 25-54; Derk Pereboom, “Kant’s intended to be the point of departure in Transcendental Arguments”, in: The Stanford terms of content from which philosophical Encyclopedia of Philosophy researchers can proceed to the claims that (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant- are implicitly presupposed by – but not transcendental) last accessed on 21/04/2013, explicitly apparent to – all human beings 2009; Robert Stern (ed.), Transcendental who perceive, claim and act.9 Arguments, Oxford 1999; Barry Stroud, “Transcendental Arguments”, in: The Journal of Philosophy 65 (1968), pp. 241-256. 8 See for example Jonathan Littell, The Kindly 10 Cf. Michael Wolff, “Geometrie und Ones. English by Charlotte Mandell, London Anschauung. Kant und das Problem der 2009 (French original 2006). The book objektiven Geltung der Euklidischen explicates the internal perspective of the SS Geometrie”, in: Kant und die Berliner officer Max Aue. Aufklärung. Akten des 9. Internationalen Kant- 9 Cf. Johannes Haag, Erfahrung und Kongresses. Bd. 1, Berlin 2001, pp. 209-232. Gegenstand. Das Verhältnis von Sinnlichkeit 11 Cf. Max Born, Natural Philosophy of Cause und Verstand, Frankfurt/M. 2007, Ch. 1; Derk and Chance, New York 1949, p. 224 f. Eric Pereboom, “Kant on Justification in Watkins, Kant and the Metaphysics of Transcendental Philosophy“, in: Synthese 85 Causality, Oxford 2000. 5 © 2014 Michael Hampe the bivalence of logic, its commitment to been historically taken for granted in their the two truth values of “true” and “false”, “era” without ever being questioned. But if came under pressure from quantum logic at this point, we have reached the as part of the interpretations of quantum individual reaction to historical mechanics. 12 Kant’s adherents have, of generalities, then the historical narrative course, responded to these objections. But gives way to a narrative about individual the very existence of these objections beings and this quickly transitions into the shows that it is not so easy to draw a clear novel. Transcendental philosophical and conclusive distinction between argumentation, historical narration and extremely widespread empirical conditions relating the experiences and decisions of of perception, assertion, inference and individuals are therefore not as far action – which are subject to a historical removed from each other as one might drift – and unchangeable, a priori initially think in view of the argumentative conditions. The complexity of rigour and strict attention to detail with transcendental arguments, which is rarely which transcendental philosophy would truly transparent (particularly in the case of like to dissociate itself from any form of their founding father), their own literature. presupposition of a uniform structure of The connection between life experience, subjectivity or discourse theory on the one education and argumentation produces a hand and, on the other, the combination of connection between the emergence of the revolutionary scientific developments subjects and their public inferences and that have been occurring in mathematics strategies of justification. Recent and physics since the mid-19th century pragmatism has regarded this kind of and the dominance of historicism ever connection as illogical. 14 But it is only since that time, have placed an enormous possible to separate self-description, amount of pressure on transcendental processing one’s own life experience, and philosophical methods as a promising speaking publically where it is assumed project of philosophical explication. that subjects “create themselves” in a kind But as soon as the general subjectivity of of romantic genius. This seems human beings is historicised – a process implausible to me.15 For subjects emerge which began with Hegel’s Phenomenology out of worlds. The individual human being of Spirit and continues into our present is formed from her genes, the nutrition, the history of knowledge – many perceptions, the affections and the transcendental arguments change and language to which she is exposed. As become historical narratives. 13 And the soon as she is able to react to all of this, assumption that there exist historical generalities which form the conditions of 14 Cf. Rorty, Richard, Contingency, Irony, and our perceptions, assertions, inferences Solidarity. Cambridge. 1989, p.xiv f. and actions is not too far removed from 15 In spite of the debt owed by the the assumption that individuals react to investigations carried out here to the thinking these general conditions during their time. of Richard Rorty, particularly in the emphasis The creative scientific thought that leads to on the contingency of historical processes a scientific revolution can be interpreted as leading to specific languages and patterns of an individual’s reaction to things that have subjectivity, there is nevertheless a crucial difference in the meaning that is given to the educational processes and the desirable 12 Peter Mittelstaedt, Quantum Logic, capability for dissociation here. There is no Dodrecht, 1978. such thing as an a priori competence for self- 13 Hegel’s work from 1806 bears the creation. This is the myth of a reflexive characteristics of a structured historical subjectivity that has always had the capability Bildungsroman; its dialectic represents stages for dissociation, a myth Rorty adopts from of cultural development, which formally authors like Fichte. On this subject, see underpinned Hölderlin’s Hyperion (1797-1799). Michael Hampe, “Die Vervollkommnung des On the connection between Hölderlin’s Einzelnen. Richard Rortys Metaphysikkritik Hyperion and Hegel’s Phenomenology of und seine romantische Konzeption des Spirit, cf. Edward Craig, The Mind of God and Individuums“, in his Erkenntnis und Praxis. Zur the Works of Man, Oxford 1987, ch. 3.5 and Philosophie des Pragmatismus, Frankfurt/M. ch. 4. 2006, pp. 155-181. 6 © 2014 Michael Hampe something akin to “self-creation” will participates in the ongoing debate on the perhaps come into effect. But the norms of knowledge and action (and competence to do so must come first. hopefully, for the sake of its own Philosophy even makes claims about the legitimation, with more consideration and a human mind where it is not transcendental clearer historical consciousness of the in the sense of subjectivity or discourse well-established and failed interjections in theory. But this increases the competitive normative discourse than the non- pressure it experiences from the empirical philosophical participants have achieved). sciences even more so. What can So, unlike transcendental philosophy, philosophy assert about perceiving, which wants to explicate the conditions of speaking, thinking, inferring and acting possibility that precede a web of without taking into account evidence from assertions, normative philosophy reacts to the empirical psychology and physiology and thereby comes after doctrine; it reacts of perception, from cognitive psychology, to claims or whole teachings as webs of linguistics, proof theory and informatics, claims. sociology and ethnology? Either its These descriptive tendencies appear general assertions constitute a sort of alongside normative tendencies in propaedeutic heuristics and collection of philosophy, and in more recent philosophy hypotheses to the specific research in they are found first and foremost in these sciences, or it evolves itself into phenomenology and the efforts to describe empirical research, as certain the phenomena of consciousness and philosophical representatives of the language use following from Wittgenstein philosophy of mind and the philosophy of and Ryle. Here, too, philosophy competes language concerned with consciousness, with the empirical sciences: in empirical self-consciousness and the nature of linguistics, descriptions of language use concepts have meanwhile been striving to are of course also produced and justified do in .16 Independent explanatory by means of elaborate empirical successes will not be celebrated by a procedures. Descriptions of the doctrinal philosophy, unless it becomes an phenomena of consciousness also appear empirical science. in the psychological sciences and Where philosophy is not making neuroscience, which also refer to assertions with the claim to offer phenomenology in places.17 But regarding explanations in the context of language, the implicit interest of transcendental arguments and scientific philosophical descriptions is probably heuristics, it is usually operating in a largely to do with discovering its descriptive or normative way. Here, it finds paradigmatic use, i.e., language use which itself in a reactive position vis-à-vis is of normative significance, and thereby people’s assertive activities. Where it is not at the forefront of all linguistic claimed that some belief or other is research. Here, common language usage justified, philosophical epistemology asks is usually only described with the critical whether the belief is really justified, and if intention of calling those who deviate from so, whether it really well justified, and this current language usage to order as according to which standards? Likewise, if they are not adhering to the (semantic) an action is described as good or just, rules. practical philosophy asks by what Where philosophy does not pursue standards and whether the claim about the explanatory aims but focuses on action is really justified. In this way, it description (“perspicuous representation”, or “übersichtliche Darstellung”, as 16 Here, I am thinking of Thomas Metzinger in Wittgenstein puts it) it does also get closer 18 Mainz and Albert Newen and Markus Werning to literature. It has been suggested that in Bochum for instance. See also Joshua Knobe & Shaun Nichols, Experimental Philosophy, Oxford 2008. Additionally: Florian 17 On this subject, cf. Shau Gallagher & Dan Cova, Julien Dutant, Edouard Machery, Zahavi, The Phenomenological Mind, London Joshua Knobe, Shaun Nichols, Eddie 2012. Nahmias, La philosophie expérimentale, Paris 18 “And we may not advance any kind of 2012. theory. There must not be anything 7 © 2014 Michael Hampe Wittgenstein, Austin and Ryle narrate relationship between speech and life, or micro-stories.19 And of course vice versa, with putting those experiences for which assertions are made in literature in the the appropriate language has not yet been context of descriptions. But unlike the found into words. If, in searching for descriptions found in experimental historical and experiential evidence of the records, field studies, the results of beginnings of chains of beliefs and of phenomenological investigations of actions, literature inherits transcendental consciousness, or descriptions of philosophical tendencies (without their everyday language, the real experiences legitimating intentions), then by the same in these descriptions are generally token, the descriptive philosophy of transformed within a fictional context and ordinary language and of consciousness produced without any normative moves “dangerously” close to the very intentions.20 We will return to this at a later advanced descriptive techniques found in point. Literature is not concerned with literature. It is not harmless to ask whether demonstrating what is supposedly the we need an illuminating philosophy of valid use of language so as to admonish ordinary language, of affectivity and of those who deviate from the norm; rather it consciousness in addition to the is concerned with demonstrating a descriptions of language usage, affective patterns and streams of consciousness hypothetical in our considerations. We must do found in literature (without the away with all explanation, and description corresponding normative interests). For alone must take its place. […] The problems example, can a phenomenology of love or are solved, not by giving new information, but nature compete with the corresponding by arranging what we have always known. literature, for instance Tolstoy’s Anna Philosophy is a battle against the bewitchment Karenina or John Muir’s travelogue about of our intelligence by means of language. […] the mountains of California, when it comes A main source of our failure to understand is to the apprehension of descriptive that we do not command a clear view of the 21 use of our words. – Our grammar is lacking in concretion? If the answer to this question this sort of perspicuity. A perspicuous is no, then philosophy is in somewhat of a representation produces just that predicament: as a project concerned with understanding which consists in ‘seeing doctrines and explanations, it is difficult for connexions’. […] The concept of a perspicuous it to find a place alongside the empirical representation is of fundamental significance sciences that have evolved from it. As a for us.” Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical descriptive undertaking, it must assert Investigations, Blackwell, Oxford 1958, § 109 e e itself beside literature. These and § 122, p. 47 and 49 . Cf. Krishna Jain, considerations are intended to show that Description in Philosophy. With a particular reference to Wittgenstein and Husserl, New only the critical-normative projects in Delhi 1994. philosophy make a certain degree of 19 By Stanley Cavell, “Performative and autonomy possible alongside the Passionate Utterance”, in his Philosophy the individual scientific disciplines and Day after Tomorrow, Cambridge/Mass., literature. Philosophy that wishes to have London 2005, p.157. Nach der Philosophie. doctrinal and explanatory success will Essays, Berlin 2001. evolve into empirical science. Philosophy 20 This transformation can be more or less that seeks to describe the concrete intense. Authors such as W. G. Sebald or becomes literature. This is how natural Peter Kurzeck rely heavily on documentary philosophy gave rise to Newton’s description in their work. On Sebald, cf. Ruth Klüger, “Wanderer zwischen falschen Leben. experimental philosophy, then finally to Über W. G. Sebald”, in: Heinz Ludwig Arnold physics, and how Hume’s research into (ed.), Text und Kritik IV/03. Zeitschrift für the human condition gave rise to Literatur. No. 158: W. G. Sebald, Munich 2003, pp. 95-102. On Kurzeck see Beate Tröger, 21 Cf. for instance Hermann Schmitz, Die “Gehen um zu schreiben. Peter Kurzecks Liebe, Bonn 1993. Ute Guzzoni, Wasser. Das autobiographisches Romanprojekt”, in: Hans Meer und die Brunnen, die Flüsse und der Richard Brittnacher, Magnus Klaue (ed.), Regen, Berlin 2005. Leo Tolstoy, Anna Unterwegs. Zur Poetik des Vagabundentums Karenina (various translations). John Muir, im 20. Jahrhundert, Cologne, Weimar and The Mountains of California, New York, others. 2008, pp. 261-276. Century 1894. 8 © 2014 Michael Hampe psychology and the social sciences. With concreteness of coming into being and Kierkegaard, Sartre or Camus, passing away if language as a general descriptions of the particular existential conventional system of rules is not able to situation of human beings become do so? The difficulty of answering this literature, which is either provided by the question can lead to a variety of curious philosophers themselves – for example, in and at times paradoxical situations and the literary works by Sartre or Camus – or attitudes: it can lead to the claim of not by others, for example in the Walker Percy knowing, the claim of an increasingly novels that draw heavily on Kierkegaard’s complex and self-correcting narrative philosophy.22 memory, to the philosophical attitude according to which there can be no The Pursuit of Concretion orienting general assertions about a reality An important issue for the relationship which is a world made up of particulars, or between poetry and philosophy becomes it can lead to falling silent. But one would apparent here: the search for concretion. It hardly want to refer to silence as a way of is surely undisputed that literature “discussing” reality, perhaps rather as a outperforms philosophy when it comes to way of appearing in a reality which is making the concrete particulars of the understood in a certain way. world a topic through the medium of Because of the special relationship of language. But philosophy, too, has what is philosophy to asserting, educating and characterised as a “nominalist” conviction, narrating just outlined, the following namely that generalities are linguistic reflections in the first section on the artefacts and non-linguistic reality is a Socratic must begin with fundamental world of particulars. Some philosophers considerations which may at first seem like even go so far as to claim that the world is a textbook introduction to philosophy. But a process of coming and going an introduction of the kind there are for particularities. They want to take time physics or biology cannot exist for seriously. But what cultural activity takes philosophy if the ideas set out in this time more seriously than narration? Must a investigation – which are intended as a philosophy which regards the world as a critique of exclusively asserting or coming and going of particularities not doctrinal philosophy – are to have any therefore give up on itself and pass the relevance. Furthermore, Socrates is not baton of knowledge to the art of narration, discussed as the beginning of philosophy as suggested by the so-called “romantic” in general here, but rather as the founder philosophy, which wanted to make poetry of the non-doctrinal form of philosophy into an organon of philosophy?23 which already responded to assertion. The But narration also employs a language “pure figure” of Socrates, in the words of that uses universal concepts. The desire Stanley Cavell, 24 displays all of the to evade in literary works the general characteristics of non-assertive habits of differentiation that threaten to philosophical activity,: 25 the pedagogical conceal the newness of each experience is one which cannot be fulfilled. How can 24 philosophy and literature discuss the Cavell, Must We Mean What We Say?, p. xxxv. Cavell refers to these characteristics in Must 22 See in particular: Walker Percy, The We Mean What We Say?, p. xxxv: “The pure Moviegoer, New York 1961. figure of Socrates […] motivated to philosophy 23 On the “concurrence” of science and art, cf. only by the assertions of others, himself Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, making none; the philosopher who did not “Verhältnis der Kunst zur Wissenschaft”, in his need to write. I should think every philosopher System des transzendentalen Idealismus. now has at least one philosophical companion Ausgewählte Werke. Schriften von 1799-1801, whose philosophical ability and Darmstadt 1975, p.623. “For in philosophy the accomplishment he has the highest regard for, way to science lies only through art, [...]”, who seems unable to write philosophy. Were Friedrich Schlegel, “Athenaeum Fragments” in such a person content with silence he would his Lucinde and the Fragments, Translated merely be the latest instance of a figure always with an Introduction by Peter Firchow, possible within philosophy, possible indeed Minneapolis 1971, p. 205. nowhere else.” 9 © 2014 Michael Hampe eros that appears without doctrine, being or the figure of sense-certainty from driven to philosophy by the assertions of Hegel’s Phenomenology of Spirit. 28 In others without oneself ever making such these texts, however, it is not associated assertions, and the resulting lack of a with the subject of silence, although the tangible output which could conceivably end of Theaetetus does come very close. have escalated into a definitive silence. All Rorty’s distinction between philosophical of this makes the activity of non-doctrinal efforts aimed at improving our lives on the philosophy differ not only from the one hand and, on the other hand, assertiveness of science, but also from the conceptual efforts of regimentation in narrative arts. For it is difficult to imagine a which human beings are definitively told silent narrator, whereas it can be said of how to speak and above all how to non-doctrinal philosophy that “if silence is describe themselves, was also important always a threat in philosophy, it is also its for understanding what is referred to as highest promise.”26 This is something that non-doctrinal philosophy here. But Rorty will have to be made comprehensible at appears to be ultimately concerned with the end of our investigations. making an original self-description possible as a new form of romantic self- Metaphysics creation, something which will not play a Although the distinction between doctrinal role here. The considerations regarding and non-doctrinal philosophy, which we developing the ability to respond to the will introduce here by drawing upon the world, which are addressed here following philosophy of Socrates and his Dewey, are aimed at something different philosophical constellation, has a certain to the ability to become the original genius affinity with Strawson’s distinction between of one’s own life:29 they aim to maintain (or descriptive and revisionary metaphysics restore) a specific experience of and is also similar to the demarcation particulars. The possibility of such an between pragmatism and metaphysics,27 experience is regarded as a condition of non-doctrinal philosophy is neither happiness. descriptive metaphysics nor pragmatism. Nor does hypothetically speculative For unlike Kant’s descriptive metaphysics metaphysics such as that put forward by (in Strawson’s view) or pragmatism, it Whitehead – which does not try to escape ends in a paradox. Given that it starts from the drift of the changes of meaning in the experience that the world is a coming everyday and scientific languages through and going of particulars, but this ultimate definitions of meaning, but instead experience cannot be established in merely contributes to it by blurring the assertions and by argument, it ends in the assertion that, ultimately, nothing can be 28 The specific nature of the particular sensory asserted definitively, and that the concrete experience admittedly disintegrates experience of the particularities of the paradoxically into the universal with Hegel: world must remain beyond the reach of all “[...] Every consciousness itself supersedes linguistic expressions due to the universal such a truth, as e.g. Here is a tree, or, Now is concepts they employ. But this insight is noon, and proclaims the opposite: Here is not nothing new. We recognise it as the a tree, but a house; and similarly, it Heraclitus’s position in Platos’ Theaetetus immediately again supersedes the assertion which set aside the first so far as it is also just such an assertion of a sensuous This. And 26 Cf. Cavell, Must We Mean What We Say?, what consciousness will learn from experience S. xxxv f: “It would make no sense to speak of in all sense-certainty is, in truth, only what we someone as a gifted novelist who had never have seen viz. the This as a universal, the very written a novel; nor of someone as a scientist opposite of what that assertion affirmed to be who had made no contribution to science. […] universal experience.” Georg Wilhelm Friedrich If silence is always a threat in philosophy, it is Hegel, Phenomenology of Spirit, Translated by also its highest promise.” A.V. Miller with Analysis of the Text and 27 Peter F. Strawson, Individuals. An Essay in Foreword by J.N. Findlay, Oxford 1977, p.65; Descriptive Metaphysics, London 1950. Phänomenologie des Geistes, ed. by Richard Rorty, “Heidegger wider die Johannes Hoffmeister, 6 1952, p. 87. Pragmatisten”, in: Neue Hefte für Philosophie 29 Cf. Hampe, “Die Vervollkommnung des 23 (1984), pp. 1-22. Einzelnen” (see footnote 16 above). 10 © 2014 Michael Hampe boundaries between doctrinal philosophy experiences produced in experiments, this and narration as “conceptual literature”30 – type of philosophical system is not an correspond to non-doctrinal philosophy in explanatory one; rather it is interpretive. the sense understood here. Because in Interpretive systems such as that put spite of its revisability, this metaphysics forward by Whitehead have two functions. presupposes the possibility that a general First, they criticise the abstract nature of conceptual scheme could be adequate for certain scientisms such as physicalism, concrete experience and thus attempts to biologism or sociologism, which want to evade the considerations to be take vocabularies that were developed demonstrated here, which aim to bring solely for the purpose of recording specific about an understanding of the inadequacy (laboratory) experiences and apply them of the asserting position. 31 Whitehead to all experience. The philosophical seeks a universal scheme of interpretation criticism of these ‘isms’ then calls for all human experience.32 Although this experiences other than the corresponding scheme of interpretation remains “basic experiences” into play, such as hypothetical and open to revision in the religious, aesthetic or ethical sense of Peirce’s fallibilism33 given that it experiences. 34 In a second step, a can fail in its interpretation of an philosophy such as that put forward by experience at any point, it aims for the Whitehead then attempts to systematize homogenisation of the interpretation of all of these experiences and do them experience. This homogenisation can be justice with a uniform new terminology, understood as an attempt to reconstruct creating a new, non-reductive “grand the coherence of all experiences in a narrative”. This is exactly where the rational way. This objective leads to the question of the demarcation of narration search for a system. The need for a arises. In what way does a general system arises when the particularities of scheme of interpretation for human the world are not coherent enough on their experience differ from a novel that own account, or where this coherence combines a variety of human experiences, seems unclear. The coherence strived for including those of different subjects of here is one which goes beyond the scope experience, in a constellation within its of the life history of the experiencing narrative? Take, for example, Musil’s The individual. But unlike the system of the Man without Qualities, which establishes a physical standard model, for example, connection between the scientific, which aims to explain particular religious, erotic, ethical, political experiences of different human beings

(and not only of Ulrich) at the turn of the 30 On this cf. Temilo van Zantwijk, „Begriffsdichtung. Schiller und Friedrich Albert 19th to the 20th century. Why should Lange“, in: Klaus Manger, Niklas Immer (ed.), many subjects of experience interpret their Der ganze Schiller. Programm ästhetischer experiences in the language of Process Erziehung, Heidelberg 2006, pp. 487-495. and Reality? 31 Cf. Alfred North Whitehead, Process and A Whiteheadian conceptual scheme is Reality. An Essay in Cosmology. Corrected surely better equipped to level criticism at Edition by David Griffin, Donald W. Sherburne, the generalisation of the scientific New York 1978 (orig. 1929), p.3. “[...] experience as the sole relevant everything of which we are conscious, as experience for human life. The foreignness enjoyed, perceived, willed, or thought, shall of the generalised philosophical have the character of a particular instance of the general scheme. Thus the philosophical terminologies to all of the everyday and technical languages can thus definitely scheme should be […] adequate.” Speculation 35 is therefore not merely an instrument used to perform a distancing, critical function. reject the established modes of speaking in Science may be more accepting of the order to gain critical distance from them here. 32 Whitehead, Process and Reality, Preface. 33 Charles Sanders Peirce, “Pragmatism – the 34 Alfred North Whitehead, „Science and Logic of Abduction”, in his Lectures on Philosophy“, in his Adventures of Ideas, New Pragmatism/Vorlesungen über Pragmatismus. York 1967, pp. 144-146. English/German. Ed. by Elisabeth Walther, 35 On this subject, see Hampe, Erkenntnis und Hamburg 1973, pp. 263-277. Praxis, p.19. 11 © 2014 Michael Hampe hypothetical system form as a critical compete with literature here? But what opponent than it is of a narrative. But what function can philosophy have if, on the one about the relevance of the corresponding hand, it does not explain anything, but on philosophy for non-scientists? What the other, it cannot surpass successful meaning can terminology such as that literature in terms of pithiness in used by Whitehead, which also wants to explicating internal perspectives? interpret religious and ethical experience, Presumably all that remains here is the have for religious and moral life outside of educational stance it demonstrates more academia? Can a philosophy such as that obtrusively because doctrinal philosophy put forward by Whitehead teach us would like to create the connection anything here? between linguistic manifestations of William James, who, like Whitehead, various kinds of experience “from the top developed a hypothetical, pluralistic down” through a system or a theory of metaphysics, which we will follow here discourse, but cannot legitimise this with the weakest commitment possible, educational stance with explanatory combined his metaphysics with a successes. The failure of doctrinal philosophy of common sense, which is generalisation and the low level of much more accessible than his views acceptance of philosophical teachings is about a universe composed of droplets of thus due to the strength of its explanatory experience. 36 This is the model of an and narrative alternatives in science and esoteric, hypothetical metaphysics and an the arts, and not due to so-called “post- exoteric popular philosophy which is modernism”. intended to have an impact outside of academia. The plausibility of such a Game theory instead of post-modernism philosophical concept depends on the Despite what many have claimed following extent to which it succeeds in making the from Lyotard, the grand narratives have developments and consequences of a not disappeared. 38 But they no longer plurality of experiences exoterically appear in philosophical systems, from comprehensible, i.e. making the fact that which they have departed, and are now that others base their speech and actions preserved and handed down elsewhere, on completely different experiences and legitimated most of all in contexts plausible. As is the case with philosophical outside of the philosophical academies. phenomenology, which Jamesian Their legitimation is no longer provided by philosophy is systematically close to,37 we emancipation movements, universal can also ask here whether, in terms of the speculative theories and religious hopes of task of explicating and interrelating inner redemption, instead they are legitimated perspectives of experience, discursive by their mathematical form and their philosophical reasoning is not perhaps application within a global economy. Thus systematically inferior to a narration, which the narratives of game theory – which can can draw on the possibility of fictional indeed be traced back to Hobbes’ characters as centres of experience and Leviathan with some justification, but are figures of identification for the reader. Is a no longer recognised as elements of this phenomenology of love still necessary philosophical work in its current forms – when we already have The New Sorrows have been referred to by one of their most of Young W.? Can a philosophy of important representatives – Ariel consciousness of the feeling of Rubinstein – as a “collection of fables and confinement replace or compete with proverbs” that are only useful for Kafka’s story The Burrow? Or is it a interpreting human behaviour, and not for mistake to make philosophical discourse predicting it.39 But they are considered part

38 Jean-Franςois Lyotard, The Postmodern 36 Cf. Felicitas Krämer, Erfahrungsvielfalt und Condition: A Report on Knowledge, Wirklichkeit. Zu William James‘ Minneapolis 1984 (French original: La Realitätsverständnis, Göttingen 2006. condition postmoderne, Paris 1979). 37 James M. Edie, “William James and 39 Robert Axelrod’s, The Evolution of Phenomenology”, in: The Review of Cooperation, New York (1984) has become a Metaphysics 23/3 (1970), pp. 481-526. classic on the subject of Hobbes and game 12 © 2014 Michael Hampe of a science which is supposedly educational effect – an effect which, of successful at making predictions. The course, remains implicit. So for example, reason why models from game theory can when in a Yale introduction to game theory be used to predict the markets is because those who cooperate in the prisoner's trading occurs between machines which dilemma are described as either nice or are programmed according to game stupid whereas those who choose the theory, with the corresponding algorithms dominant strategy are characterised as implemented as operative rules. These either evil or clever, this would appear to models cannot, however, be used to be an incidental pedagogical joke. But in predict the behaviour of human beings fact, the connection that almost all lectures who refuse to regard the models from on game theory make between “rational”, game theory as paradigmatic for “predicting others”, “being one step rationality. This dialectic of description and ahead”, “maximising one’s own benefits” education, which only appears in the world on the one hand and “hoping for of human beings, is important for cooperation”, “being nice”, “being not too prognostic success: the planets do not bright” on the other establishes an behave according to Newton’s laws of effective assessment scheme. The motion if they are only described by them students are not just given an introduction often enough. But human beings do into a descriptive and predictive theory; behave according to specific paradigms if rather they are taught a specific meaning they are presented to them often enough, of “rational” and “being successful”. Given for example when “rational machines” that these norms are conveyed implicitly, it portray them as “the reasonable” ones in is particularly difficult to react to them – trade relations. Where game theoretic indeed, they are not even discussed.40 models have gained predictive force, this Game theory’s initial scientific reputation can be traced back to their normative or comes from its mathematical formulation, and not from its empirical validity nor the implicit normative success which has theory, and more recently: Daniel Eggers, 41 “Hobbes and Game theory revisited: zero-sum made it possible. It is the site of a games in the state of nature“, in: Southern number of small, influential narratives Journal of Philosophy 49 (2011), pp. 193- 236. which, ever since Hobbes Leviathan, have Don Ross establishes a link between the been telling us that people behave Platonic dialogues Laches and Phaedo and strategically towards each other, that they game theory, cf. Don Ross, “Game Theory”, in: normally compete with each other for The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy resources and are in social conflict (Winter 2012 Edition) situations, in which winners and losers can (http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2012/entr ies/game-theory), last accessed on be identified and human beings assess 06/08/2013. Ariel Rubinstein writes: “In my and chase one another. These narratives view, game theory is a collection of fables and originally started off as the natural state of proverbs. Implementing a model from game war with Hobbes and have drifted into theory is just as likely as implementing a fable. almost all areas of secular societies in the A good fable enables us to see a situation in form of interpretative patterns, entering life from a new angle [...]. But it would be into the markets, politics, the educational absurd to say that “The Emperor’s New system, gender relations, and healthcare Clothes” predicts the path of Berlusconi,” Ariel systems. The question of whether, in the Rubinstein, “Kann die Spieltheorie die sense of the post-modern fantasy, there Probleme der Eurozone lösen und das iranische Atomprogramm aufhalten?” Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 27/03/2013. 40 An introduction to game theory from the Translated into English as “How game theory University of Yale is available on YouTube at will solve the problems of the Euro Bloc and the following address: stop Iranian nukes” on: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nM3rTU927i http://www.faz.net/aktuell/feuilleton/debatten/g o. Last accessed on 2 August 2013. ame-theory-how-game-theory-will-solve-the- 41 According to Rubinstein in “Kann die problems-of-the-euro-bloc-and-stop-iranian- Spieltheorie die Probleme der Eurozone lösen nukes-12130407.html (Last accessed on und das iranische Atomprogramm aufhalten?”: 12/12/2013). See also Ariel Rubinstein, “[...] the formality creates an illusion that the Economic Fables, Cambridge 2012. theory is scientific.” 13 © 2014 Michael Hampe were ever really any grand integrative the assertions made by the explanatory narratives and systems which actually sciences. These narratives, which centre concerned all human areas in the same on the competition for scarce resources way as the narratives of competing utility and the need to assert oneself in game maximisers do today remains to be theory, are the grand narratives of the answered. At any rate, the interpretative modern day. Global capitalism has made patterns from game theory are effectively these interpretative patterns a reality. This ubiquitous, whatever their integrating force possibility was predicted over a hundred may be. In these narratives, human beings years ago by Charles Sanders Peirce, who must constantly assert themselves against underlined the danger that human beings other human beings wherever they are. would come to interpret themselves solely The grand narratives of human beings as egotistical utility maximisers in made in the image of a Creator and as competition with one another, thus rational beings were succeeded by one ushering in a social reality to match this about human beings as market reality.42 participants. It is the market that provides The Bible also provides interpretative the universal metaphor for the life of the patterns for human feelings and actions in competitive human being, and not war, as the Book of Job, the Judgement of was the case with Hobbes. Solomon on two women who both claimed Markets really exist, and human beings do actually operate in them, but not always. If 42 In his essay “Evolutionary Love” in 1893, the other two grand narratives of human Peirce analysed the so-called “greed- beings relate to transcendences that do philosophy” according to a guide of political not come and go (because God and the economy in which cruelty is deemed ineffective intelligible faculty of reason are thought of and side-lined as a result. Peirce predicts that as eternal), the narrative of the competitive “the economies” will wake up from their self- satisfaction when it is already too late. When it market-minded person gets by without becomes apparent that their analyses of transcendence, generalising and human behaviour are defective, the social ennobling a particular possibility of human reality will have already developed in existence – that of competing with others accordance with their misguided image. “The for something – to make it into something twentieth century, in its latter half,” writes that people allegedly always do and that Peirce, “shall surely see the deluge-tempest constitutes their essence. The narrative of burst upon the social order, – to clear upon a the competitive being in the market yields world as deep in ruin as that greed-philosophy the new anthropological essentialism, has long plunged it into guilt.” Charles Sanders which has come to dominate across Peirce, “Evolutionary Love” in his The Essential Peirce, Volume 1: Selected almost all areas and has replaced the Philosophical Writings Volume 1 (1867 - 1893), religious essentialism that regarded man ed. by Nathan Houser and Christian Kloesel, as a rational being created by God, the Indiana University Press 1992, p.356. In his Creator, in his own image. (In this regard, book Von Neumann, Morgenstern and the it has some similarities to the narrative of Creation of Game Theory (Cambridge 2010), man as a mortal being. Death is also a the economic historian Robert Leonard non-transcendental reality and the final meticulously describes the history of game possibility of human life, but people do not theory as a strategic theory of economic die throughout their whole lives any more activity and its application in the Cold War. so than they compete everywhere and Frank Schirrmacher applies this theory effectively in his popular critical non-fiction always throughout their whole lives. It is book Ego. Das Spiel des Lebens, München just as much of an exaggeration to 2013 (without making reference to Hobbes or interpret the whole of human life relative to Peirce in the process). Here, the social world death (existentialist essentialism) as it is to has developed in the manner suggested by the view the whole of human life in terms of dominant interpretative patterns of human competition.) behaviour in game theory, so human beings It is not just a coincidence that the lives of have become egotistical utility maximisers and human beings who must assert we are now faced with a society of egotistical themselves against each other are played utility maximisers due to the dominance of out in a culture that is largely orientated by these narratives. See in particular Schirrmacher 2013 (Part II). 14 © 2014 Michael Hampe to be the mother of the same child, the of the Good Samaritan, therefore receiving Parable of the Prodigal Son, the Good this story as paradigmatic, will probably Samaritan, and many other narratives. behave differently to a person who uses These stories concern the issues of coping the prisoner’s dilemma as her paradigm. with pain, of justice, and compassion. Someone who is concerned about the Psychoanalysis believed to have found a prospects of her spiritual salvation if she very specific pattern for psycho-sexual life helps or does not help is interpreting and in the form of the Oedipus Myth. Likewise, assessing her own behaviour in a different generalizable interpretations of human life way to someone who worries about the are also provided by the narratives from time and social resources available to her, game theory, which all deal with strategic asking what effect offering help will have reasoning: the prisoner’s dilemma, the on these resources. The reason why game of cowards, the beauty contests, the everything seems to be a scarce resource ultimatum game or the diner’s dilemma. All to human beings nowadays (just as once of these stories convey general everything seemed either sinful or interpretations of human behaviour. But indicative of salvation) and something that these narratives are no more valid than they compete for with others – their those found in the Bible or Greek education, work, sexual partners, their tragedy. 43 They specify situations that time – is due to the narratives they use to people can really find themselves in and interpret themselves, which lead them to promote them to a paradigmatic status. take certain aspects of their actions and Neither Job, the Oedipus Myth, nor the the motivation behind their behaviour as prisoner’s dilemma make for good paradigmatic for human actions in general. predictions about actions because none of these cover the entire spectrum of human Someone who interprets herself in a actions. The reason why things appear to specific way for a while will behave be different when it comes to the fables of according to these interpretations and game theory is because where acquire habits that make her into a human mathematical formalisms are used, this being who fits these interpretations.44 This gives the impression that modern, is how the fables from game theory empirically verified science is at work, and influence culture and social life. By this really ought to be both successful at interpreting themselves as strategic making predictions as well as universally agents in a competition for resources, valid. For what is allegedly more people will, with time, become persons universally valid than a mathematical who act first and foremost strategically, formula? viewing everything around them as a But the interpretive patterns from the scarce resource. This influence is stories from the Bible, Greek tragedy and particularly noticeable in science. Many game theory can all be applied to human scientists have come to see themselves as life, even if they are not useful for people whose primary concern within the predicting human behaviour universally. system of “mental capitalism” is to They merely emphasise and accentuate exchange the resources of attention and different aspects of this behaviour. If they reputation, and accumulate them for become paradigmatic, being possible themselves. 45 Other self-conceptions, by parts of human life, they come to contrast – such as that of world spectators represent this life as a whole. These kinds who hand their knowledge down to others of paradigmatic emphases then feed back as a gift – fade into oblivion.46 This is into the future behaviour of those who interpret themselves with the aid of this 44 Cf. Aristotle, Nichomachean Ethics pars pro toto pattern. Someone who, in a Translated and with a commentary by Robert scenario where assistance is required, C. Bartlett and Susan D. Collins), Chicago tries to relate her behaviour to the Parable 2011, Book II 1. 45 This is how Georg Franck diagnoses the situation in his book Ökonomie der 43 Rubinstein, “Kann die Spieltheorie die Aufmerksamkeit, Munich 1998. Probleme der Eurozone lösen und das 46 Inken Tegtmeyer provides a comparison of iranische Atomprogramm aufhalten?” economic and gift exchange interpretations of 15 © 2014 Michael Hampe where the educational influence of these seventh child are obliged to follow the way narratives lies; however the authors of in which the term “force” is used by these narratives by no means see Newton. themselves as narrative teachers and We can see that non-doctrinal philosophy instead mistakenly conceive of themselves has nothing to do with post-modernism as scientists conducting predictive (which, if it involves the absence of grand science. Lyotard simply overlooked these narratives, never existed) because non- grand narratives because he was looking doctrinal philosophy already existed in the in the wrong places, in the formation of intellectual constellation that led to the theories in doctrinal philosophy and not in birth of the explanatory sciences and the strategic sciences of war and the philosophy in Europe. I am referring to the economy. constellation that existed between Ever since antiquity, non-doctrinal Socrates and his intellectual philosophy has criticised these kinds of predecessors. Socrates was the first grand narrative again and again, but it has traditional philosophical figure to attempt never tried to replace them with other to make his dialogue partners take grand narratives. Its objective is to enable semantic responsibility and autonomy by individuals to react to these narratives and asking what they actually meant by a make them capable of rejecting the specific term and whether or not they suggestion that they should apply the could see the consequence of using such universal concepts used in these a term. narratives to themselves. Just as human beings who are homosexual, melancholic or deaf refuse to be described as “ill”, people can reject the proposal that they should characterise their lifetime as a “scarce resource”, their friends as a * This text is the first chapter of Michael “network”, their education as an Hampe, Die Lehren der Philosophie. Eine “investment in the future” and a landscape Kritik, Frankfurt am Main 2014. as a “recreational area”. But in order to do Translation: C. Naomi Osorio-Kupferblum and so they must be conscious of what it I. Adey means to decide for or against using universal concepts, that is, they must generally be conscious speakers. To a conscious speaker, it is clear that “science” has not determined that human beings are competitors for resources, nor that friends and education are a means of social advancement, nor that landscapes are instruments of psychological regeneration; instead they know that scientific research operates using these terms in order to pursue specific explanatory projects (e.g. in the social sciences). People who do not pursue these explanatory projects are no more bound to their terminological applications than, for example, parents who say they cannot summons up force to raise a

scientific productivity and reception in her dissertation Wozu in der Philosophie wissenschaftliche Texte geschrieben werden ( Typoskript, Hildesheim 2013, Section 6 (5) ). I also owe thanks to this paper for the reference to Georg Franck. 16 © 2014 Michael Hampe