Rationalizing Disaster: Assessing the Physical, Economic, and Cultural Impact of Natural Hazards in Luzon, 1645- 1754
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Rationalizing Disaster: Assessing the Physical, Economic, and Cultural Impact of Natural Hazards in Luzon, 1645- 1754 D. Maximillian Findley BSc (Haverford College) This thesis is presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Murdoch University January 2020 I declare that this thesis is my own account of research and contains as its main content work which has not previously been submitted for a degree at any tertiary education institution. David Maximillian Findley i Abstract This dissertation asserts historic natural hazards and the disasters they created are a potent and flexible analytical tool for studying the Philippine archipelago during the mid- colonial period (ca. 1640-1764). Historic hazards, because they occurred in the islands with sufficient regularity in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, were not just discrete, disruptive events, but processes that acted over time. These hazards, when viewed as processes, illustrate how a colonial society altered and adapted itself to cope with prolonged disruptions. When comprehended as events, though, responses to individual natural hazards identify the central connections and tensions that defined the colonial Philippines at the moment of disruption. Therefore, this dissertation employs both perspectives to study the physical, economic, and cultural impact of natural hazards in Spanish Luzon between 1645 and 1754, years defined by the most severe disasters experienced in the islands in their respective centuries. By treating each hazard that transpired in the 109-year period as separate events, the dissertation demonstrates how seismic and meteorological hazards threatened crucial assets of the Spanish Empire, including galleons, fortresses, and churches. The dissertation also identifies how individual hazards amplified the growing poverty of the Philippine colony in the seventeenth century. By treating the same destructive events as a process, the dissertation shows the evolving responses of governing institutions—colonial administrators and members of the clergy—to natural hazards over time. These institutional adaptations are reflected in the ways narratives of disaster shared amongst the colony’s literate, Spanish elite changed ii between 1645 and 1754 to emphasize hazards’ capacity for destruction over their supposed metaphysical causes. Lastly, through case studies on folk magic and the creolization of Catholic festivals, the dissertation explores how Spanish soldiers and the colonized indigenous peoples of Luzon perceived natural hazards respectively. iii Acknowledgements As many fellow students, good friends, advisors, and colleagues have reminded me time and again, writing a dissertation is a grueling process. It is also an adventure, one defined by setbacks, uncertainty, improvement, and moments of triumph. And, in this moment of elation as I submit this dissertation for consideration, I would like to thank the many people who helped craft and improve this work. It is fair to say, without their contributions, insights, and recommendations, this dissertation would have never been realized. First and foremost, I would thank my principal supervisor James Warren and co- supervisor Joseph Christensen. From the day we first met when they collected me from Perth airport upon my arrival in Australia, our relationship was defined by openness and candor. Both supplied me with the critiques I needed to improve as a writer and scholar. And, throughout my time at Murdoch, both were compassionate, understanding, and supportive. When I grew ill at the midpoint of my dissertation, they helped me obtain medicine, drove me to the hospital for scans, and permitted me to return home temporarily to recover my health, despite encroaching deadlines. Their edits of every chapter presented in this dissertation proved essential, and they continued providing edits until the week prior to submission. For their tireless aid, support, critiques, and friendship, I am a better scholar and a better man. I do not have the words to thank them. I would like to thank the staff at the archives I visited. For this dissertation, I travelled to archives on three different continents, each with their own regulations and practices. At every turn, staff greeted me kindly, helped me find the materials I needed, and—in the case iv of archives in Spain and Mexico—endured my halting Spanish, even helping me to gradually improve. My deepest appreciation and thanks to the archivists and staff at the Archivo General de Indias in Seville, the Archivo General de la Nación in Mexico City, the Vatican Film Library at Saint Louis University, the New York Public Library, the Biblioteca Nacional de España in Madrid, and the Archive of the University of Santo Tomas in Manila. I would like to extend special thanks to Father Cayetano at the Archivo Franciscano Ibero-Oriental in Madrid. At several points during my visits to his archive, he would recommend sources to me (including making me aware of material in New York) and introduce me to other researchers. And, when I began to experience a sharp pain in my stomach while reading, Father Cayetano directed me to a hospital and helped call me a cab. I will never forget his kindness or care. This dissertation would not have been possible without the efforts of several staff and faculty at Murdoch University. I would like to extend my gratitude to the staff at Murdoch University’s Library, who helped me procure obscure books and articles throughout the world. I would also thank the Graduate Research Office for their help, advice, and guidance over the last three years. And I would thank various fellows at the Asia Research Centre, past and present, who offered me feedback and companionship during my time in Australia. In particular, I would like to thank Garry Rodan, Jane Hutchinson, and Jacqui Baker. I would especially like to thank Carol Warren, who provided advice and edits for the fifth chapter. This dissertation was associated with (and funded through) an Australian Research Council (ARC) Linkage Project titled “Hazards, Tipping Points, Adaptation, and Collapse in the Indo Pacific.” I would again thank Jim Warren for awarding me the scholarship to work on this project with him in Perth and for the opportunity to experience a region of the world v I had never seen before undertaking this PhD. I would also thank every member of this ARC project, all of whom attended successive presentations on my research for the last three years, each time offering further advice and suggestions for improvement. For their private remarks, support, and critiques, I would especially like to thank Adam Switzer, Francis Gealogo, Greg Bankoff, Gerry van Klinken, Anthony Reid, Sander Tetteroo, Alicia Schrikker, Rila Mukherjee, Li Tana, and many others who corresponded with me. I would also extend my gratitude to attendees and organizers of various conferences, symposia, and forums who offered advice on how to develop and improve this dissertation. My thanks especially to Libby Robin, Tom Griffiths, and Christof Mauch, whose advice generated the fifth and sixth chapters of this dissertation. For their correspondence and advice on interpreting source material, I would also like to thank Tatiana Seijas and Leonard Andaya. And, to all the many others who listened to me discuss my project, thank you. And, of course, I am nothing but grateful for the support and comradery offered by my fellow students at Murdoch’s Asia Research Centre. I have met so many of you over the last three years, simultaneously cheering and lamenting the moment when you submitted your research, knowing you would soon after return home or leave for the next stage of your careers. To all of you, and to all the members of the centre who are working to submit your dissertations, please know I can never thank you enough for your support and encouragement over the years. And I would thank my friends from outside academia. Your companionship offered me a reprieve from this project and a chance to explore and marvel at Australia and its unique comprehension of the English language. Thank you to Andrew, Zak, Lisa, Patty, Tori, Abi, Luke, and so many others. You made this strange country feel like home. vi Finally, thank you to my family for your patience with me over these last four years. I have travelled as far from home as possible. You all have stayed up late to accommodate the twelve-hour time difference between us, gathered me from the airport innumerable times, and have supported me throughout this PhD. To Katie, Jenn, and Renee, thank you for finding time for your little brother. Finally, words cannot express how grateful I am to my mother and father. Jacky, Del, if I listed all ways you two have helped me these last three years, I would never stop writing. vii Table of Contents Introduction 1 Chapter 1: The Emerging Field of Historic Natural Hazard 21 Scholarship Chapter 2: The Physical and Immediate Economic Impact of 42 Natural Hazards Chapter 3: Natural Hazards’ Impact on Governing Institutions 100 Chapter 4: Pamphlets, Letters, and Stories of Calamity 147 Chapter 5: Fiestas, Calamity, and Cultural Hybridity 186 Chapter 6: Counter-Narratives from the Imperial Fringe 207 Conclusion 230 Appendix 238 Glossary 244 Works Referenced 249 viii Figures and Tables Figures I.1: Map of Luzon and its Surrounding Islands 9 1.1: Visualizing Vulnerability and Resilience in Disaster Studies 34 1.2: Visualizing the Impact of Natural Hazards over Time 36 2.1: Map of Manila and the Surrounding Towns 52 2.2: The Annual Income of