Disappearing Act: Calmness and Insight in Chinese Buddhism Mario Poceski

Journal of Chinese Religions, Volume 48, Number 1, May 2020, pp. 1-30 (Article)

Published by Johns Hopkins University Press

For additional information about this article https://muse.jhu.edu/article/754046

[ This content has been declared free to read by the pubisher during the COVID-19 pandemic. ] DISAPPEARING ACT: CALMNESS AND INSIGHT IN CHINESE BUDDHISM

Mario Poceski University of Florida Gainesville, Florida, USA

The article explores major changes in the dominant models of meditation that came to characterize the practice of Chinese Buddhism during the first millennium of its growth and transformation. The main line of argument centers on key transformations of the classical model of Buddhist meditation, which postulates two main approaches to contemplative practice: calmness and insight. The main paradigm shifts examined in the article include the pairing of the two approaches in the writings of Zhiyi (538–597) and his Tiantai School, and the conceptual and soteriological reconfigurations that unfolded within the flourishing Chan movement during the Tang era. That is followed by an analysis of the development of a completely new model of Chan meditation during the Song period, which marked the virtual disappearance of calmness and insight from the everyday vocabulary of Chinese Buddhism.

Keywords: Tiantai, Chan, Chinese Buddhism, meditation, calmness, insight, contemplative practices

Introduction

In contemporary milieus, especially in the West, Buddhist practice is often associated with or reduced to the practice of meditation. Additionally, meditation tends to be equated with a specific contemplative technique, such as mindfulness, insight meditation, or kōan examination. From a traditional perspective, such facile equivalence is simplistic at best, or completely misleading at worst. Over the centuries, Buddhist traditions have developed arrays of soteriological paradigms that incorporate varied methods or modes of spiritual cultivation, which in turn are integrated into larger systems of belief and doctrine. Meditation tends to be an important part of such visions of the Buddhist path (S: mārga; C: dao 道), but it always coexists and functions in conjunction with other key elements of Buddhist theory and practice. In that sense, meditation needs to be considered in relation to other central components of Buddhism, including philosophical reflection on the nature

Journal of Chinese Religions 48, no. 1, 1–30, May 2020 © 2020 Johns Hopkins University Press and the Society for the Study of Chinese Religions 2 Mario Poceski of mind and reality, observance of ethical norms, ideals of spiritual perfection, assorted beliefs about karma, realms of existence, and the afterlife, and much more. Notwithstanding the continuing influence of important canonical models and classical paradigms, discrete meditation techniques are always situated or deployed within specific historical contexts. As such, they are shaped by complex sets of causal factors, such as heartfelt beliefs, philosophical outlooks, ideological agendas, and institutional strictures. Other important issues at play include entrenched cultural suppositions and the horizons of expectation of varied constituencies, within and outside of the Buddhist community. As we examine the standing and function of meditation within diverse formulations of the Buddhist path, past and present, we also need to keep in mind that none of the constituent elements are completely static or immutable. Judicious analysis of the assortment of extant sources connected with diverse traditions, along with critical observation of the dynamic forces that shape modern strands of Buddhism, points towards all sorts of internal and external factors that shape changes in the basic makeup of soteriological models, as well as in the evolving interpretation and implementation of specific contemplative techniques. Some of these changes are minor and gradual, but others can be viewed as constituting major turns or even paradigm shifts in the history of Buddhist (or Buddhist-inspired) religiosity. In this article, I examine tentatively some of the major changes in the basic models of meditation that unfolded in the course of the growth of Buddhism in premodern China. These developments also had significant ramifications for later forms of Chinese Buddhism, down to the contemporary period. The main line of argument is framed in terms of tracing some of the key Chinese transformations of the classical paradigm of Buddhist meditation, which postulates two main approaches to contemplative practice: calmness (S: śamatha; C: zhi 止) and insight (S: vipaśyanā; C: guan 觀). While the pertinent storyline starts with the early introduction of Buddhism during the Eastern Han 東漢 dynasty (25–220 CE), the article’s main focus is on the Sui 隋 (581–618), Tang 唐 (618–907), and Northern Song 北宋 (960–1127) periods. The main episodes in this large story involve the pairing of the aforementioned two main approaches in the writings of Zhiyi 智顗 (538–597) and his Tiantai School 天台宗, the relevant conceptual and soteriological reconfigurations that unfolded within the bur- geoning Chan 禪 movement during the Tang era, and the development of a completely new model of Chan meditation during the Song period. The Chan model of the Song era marked the virtual disappearance of calmness and insight from the everyday vocabulary of Chinese Buddhism. Accordingly, on a basic level, this article represents an attempt to sketch the basic contours of this curious disappearing act. By extension, it also points towards major changes and realignments that, to this day, continue to shape the essential contours and character of much of Chinese (and more broadly East Asian) Buddhism.

Loose Definitional Boundaries

The Buddhist tradition(s) developed a rich vocabulary of technical terms that pertain to the discussion and analysis of various elements of meditative training and related facets of the Buddhist path of practice. The English term itself has no clear-cut analogues in DISAPPEARING ACT: CALMNESS AND INSIGHT IN CHINESE BUDDHISM 3

the vocabularies of the major canonical languages, although there are a variety of technical terms, such as dhyāna (C: chan 禪) and samādhi (C: sanmei 三昧, ding 定), that (depending on context) can be translated as “meditation.” There is also no unanimous agreement about what is included under the broad rubric of “meditation,” which allows for a certain degree of interpretative elasticity and definitional tentativeness. Accordingly, it is possible to use both narrow and expanded meanings of meditation in the discussion of various programs or systems of religious praxis. Formal meditation practice, which involves the familiar cross-legged posture and the application of a specific contemplative technique such as mindfulness of breathing, is clearly included under the general rubric of meditation. However, in traditional parlance the broad rubric can also incorporate a variety of ritual activities or devotional practices that are meant to lead to mental purification and the cultivation of wholesome roots (S: kusala-mūla; C: shan’gen 善根). For instance, this expanded sense is communicated by the Pāli term bhāvanā (lit. cultivation, practice; C: xiu 修). Although commonly used to refer to meditation, bhāvanā can also point to a range of other practices, thus assuming the rough meaning of “spiritual cultivation.”1 Accordingly, we can discern several approaches or interpretative layers in Chinese discussions of meditation, as revealed in the writings of Zhiyi and other medieval monks. First, there is a general understanding of meditation as a structured mental exercise. Typi- cally, that involves a formal sitting posture and application of a specific technique, which can be directed towards quietening the mind or nurturing contemplative discernment. Additionally, there is a broader understanding of meditation that embraces an assortment of ritual formulas or other modes of spiritual cultivation. Finally, there are formless or structureless approaches to contemplative practice, whereas the adept aims to develop intuitive insight by directly confronting the immediacy of reality, without relying on fixed procedures or specific meditation techniques. In the works of Zhiyi and others, especially Chan masters from the Tang era, the last option is usually perceived to be ideal or superior. However, in practical terms, explicitly structured approaches to contemplative training are indispensable tools for the vast majority of practitioners, whose limited spiritual aptitude prevents them from engaging in advanced modes of formless practice.

Classical Models

As noted, the category of meditation is integrated into virtually all taxonomies of Bud- dhist practices or outlines of the path of practice and realization. For instance, it is included as the second component in the oft-cited classificatory scheme of three trainings (S: triśikṣā; C: sanxue 三學), which consists of ethical conduct (S: śīla; C: jie 戒), meditation (S: samādhi; C: ding 定), and wisdom (S: prajñā; C: hui 慧, bore 般若). Similarly, the last three elements of the noble eightfold path (S: āryāṣṭāṅga mārga; C: ba sheng dao 八聖道)—right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration—are traditionally

1 For some of the definitional issues in the study of Buddhist meditation, especially in its East Asian variations, see Alan Sponberg, “Meditation in Fa-hsiang Buddhism,” in Traditions of Meditation in Chinese Buddhism, ed. Peter N. Gregory (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1986), 15–21. 4 Mario Poceski taken to belong to the category of meditation. Similarly, in the Mahāyāna tradition, the bodhisattva path is often structured in terms of the six perfections, the fifth of which is meditation (S: dhyāna; C: chanding 禪定).2 Within the last template, there is a sense of hierarchy among the various perfections (S: pāramitā; C: boluomi 波羅蜜), with the perfection of wisdom at the very top, being considered to be the most fundamental and most profound among all perfections. This is a common theme in most classical systems, where meditation is closely linked with, but also subordinate to wisdom, which ultimately leads to the realization of reality and attainment of spiritual liberation. A variety of contemplative techniques can be included within the broad rubric of meditation. Nonetheless, in classical Buddhist sources—as well as in contemporary parlance, especially in the Theravāda tradition—all of them can be subsumed within the two basic categories of calmness and insight. At a basic level, these are the two fundamental approaches to Buddhist meditation. They can also be applied to the analysis of other contemplative systems, such as Christian or Sufi forms of meditation and contemplative prayer. Generally speaking, the practice of calmness involves quietening the mind by putting an end to the everyday stream of mental activity and emotional turmoil, especially distracted or wayward thoughts. The basic method consists of developing concentration or one-pointedness of mind, which is primarily accomplished by fixating one’s attention on a specific object of meditation. Various classical sources, such as Buddhaghosa’s (fl. fifth century CE)Visuddhimagga (Path of Purification), provide detailed lists of internal and external meditation objects, such as different visual meditation objects known as kasiṇa (S: kṛtsna), the natural process of breathing, the body, skeleton, etc.3 However, in theory many other things can serve as objects of calmness meditation, as long as they are conducive to the cultivation of a serene and equanimous state of mind. The primary goal of calmness practice is the development of concentration and the achievement of tranquil mental states. The whole process of practice supposedly culmi- nates in the attainment of meditative absorptions (S: dhyāna; P: jhāna; C: ding 定). These are states of mental unification and deep concentration, in which the mind becomes fully absorbed in the object of meditation. Canonical sources usually identify four or eight types of absorptions. These are arranged hierarchically, with the higher levels of absorption representing progressively more subtle and purified states of mind, increasingly divested of assorted hindrances, as well as positive mental factors (such as rapture and pleasure). The eight are typically divided into two general categories: four form absorptions, the most fundamental forms of abruption, and four formless absorptions, also referred to as the four formless attainments.4

2 The translation of technical Sanskrit, Pali, and Chinese terms presented here and elsewhere in the article is not always consistent, but such inconsistency primarily stems from the canonical texts themselves. 3 See Bhikkhu Ñanamoli, The Path of Purification: Visuddhimagga (Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 2010), 118–287; Sarah Shaw, “Meditation Objects in Pāli Buddhist Texts,” in Asian Traditions of Meditation, ed. Halvor Eifring (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2016), 122–144. 4 Ñanamoli, The Path of Purification, 136–165, 320–336. DISAPPEARING ACT: CALMNESS AND INSIGHT IN CHINESE BUDDHISM 5

While in calmness meditation the primary concern is the development of serenity and concentration, the practice of insight involves the cultivation of contemplative discernment. Traditionally, that involves clear observation, inquiry, and insight into the nature of reality, especially the lack of inherent existence and conditioned nature of all phenomena. In that context, the main goal of contemplative practice shifts towards direct knowledge or intuitive awareness of reality, assumed to bring about spiritual liberation and ending of imperfect samsaric existence. The primary method of practice involves contemplation of reality through carefully selected conceptual categories, all of which are grounded in Buddhist doctrine. Examples of such conceptual tools, which function as heuristic devices meant to point towards the true character of reality—which by definition is ineffable and inconceivable—include the three marks of existence (impermanence, suffering, and no-self), conditioned origination (S: pratītyasamutpāda; C: yuanqi 緣起; also referred to as dependent arising), and emptiness (S: śūnyatā; C: kong 空). Since the practice of insight meditation practice is closely tied up with specific doctrinal formulations, there is more variation in terms of the exact contents of the contemplative discernments put forward by the different schools of Buddhist philosophy or practice. For instance, within Theravāda contexts the practice is typically based on key philosophical notions and conceptual schemes peculiar to that tradition. The same is true of the various Mahāyāna traditions, such as Madhyamaka and Yogācāra in India (and elsewhere),5 or Huayan and Tiantai in China. For instance, within the Tiantai system the practice revolves around discernment of the essential principle of emptiness of mind and phenomena, which is meant to lead to direct realization of the basic structure of reality. Furthermore, that is elaborated via the conceptual prism of the prime Tiantai doctrine of three truths (san di 三諦), as discussed below. Across the whole spectrum of Buddhist traditions, there is no clear-cut consensus on the exact relationship between the two basic approaches to meditation. In some contexts, such as the Pāli scriptures, meditation is primarily equated with calmness,6 although there is little in terms of detailed instructions about the technique(s) to be deployed by the meditating monks.7 Some scholars have also argued that the sharp distinction between the two approaches is a later development, especially in Theravāda. Accordingly, such a distinction is not applicable to the understanding of meditative practice in early Buddhism, where the two approaches (or mental qualities) are integrated into a single process of contemplative praxis.8 However, more often than not, calmness and insight are treated as discrete methods or distinctive approaches to contemplative practice, even if they can be cultivated in

5 For deployment of the notion of emptiness in Yogācāra discussions of meditation, see Gadjin M. Nagao, “ ‘What Remains in Śūnyata’: A Yogacara Interpretation of Emptiness,” in Mahayana Buddhist Meditation: Theory and Practice, ed. Minoru Kiyota (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1991), 66–82. 6 Thanissaro Bhikkhu, “One Tool Among Many: The Place of Vipassana in Buddhist Practice,” Access to Insight (BCBS Edition, 2011), http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/onetool .html (accessed 1/2/2020). 7 Rupert Gethin, “On the Practice of Buddhist Meditation According to the Pali Nikāyas and Exegetical Sources,” Buddhismus in Geschichte und Gegenwart 9 (2004): 202–203. 8 Keren Arbel, Early Buddhist Meditation: The Four Jhanas as the Actualization of Insight (Abingdon and New York: Routledge, 2017). 6 Mario Poceski conjunction with each other. When they are practiced separately, calmness often comes first, followed by insight. However, it can also be vice versa, or one can switch back and forth between the two. Some Pāli texts suggest three main ways of deploying calmness and insight—in sequence, with either element coming first, and jointly—plus a fourth, indeterminate approach.9 In any case, the final goal should be to arrive at a good balance between the two. Nonetheless, in various Buddhist milieus, especially modern Theravāda, there are still disagreements about the degree of mastery of calmness that is necessary for the successful practice of insight.

Transmission of Meditation Techniques into China

The introduction of contemplative practices was part of the transmission of Buddhism into China, which started during the first century CE. Among the earliest transmitters of such knowledge into China was An Shigao 安世高 (d. 168 CE?). Usually described as a prince from Parthia (in Central Asia), he was a prominent translator, meditation master, and thaumaturge. While there is little in terms of reliable records about his teaching activities, we can glean information about his contemplative background and interests by looking at the contents of his translations.10 There we find discussions of well-known contemplative techniques, especially mindfulness of breathing (S: ānāpānasmṛti; P: ānāpāna- sati; C: anpan nian 安般念) and contemplation on the body’s repulsiveness or impurity (S: aśubha-pratyavekṣā; P: asubha bhāvanā; C: bujing guan 不淨觀).11 Other noted translators and transmitters of knowledge about meditation, from the northern and southern dynasties (Nanbei chao 南北朝, 386–589), are Kumārajīva (Jiu- moluoshi 鳩摩羅什, 344–413), arguably the most influential translator in the history of Chinese Buddhism, and Buddhabhadra (Fotuobatuoluo 佛陀跋陀羅, 359–429), a noted meditation master associated with the Sarvāstivada school in Kashmir. Along with several other canonical texts (including those translated by An Shigao), their translations of this kind of texts form an informal corpus, often referred to as “meditation scriptures” (chan jing 禪經). Within Kumārajīva’s oeuvre, examples of important meditation texts include Zuochan sanmei jing 坐禪三昧經 (Scripture on Sitting Meditation Samādhi),12 Chanfa

9 For a scriptural passage that outlines these four possibilities, see Anguttara Nikaya 4.170, translated in Bhikkhu Bodhi, In the Buddha’s Words: An Anthology of Discourses from the Pali Canon (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2005), 268–269. 10 There are many texts in the Chinese Buddhist canon that list An Shigao as a translator, over a hundred according to some accounts. However, the authenticity of most attributions has been disputed by modern scholarship. For assessments about which texts are actual translations of the famous missionary, see Jan Nattier, A Guide to the Earliest Chinese Buddhist Translations: Texts from the Eastern Han 東漢 and Three Kingdoms 三國 Periods (Tokyo: International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology, Soka University, 2008), 38–72. 11 See E. Zürcher, The Buddhist Conquest of China: The Spread and Adaptation of Buddhism in Early Medieval China (Leiden: Brill, 2007), 32–34; Kenneth Ch’en, Buddhism in China: A Historical Survey (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1964), 43–44, 47; and Eric M. Greene, “Healing Breaths and Rotting Bones: On the Relationship between Buddhist and Chinese Meditation Practices during the Eastern Han and Three Kingdoms period,” Journal of Chinese Religions 42, no. 2 (2014): 144–183. 12 T 614, vol. 15. DISAPPEARING ACT: CALMNESS AND INSIGHT IN CHINESE BUDDHISM 7

yaojie 禪法要解 (Essential Explanations of Meditation Methods),13 and Chan miyao fa jing 襌秘要法經 (Scripture on the Secret and Essential Methods of Meditation).14 Bud- dhabhadra’s best-known texts on meditation are Damoduolo chan jing 達摩多羅禪經 (Meditation Scripture of Dharmatrāta),15 and Foshuo guan fo sanmei hai jing 佛說觀佛三昧海經 (Buddha’s Scripture on the Ocean of Buddha Contemplation Samādhi).16 Among the notable features of these and other related texts composed before the Tang era is a sense of fidelity to classical models of contemplative practice, traceable back to Central and South Asian forms of Buddhism. The contents of a number of these texts are primarily based on paradigms of meditation praxis with non-Mahāyāna origins, especially those promulgated by the Sarvāstivada school. Therefore, they show notable structural similarities with the major formulations of meditation training developed by non-Mahāyāna traditions, including Theravāda. At the same time, they differ greatly from the meditation technique(s) that became dominant in China from the Song era onward. There are also ample examples of combinations of non-Mahāyāna techniques with doctrinal outlooks or ideals of Mahāyāna origin. A pertinent example of fidelity to received canonical models, accompanied by an infusion of novel doctrinal perspectives, is Sui ziyi sanmei 隨自意三昧 (Samādhi of Following One’s Thoughts), a meditation manual compiled by Nanyue Huisi 南嶽慧思 (515–577).17 In regard to the central meditation technique presented in the text, Huisi frames his discussion around the well-known canonical taxonomy of “four foundations of mindfulness” (si nianchu 四念處).18 In contemporary Buddhism, the four foundations of mindfulness are primarily associated with the Theravāda tradition, but the same taxonomy also appears in Mahāyāna texts, such as the Yogācārabhūmi śāstra. At the same time, Huisi also incorporates doctrinal perspectives characteristic of Chinese forms of Mahāyāna. That is especially the case with some of the central philosophical notions that came to be associated with the nascent Tiantai tradition—such as the intrinsic emptiness and the unborn nature of all phenomena—whose classical system was further developed by his student Zhiyi.

13 T 616, vol. 15. 14 T 613, vol. 15. 15 T 618, vol. 15; for an English translation, see Yiu-wing Chan, “An English Translation of the Dharmatrāta-Dhyāna Sūtra” (PhD diss., The University of Hong Kong, 2013). 16 T 643, vol. 15; for a study of this text, see Nobuyoshi Yamabe, “The Sūtra on the Ocean-Like Samādhi of the Visualization of the Buddha: The Interfusion of the Chinese and Indian Cultures in Central Asia as Reflected in a Fifth-Century Apocryphal Sūtra” (PhD diss., Yale University, 1999). For more on meditation practice in fifth-century China, see Eric M. Greene, “Seeing Avijñapti-rūpa: Buddhist Doctrine and Meditative Experience in India and China,” in Buddhist Meditative Traditions: Comparison and Dialog, ed. Kuo-pin Chuang (Taipei: Dharma Drum Publishing Corporation, 2016), 107–170. 17 X 903, vol. 55 (in one fascicle). For more on Huisi, who is very understudied, see Paul Magnin, La vie et l’œuvre de Huisi: Les origines de la secte bouddhique chinoise du Tiantai (Paris: École française d’Extrême-Orient, 1979). 18 See Ching-wei Wang, “The Practice of Mahāyāna Si Nianchu in Sixth-Century China: Huisi’s Interpretation and Practice of Si Nianchu in His Sui Ziyi Sanmei,” Chung-Hwa Buddhist Journal 22 (2009): 153–178. 8 Mario Poceski

Zhiyi’s Pairing of the Two Approaches

Among the best sources for the study of the state of meditation theory and practice in medieval China, especially as it was conceptualized during the sixth century, are the voluminous writings of Zhiyi, the famous “founder” of the Tiantai tradition and one of the most influential monks in the history of Chinese Buddhism.19 Born in Hubei (in 538), Zhiyi entered monastic life while still in his teens. His early and primary teacher was Huisi,20 a noted meditation master and an authority on the Lotus Scripture. Zhiyi’s swift rise to fame was accompanied by imperial patronage and public approbation. His decision to retreat to Tiantai mountain (in 575) also indicates a predilection for a quiet contemplative lifestyle. In addition to his renown as a meditation master, Zhiyi’s lofty historical standing within East Asian Buddhism is also shaped by his seminal contributions in the area of scriptural exegesis and his creation of the Tiantai system of Buddhist philosophy. He was even involved in the codification of monastic life and discipline.21 While only a part of his remarkable oeuvre, Zhiyi’s writings on meditation are voluminous and cover lots of interesting territory. His most comprehensive work on the subject is the seminal Mohe zhiguan 摩訶止觀 (Great calmness and insight),22 compiled in 594 by Guanding 灌頂 (561–632), his best-known disciple,23 on the basis of a lecture series. Among the many topics covered in the text are the “four types of samādhi,” which are often featured in general and scholarly discussions of Tiantai meditation. Pertinent sections of the text contain a wealth of instructions and concrete techniques for the rigor- ous practice of meditation, especially in retreat settings. The assorted methods advocated by Zhiyi are divided into four general categories, on the basis of the primary physical postures adopted by the practitioners during predetermined periods of intensive practice: constantly sitting samādhi (chang zuo sanmei 常坐三昧), constantly moving samādhi (chang xing sanmei 常行三昧), half-moving and half-sitting samādhi (ban xing ban zuo sanmei 半行半坐三昧), and neither-moving nor sitting samādhi (fei xing fei zuo sanmei 非行非坐三昧).24

19 Major primary sources about Zhiyi’s life and monastic career include his biographical entry in Xu gaoseng zhuan 續高僧傳 17, T 2060: 50.564a18–68a14. 20 For an early record of Huisi’s life and thought, see his biographical entry in Xu gaoseng zhuan 17, T 2060: 50.562c6–64a17. 21 See Mario Poceski, “The Creation of Monastic Codes and the Gradual Transformation of Medi- eval Chinese Buddhist Monasticism,” in Rules of Engagement: Medieval Traditions of Buddhist Monastic Regulations, ed. Susan Andrews, Jinhua Chen, and Cuilan Liu (Bochum: Projektverlag, 2017), 170–176. 22 T 1911, vol. 46. For an English translation of the whole text, see Paul Swanson, Clear Serenity, Quiet Insight: T’ien-t’ai Chih-i’s Mo-ho Chih-kuan (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2018; 3 vols.). There is also another translation of the first chapter, in Neal Arvid Donner and Daniel B. Stevenson,The Great Calming and Contemplation: A Study and Annotated Translation of the First Chapter of Chih-I’s Mo-Ho Chih-Kuan (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1993). 23 For Guanding’s role in the creation of Tiantai orthodoxy, see Linda Penkower, “In the Beginning . . . Guanding (561–632) and the Creation of Early Tiantai,” Journal of the International Association for Buddhist Studies 23, no. 2 (2000): 245–296. 24 For a discussion of the four types of samādhi, see Daniel B. Stevenson, “The Four Kinds of Samādhi in Early T’ien-t’ai Buddhism,” in Traditions of Meditation in Chinese Buddhism, ed. Peter N. Gregory (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1986), 45–97. DISAPPEARING ACT: CALMNESS AND INSIGHT IN CHINESE BUDDHISM 9

Zhiyi’s other treatises on the topic of meditation are: Xiao zhiguan 小止觀 (Abridged calmness and insight), a practical meditation manual also known as Xiuxi zhiguan zuochan fayao 修習止觀坐禪法要 (Essentials of the practice of calmness-insight and sitting meditation);25 Shi chan boluomi cidi famen 釋禪波羅蜜次第法門 (Explanation of the gradual teaching of the perfection of meditation), his earliest work on meditation;26 and Liu miao famen 六妙法門 (Six sublime teachings), which among other things discusses the mindfulness of breathing technique.27 While in his earliest work, Shi chan boluomi cidi famen, Zhiyi discusses various forms of meditation practice under the general rubric of Chan 禪—here used in the classical meaning of meditation or dhyāna—in his more mature and best-known texts the discussion is framed in terms of the two basic categories of calmness and insight, as indicated by the two major titles that feature both terms. Such a move in Zhiyi’s writings, from Chan to calmness-insight, is not a mere semantic shift or a minor change in basic nomenclature. Rather, it can be interpreted as representing an evolution in Zhiyi’s thinking about meditation. While the earlier term points to a narrower conception of meditation as a progressive (or gradual) method of spiritual cultivation, the alternative compound stands for a “perfect and sudden” approach, which conveys a broader understanding of contemplative practice.28 Overall, the two categories of calmness and insight are widely deployed in Zhiyi’s major writings. As such, they are key to understanding the manner in which meditation was conceptualized and taught by Zhiyi, as well as more broadly within medieval Chinese Buddhism as a whole. Among the hallmarks of Zhiyi’s approach to Buddhism is his tight integration of theory and practice. Accordingly, his ideas about meditation practice cannot be separated from his philosophical outlook and doctrinal commitments, as well as his predilection for imaginative thinking and creative exegesis. Traditionally, there is a tendency to closely identify the Tiantai system with the Lotus Scripture (Miaofa lianhua jing 妙法蓮華經). However, it is well-known that Zhiyi also made ingenious use of assorted doctrinal tem- plates associated with other texts in the Buddhist canon, as well as with the major streams of Buddhist philosophy. An especially important element in the development of his philosophical system was the Madhyamaka or Middle Way (zhongdao 中道) doctrine, although (to a lesser extent) he also made use of the Buddha nature (foxing 佛性) theory, which was growing in popularity in sixth-century China. Zhiyi’s writings contain detailed discussions of a wide range of contemplative practices, which reflects his sweeping embrace of the core Mahāyāna notion of expedient means (S: upāya; C: fangbian 方便). Presenting even a summary of his ideas about meditation is beyond the scope of this article. For the present purpose, I will only focus on his general approach to calmness and insight. Fundamentally, at the core of Zhiyi’s

25 T 1915, vol. 46; for English translations, see Dharmamitra, The Essentials of Buddhist Medi- tation, by Shramana Zhiyi (Seattle: Kalavinka Press, 2008); Michael R. Saso, Zen Is for Everyone: The Xiao Zhi Guan Text by Zhi Yi (Carmel, CA: New Life Center, 2000); and Swanson, Clear Serenity, Quiet Insight, 1659–1759. 26 T 1916, vol. 46. 27 T 1917, vol. 46; for an English translation, see Dharmamitra, The Six Dharma Gates to the Sublime: A Classic Meditation Manual on Traditional Indian Buddhist Meditation (Seattle: Kalavinka Press, 2009). 28 Swanson, Clear Serenity, Quiet Insight, 45. 10 Mario Poceski systematic exposition of meditation practice, especially in his later writings, is the seamless combining of calmness and insight into an integrated whole. Instead of dealing with two separate approaches to meditation practice, we find an advocacy of a holistic mode of practice, calmness-insight (zhiguan 止觀), which incorporates two interrelated aspects. Here is a representative passage from Xiao zhiguan that articulates such a vision of a balanced cultivation of calmness-insight:

When it comes to the reality of Nirvana, there are many ways of entering into it. However, fundamentally they do not go beyond the two approaches of calmness and insight. That is the case because calmness is the initial approach for overcoming the bondage (of afflictions), and insight is the essential means for obliterating delusion. With calmness, we have a good resource for nourishing the mind. With insight, we have a sublime method for developing spiritual realization. Calmness is the superior cause of meditative absorption, and insight is the basic foundation of wisdom. If a person can perfect the two approaches of concentration and wisdom, he will be fully endowed with the capacity for benefiting oneself and benefiting others. Therefore, it is said in the Lotus Scripture. . . .

若夫泥洹之法、入乃多途。論其急要、不出止觀二法。所以然者、止乃伏結之初門、觀是斷惑之正要。止則愛養心識之善資。觀則策發神解之妙術。止是禪定之勝因、觀是智慧之由藉。若人成就定慧二法、斯乃自利利人，法皆具足。故法華經云 . . . .29

Instead of being two distinctive methods or techniques, here calmness and insight are depicted as working in conjunction and complementing each other. In effect, they become two parts of an inseparable pair. Parenthetically, this approach harkens back to the aforementioned tendency in early Buddhism to gloss over the sharp distinction between calmness and insight, and treat them as two aspects of an integrated path. Together, they are key ingredients of the bodhisattva path, which is characterized by an altruistic ethos that aims at benefiting all beings. That vision is at the center of the Tiantai formulation of a path of practice and realization, which can be conceptualized in several ways: as progressive or sudden, partial or perfect. However, in each formulation calmness and insight—or rather calmness-insight—are at the center of the spiritual quest, especially in the realm of contemplative life and practical application.

Two Wings of a Bird

In his explication of calmness-insight, Zhiyi further elaborates on the fundamental inseparability of the two basic elements (or approaches). Among the best-known metaphors he deploys for that purpose is that of the two wings of a bird. Just as a bird cannot fly with only one wing, cultivating only one of the two approaches is inadvisable and

29 Xiao zhiguan 小止觀, T 1915: 46.462b7–14. For alternative translations, see Dharmamitra, The Essentials of Buddhist Meditation, 7, and Swanson, Clear Serenity, Quiet Insight, 1660–1661. All citations from the Taishō canon are based on the digital CBETA version; the same goes for other editions of the canon, such as Xu zangjing 續藏經 (Dai Nihon zoku zōkyō 大日本續藏經). However, I have changed the punctuation of the CBETA versions. DISAPPEARING ACT: CALMNESS AND INSIGHT IN CHINESE BUDDHISM 11

counterproductive. The same goes for the alternative metaphor of two wheels of a cart. When the two approaches are perfected in seamless balance, the meditating adept can soar unobstructed, like a bird flying freely across the sky.

It needs to be known that the two approaches [of calmness and insight] are like the two wheels of a chart, or the two wings of a bird. If one’s practice is one-sided, then such a person will descend into falsehood. Therefore, it is said in a scripture. . . . If [the two approaches] are not [deployed] in a balanced manner, then one’s practice is not complete. How is it then possible to promptly reach the ultimate goal [of practice]?

當知此之二法、如車之雙輪、鳥之兩翼。若偏修習、即墮邪倒。故經云. . . . 若不均等、此則行乖圓備、何能疾登極果。30

Given Zhiyi’s advocacy of a balanced approach to meditation that harmoniously incorporates both calmness and insight, it is not surprising that he is critical of those who teach or practice one-sided methods that rely on only one of the two constituent elements of calmness-insight. Several examples of such critiques can be found in his Mohe zhiguan. For instance, in one passage he takes to task unnamed meditation masters (chanshi 禪師) who advocate such unbalanced approaches. After separately criticizing two types of masters, who either teach the exclusive practice of calmness or the exclusive practice of insight, he points out that both approaches are mistaken:

Each of these two types of [meditation] masters [tries to] enter into [the realm of awakening] by only following one method. Relying on their personal benefits, they instruct others [about the practice of meditation]. [Unfortunately,] their students are not able to perceive [the one- sidedness] of the meaning [they espouse].

兩師各從一門而入。以己益教他。學者則不見意。31

Similar criticisms of one-sided approaches to contemplative practice can be found in the writings of other medieval monks. For instance, in the treatise on meditation, included in his Xu gaoseng zhuan 續高僧傳 (Continued Biographies of Eminent Monks), Daoxuan 道宣 (596–667) presents a trenchant critique of misguided “masters of meditation” who solely focus on the cultivation of concentration. According to him, such an approach is ill-advised and counterproductive, since it fails to integrate philosophical reflection and cultivation of genuine insight. True meditation practice, according to him, should go together with serious doctrinal study (and ethical observance).32 It should also accord with canonical texts and teachings, which serve as prime sources of religious authority.

30 Xiao zhiguan, T 1915: 46.462b7–14. 31 Mohe zhiguan 摩訶止觀 5, T 1911: 46.59a20–21. See also Swanson, Clear Serenity, Quiet Insight, 866. 32 Xu gaoseng zhuan 20, T 2060: 50.597a21–29; Jinhua Chen, “An Alternative View of the Med- itation Tradition in China: Meditation in the Life and Works of Daoxuan (596–667),” T’oung Pao, 2d ser., 88, no. 4/5 (2002): 340–341. 12 Mario Poceski

Ultimately, “meditation and wisdom should accord with each other” (禪慧相遵),33 instead of being cultivated separately. Appropriately, Daoxuan identifies Zhiyi and Huisi as prime exemplars of such a balanced approach to contemplative practice.34 The seamless fusion of calmness and insight is perhaps most readily observable in Zhiyi’s discussion of an advanced mode of practice, which in Tiantai parlance is dubbed the “perfect and sudden” ( yuan dun 圓頓) practice.35 At that point, the sole object of meditation is nothing less than the true nature of reality. Since reality encompasses and infuses everything—within and outside of the mind—and pervades all realms of existence, there is nothing that cannot be deemed to be an object of meditation. Accordingly, the two interrelated aspects can each be equated with essential aspects of reality: calmness is linked with the quiescent nature of all phenomena, namely their emptiness, while their illumination is brought about by the perfection of insight.

The perfect and sudden [practice of calmness-insight] from the very beginning takes the true nature of reality as the object [of meditation]. Being identical with the middle [truth], within it there is nothing that is not true reality. When [the mind] connects with the realm of reality and the realm of reality is present within a single thought, then there is no single sight or smell that is not the Middle Way. The realm of self, the realm of Buddhas, and the realm of living creatures, they are all also like that. . . .36 There is only one unadulterated reality, and there is nothing outside of that reality. That the nature of all things is quiescent is called calmness. That [things] are quiescent and yet always illuminated is called insight.

圓頓者、初緣實相造境。即中無不真實。繫緣法界一念法界、一色一香、無非中道。己界及佛界眾生界亦然. . . . 純一實相、實相外更無別法。法性寂然名止。寂而常照名觀。37

In the second sentence of the above passage, the true nature of reality is equated with the “middle.” That is a reference to Zhiyi’s interpretation of all of reality in terms of three levels of truth, which is one of the best-known and most creative parts of his philosophical system. The three truths, which can be understood as three interrelated aspects of a single truth, are: the emptiness (kong 空) of all phenomena, their conventional reality ( jia 假), and the middle truth (zhong 中) that perceives phenomena as being both empty of self-nature and provisionally existing at the same time.38 We thus have a clear correlation between meditation practice and philosophical analysis of reality, with calmness-insight

33 Xu gaoseng zhuan 20, T 2060: 50.595c26. 34 Xu gaoseng zhuan 20, T 2060: 50.597b4–5; Chen, “An Alternative View of the Meditation Tradition in China,” 344. 35 See Sekiguchi Shindai 関口真大, Tendai shikan no kenkyū 天台止觀の研究 (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1969), 8–20. 36 Mohe zhiguan 1, T 1911.46.1 c23–25. 37 Mohe zhiguan 1, T 1911.46. 1c29–2a1; translation adapted from Mario Poceski, “Conceptions and Attitudes towards Contemplative Practice within the Early Traditions of Chan Buddhism,” Journal of Chinese Buddhist Studies 28 (2015): 79. See also the translation in Swanson, Clear Serenity, Quiet Insight, 99–100. 38 For a study of the three truths theory, see Paul Swanson, Foundations of T’ien-T’ai Philosophy: The Flowering of the Two-Truth Theory in Chinese Buddhism (Berkeley: Asian Humanities Press, 1989), 115–156. DISAPPEARING ACT: CALMNESS AND INSIGHT IN CHINESE BUDDHISM 13

corresponding to the middle truth, the highest and most complete among the three truths. In the same vein, the truth of emptiness corresponds to the practice of calmness, while the practice of insight corresponds to the truth of conventional reality. Ideally, meditation practice should be grounded in a recondite and comprehensive vision of the middle way, which seamlessly incorporates emptiness and provisional existence into a single truth, unified and all-embracing. From a Tiantai perspective, it is such a subtle and integral practice that tallies with the peerless vision of the Buddha.

Five Practices

Zhiyi’s writings are not the only ones where we find the amalgamation of calmness and insight into an integrated whole. A similar idea can also be found in the Awakening of Faith (Dasheng qi xin lun 大乘起信論), a treatise that exerted great influence on the development of Chinese Buddhism.39 The exact provenance of this text is somewhat of a mystery.40 Traditionally, it is presented as a Chinese translation of a work originally composed by Aśvaghoṣa 馬鳴, presumably in Sanskrit. However, modern scholarship suggests that it may be an apocryphal work composed in China, presumably some time during the sixth century. The text is best known for its innovative combination of the tathāgatagarbha (rulaizang 如來藏) and ālayavijñāna (alaiye shi 阿賴耶識) theories. Additionally, its analysis of the structure of mind and the nature of reality was instrumental in the promotion of the notion of Buddha nature as a doctrinal mainstay of Chinese Buddhism. In a section of the treatise that deals with practical application of the Buddhist teachings, the cultivation of the bodhisattva path is discussed in term of five practices (wu xing 五行): generosity (shi 施), observance of precepts (jie 戒), patience (ren 忍), energy and zeal ( jingjin 精進), and calmness-insight (zhiguan 止觀). This is obviously based on the classical list of six bodhisattva perfections, but with a notable twist—the six become five. To put it differently, mediation and wisdom are merged into a single category—or rather a single practice—which is identified as calmness-insight. In the passage below, the unknown author of the treatise explains the individual meanings of the two terms that form the compound, namely calmness and insight. Then he points out that the two must be cultivated in conjunction with each other.

As to what is called calmness, it means to put an end to all mundane characteristics,41 whereby one follows the śamatha method of meditation. As to what is called insight, it means to [be

39 T 1666, vol. 32; translated in Yoshito S. Hakeda, The Awakening of Faith (New York: Columbia University Press, 1967). 40 For the convoluted provenance of the treatise, see Ishii Kōsei 石井公成, “Daijō ki shin ron no yōgo to gohō no keikō: NGSM ni yoru hikaku bunseki 『大乗起信論』の用語と語法の傾向: NGSM による比較分析,” Indogaku Bukkyōgaku kenkyū 52, no. 1 (2003): 202–208; and Whalen Lai, “The Chan-ch’a ching: Religion and Magic in Medieval China,” in Chinese Buddhist Apocrypha, ed. Robert E. Buswell (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1990), 187–189. 41 The Chinese text here deploys a play of words. The Chinese character zhi 止 has the basic meaning of “stop” or “put an end to.” It is also used to translate calmness or śamatha, which sometimes is referred to as “cessation” or “stopping” meditation. 14 Mario Poceski

able to] distinguish the characteristics of causally produced [phenomena] in [the realm of] samsara, whereby one follows the vipaśyanā method of meditation. How should one follow [these two approaches]? By means of the two approaches, one should cultivate [awareness] gradually without separating the two from each other, thereby having both of them manifest together [in perfect accord].

所言止者、謂止一切境界相、隨順奢摩他觀義故。所言觀者、謂分別因緣生滅相、隨順毘鉢舍那觀義故。云何隨順。以此二義、漸漸修習不相捨離、雙現前故。42

Having thus asserted the inseparability of the two basic categories, the text goes on to further elaborate on the joint cultivation of calmness and insight.

Whether he is moving or standing, laying down or getting up, [the practitioner] should cultivate both calmness and insight together. Namely, although he is to reflect that in their essential nature all phenomena are not produced, he is also to reflect that the various combinations of causal factors that [give rise to] good and bad karma, as well as the painful and pleasant recompense that accompanies them, are neither lost nor obliterated. Even though he is able to reflect on the causal factors that are behind good and bad karmic recompense, at the same time he also contemplates that the [true] nature [of all phenomena] cannot be ascertained . . . .

若行若住、若臥若起、皆應止觀俱行。所謂雖念諸法自性不生、而復即念因緣和合善惡之業、苦樂等報、不失不壞。雖念因緣善惡業報、而亦即念性不可得。 . . .43

Because of that, the two approaches of calmness and insight complement each other, and cannot be separated from each other. If calmness and insight are not perfected together, then such a person cannot [truly] enter the path to [supreme] awakening.

以此義故、是止觀二門、共相助成、不相捨離。若止觀不具、則無能入菩提之道。44

As the text promotes unequivocally the joint cultivation of calmness and insight, it also cautions against the error of one-sided practice that only focuses on one of the two approaches. Overall, with its advocacy of a peculiar type of tathāgatagarbha theory, in doctrinal terms the Awakening of Faith is somewhat removed from Tiantai Buddhism, which can be seen as a creative Chinese elaboration of Madhyamaka thought. Nonetheless, in its discussion of contemplative practice, the treatise articulates ideas that are similar to those found in Zhiyi’s writings. That seems to point to the prevalence of this line of thinking about meditation praxis in medieval Chinese Buddhism, especially at the onset of the Tang era. That set the stage for the gradual emergence of different views on the subject, which are primarily linked to the emergence of Chan as a distinctive tradition within Chinese Buddhism.

42 Dasheng qi xin lun 大乘起信論 1, T 1666: 32.582a12–16. See also the alternative translation in Hakeda, The Awakening of Faith, 95. 43 T 1666: 32.583a3–7. 44 T 1666: 32.583a9–11. DISAPPEARING ACT: CALMNESS AND INSIGHT IN CHINESE BUDDHISM 15

Chan’s Conceptual and Soteriological Reconfigurations

The early historical origins of proto-Chan, which during the Tang era gradually evolved into a distinct tradition within Chinese Buddhism, can be traced back to some of the monastic communities with contemplative orientation that came to the fore during the sixth century. In that context, we already mentioned the congregations led by Huisi and Zhiyi, which eventually morphed into the Tiantai school. There were also other monastic groups known for their practice of meditation. Among the most influential ones in Northern China was the one led by Sengchou 僧稠 (480–560), one of the leading meditation masters at the time, who was a recipient of generous imperial patronage under the Northern Qi 北齊 dynasty (550–577).45 Additionally, there was the group led by the Indian monk Bodhidharma (Putidamo 菩提達摩, c. early sixth century) and his Chinese disciple Huike 慧可 (487–593?).46 Later Bodhidharma came to be retroactively recognized by the Chan school as a key patriarchal figure, even though his seminal role as a transmitter of Chan from India to China was essentially the stuff of legend. Bodhidharma may have been one among several potential candidates for the role of quintessential Chan ancestor. Nonetheless, the ubiquitous invocation of his historically obscure legacy, along with the evolution of his image into a centerpiece of the Chan school’s mythologized narrative about its early origins—which later on became a centerpiece of its ideology—points towards the nascent tradition’s loose roots in the contemplative milieus of sixth-century China. The study of early Chan moves to firmer historical ground as we focus our attention on some of the major figures and communities that came to the forefront within contemplative circles during the early decades of the Tang era. Especially important in that respect is the so-called East Mountain tradition (Dongshan famen 東山法門), primarily represented by Daoxin 道信 (580–651) and Hongren 弘忍 (601–674), who were retroactively recognized as the fourth and fifth Chan patriarchs in China, respectively.47

45 Among the main primary sources about Sengchou is his biographical entry in Xu gaoseng zhuan 16, T 2060: 50.553b25–555b24. Relevant secondary sources include Chen, “An Alternative View of the Meditation Tradition in China,” 346–349, and Jinhua Chen, Monks and Monarchs, Kinship and King- ship: Tanqian in Sui Buddhism and Politics (Kyoto: Scuola Italiana di Studi sull’Asia Orientale, 2002), 151–155. For his approach to meditation, see Michael Radich, “Reading the Writing on the Wall: ‘Seng- chou’s’ Cave at Xiaonanhai, Early Chinese Buddhist Meditation, and Unique Portions of Dharmakṣema’s Mahāparinirvāṇa-mahāsūtra,” Journal of the International Buddhist Association (2020, forthcoming). 46 For Daoxuan’s description of Bodhidharma’s life and approach to meditation, see Xu gaoseng zhuan 16, T 2060: 50.551b27–c26. That is immediately followed by the biographical entry for Huike, which is notably longer; T 2060: 50.551c27–552c24. For a survey of the academic literature on Bodhidharma and his legend, see John R. McRae, “The Hagiography of Bodhidharma: Reconstructing the Point of Origin of Chinese Chan Buddhism,” in India in the Chinese Imagination: Myth, Religion, and Thought, ed. John Kieschnick and Meir Shahar (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2014), 125–138, and John R. McRae, Seeing through Zen: Encounter, Genealogy, and Transformation in Chinese Chan Buddhism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 22–33. For a somewhat different take on the legend about Bodhidharma’s meditation in a cave, centered on an analysis of “wall contemplation” (biguan 壁觀), the famous phrase associated with Bodhidharma, see Paul Swanson, In Search of Clarity: Essays on Translation and Tiantai Buddhism (Tokyo: Chisokudo, 2018), 235–259. 47 For the East Mountain tradition, see McRae, Seeing through Zen, 33–40. 16 Mario Poceski

Even though both monks introduced new ideas and revamped techniques, for the most part their extant teachings about contemplative praxis accord with canonical models and styles of meditation popular in China at that time. The surviving records attributed to Daoxin and Hongren contain telling examples of explicit invocation of canonical authority, including the Laṇkāvatāra Scripture (Lengqie jing 楞伽經) and the Wenshu shuo jing 文殊說經 (Scripture Spoken by Mañjuśrī).48 They also offer reinterpretations of familiar meditation practices, such as the “one practice samādhi” (yixing sanmei 一行三昧).49 That samādhi is primarily based on the Wenshu shuo jing, although the same term also appears in other canonical texts, such as Da bao ji jing 大寶積經 (Great collection of precious scriptures),50 Da zhi du lun 大智度論 (Great treatise on the perfection of wisdom),51 and the Awakening of Faith.52 Regarding calmness and insight, the two terms appear in some early Chan texts, including those associated with the East Mountain tradition, but not very often. One such example is this passage from Lengqie shizi ji 楞伽師資記 (Record of the Teachers and Disciples of the Laṇkāvatāra), an early chronicle of the nascent Chan movement. This important text is presented from the perspective of the Northern School (Bei zong 北宗), the main successor of the East Mountain tradition. In it we find Daoxin using the two categories of calmness and insight to explain the meaning of chanshi 禪師, which in this context can mean both Chan master (i.e., a prominent monk associated with the nascent Chan school) as well as meditation master (in a general sense).

[Someone] asked, “Who [can be called] a meditation master?” Daoxin replied, “When someone is not bothered by [either] calmness or disturbance, that is a person who has mastered the practice of meditation. If one constantly abides in calmness, then the mind sinks into (dull) oblivion. If for a long time one abides in insight, then the mind becomes scattered and confused.

問、何者是禪師。信曰、不為靜亂所惱者、即是好禪用心人。常住於止、心則沈沒。久住於觀、心則散亂。53

Once again, here we encounter the basic notion of balancing the two aspects of calmness and insight. That is accompanied by an associated critique of one-sided attachment to either calmness or insight as a singular mode of practice. However, this passage is a rarity, as there is a notable paucity of references to calmness and insight in early Chan texts.

48 See Lengqie shizi ji 楞伽師資記, T 2837: 85.1286c22–26; Yanagida Seizan 柳田聖山, Shoki no zenshi I: Ryōga shijiki, Denhōbōki 初期の禅史I— 楞伽師資記，傳法寶紀 (Tokyo: Chikuma shobō, 1971), 186. 49 For more on this samādhi and its integration into early Chan teachings, see Bernard Faure, “The Concept of One-Practice Samādhi in Early Ch’an,” in Traditions of Meditation in Chinese Buddhism, ed. Peter N. Gregory (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1986), 99–128. For the Tiantai version of the same samādhi, see Mohe zhiguan 2, T 1911: 46.11a21–b20, and Stevenson, “The Four Kinds of Samādhi in Early T’ien-t’ai Buddhism,” 54–58. The same term also appears in the Platform Scripture of the Sixth Patriarch; see T 2008: 48.352c25–353a1. 50 Da bao ji jing 大寶積經 116, T 310: 11.655b20–c28. 51 Da zhi du lun 大智度論 47, T 1509: 25.398b4–7. 52 T 1666: 32.582b1–3. 53 Lengqie shizi ji 楞伽師資記, T 2837: 85.1287b13–16. DISAPPEARING ACT: CALMNESS AND INSIGHT IN CHINESE BUDDHISM 17

What are the possible reasons for that? Providing an exhaustive answer to this question is beyond the scope of this article, as it will involve compressive analysis of a large body of Chan literature. However, I would like to propose a major reason for this change: an emerging consciousness of Chan as a distinctive tradition. That led to multifaceted endeavors to fashion a unique identity for Chan, as separate from and superior to the rest of Buddhism. That process included the construction of Chan lineages and genealogies, along with the promotion of an ideologically inflected self-definition based on the notion of sudden awakening (dun wu 頓悟). These were accompanied by a tendency to move away from the soteriological models and contemplative vocabulary associated with the Tiantai tradition. In that sense, it is possible to ascertain a gradual emergence of critical attitudes towards Tiantai teachings and practices, which became even more pronounced during the Song era. Consequently, since the term zhiguan was primarily associated with the Tiantai School, it was perhaps deemed necessary to use new terms to address meditative practices. This trend is clearly observable when we examine the appearance of the compound “calmness-insight” in major Chan chronicles such as Jingde chuandeng lu 景德傳燈錄 (Record of the Transmission of the Lamp from the Jingde Era). In this huge text, which comprises thirty fascicles, the compound appears only seventeen times. Furthermore, several among those references are to a monk called Zhiguan 止觀, an obscure disciple of Xiangyan Zhixian 香嚴智閑 (d. 898), not the practice itself.54 Most importantly, in most instances the compound is clearly linked with the Tiantai tradition. For instance, the biographical entry of Yongjia Zhenjue 永嘉真覺 (665–713; a.k.a. Yongjia Xuanjue 永嘉玄覺) states that after his ordination as a young man he learned the Tiantai practice of calmness-insight, after which he moved on to Chan practice.55 Similarly, in the biographical entry of Xingshan Weikuan 興善惟寬 (755–817) we are told that after becoming a monk he dedicated himself to Vinaya training and the practice of calmness-insight, prior to becoming a disciple of Mazu Daoyi 馬祖道一 (709–788), the famous leader of the Hongzhou School 洪州宗 of Chan.56 A growing sense of distance between Chan and the practice of calmness-insight is also communicated in a passage from the biographical entry of Dazhu Huihai 大珠慧海 (fl. eighth c.), another prominent disciple of Mazu. There we find a dialogue between him and a “teacher of calmness-insight” named Hui 慧, which is meant to highlight the distinctiveness and superiority of the Chan approach vis-à-vis doctrinally-based traditions such as Tiantai.57 A similar trend is observable in Zanning’s 贊寧 (919–1001) Song gaoseng zhuan 宋高僧傳 (Song-Era Biographies of Eminent monks), whose broad coverage of monastic hagiographies differs from the quasi-sectarian format found in Chan chronicles. There the terms appears only a few times in the section that contains the biographical entries of “practitioners of meditation” (xichan 習禪). That is the largest of the ten categories

54 Jingde chuandeng lu 景德傳燈錄 12, T 2076: 51.296b18–19. 55 Jingde chuandeng lu 5, T 2076: 51.241a27–28. 56 Jingde chuandeng lu 7, T 2076: 51.255a13–14. For more about Weikuan and a translation of his stele inscription, composed by the famous poet Bo Juyi 白居易 (772–846), see Mario Poceski, “Bo Juyi’s Memorial Inscription for Chan Teacher Weikuan,” Journal of Chinese Buddhist Studies 31 (2018): 39–74. 57 Jingde chuandeng lu 28, T 2076: 51.442a12–23. 18 Mario Poceski of monks featured in the text, covering six out of a total of thirty fascicles. The majority of the monks included in that section are associated with the Chan school, which reflects Chan’s solidifying position as the main representative of Buddhist orthodoxy during the early Song era. In contrast, the term calmness-insight appears much more in the section on exegetes (yijie 義解), especially in the biographical entries of prominent Tiantai masters such as Zhanran 湛然 (711–782).58 An example of a noteworthy exception to this trend is Yongming Yanshou’s 永明延壽 (904–975) Zong jing lu 宗鏡錄 (Record of Reflections of the Essential Truth), where the compound and the two individual terms appear many times.59

Changing Nomenclature and New Outlook

The move away from the basic typology of calmness and insight in early Chan discussions of contemplative praxis is notable and revealing. To a degree, it reflects a growing sense of Chan as a distinct tradition, with an evolving lexicon and a unique take on Buddhist soteriology. Nonetheless, this change in nomenclature is not as sweeping or radical as it may seem at first sight. Undoubtedly, there is a gradual shift in terminology and perspective. Nonetheless, in a number of sources, especially from the first half of the Tang era, the evolving Chan discourse regarding meditation tends to capture some of the same meaning and sense of complementarity expressed by the pairing of calmness and insight. Namely, a more-or-less equivalent idea is expressed by recourse to other canonical terms, especially the alternative categories of meditation/concentration (or samādhi, ding 定) and wisdom (hui 慧). A tendency to deploy the meditation-wisdom dichotomy is observable in the discussion of contemplative practice presented in the Platform Scripture of the Sixth Patriarch (Liuzu tanjing 六祖壇經), an influential text with convoluted provenance that claims to present the life story and teachings of Huineng 慧能 (638–713), the famous “sixth patriarch.” In this and other Tang texts, including the writings of Guifeng Zongmi 圭峰宗密 (780–841), there is a tendency to deploy established terms and categories with a strong canonical pedigree, but also to reinterpret them in ways that reflect Chinese doctrinal reconfigurations and soteriological predilections. For instance, there is the amalgamation of wisdom and concentration, and then the collapsing of the two into a single overarching category: Chan.60 Here is an excerpt from a sermon attributed to Huineng that deals with meditation practice:

In my teaching, concentration and wisdom are fundamental. Congregation, do not be confused, saying that concentration and wisdom differ [from each other]. Concentration and wisdom

58 Song gaoseng zhuan 宋高僧傳 6, T 2061: 50.739b10–740a16. 59 T 2016, vol. 48. In this large text the term calmness-insight appears seventy-nine times (per my count). It is debatable if this can narrowly be considered to be a “Chan text.” 60 Robert E. Buswell, “The ‘Short-cut’ Approach of K’an-hua Meditation: The Evolution of Practical Subitism in Chinese Ch’an Buddhism,” in Sudden and Gradual: Approaches to Enlightenment in Chinese Buddhism, ed. Peter N. Gregory (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1987), 329. DISAPPEARING ACT: CALMNESS AND INSIGHT IN CHINESE BUDDHISM 19

are of the same essence, they are not two [separate elements]. Concentration is the essence of wisdom, and wisdom is the [dynamic] function of concentration. When there is wisdom, there is concentration within that wisdom. When there is concentration, there is wisdom within that concentration. If this meaning is understood, then wisdom and concentration are [always] practiced together in equal measure. Students of the [Buddhist] path should not say that there is concentration first that then gives rise to wisdom, or that there is wisdom first that then gives rise to concentration, the two being different from each other. If there is a [wrong] view of this kind, then the teaching harbors duality.

我此法門、以定慧為本。大眾勿迷、言定慧別。定慧一體、不是二。定是慧體、慧是定用。即慧之時定在慧、即定之時慧在定。若識此義、即是定慧等學。諸學道人、莫言先定發慧、先慧發定、各別。作此見者、法有二相。61

The basic idea that meditation practice should always incorporate contemplative discernment that leads to intuitive insight into reality is at the core of major strands of Chan discourse during the Tang era, including those articulated by the Niutou School 牛頭宗, the Hongzhou School 洪州宗, and the Caodong School 曹洞宗. However, unlike the Tiantai system, which allows for the application of a multitude of contemplative techniques and approaches—some of which incorporate tightly structured ritual procedures—in Tang Chan there is a tendency to downplay the formal practice of meditation, especially of the straightforward calmness type. This tendency is already observable in the Platform Scripture of the Sixth Patriarch and the records of Heze Shenhui 荷澤神會 (684–758). Shenhui went even as far as rejecting the very idea of “sitting meditation” (zuo chan 坐禪), or formal meditation training in general.62 That ties up with two major trends observable in key Chan milieus, especially during the second half of the Tang era: (1) critique of attachment to specific techniques, or of one-dimensional reliance on expedient means, and (2) assertion that contemplative discernment can be cultivated at all times and places, namely within the context of everyday life. Among the most striking features of the records of prominent Chan masters from this period is the paucity of explicit instructions about the formal practice of meditation. Not only do we not find meditation manuals composed by prominent Chan masters, but we also come across ostensibly unyielding criticisms of attachment to fixed forms of practice or fetishization of specific techniques. For example, there is this passage from the records of Huangbo Xiyun 黃檗希運 (d. 850?), in which he rails against simple-minded approaches to faith and practice, especially those that involve routine reliance on predetermined methods of spiritual cultivation, including meditation:

There is no single truth to be attained, nor is there a single practice to cultivate. That is the supreme path; that is the [true] Buddha of suchness. Practitioners of the [Buddhist] path should

61 Liuzu dashi fabao tan jing 六祖大師法寶壇經, T 2008: 48.352c13–18. For an alternative translation, see Philip B. Yampolsky, The Platform Sūtra of the Sixth Patriarch (New York: Columbia University Press, 1967), 135. 62 Mario Poceski, “Conceptions and Attitudes towards Contemplative Practice within the Early Traditions of Chan Buddhism,” Journal of Chinese Buddhist Studies 28 (2015): 93–94. 20 Mario Poceski

only be concerned about a single thought of existence, which separates them from the path. When in each instance of thought there is no form, when in each instance of thought there is no activity, that is the [true] Buddha. If practitioners of the [Buddhist] path wish to reach [the ultimate stage of] Buddhahood, they need not study any of the Buddhist teachings. They only need to study non-seeking and non-attachment. With non-seeking, the [discriminating] mind is not created. With non-attachment, the mind does not cease. When there is neither creation nor cessation, that is the [real] Buddha. The eighty-four thousand teachings [explained in the Buddhist canon] exist [only] because there are eighty-four thousand defilements [that befall human beings]. They are nothing but [expedient] approaches for enlightening and guiding [the multitude of beings]. Originally there is not a single teaching (or truth); when one lets go [of all fixations,] that is the [true] teaching. The one who knows how to [completely] let go is [no other than] the Buddha.

無一法可得、無一行可修。此是無上道、此是真如佛。學道人、秖怕一念有、即與道隔矣。念念無相、念念無為、即是佛。學道人、若欲得成佛、一切佛法總不用學。唯學無求無著。無求即心不生。無著即心不滅。不生不滅、即是佛。八萬四千法門、對八萬四千煩惱。秖是教化接引門。本無一切法、離即是法。知離者是佛。63

This rarefied—but perhaps also somewhat impractical—approach to Chan practice is evident in the records of a number of prominent monks from that period. Instead of offering pragmatic instructions about familiar things such as physical posture, ritual procedure, and mental technique, there is a tendency to promulgate subtle forms of contemplative discernment that supposedly lead to the realization of increasingly deeper levels of detachment and transcendence. Pertinent examples include Mazu’s teaching about the ordinary mind (pingchang xin 平常心),64 Baizhang Huaihai’s 百丈懷海 (749–814) Madhyamika-inspired formulation of the three propositions (san ju 三句),65 and Dazhu’s ideas about cultivating a mind that abides nowhere (wuzhu xin 無住心).66 In these and other related cases, we are basically dealing with an apparent advocacy of unstructured or formless modes of practice. These purportedly reflect the essential character of reality, which cannot be predicated in terms of dualistic opposites, without any overt reliance on specific techniques or fixed procedures. Nonetheless, it is helpful to remember that this type of abstruse vision of spiritual cultivation was articulated in the context of religious communities where observance of all sort of monastic rules, routines, and procedures was taken for granted. In that sense, such teachings were presumably meant as advanced instructions about the proper approach to monastic life and contemplative practice, not as a wholesale repudiation of all normative models of meditation.

63 Huangboshan Duanji chanshi chuanxin fayao 黃檗山斷際禪師傳心法要, T 2012A: 48.381a3– 10; the translation is adapted in part from Poceski, “Conceptions and Attitudes towards Contemplative Practice within the Early Traditions of Chan Buddhism,” 103. 64 Mario Poceski, Ordinary Mind as the Way: The Hongzhou School and the Growth of Chan Buddhism (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 182–186. 65 Mario Poceski, “Monastic Innovator, Iconoclast, and Teacher of Doctrine: The Varied Images of Chan Master Baizhang,” in Zen Masters, ed. Steven Heine and Dale Wright (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 23–25; Poceski, Ordinary Mind as the Way, 207–212. 66 Poceski, Ordinary Mind as the Way, 159–160. DISAPPEARING ACT: CALMNESS AND INSIGHT IN CHINESE BUDDHISM 21

Codification of Meditation During the Song Era

One of the main developments during the Song era was the solidification of the Chan school’s preeminent status as the main tradition of elite Chinese Buddhism. By and large, that was a continuation of developmental trajectories already set in motion during the Five Dynasties (Wudai 五代) period (907–960).67 That was accompanied by renewed efforts to highlight the uniqueness and superiority of Chan vis-à-vis the rest of Buddhism. Such a tendency towards the promotion of quasi-sectarian identity is exemplified by the famous motto that depicts Chan as a “separate transmission apart from the (canonical) teachings, which does not depend on words and letters” (教外別傳, 不立文字).68 The drawing of distinctions between Chan and the rest of Buddhism is reflected in new developments that cover several interrelated spheres. Especially important developments are: (1) the formation of new Chan genres, primarily represented by the gong’an 公案 (J: kōan; lit. “public case”) collections and the records of sayings (yulu 語錄);69 (2) the codification of monastic codes for establishments designated as Chan monasteries, the so-called pure rules (qinggui 清規);70 (3) the formulation of distinctive Chan techniques of meditation, primarily represented by the “observing the critical phrase” (kan huatou 看話頭) technique. Among them, the last one is most relevant to the present topic. The codification of distinct techniques of meditation was the culmination of a protracted process, centered on seeking a unique form of practice that is solely associated with the Chan tradition. Discussions of Song Buddhism typically identify two main meditation techniques that became dominant within Chan circles. First, there is the aforementioned technique of observing the critical phrase, often referred to as the practice of kanhua Chan 看話禪 (K: Kanhwa Sŏn; J: Kanna Zen). The main figure associated with its development is Dahui Zonggao 大慧宗杲 (1089–1163), a member of the dominant Linji school 臨濟宗 and arguably the most influential Chan master of the Song era.71 Additionally, there is the competing approach of silent illumination (mozhao 默照), primarily represented by Hongzhi Zhengjue 宏智正覺 (1091–1157) and his disciples, who are connected with the Caodong school 曹洞宗. In the Song context, there was a sense of asymmetrical competition between proponents of the two approaches, especially evident in Dahui’s aggressive and one-sided advocacy of his method, often accompanied by harsh critiques of the silent illumination approach. In the long run, kanhua Chan proved to be much more influential, not only in China, but also in Korea and Japan.

67 Benjamin Brose, Patrons and Patriarchs: Regional Rulers and Chan Monks during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2015). 68 These are the first two lines of an oft-cited four-line verse, which first appears in Chan literature during the Song era. It is among the most-often quoted Chan adages. 69 See Poceski, “Conceptions and Attitudes towards Contemplative Practice within the Early Traditions of Chan Buddhism,” 111–126. 70 See Yifa, The Origins of Buddhist Monastic Codes in China: An Annotated Translation and Study of the Chanyuan Qinggui (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2002), and Poceski, “The Creation of Monastic Codes and the Gradual Transformation of Medieval Chinese Buddhist Monasticism,” 176–190. 71 For more on Dahui, see Morten Schlütter, How Zen Became Zen: The Dispute over Enlightenment and the Formation of Chan Buddhism in Song-Dynasty China (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2008), 104–121. 22 Mario Poceski

At its core, the kanhua method involves intense concentration on a crucial word or statement, the so-called critical phrase (or keyword). That word is typically set within a pithy exchange featuring a well-known Chan master and disciple(s), namely a gong’an, which is said to point to the enlightened mind of the master in question. In that sense, kanhua practice is closely tied up with popular Chan literature, especially gong’an collections such as Biyan lu 碧巖錄 (Blue Cliff Record) and Wumen guan 無門關 (Wumen’s Passage). These in turn reflect the emergence of the encounter dialogue (jiyuan wenda 機緣問答; J: kien mondō)—short exchanges that feature masters’ often paradoxical statements or unconventional interactions with their disciples—as a primary model of classical Chan discourse. This key development, initially set in motion during the tenth century, had many ramifications for the subsequent development of Chan literature, ideology, and praxis. Arguably the best-known example of a gong’an used in kanhua meditation, greatly promoted by Dahui, is Zhaozhou Congshen’s 趙州從諗 (778–897) “a dog has no Buddha nature.” Here is the version that appears at the beginning of Wumen guan (as case 1):

A monk asked Reverend Zhaozhou, “Does a dog have Buddha nature?” Zhaozhou replied, “No.”

趙州和尚、因僧問、狗子還有佛性也無。州云、無。72

In this case, the critical phrase (huatou) is the word “no” (or “doesn’t have,” wu 無), which functions as the primary object of meditation. In theory, initially the practice is supposed to involve reflection on thegong’an as a whole. However, at its core, the kanhua technique is essentially concentration on the single word “no” (or a similar critical phrase culled from another gong’an). That kind of intense concentration is to be sustained in the course of extended periods of sitting meditation, as well as other activities throughout the day (and even at night). Here is a brief excerpt from one of Dahui’s sermons, in which he explains how to meditate on the famous “no” huatou:

Whether moving, standing, sitting, or reclining, you must never stop [concentrating on the huatou]. When deluded thoughts arise [in your mind], you should also not attempt to suppress them with your mind. You should solely focus on this [“no”] huatou. When engaged in sitting meditation, if you feel lethargic and muddle-headed, you should gather your spirits and focus on the huatou.

行住坐臥、不得間斷。妄念起時、亦不得將心遏捺。但只舉此話頭。要靜坐纔覺昏沉、便抖擻精神、舉此話。73

An important element in kanhua practice is the cultivation of doubt (yi 疑), which is meant to sustain and reinforce the requisite concentration on the huatou. According to Dahui and later Chan masters such as Gaofeng Yuanmiao 高峰原妙 (1238–1295), generation of an intense sense of doubt centered on the huatou is a key ingredient of meditation practice,

72 T 2005: 48.292c23–24. 73 Dahui Pujue chanshi pushuo 大慧普覺禪師普說 (Popular Sermons of Chan Master Dahui Pujue) 4, M (卍正藏) 1540: 59.962a10–12. Translation loosely adapted from Schlütter, How Zen Became Zen, 107–108. DISAPPEARING ACT: CALMNESS AND INSIGHT IN CHINESE BUDDHISM 23

meant to facilitate putting an end to all conceptualization and thinking.74 In Gaofeng Yuanmiao chanshi chanyao 高峰原妙禪師禪要 (Chan Master Gaofeng Yuanmiao’s Chan Essentials), great doubt (da yi 大疑) is presented as one of the three essentials (san yao 三要) of Chan training, along with great faith (da xin 大信) and great anger (da fen 大憤).75 What is apparently missing from the technique are any of the basic elements of effective contemplative discernments associated with the cultivation of insight. In fact, active contemplative analysis, reflection, reasoning, verbalization, pondering, and the like are actively discouraged.76 Instead, all physical and mental efforts must be directed towards unwavering concentration on the huatou, which at some point is supposed to lead to the experience of spiritual awakening. If that is the case, is the technique an example of one-sided application of calmness meditation, along the lines of the aforementioned approaches criticized by Zhiyi (even though Dahui was critical of practice that aims at serenity)? Or is there perhaps an element of insight integrated into the practice, besides the (contestable) proposition that intense application of the technique eventually leads to spiritual breakthrough and enlightenment?

Vanished Paradigm

The development of the kanhua method denotes the emergence of a unique Chan technique of meditation. Its widespread adoption during the Song era represents a significant shift in Chinese Buddhism, marked by an exclusive focus on a single technique, at the exclusion of all other meditation methods or approaches to spiritual cultivation. It was not only that Dahui and his followers singularly promoted their style of meditation as the only practicable or orthodox option, but in their formulation the whole spectrum of Chan practice was basically reducible to a single contemplative technique. Moreover, such an exclusivist stance was accompanied by sharp criticism of other approaches, with the sharpest and most virulent attacks directed towards advocates of the silent illumination method, associated with the competing Caodong tradition.77 The confluence of attitudes, viewpoints, and circumstances that shaped this turn of events was complex (and beyond the scope of this article). There were presumably some genuine disagreements about the character and structure of Chan practice. Dahui’s personal ambitions and agendas—especially concerns about bolstering his status as a leading Chan master—were also probable factors, as was ongoing competition for attracting disciples and securing literati patronage (which Dahui did with great success). The radically reductionist approach of kanhua Chan represents a notable departure from the inclusivity and heterogeneity of previous approaches, represented by Tiantai and most earlier conceptions of Chan practice. It also signifies a notable shift away from

74 For the role of doubt in Chan practice, see Robert E. Buswell, “The Transformation of Doubt (Yiqing) into a Positive Emotion in Chinese Buddhist Meditation,” in Love and Emotions in Traditional Chinese Literature, ed. Halvor Eifring (Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2004), 225–236, and Buswell, “The ‘Short-cut’ Approach of K’an-hua Meditation,” 351–354. 75 Gaofeng Yuanmiao chanshi chanyao 高峰原妙禪師禪要 1, X 1401: 70.708b5–9. 76 See the quoted passage in Schlütter, How Zen Became Zen, 108. 77 For Dahui’s attacks on silent illumination, see Schlütter, How Zen Became Zen, 116–121. 24 Mario Poceski canonical formulations of the stages and practices that constitute the bodhisattva path. The same goes for the gradual perfection of wisdom articulated by the Middle Way tradition, or the subtle explorations of consciousness and cognitive restructuring discussed in Yogācāra texts, both of which influenced Chan doctrine and practice during the Tang era. All of that rich Buddhist heritage was to be replaced by resolute fixation on the huatou technique, promoted as a sudden (dun 頓) form of practice that supposedly leads to realization of one’s inherent enlightenment. The ascendancy of kanhua Chan indicates an important stage in the ongoing evolution of Chinese Buddhism, which involves all sorts of factors (religious, cultural, eco- nomic, political, etc.). On the surface, it marks shifts in religious sensibilities and quasi-sectarian realignments. It also reflects impulses towards Sinification centered around the formulation of new soteriological technologies and paradigms. However, when looking for the deeper foundations of these major developments, we must also pay attention to important changes in doctrinal outlook. Among them, arguably the most important factor was the Chinese embrace of a radical interpretation of the Buddha nature dogma, which postulates the immanence of Buddhahood in each person. By reifying the Buddha nature—which in earlier contexts was interpreted as a mere potential, or equated with emptiness—Chinese Buddhists came to believe in the presence of pure essence or orig- inal enlightenment (benjue 本覺) in the mind of each person, which constitutes his or her true nature. Within such a theoretical framework, the wisdom (and virtues) of the Buddha are not something that needs to be perfected via arduous processes that involve ethical observance, contemplative practice, and philosophical reflection. Rather, by turning the focus of awareness inward and perceiving the true nature ( jian xing 見性), the aspiring practitioner is supposedly able to realize the Buddha wisdom that already inheres within him or her. If that is the case, then huatou practice is a useful tool for uncovering the primordial source of nondual awareness that is already present within the deep recesses of the mind. Accordingly, apologists for this kind of narrow approach to Chan practice— centered around a one-dimensional meditation technique— can assert that here we are not dealing with a mere concentration practice, even though their model does not involve cultivation of contemplative discernment, of the kind that incorporates active investigation of the nature of mind and reality. Overall, kanhua Chan stands in contrast to the classical meditation models examined above. Reflecting important doctrinal realignments in Chinese Buddhism, it is integrated into a closed system, largely based on predetermined articles of faith and assumptions about human nature. But what happens with the whole system if its implicit dogmas or assumptions, especially the mapping of mind that underlines it, turn out to be problematic or untenable? What if, on a basic level, human beings are not, after all, inchoate buddhas? Can the practice then still be effective, and lead to its stated goal? After all, there is hardly any proof to support the wildly optimistic beliefs about the essential makeup of the mind and the nature of humanity that are at the core of the Buddha nature dogma, notwithstanding the existence of ostensibly subjective (and often self-serving) testimonies about enlightenment experiences and the like. To that we can add the ample evidence to the contrary, namely the human propensity for selfishness, stupidity, destructiveness, and violence, past and present. DISAPPEARING ACT: CALMNESS AND INSIGHT IN CHINESE BUDDHISM 25

Concluding Remarks

The two key categories of calmness and insight were at the center of medieval Chinese formulations of meditation. Among the main features of the influential Tiantai system- atization of contemplative praxis was the seamless pairing of the two approaches into an integrated but flexible model of practice, referred to as calmness-insight. The initial emergence of Chan as a major tradition created changes in views, attitudes, and vocabulary. Finally, during the Song era a new paradigm of Chan praxis, represented by the huatou technique, brought about the final eclipsing of the classical calmness-insight template, which pretty much disappeared from the practical instructions given at meditation halls and other sites of practice. Of course, the two terms remained parts of the cumulative Buddhist heritage, as transmitted via the Buddhist canon. They also continued to be associated with the Tiantai tradition, whose stature and influence palled when compared to those of Chan and Pure Land, despite occasional efforts at revival. Nonetheless, when it came to the realms of monastic instruction and practical application, for the most part, from the Song era onward the huatou technique reigned supreme. The situation was similar in Chan/Zen-centered milieus in Korea and Japan, although calmness-insight continued to be important within the context of the Tendai tradition of Japanese Buddhism. For instance, over the centuries the calmness and insight course (shikangō 止観業) continued to be one of the two major routes of study-practice—the other being esoteric Buddhism—that were integrated into the monastic curriculum at Mount Hiei, the main center of Tendai learning and practice. Interestingly, there is a minor trend of revival of interest in śamatha and vipaśyanā within contemporary Chinese Buddhism, largely occasioned by the exposure to Theravāda teachings.78 Even without being able to cover all possible angles and interpretative possibilities within the confines of a single article, this kind of survey of the evolution of major models of contemplative praxis sheds valuable light on the complex confluences of factors and agendas that shaped the general course of Chinese Buddhist history, for better or worse. In that sense, in addition to its intrinsic interest, the curious case of the Chinese disappearance of calmness-insight serves as another useful entry point for clarifying significant events and analyzing larger developmental trajectories that marked the historical evolution of Buddhist beliefs, teachings, and practices, in China as well as the rest of East Asia.

Acknowledgments

The article was researched and written in the summer of 2019, during my stay in Ger- many. I would like to express my gratitude to the International Consortium for Research in the Humanities at the University of Erlangen-Nürnberg, which awarded me a year-long

78 Ngar-Sze Lau, “Modernizing Buddhism: Emergence of Theravada Meditation Communities in Contemporary China” (PhD diss., Lancaster University, 2017), and Bill M. Mak, “Theravāda Teachings and Buddhist Meditation Training in Hong Kong,” International Journal for the Study of Humanistic Buddhism 3 (2012): 19–38. 26 Mario Poceski fellowship, with special thanks to its director, Michael Lackner. I am also thankful to Philip Clart for his excellent editorial work and his invitation to give a lecture at the University of Leipzig, which became a foundation for the article, and the two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments.

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Notes on the Contributor

Mario Poceski 伯理奥 is a professor of Buddhist studies and Chinese religions at the University of Florida. He received a PhD in East Asian Languages and Cultures (spe- cialization in Buddhist studies) from the University of California, Los Angeles (2000), and has spent extended periods as a visiting professor or fellow at Komazawa University 30 Mario Poceski

(Japan), Stanford University, National University of Singapore, University of Hamburg (Germany), Fudan University (China), and University of Erlangen-Nuremberg (Germany). He is a recipient of several prestigious fellowships, including Alexander von Humboldt and Fulbright-Hays. Prof. Poceski’s numerous publications include Communities of Mem- ory and Interpretation: Reimagining and Reinventing the Past in East Asian Buddhism (Hamburg 2018, ed.), The Records of Mazu and the Making of Classical Chan Literature (Oxford 2015), The Wiley Blackwell Companion to East and Inner Asian Buddhism (Blackwell 2014, ed.), Introducing Chinese Religions (Routledge 2009), and Ordinary Mind as the Way: The Hongzhou School and the Growth of Chan Buddhism (Oxford 2007). Correspondence to: Mario Poceski. Email: [email protected].