Disappearing Act: Calmness and Insight in Chinese Buddhism Mario Poceski Journal of Chinese Religions, Volume 48, Number 1, May 2020, pp. 1-30 (Article) Published by Johns Hopkins University Press For additional information about this article https://muse.jhu.edu/article/754046 [ This content has been declared free to read by the pubisher during the COVID-19 pandemic. ] DISAPPEARING ACT: CALMNESS AND INSIGHT IN CHINESE BUDDHISM MARIO POCESKI University of Florida Gainesville, Florida, USA The article explores major changes in the dominant models of meditation that came to characterize the practice of Chinese Buddhism during the first millennium of its growth and transformation. The main line of argument centers on key transformations of the classical model of Buddhist meditation, which postulates two main approaches to con- templative practice: calmness and insight. The main paradigm shifts examined in the article include the pairing of the two approaches in the writings of Zhiyi (538–597) and his Tiantai School, and the conceptual and soteriological reconfigurations that unfolded within the flourishing Chan movement during the Tang era. That is followed by an anal- ysis of the development of a completely new model of Chan meditation during the Song period, which marked the virtual disappearance of calmness and insight from the everyday vocabulary of Chinese Buddhism. KEYWORDS: Tiantai, Chan, Chinese Buddhism, meditation, calmness, insight, contem- plative practices INTRODUCTION In contemporary milieus, especially in the West, Buddhist practice is often associated with or reduced to the practice of meditation. Additionally, meditation tends to be equated with a specific contemplative technique, such as mindfulness, insight meditation, or kōan examination. From a traditional perspective, such facile equivalence is simplistic at best, or completely misleading at worst. Over the centuries, Buddhist traditions have developed arrays of soteriological paradigms that incorporate varied methods or modes of spiritual cultivation, which in turn are integrated into larger systems of belief and doctrine. Meditation tends to be an important part of such visions of the Buddhist path (S: mārga; C: dao 道), but it always coexists and functions in conjunction with other key elements of Buddhist theory and practice. In that sense, meditation needs to be considered in relation to other central components of Buddhism, including philosophical reflection on the nature Journal of Chinese Religions 48, no. 1, 1–30, May 2020 © 2020 Johns Hopkins University Press and the Society for the Study of Chinese Religions 2 MARIO POCESKI of mind and reality, observance of ethical norms, ideals of spiritual perfection, assorted beliefs about karma, realms of existence, and the afterlife, and much more. Notwithstanding the continuing influence of important canonical models and clas- sical paradigms, discrete meditation techniques are always situated or deployed within specific historical contexts. As such, they are shaped by complex sets of causal factors, such as heartfelt beliefs, philosophical outlooks, ideological agendas, and institutional strictures. Other important issues at play include entrenched cultural suppositions and the horizons of expectation of varied constituencies, within and outside of the Buddhist community. As we examine the standing and function of meditation within diverse for- mulations of the Buddhist path, past and present, we also need to keep in mind that none of the constituent elements are completely static or immutable. Judicious analysis of the assortment of extant sources connected with diverse traditions, along with critical obser- vation of the dynamic forces that shape modern strands of Buddhism, points towards all sorts of internal and external factors that shape changes in the basic makeup of soterio- logical models, as well as in the evolving interpretation and implementation of specific contemplative techniques. Some of these changes are minor and gradual, but others can be viewed as constituting major turns or even paradigm shifts in the history of Buddhist (or Buddhist-inspired) religiosity. In this article, I examine tentatively some of the major changes in the basic mod- els of meditation that unfolded in the course of the growth of Buddhism in premodern China. These developments also had significant ramifications for later forms of Chinese Buddhism, down to the contemporary period. The main line of argument is framed in terms of tracing some of the key Chinese transformations of the classical paradigm of Buddhist meditation, which postulates two main approaches to contemplative practice: calmness (S: śamatha; C: zhi 止) and insight (S: vipaśyanā; C: guan 觀). While the per- tinent storyline starts with the early introduction of Buddhism during the Eastern Han 東漢 dynasty (25–220 CE), the article’s main focus is on the Sui 隋 (581–618), Tang 唐 (618–907), and Northern Song 北宋 (960–1127) periods. The main episodes in this large story involve the pairing of the aforementioned two main approaches in the writings of Zhiyi 智顗 (538–597) and his Tiantai School 天台宗, the relevant conceptual and soteriological reconfigurations that unfolded within the bur- geoning Chan 禪 movement during the Tang era, and the development of a completely new model of Chan meditation during the Song period. The Chan model of the Song era marked the virtual disappearance of calmness and insight from the everyday vocabulary of Chinese Buddhism. Accordingly, on a basic level, this article represents an attempt to sketch the basic contours of this curious disappearing act. By extension, it also points towards major changes and realignments that, to this day, continue to shape the essential contours and character of much of Chinese (and more broadly East Asian) Buddhism. LOOSE DEFINITIONAL BOUNDARIES The Buddhist tradition(s) developed a rich vocabulary of technical terms that pertain to the discussion and analysis of various elements of meditative training and related facets of the Buddhist path of practice. The English term itself has no clear-cut analogues in DISAPPEARING ACT: CALMNESS AND INSIGHT IN CHINESE BUDDHISM 3 the vocabularies of the major canonical languages, although there are a variety of tech- nical terms, such as dhyāna (C: chan 禪) and samādhi (C: sanmei 三昧, ding 定), that (depending on context) can be translated as “meditation.” There is also no unanimous agreement about what is included under the broad rubric of “meditation,” which allows for a certain degree of interpretative elasticity and definitional tentativeness. Accordingly, it is possible to use both narrow and expanded meanings of meditation in the discussion of various programs or systems of religious praxis. Formal meditation practice, which involves the familiar cross-legged posture and the application of a specific contemplative technique such as mindfulness of breathing, is clearly included under the general rubric of meditation. However, in traditional parlance the broad rubric can also incorporate a variety of ritual activities or devotional practices that are meant to lead to mental purification and the cultivation of wholesome roots (S: kusala-mūla; C: shan’gen 善根). For instance, this expanded sense is communicated by the Pāli term bhāvanā (lit. cultivation, practice; C: xiu 修). Although commonly used to refer to meditation, bhāvanā can also point to a range of other practices, thus assuming the rough meaning of “spiritual cultivation.”1 Accordingly, we can discern several approaches or interpretative layers in Chinese discussions of meditation, as revealed in the writings of Zhiyi and other medieval monks. First, there is a general understanding of meditation as a structured mental exercise. Typi- cally, that involves a formal sitting posture and application of a specific technique, which can be directed towards quietening the mind or nurturing contemplative discernment. Additionally, there is a broader understanding of meditation that embraces an assortment of ritual formulas or other modes of spiritual cultivation. Finally, there are formless or structureless approaches to contemplative practice, whereas the adept aims to develop intuitive insight by directly confronting the immediacy of reality, without relying on fixed procedures or specific meditation techniques. In the works of Zhiyi and others, especially Chan masters from the Tang era, the last option is usually perceived to be ideal or superior. However, in practical terms, explicitly structured approaches to contemplative training are indispensable tools for the vast majority of practitioners, whose limited spiritual aptitude prevents them from engaging in advanced modes of formless practice. CLASSICAL MODELS As noted, the category of meditation is integrated into virtually all taxonomies of Bud- dhist practices or outlines of the path of practice and realization. For instance, it is included as the second component in the oft-cited classificatory scheme of three trainings (S: triśikṣā; C: sanxue 三學), which consists of ethical conduct (S: śīla; C: jie 戒), medi- tation (S: samādhi; C: ding 定), and wisdom (S: prajñā; C: hui 慧, bore 般若). Similarly, the last three elements of the noble eightfold path (S: āryāṣṭāṅga mārga; C: ba sheng dao 八聖道)—right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration—are traditionally 1 For some of the definitional issues in the study of Buddhist meditation, especially in its East Asian variations, see Alan Sponberg, “Meditation in Fa-hsiang Buddhism,” in Traditions of Meditation