Non-Wood Forest Products from Temperate Broad-Leaved Trees

Home , Birch beer, Birch syrup, Birch tar, Bletting, Carpinus japonica, Cercis siliquastrum

NON-WOODNO\ -WOOD FORESTFOREST PRODUCTSPRODUCTS

-)7 j`i C, 1515 --L23

Non-wood forestforest products from temperatetemperate broad-leaved treestrees

."3.4

kr,

, , NON-WOOD\ 0\ -WOOD FOREST FOREST PRODUCTSPRODUCTS 1515 Non-woodNon-wood forest productsproducts from temperatetemperate broad-leaved treestrees

by William M.M. CieslaCiesla

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITEDUNITED NATIONSNATIONS Rome, 20022002 ADDITIONAL DISCLAIMER

This paper discusses some traditional and contemporary uses of non-wood products from trees and shrubs inin medicine. ThisThis materialmaterial isis presentedpresented forfor informationinformation only only and and does not imply endorsement by the author or by FAO. Use of these products is not recommended unless taken under the care and guidance of a qualified physician. Transport of somesome non-woodnon-wood forestforest productsproducts (e.g.(e.g. foliage,foliage, seeds,seeds, landscapelandscape oror ornamental plants)plants) acrossacross internationalinternational boundariesboundaries posesposes aa risk of accidentalaccidental introducintroduc- tion of insects,insects, fungifungi oror otherother potentiallypotentially destructivedestructive agents.agents. ItIt isis recommendedrecommended thatthat anyone planningplanning toto movemove plantplant materialsmaterials acrossacross internationalinternational boundariesboundaries checkcheck withwith appropriate authoritiesauthorities inin thethe countrycountry fromfrom wherewhere thethe productsproducts areare toto bebe exported and the countries intointo whichwhich thethe productsproducts areare toto be imported for import permit requirements, phytosanitary certificates or restrictions that might apply. Movement of certain non-wood forest products across international boundaries may be subject toto tradetrade restrictionsrestrictions (both(both tarifftariff andand non-tariff).non-tariff). AppropriateAppropriate authoritiesauthorities should be contactedcontacted prior toto plannedplanned movementmovement ofof anyany non-woodnon-wood forestforest productsproducts across international boundaries. AA reviewreview ofof tradetrade restrictionsrestrictions affecting international tradetrade inin non-woodnon-wood forestforest productsproducts maymay bebe foundfound in:in: FAO 1995. TradeTrade restrictionsrestrictions affectingaffecting international international tradetrade inin non-woodnon-wood forest forest prod-prod ucts, by M. lqbal.Iqbal. Non-wood Forest Products, No.NO.8 8.. Rome.Rome.

The designationsdeSignations employedemployed andand thethe presentation ofof materialmaterial inin this information product do not implyimply thethe expressionexpression ofof anyany opinionopinion whatsoever on the part of thethe FoodFood andand AgricultureAgriculture OrganizationOrganization of the United Nations concerning the legallegal statusstatus ofof anyany country,country, territory,territory, city or area orofor of itsits authorities, authorities, oror concerning concerning thethe delimitationdelimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.boundaries.

ISBNISBN 92-5-104855-X92-5-104855-X

All rightsrights reserved.reserved. ReproductionReproduction and disseminationdissemination of materialmaterial inin thisthis information product forfor educational oror otherother non-commercialnon-commercial purposespurposes areare authorized without any prior written permission from the copyright holders provided the source is fully acknowledged. Reproduction of material in this information product forfor resaleresale oror otherother commercialcommercial purposespurposes isis prohibitedprohibited without written permission of the copyrightcopyright holders.holders. ApplicationsApplications forfor suchsuch permission should be addressedaddressed toto thethe Chief,Chief .Publishing Publishing ManagementManagement Service,Service. Information Division,Division, FAO,FAO , Viale delle Terme di Caracalla,Caracalla, 00100 RomeRome,. Italy or bye-mailby e-mail to [email protected]

0© FAO FAO 2002 2002 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees FOREWORD

Temperate broad-leaved treestrees are found inin aa widewide rangerange ofof ecologicalecological zones,zones, locatedlocated bothboth inin thethe northernnorthern and southern hemispheres. According to the FAO Forest Resources Assessment 20002000,, temperatetemperate forestsforests cover some 400 million ha overover aa largelarge beltbelt alongalong NorthNorth America,America, whichwhich thenthen stretchesstretches from Europe,Europe, across Central Asia,Asia, up to China and Japan.Japan. InIn the SouthernSouthern Hemisphere,Hemisphere, temperatetemperate forestsforests andand treestrees areare foundfound mainly in Chile,Chile, Argentina,Argentina, NewNew ZealandZealand andand southernsouthern Australia.Australia. TemperateTemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees andand forestsforests are also important components of many tropicaltropical and subtropical mountainmountain ecosystems.ecosystems.

Temperate broad-leaved treestrees andand forests provide aa vast array of products.products. Many species havehave beenbeen domesticated andand areare represented byby major fruit and treetree cropscrops worldwide,worldwide, such asas apples,apples, pears,pears, cherriescherries,, plums,plums, olives,olives, walnuts,walnuts, almonds and grapes,grapes, just to name a few.few. InIn additionaddition toto fibre,fibre, timbertimber andand fuelwoodfuelwood,, temperate broadleafbroad leaf forests offer a wide range of non-wood productsproducts,, whichwhich areare ofof greatgreat benefitbenefit to human society inin both developing and developed countries.countries. However,However, inin spite of this,this, foresters have so far devoted little attention to enhancing the many non-wood uses of temperatetemperate forests.forests.

The focus of this paperpaper lieslies onon broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees,trees, asas thethe rolerole ofof conifersconifers inin supplyingsupplying non-woodnon-wood forestforest products was reviewedreviewed in anan earlierearlier publicationpublication inin thethe Non-WoodNon-Wood ForestForest ProductsProducts SeriesSeries (No.12:(No.12: Non-Non wood forest products from conifers).conifers). The objective is toto provide aa global review ofof the non-wood uses of temperate broad-leaved treestrees and to discuss thethe manymany issuesissues involvedinvolved with theirtheir development,development, such asas problems associated with the managementmanagement ofof thethe resource,resource, oror withwith thethe harvesting,harvesting, processingprocessing andand tradetrade of the products.products. BothBoth contemporarycontemporary andand historicalhistorical oror traditionaltraditional uses uses areare discussed.discussed. WhereWhere possible,possible, datadata on levels of production and international trade are given. The intended audience of this publication ranges from interestinterest groups inin thethe forest,forest, agricultureagriculture and ruralrural development sectors to conservation agencies inin developed and developingdeveloping countries.countries.

It is hopedhoped thatthat thethe useuse ofof thisthis documentdocument willwill helphelp inin promotingpromoting thethe useuse ofof non-wood non-wood productsproducts fromfrom temperate broadleaf forestsforests as a valuablevaluable componentcomponent in thethe processprocess ofof economiceconomic developmentdevelopment andand poverty alleviation.alleviation.

Wulf Killmann Director Forest Products Division Forestry Department

III Non-wood forest productsproducts fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leaved broad-leaved treestrees

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This publication is basedbased onon aa draftdraft preparedprepared byby WilliamWilliam M.M. Ciesla,Ciesla, previouslypreviously withwith thethe UnitedUnited StatesStates Department of AgricultureAgriculture (USDA),(USDA), ForestForest ServiceService andand subsequentlysubsequently atat thethe ForestForest DepartmentDepartment ofof FAO, FAO, Rome. Many people provided valuable assistance and informationinformation for thethe compilationcompilation ofof thisthis paperpaper includingincluding Klaus Janz,Janz, SwedishSwedish BoardBoard ofof Forestry, Forestry ,Stockholm, Stockholm, Sweden;Sweden; VidarVidar JohnJohn Nordin,Nordin ,Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada;Canada; Victor Brunette,Brunette, lala FédérationFederation desdes ProducteursProducteurs dede BoisBois dudu Québec,Quebec ,Longueuil, Longueuil ,Québec, Quebec, Canada; Adriano JoseJose CarpapinhaCarpapinha Gino,Gino, FabricantesFabricantes dede CorticaCortica emem Pranchas,Pranchas, Azaruja,Azaruja ,Portugal; Portugal; Peder Gjerdrum, Norwegian ForestForest ResearchResearch Institute,Institute, Hogskoleveien,H0gskoleveien, Norway;Norway ;Leontios Leontios Leontiades,Leontiades, NicosiaNicosia,, Cyprus (Formerly ofof FAO and DirectorDirector ofof DepartmentDepartment of Forestry,Forestry, RepublicRepublic of Cyprus);Cyprus); Hernan Peredo,Peredo, UniversidadUniversidad Austral, Valdivia,Valdivia, Chile;Chile; DavideDavide Pettenella,Pettenella, DipartimentoDipartimento TerritorioTerritorio ee Sistemi Agro-forestali,Agro-forestali , Universidade Padova,Padova, Italy;Italy; Friedrich Schlegel,Schlegel, London,London, England ((FormerlyFormerly of FAO and Universidad AustralAustral,, Chile)Chile);; MM.P..P. ShivaShiva,, Centre for Minor Forest ProductsProducts,, Dehra DunDun,, India and P. Tiburzi, BibliotecaBiblioteca ApostolicaApostolica VaticanaVaticana didi Biblioteconomia,Biblioteconomia , VaticanVatican City.City.

The author also wishes to thankthank MarisMaris RabolliniRabollini of Rome,Rome , Italy for arranging a visit to thethe VaticanVatican Library in 1993 to gather information onon thethe use of oak galls for productionproduction of ink and to hishis wife,wife, Patricia MM.. CieslaCiesla,, whose extensive collection of cookbooks provided much of the information on how to prepareprepare thethe edibleedible productsproducts derivedderived fromfrom thisthis diversediverse groupgroup ofof trees.trees. Her equallyequally extensiveextensive collection of literatureliterature on thethe fibrefibre artsarts providedprovided muchmuch ofof thethe informationinformation onon naturalnatural dyesdyes andand thethe silkworm industry.industry.

This draftdraft waswas widelywidely circulatedcirculated withinwithin andand outsideoutside FAOFAO forfor peerpeer review,review, andand benefitedbenefited fromfrom thethe detailed comments of: John Coppen,Coppen, previously with the Natural Resources Institute,Institute, United Kingdom;Kingdom; Steve Wilson, International Flavours and Fragrances, HangzhouHangzhou,, ChinaChina;; DavidDavid PilzPilz,, PacificPacific NorthwestNorthwest Research StationStation,, USDA-FSUSDA-FS;; andand:: ElEI HadjiHadji Sene,Sene, ChristianChristian Hansen,Hansen, RobertRobert Scharpenberg,Scharpenberg, LauraLaura RussoRusso,, Christel Palmberg-Lerche,Palmberg-Lerche, JoachimJoachim LorbachLorbach andand ChristopherChristopher PrinsPrins fromfrom FAO.FAO .Formatting Formatting andand layout of thethe publication were carried out by Tina Etherington and Marco Perri. Updating and adding of some more information andand picturespictures,, asas well as thethe overalloverall guidanceguidance andand coordinationcoordination forfor theth e preparationpreparation,, editing and publicationpublication ofof thethe finalfinal documentdocument waswas providedprovided byby PaulPaul Vantomme,Vantomme, Non-WoodNon-Wood Forest Products Officer,Officer, FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome.

IV Non-wood foforestrest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees CONTENTS

FOREWORD ...... III ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... ivIV COCONTENTSNTENTS ...... V TABLESTABLES...... ixlX TEXTBOXESTEXTBOXES ...... ixlX ILLUSTRATIONSILLUSTRATIONS...... ixix ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ...... XXIIII

INTRODUCHONINTRODUCTION ...... 1 CHAPTER 1I ...... 3

AN OVERVIOVERVIEW EW OF TEMPERATE BROADLEAF FORESTSFORESTS ...... 3 THE TEMPERATEMPERATE TE ZZONEONE ...... 3 TEMPERATETEMPERA TE FORESTSFORESTS ...... 3 SCLSCLEROPHYLLOUSEROPHYLLOUS FORESTSFORESTS ...... 6 WARM TEMPERATE EVERGREEN FORESFORESTSTS...... 6 TTEMPERATEEMPERAT E DECIDUOUS FORESTS ...... 8 BOREAL FORESTSFORESTS ...... 9

CHAPTER 2 ...... 11

TEMPERATE BROAD-LEAVED TREES ININ HUMAHUMANN CUCULTURELTURE ...... I I FOLKLORE, MYTHOLOGYMYTHOLOGY ANANDD RELIRELIGIONGION ...... 11 SYMBOLSSyMBOLS...... 14 HISTORyHISTORY ...... 15 HISTORICALHISTORICAL ANECDOTESANECDOTES ...... 1155 HIHISTORICSTORIC TREES ANDAND F()RESTSFORESTS...... 1I 66

CHAPTER 3 ...... 19

WHOLE TREES ...... 1199 LANDSCAPE AND ORNAMENTALORNAMENTAL TREES...TREES ...... J9¡9 IIISTORICALHISTORICAL ASPECTS ...... 1199 BENEFITSBENEFITS...... 19 DESIRABLEDESIR ABLE CHARACTERISTICSCHARACT ERISTICS ...... 20 GeGeneticnetic variabilityvari abi lity ...... 20 FoFoliageli age colour ...... 20 GGrowthrowth...... 2211 CoColourfullourful flowersfl owers and fruits .. .. 2211 AbilityAbility to tolerate harshharsh conditionsconditions ...... 2211 USES ...... 22 Shade and roadsideroadside treestrees ...... 2222 SpecimenSpecimen and character treestrees ...... 23 Shelters,Shelters, screensscreens and buffersbuffers ...... 23 Wall trees ...... 23 PESTS AND DISEASESDiSEASES...... 23 BOBONSAINSA I...... 24 TEMPERATE BROAD-LEAVED TREES USEDUSED ININ BONSAI ...... 24 CHAPTER 4 ...... 25 FLOWERS ANDAND FOLIAGE ...... 25 HONEY..HONEY ...... 25 FORMS OF HONEYHONEY...... 25 RELATEDRELATED PRODUCTS ...... 25 NECTAR SOURCESSOURCES...... 25 EucalyptusEucalyptus spp.spp ...... 26 CasCastaneatanea sativa ...... 26 LiriodendronLiriodendrOI1 tulipiJeratulipiPra ...... 26 NyssaNyssa ogeeheogeche ...... 27 ProsopisProsopis spp.spp...... 27 Robinia pspseudoaeaciaeudoacacia ...... 27 Tilia spp.spp...... 27 PRODUCTIONPRODUCTION ANDAND TRADETRADE ...... 28

v Non-wood forest productsproducts from from temperate temperate broad-leaved broad-leaved treestrees

LEAF OILS AND FLAVOURINGS ...... 28 EUCALYPTUSEUCALYPTUS OILSOILS...... 28 TypesTypes of oilsoils and usesuses...... 29 Production and tradetrade ...... 3030 BAYBAYLAUREL.. LAUREL ...... 3311 MINORMTNOR LEAFLEAF OILSO ILS ...... 32 YERBA MATE...... MATE ...... 3333 DECORATIVEDECORATIVE FOLlAGE...... FOLIAGE ...... 34 MMINORINOR AND TRADITIONAL USESUSES OFOF FOLIAGE ...... 35 CHAPTER 55 ...... 37 SAP AND RESIN ...... 37 SYRUPS,SYRUPS, SUSUGARGAR ANANDD CONFECTCONFECTIONERYIONERY PRODUCTSPRODUCTS...... 37 MAPLE SYRUP ANDAND RELATED PRODUCTSPRODUCTS...... 37 HistoricalHi storical aspectsaspects ...... 37 Species ...... 37 ProductsProducts ...... 38 Sap collectioncoll ection ...... 39 Production and tradetrade...... 4040 GradinGradingg ...... 4141 PestsPests andand diseasesdi seases ...... 42 BIRCH SYRUP AND RELATED PRODUCTSPRODUCTS...... 4242 STyRAX.STYRAX ...... 44 USES ...... 4444 COMPOSITIONCOMPOSITlON ...... 44 SPECSPECIESIES ...... 44 HARVESTINGHARVESTTNG ...... 44 PRODUPRODUCTIONCTION AND TRADE...... TRADE ...... 4545 MASTIC GUM...... GUM ...... 45 HARVESTING,HARVESTING, PRODUCTIONPRODUCTION ANDAN D TRADE ...... 4545 USESUSES ...... 4545 CHAPTER 6 ...... 47 BARK ...... 47 COCORKRK...... 47 HISTORICALHISTORICA L ASPECTSASPECTS...... 47 CCORKORK OAK ...... 48 STRUCTURE AND CHARACTERISTICSCHARACTERiSTICS ...... 4949 DensityDensity...... 4949 ElasticityElasticity...... 49 ImpermeabilityIm penneabili ty ...... 50 LoLoww coconductivitynductivity ...... 50 OtherOthcr desirabledesirable characteristicscharacteristi cs ...... 50 HARVESTINGHARVESTTNG ANDAND PROCESSINGPROCESSING ...... 50 USESUSES...... 5511 PRODUCTIONPRODUCTION ANDAND TRADETRADE...... 5511 PESTSPESTS ANDAND DISEASESDI SEASES ...... 52 TANNIN...... TANNIN ...... 52 HISTORICAL ASPECTSASPECTS ...... 52 COMPOSITIONCOMPOSITlON AND PROPERTIESPROPERTI ES...... 5252 PRINCIPALPRINCIP AL SOURCES ...... 53 MINOR SOURCES ...... 54 DYESDyES...... 54 QUERCITRON ...... 54 TRADITIONALTRADITIONAL DYESDYES...... 55 CASCARA ...... 56 SAPONIN...... SAPONIN ...... 56 MINOMINORR AND TRADITIONALTRADITIONAL USES ...... 56 CHAPTER 7 ...... 59 FRUITS ...... 59 TTUNGUNG OIL ...... 59 HISTORIHISTORICALCAL ASPECTS ...... 59 COMPOSITIONCOMPOSITION ...... 59

VI Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

USES ...... 60 HARVESTINGHARVESTING ...... 60 PRODUCTION AND TRADE ...... 60 CAROBCAROB ...... 60 PROSOPIS PODS ...... 61 MOUNTAIN ASHASH AND AND RELATED RELATED TREES- TREES SORBUSSORBUS SP?SPP...... 6262 PERSIMMONS...... PERSIMMONS ...... 63 HAWTHORN ...... 63 SEA BUCKTHORN..BUCKTHORN ...... 63 BLACK ELDER ...... 64 MEDLAR.....MEDLAR ...... 65 BLACK RASPBERRY..RASPBERRY ...... 65 OTHER MINOR FRUITSFRUlTS...... 6565 CHAPTER 88 ...... 67 NUTS ...... 67 ACORNSACORNS...... 6767 HUMAN CONSUMPTION ...... 67 DYES ...... 69 fOODFOOD FOR DOMESTIC ANANIMALSIM ALS AND WILDLIFE ...... 70 BEECH NUTSNUTS...... 7700 HUMAN CONSUMPTION ...... 70 BEECH NUT OILO IL...... 7171 FOOD FOR DOMESTIC ANIMALSANIMALS ANDAND WILDLIFEWILDLIFE ...... 7171 CHESTNUTSCHESTNUTS...... 7711 HISTORICAL ASPECTSASPECTS...... 7171 IMPORTANT SPECIES ...... 7171 NUTRITIONAL VALUEVALUE...... 72 PRODUCTION AND TRADE ...... 7373 ChChinaina ...... 73 Korea ...... 74 Japan ...... 74 Europe...... Europe ...... 7575 United StatesStates of Amcrica America ...... 75 AustraliaAustrali a...... 7676 CULTCULTIVATIONIVATION...... 7676 HARVESTINGHARVESTrNG ANDAND STORAGESTORAGE ...... 7777 PREPARATION ANDAND USEUSE...... 77 NUTS OF CASTANOPSISCASTA NOPSIS AND CHRYSOLEPIS ...... 78 HAZELNUTSHAZELNUTS...... 78 HICKORYHICKORY NUTS ...... 7979 PISTACHIOS ...... 7979 WALNUTS ...... 80 HUMAN CONSUMPTIONCONSUMPTION ...... 80 DYFDyE...... 80 OTHER PRODUCTSPRODUCTS ...... 81 8 1 HARVESTING ANDAND PROCESSINGPROCESSING...... 818 1 PRODUCTION ANDAND TRADETRADE ...... 8282 ALMONDS ...... 82 MMINORINOR NUTS...... NUTS ...... 82 CHAPTER 9 ...... 85 NON-WOODNON-WOOD PRODUCTSPRODUCTS FROM ORGANISMSORGAN ISMS ASSOCIATED WITH TEMPERATE BROAD-LEABROAD-LEAVED YEO TREES ...... 85 EDiBLEEDIBLE MUSHROOMS ...... 8585 BOLETUS EDULIS ...... 85 DistributionDi stribution ...... 86 Historical aspectsaspects...... 86 Harvesting and useuse ...... 86 TR1CHOLOMA MAGNIVELAREMAGNIVELARE...... 87 TRUFFLESTRUFFLES...... 87 ImportantImpOliant species ...... 8877 FlistoricalHistorical aspectsaspects...... 88 CommercialCommercial cultivationculti vation ...... 8888

VII Non-wood forestforest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees

Harvesting ...... 88 ProductionProduction,, tradetrade and regulationregulation ...... 8888 SHSHIITAKEIITAKE ...... 89 Historical background ...... 89 CuCultivationltivation ...... 9090 HarHarvestingvesting and processingprocessing ...... 9090 Production and trade ...... 9090 Uses...... Uses ...... 9911 MORELS ...... 9911 CCYTARRIAYTARRJA SPP ...... 92 TRAMETESTRA METES VERSVERSICOLORICOLOR ...... 93 MTNOR FUNGFUNGII ...... 93 INSECTS ...... 9494 SSILKILK ...... 94 Historical aspectsaspects ...... 94 Silkworm cultureculture ...... 95 Production ...... 9696 Wild ssilkilk ...... 96 DYESDyES ...... 97 GALL NUTSNUTS ...... 98 AAleppoleppo ggallall ..... 99 Other galls ...... 100 MISTLETOES ...... 100

CHAPTER 1010 ...... 103103

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONSCONCLUSIONS ...... 101033

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 105

APPENDIX 11 ...... 111 GLOSSARY OF KEY TERMSTE RMS ...... 111III APPENDIX 22 ...... 113

SELECTED RECIPESRECIPES ...... 1113 13

APPENDIX 33 ...... 117 SUMMARYSUMMAR Y OF OF MAJOR MAJOR NON-WOOD NON-WOOD FOREST FOREST PRODUCTS PRODUCTS OFOF TEMPERATE BROAD-LEAVEDBROAD-LEA VED TREES TREES BY FAMILY,FAMILY, GENUS GENUS AND AND SPECIES SPECIES ...... 111177

VIII Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

TABLES

Table 1.11.1 Principal families and genera ofof temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees.trees. 5 Table 3.13.1 Some temperate broad-leaved trees usedused inin bonsaibonsai culture.culture. 24 Table 4.14.1 Honey production potentials of two temperate broad-leaved trees compared to several herbaceousherbaceous plantsplants with good reputationsreputations asas honey producers. 26 Table 4.2 Eucalyptus species used for essentialessential leafleaf oils.oils. 30 Table 4.3 Exports of eucalyptus oils from Chile, 1987-1992 31 Table 5.15.1 Nutritional value of a tablespoon of maple syrup. 38 Table 5.25.2 Maple syrup production - CanadaCanada,, 1985-1995 41 Table 5.3 Canadian exports of maple syrup and sugarsugar,, 1988-1995 41 Table 5.4 . Grades of maple syrup in Canada and the USA. 41 Table 6.16.1 Area of Quercus suber forests byby countrycountry 49 Table 6.2 Range of colours available from quercitron, a commercial dye from the innerinner bark ofof QuercusQuercus velutina.velutina. 55 Table 6.3 Traditional dyes produced from the bark of trees of the family Fagaceae.Fagaceae. 55 Table 8.18.1 Traditional and contemporary uses of acorns for human consumption 69 Table 8.28.2 Nutritional value of chestnuts 73 Table 8.38.3 Annual chestnut productionproduction byby principalprincipal producerproducer countriescountries 74 Table 8.4 Edible nuts from temperate forest species of Castanopsis 78 Table 9.19.1 Asian wild silkworms that feed onon temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees andand shrubsshrubs 96 Table 9.2 North American wild silkworms that feed on temperate broad-leaved trees and shrub~shrubs 97 Table 9.39.3 Chemical content of the Aleppo gall.gall . 99

TEXTBOXES

Legends of the aspen 13 Sourwood honeyhoney:: Pride of the Appalachian Mountains. 28 The headache treetree 32 The sugaring-off party,party, aa maplemaple countrycountry tradition.tradition. 39 Alaskan birch syrupsyrup industryindustry 43 The traditional corkcork stopperstopper isis challengedchallenged byby syntheticsynthetic substitutessubstitutes 48 Aspirin,Aspirin , the modernmodern miraclemiracle drugdrug 58 Acorns asas aa "natural""natural" food.food. 70 Chestnut blight: A devastating disease.disease. 72 Shiitake production: A family enterprise. 91 Silk culture comes to India. 95 Silkworms and the gypsy moth. 97 An ancient recipe for ink.ink. 100

ILLUSTRATIONS

(Photos by author unless otherwise noted)noted)

Figure 1.11.1 Comparison of the EarthEarth climatic zones asas defineddefined byby latitudelatitude (A) and temperature (B) (Adopted from Bailey 1996). 4 Figure 1.21.2 A Quercus 1/exilex dominateddominated sclerophylloussclerophyllous forestforest on the island ofof Sardinia,Sardinia, Italy.Italy. 6 Figure 1.3 The warm temperate,temperate, Nothofagus dominated forests of southern Chile contain both deciduous and evergreen species.species. 7 Figure 1.4 High elevation Central American cloudcloud forests,forests, such as this one nearnear the summitsummit of the Volcan MombashaMombasha inin western NicaraguaNicaragua,, contain several species of Quercus. 8 Figure 1.5 Spectacular coloration of deciduous foliage prior to leaf fall in autumn 8

IX Non-wood forest productsproducts from from temperate temperate broad-leaved broad-leaved treestrees

Figure 1.61.6 Pure forest of European beech in the Apennine Mountains,Mountains, Tuscany Region,Region , Italy 9 Figure 1.71.7 A mixedmixed deciduousdeciduous temperatetemperate forestforest inin thethe southernsouthern AppalachianAppalachian Mountains of the eastern UnitedUnited States 99 Figure 2.12.1 Redbuds or Judas trees,trees, CercisCercis siliquastrum,siliquastrum, lineline a street inin Padria,Padria, on the Italian island of Sardinia. AccordingAccording toto legend,legend, thisthis waswas the tree on which Judas,Judas, the disciple who betrayedbetrayed Christ, hangedhanged himself.himself. 13 Figure 2.22.2 The Evangeline Oak,Oak, St. Martinsville,Martinsville, Louisiana,Louisiana, USA.USA. 17 Figure 2.3 Sign describing the historical significance of the EvangelineEvangeline Oak,Oak, St. Martinsville, Louisiana,Louisiana, USA.USA. 17 Figure 3.13.1 The flowering dogwood,dogwood, ComusComus florida,florida, isis aa popularpopular ornamentalornamental tree because itit produces attractive flowersflowers inin springspring andand brilliantbrilliant red fruits inin autumn.autumn. 21 Figure 3.2 Plane trees, Platanus x acerifolia provide welcome shade in a marketplace in Hefei,Hefei , Anhui Province,Province, China.China. 22 Figure 3.3 American elms,elms, UlmusUlmus americana, onon the campuscampus ofof Colorado State University,University, FortFort Collins,Collins, Colorado,Colorado, USA.USA. This graceful tree was once widelywidely plantedplanted asas aa streetstreet treetree throughout the eastern and midwesternmidwestern USAUSA butbut mostmost havehave succumbed to DutchDutch elm disease.disease. 23 Figure 4.14.1 Flowers of honey producing temperate broad-leaved trees. Right, black locust, Robina pseudoacaciapseudoacacia.. Left, European linden, Tilia cordata 27 Figure 4.24.2 Honey produced from the flowers of black locust,locust, Robinia pseudoacacia. InIn Italy,Italy ,where where thisthis nativenative NorthNorth AmericanAmerican tree has become naturalized,naturalized, itit isis marketedmarketed asas AcaciaAcacia honey.honey. 28 Figure 4.3 Grading of dried baybay leavesleaves inin TurkeyTurkey 31 Figure 4.4 The foliage ofof the OregonOregon myrtlewood,myrtlewood, UmbellulariaUmbe!lularia ca//fornica,califomica , is aromatic and has been used as a substitute for foliage of Laurus nobilis as a flavouring forfor soupssoups andand stews.stews. HoweverHowever its principle oil constituentconstituent,, umbellulone, has been shown to be a mucous irritant and has some toxicological properties. 32 Figure 4.5 The foliage of the yerba maté,mate, //ex!lex paraguariensis, is used in a tea that is a popular regional beverage inin southern Brazil,Brazil, Argentina and Paraguay.Paraguay. 33 Figure 4.6 VerbaYerba matémate is usually drunk from a traditional cup, made of wood, with a built-in drinking straw 33 Figure 4.7 Temperate broad-leaved trees with their branches looped for fodder in northern IranIran 35 Figure 44.8.8 Degraded temperate forests from overgrazing in northern IraqIraq 35 Figure 5.15.1 Grade A, dark amber maple syrup produced inin Vermont,Vermont, USAUSA and packaged for retailretail sale.sale. 38 Figure 5.25.2 A traditional sugaring off party in Quebec,Quebec, Canada (Photo courtesy of Victor Brunette,Brunette, LaLa FédérationFederation des Productuers de Bois du Québec,Quebec, Longueuil, Québec,Quebec, Canada).Canada). 39 Figure 5.35.3 An evaporator in a sugarhouse in Quebec,Quebec, Canada (Photo(Photo courtesy of Victor Brunette, La FederationFédération des Productuers de Bois du Quebec,Québec, Longueuil, Quebec,Québec, Canada). 40 Figure 5.4 A sugarhouse in Quebec,Quebec, Canada (Photo(Photo courtesycourtesy ofof Victor Brunette, La FédérationFederation des ProductuersProductuers de BoisBois dudu Québec,Quebec, Longueuil,Longueuil, Québec,Quebec, Canada).Canada). 40 Figure 5.5 Birch trees being tapped in Alaska and a jar of birch syrup 43 Figure 6.16.1 Harvesting cork on a large Quercus suber tree in Portugal 49 Figure 6.26.2 A cork oak in Tuscany (Italy),(Italy), from which planksplanks ofof cork havehave recentlyrecently been harvested 5050 Figure 6.3 Graded cork slabs ready for next stage of processing. \NineWine stoppers cut Out from cork planks 51 Figure 6.4 A leather merchant inin RabatRabat,, MoroccoMorocco.. The fine quality of Moroccan leather is attributed to the use of tannins from cork oak during the curing prócess.process. 53

xX Non-wood forest productsproducts from from temperate temperate broad-leaved broad-leaved treestrees

Figure 6.56.5 The barkbark ofof thethe NorthNorth AmericanAmerican paperpaper birch,birch , BetulaBetula papyrifera.papyrifera. Birch bark had many traditional uses in northern Europe,Europe, SiberiaSiberia and across northernnorthern NorthNorth America.America. 5577 Figure 7.17.1 Tung oil with fruits.fruits. A wood finish mademade from tung oiloil onon aa tabletable finished with this product 60 Figure 7.2 Pods of the carob tree,tree, CeratoniaCeratonia siliqua,siliqua, nearnear Limassol,Limassol, CyprusCyprus 61 Figure 7.37.3 Clusters of bright red fruits of the EuropeanEuropean mountainmountain ash,ash, SorbusSorb us aucuparia. TheseThese berry-likeberry-like fruitsfruits havehave beenbeen usedused forfor aa wide variety of purposes 62 Figure 7.4 Fruits and foliage of the strawberry treetree,, Arbutus unedo,unedo, a tree found in Mediterranean EuropeEurope.. TheThe fruitsfruits areare moderatelymoderately sweet and can be eaten ripe or as a jelly.jelly. 65 Figure 7.5 Fruits of Black raspberryraspberry,, Mulberry,Mulberry, Dogwood,Dogwood , Persimmon,Persimmon, Hawthorn,Hawthorn, and Sea Buckthorn 66 Figure 8.18.1 A dried fruit and nut marketmarket inin Quetta,Quetta, BalochistanBalochistan Province,Province, PakistanPakistan.. Most of the products sold here from temperate broadleafbroad leaf trees. WhileWhile manymany ofof these these productsproducts areare growngrown inin orchardsorchards asas agricultural crops,crops, others are still gathered in natural or plantedplanted forests. 67 Figure 8.28.2 Acorns of Quercus aegilops,aegilops, anan oakoak indigenousindigenous toto thethe MediterraneanMediterranean region of EuropeEurope.. IsleIsle ofof Naxos,Naxos, Greece.Greece. 67 Figure 8.38.3 A grove of blue oak in the CoastCoast RangeRange ofof CaliforniaCalifornia 6868 Figure 8.4 Foliage and nuts of the European beech,beech, Fagus sylvatica,sylvatica, Parco Nazionale Abruzzo,Abruzzo, AbruzzoAbruzzo Region,Region, Italy.Italy. 70 Figure 8.4.8.4. Burrs of the Chinese chestnut,chestnut, CastaneaCastanea molí/sima,mollisima, Henan Province,Province, China 7373 Figure 8.58.5 Castanea sativa orchardorchard,, Lago di Vico,Vico, Lazio Region,Region, Italy.Italy. 7676 Figure 8.7 A street vendor sellingselling fresh roastedroasted chestnuts,chestnuts, PiazzaPiazza didi Spagna,Spagna, RomeRome,, Italy.Italy. 77 Figure 8.8 Juglans neotropica growing near Otovalo,Otovalo, on the Ecuadorean altiplano.altiplano. The nut hulls of this tree are an important local dye source.source. 8181 Figure 8.9 Wool is dyed a rich brown colour in a dyebath made from the nut hulls of Juglans subtropicasubtropica,, OtovaloOtovalo,, Ecuador 8811 Figure 88.10.10 Nuts ofof:: FaguFaguss sylvaticasylvatica,, Corylus avellanaavellana,, Carya sppspp.,., Pterocarya sppspp.,., AesculusAesculus spp.spp. and CastanopsisCastanopsis spp.spp. 83 Figure 9.19. 1 Dried Boletus edulis mushrooms in Orvieto,Orvieto, Umbria Region,Region, Italy 8866 Figure 9.2 Fruiting bodies of Boletus edulis,edulis, TricholomaTricholoma magnivelare,magnivelare, TuberTuber melanosporummelanosporum,, Morchella con/ca,conica, Lentinula edodes and Cytarra darwinii 93 Figure 9.39.3 Workers remove diseased larvae and provide fresh mulberry foliage toto a domestidomesticc silkworm colony,colony, Daton Cooperative, Hanoi,Hanoi, Vietnam.Vietnam. 9955 Figure 9.4 Mature larvae and cocoons of the domestic silkworm,silkworm, BombyxBombyx mori,mori, Daton Cooperative,Cooperative, Hanoi,Hanoi , Vietnam.Vietnam. 95 Figure 9.5 Domestic silkworms, Bombyx mori, being raised in large,large, flat baskets - Daton Cooperative,Cooperative, Hanoi,Hanoi, Vietnam. 96 Figure 9.69.6 A stand of kermes oak on the isle of Crete,Crete, Greece 9988 Figure 9.7 InsectInsect galls on oak near Dunrobbia, UmbriaUmbria Region,Region, Italy.Italy. Galls such as these have a high tannic and gallic acidacid content and have been widely used in the production of inks,inks, dyes and tannin.tannin. 99 Figure 9.8 Berries of Viscum album 101

XI Non-wood forest productsproducts fromfrom temperate temperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

CO2CO2 Carbon dioxide dbh Diameter at breast height EU European UnionUnion FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations ha Hectares ITC InternationalInternational Trade Commission kg Kilogram NA North America NWFP Non-Wood ForestForest Product UK United Kingdom USA United States of America USDA United States Department of Agriculture UV Ultra violet

XII Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees

INTRODUCTIONINTRODUcnON

Those portions of thethe Earth'sEarth's surfacesurface thatthat areare characterizedcharacterized byby havinghaving distinctdistinct warmwarm andand coldcold seasons are knownknown as thethe temperatetemperate zones.zones. The forests thatthat occupyoccupy temperate zones are diverse and complex.complex. ConifersConifers dominatedominate somesome temperatetemperate zonezone forestsforests whilewhile otherother areare coveredcovered withwith broad-broad leaved or deciduousdeciduous evergreenevergreen trees.trees. ManyMany temperatetemperate forestsforests areare mixturesmixtures ofof bothboth conifersconifers andand broad-leaved trees.

The broadleafbroad leaf forests of thethe temperatetemperate zoneszones areare composedcomposed ofof representativesrepresentatives of manymany plantplant families and genera.genera. While many of thesethese familiesfamilies and generagenera are uniqueunique toto temperatetemperate climates,climates, others are found in both the temperate and tropical regions.regions. Moreover,Moreover, a few familiesfamilies and genera of broad-leaved trees that are characteristic of thethe tropicstropics areare alsoalso foundfound inin somesome temperatetemperate forests.forests. While somesome temperatetemperate forests, such as thethe FagusFagus sylvaticasy/vatica forestsforests ofof centralcentral Europe,Europe, areare composed ofof aa singlesingle species,species, othersothers maymay containcontain mixturesmixtures ofof upup toto 140140 distinctdistinct speciesspecies ofof trees. trees.

The world'sworld 's temperatetemperate broadleaf forestsforests provideprovide aa vast array of productsproducts that are beneficialbeneficial to humanshumans.. The wood of many temperate broad-leaved trees is highly valued as a source of fuelwood or charcoal.charcoal. The vastvast rangerange ofof strength,strength, durability,durability, hardness,hardness, colour and tetexturexture of the wood of temperate broad-leaved treestrees has made them importantimportant sources of lumberlumber usedused inin construction,construction, furniture,furniture, cabinetry,cabinetry, flooring and cooperage,cooperage, as well as inin specialityspeciality productsproducts suchsuch asas gunstocks,gunstocks, turnery,turnery, carvings and basketry.basketry. TemperateTemperate broad-leaved treestrees are also importantimportapt sources of non-non wood forest productsproducts (NWFP),(NWFP), somesome ofof whichwhich havehave beenbeen usedused byby humanityhumanity sincesince prehistoricprehistoric times.times. Some NWFP are the product of a single tree or small group of trees and,and , despite the best efforts of modern science and technologytechnology,, no adequate substitutes have yet been foundfound.. Still others produce edible fruits and nuts and havehave becomebecome importantimportant inin agricultureagriculture worldwide.worldwide. Broad-leavedBroad-leaved temperatetemperate trees havehave alsoalso manymany fungi,fungi , insectsinsects andand otherother organismsorganisms associatedassociated withwith themthem andand severalseveral havehave become commercially important products.products.

The objective of this paper is to provideprovide aa globalglobal reviewreview ofof thethe non-woodnon-wood forest productsproducts provided by trees foundfound inin temperatetemperate broadleafbroad leaf forests.forests . Included in this paperpaper isis thethe rangerange ofof non-wood non-wood forest products that this group of treetree speciesspecies providesprovides andand thethe placesplaces areare indicatedindicated wherewhere thesethese products are harvested.harvested. The products described are organized by the partpart ofof thethe treetree fromfrom whichwhich they are obtained - entire trees,trees, foliage and flowers,flowers, bark,bark, resins,resins , fruits,fruits, nutsnuts andand organismsorganisms closelyclosely associated with temperate broad-leaved treestrees.. WhereWhere possible, datadata onon levels of production and international trade are presented.presented. Problems associated with the sustainable management of thesethese products and compatibility or conflicts with other land uses are also presented.presented. Both contemporary and historicalhistorical oror traditionaltraditional usesuses ofof NWFP NWFP from from temperate temperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees areare discussed. discussed. Emphasis is placed on thosethose speciesspecies from whichwhich NWFPNWFP are harvestedharvested from either naturalnatural or planted forests as opposed to treestrees plantedplanted inin orchardsorchards (e.g.(e.g. pomepome oror stonestone fruits,fruits , olivesolives andand certain nuts) which are consideredconsidered to bebe importantimportant agriculturalagricultural crops.crops.

This information is presentedpresented to assistassist inin identifyingidentifying opportunitiesopportunities forfor managementmanagement andand productionproduction of NWFPNWFP asas anan integralintegral partpart of of economic economic development development andand povertypoverty alleviationalleviation initiatives in economically depressed regions of thethe worldworld wherewhere treestrees areare anan importantimportant elementelement inin thethe ecology,ecology, economics and human social structure.structure. In addition,addition , this information is also designed to help identify situations where special management of forests and woodlands may be appropriate toto maintain oror enhance the productivityproductivity of traditionaltraditional or contemporarycontemporary non-woodnon-wood forest productsproducts or toto developdevelop aa potentially beneficial new resource.resource.

1 Non-wood forest productsproducts fromfrom temperate temperate broad-leaved broad-leaved treestrees

CHAPTER 1 1

AN OVERVIEWOVERVIEW OFOF TEMPERATE BROADLEAFBROAD' EAF FORESTS

THE TEMPERATE ZONE

The Earth's surfacesurface isis subdividedsubdivided intointo fivefive broadbroad latitudinallatitudinal bands:bands: thethe ArcticArctic andand AntarcticAntarctic polarpolar zones, the tropical zone andand thethe northnorth andand southsouth temperatetemperate zones.zones. TheThe temperatetemperate zoneszones comprisecomprise those regions of the Earth'sEarth's surfacesurface thatthat areare locatedlocated betweenbetween thethe TropicTropic ofof CancerCancer andand thethe ArcticArctic Circle in the Northern Hemisphere and between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle in the Southern Hemisphere.Hemisphere. This isis thethe areaarea betweenbetween northnorth andand south south latitudes latitudes 23.500 23.50° andand 66.32°66 .32° (Lewis, 19771977 - FigureFigure 1-A).1-A).

The latitudinallatitudinal bandsbands describeddescribed in thethe precedingpreceding paragraphparagraph coincidecoincide roughlyroughly withwith threethree majormajor thermally defined zones. The "winterless""winterless" thermalthermal zonezone isis characterized byby having a climate inin which no monthmonth ofof thethe yearyear hashas aa mean mean monthly monthly temperaturetemperature lowerlower thanthan 18°C18°C andand coincidescoincides roughly with the tropicaltropical zone. TheThe twotwo polarpolar thermalthermal zoneszones areare characterizedcharacterized by havinghaving a summerless climate where no monthmonth of thethe yearyear hashas aa meanmean temperaturetemperature higherhigher thanthan 10°C.10°C . TheThe 18°C isotherm coincides more or less with thethe distributionaldistributional limits of plantsplants characteristiccharacteristic of thethe tropics whereas the 10°C10°C isothermisotherm coincides roughly with the northern limit of treetree growthgrowth inin thethe Northern Hemisphere and the southern limit of tree growthgrowth inin thethe SouthernSouthern Hemisphere.Hemisphere. TheThe mid-mid latitudelatitude regionsregions ofof the Earth'sEarth's surface,surface, thosethose thatthat generallygenerally lielie betweenbetween thethe 10°C10°C andand 18°C18°C isotherms,isotherms, are characterized by havinghaving distinctdistinct summersummer andand winterwinter seasons,seasons, andand areare designateddesignated asas the temperatetemperate zones [Bailey,[Bailey, 1996]. The 10°C10°C and 18°C18°C isothermsisotherms do not coincidecoincide perfectly with the Arctic andand Antarctic CirclesCircles oror thethe TropicsTropics ofof CancerCancer andand Capricorn.Capricorn. TheyThey areare influencedinfluenced byby thethe oceans and continentscontinents and by changeschanges inin elevationelevation ofof thethe Earth'sEarth's continentscontinents [Bailey[Bailey 1996].1996]. Therefore, it isis possiblepossible forfor areasareas southsouth ofof thethe TropicTropic ofof CancerCancer toto havehave aa temperate temperate climateclimate and,and, conversely, for areas north of the Tropic of Cancer to havehave a tropical climateclimate (Figure(Figure 1.1B).1.1B) .

TEMPERATE FORESTSFORESTS

Temperate forestsforests are diversediverse ecosystemsecosystems composedcomposed of mixturesmixtures ofof conifers,conifers, broad-leavedbroad-leaved evergreen and broad-leaved deciduous trees. Latitude, temperature, moisture and elevation define the distribution of various temperate forests and treestrees.. A largelarge number of familiesfamilies and generagenera ofof trees and shrubs are representedrepresented in these forests (Table 1.1). Within thethe temperate zoneszones inin the Northern and Southern Hemispheres,Hemispheres, there are aa numbernumber ofof distinctdistinct plantplant communitiescommunities oror biomesbiomes whose distributions are further defineddefined byby temperaturetemperature andand moisture.moisture. ManyMany attemptsattempts havehave beenbeen made to classify the forest regions of the world [Bailey,[Bailey, 1996]. According to data obtained by the FAO ForestForest ResourcesResources AssessmentAssessment 2000,2000, "temperate""temperate" (broadleaf) forestsforests areare composed of temperate mountain forestsforests (120 million ha),hal, temperatetemperate continental forests (260 million ha)hal andand temperate oceanic forestsforests (30(30 million ha)hal (FAO,(FAO, 2001). For thethe purposepurpose ofof thisthis paper,paper, aa broadbroad classification of temperate forests intointo four forestforest biomesbiomes presentedpresented byby HoraHora (1981)(1981) isis used.used.

3 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

Figure 1.1: Comparison of the Earth's climatic zoneszones asas defineddefined byby latitudelatitude (A)(A) andand temperaturetemperature (B) (adopted from Bailey,Bailey, 1996):1996): Sclerophyllous-, Warm Warm temperatetemperate evergreen-,evergreen-, TemperateTemperate deciduousdeciduous -,-, andand Boreal forestsforests..

4 Non-wood forestforest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees

Table 1.11.1 PrincipalPrincipal familiesfamilies and genera of temperate broad-leaved trees

Family ,j;Genera" CommQJjCommon:~ namesitjfues Aceraceae AcerAcer Maple Aquifoliaceae ___.~...... , Ilex1/ex '<~Holly" oll~ Anacardiaceae PiPistastacia cia Pistachio Betulaceae Alnus --~-~Alder --~-~------. Betula Birch . Carpinus «pJ:lornbeamHornbeam ',CorylusCorylus Filbert, hazel __~~ __<~ ~~Ostrya < J;rHopQ2 hornbeamhornb~a m Cornaceae Comus Dogwood,Dogwood, ossier Ebenaceae Diospyros "==~<.'" - f>~simmonPersimmon EricaceaeEncaceae Arbutus Madrone, strawberry tree Oxydendrum Sourwood ::S[:\'=Euphorbiaceae~uphorbiCl.c~~~'" '~" ~";:?3Aleurites1~urites ·""nfD"""·"····",«<- JTungmJ'·9... Fagaceae Fagus Beech Castanea Chestnut CastanopsisCastanopsis/Chrysolepis/Chryso/epis Chinquapin Lithocarpus Tanoak Nothofagus Southern beechbeech Quercus Oak Hamamelidaceae HamameliHamameliss " WltchWitch hazel JdguidambarLiquidambar Sweet gum Hippocastanaceae Aesculus Horse chestnut,chestnut, buckeyebuckeye Juglandaceae Carya HickoryIjickory - Juglans Walnut

, "",,,,,,,.. _,___ ,;:_ "<"._,'.,.",<.<"Pterocan1aPterocarya .. ~" ' J "'bU"_< ..,," ••,_., ___ · '.'. "WingnutsWingo:>«< . Ct'"= uts Lauraceae Laurus Laurel Sassafras Sassafras Leguminoseae -~~--C'-Cercis-;';';ercis ------Redbud, Judas tree Robinia Locust Gleditsia Honey locust < ;" ProsaprCL~geJS pis ; MesquiteMe~q ll ite Magnoliaceae Liriodendron Tulip poplar Magnolia Magnolia Moraceae Maclura Osage orange Morus Mulberry ______--' Myrtaceae Eucalyptus Eucalypt Myrtus Myrtle !ill~ ::,;:" ":,,~Nyssaceaey'~s9.~~a~ ~~~ ,,""',,",," ..... ri;1:"NyssaNyssa .JtTupeloI~pelb Oleaceae Fraxinus Ash Olea0/ea _~ __Olive. O~live Platanaceae Platanus Plane tree, sycamoresycarn!"o",re~_~ __--, Rhamnaceae Rhamnus BuckthornBuckthorn,, cascara Rosaceae --~--=, AmelanchieAmelanchier=r =~-~~. Service berry ~"';;"'-----=-, lCrataegus " tiaHawthornWillow Populus £2t!9.Cottonwood,!2'N0od , poplar,p~p,l~!: ! " asp~naspen L 6: ' ~§lmaruhacg'i3gSimarubaceae :""", ""Alian(pusAlianthus <=,,_. ,,~ •• m•••• _.~ ...... JTree ree of heavenhe,aven ",· Tiliaceae '--.~~~- Tilia LimeLime., linden,linden, basswood r----Ulmaceae Celtis Hackberry Ulmus Elm ,, ____.~ ZelkoZelkova va __~ __~ __CaucasianQ5Il,I _casian elmselm~ ;.... Source:Source: Harlow and Harrar,1950;Harrar,1950; Hora,Hora, 1981.1981 .

5 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees sCLEROPHYLLOUsFORESTsSCLEROPHYLLOUS FORESTS

Sclerophyllous or Mediterranean forests occuroccur inin areasareas wherewhere thethe climateclimate isis characterizedcharacterized byby warm,warm, wet winters and hot,hot, drydry summers.summers. TheyThey areare locatedlocated alongalong thethe westernwestern coastalcoastal regionsregions ofof thethe continentscontinents.. Annual precipitation ranges between 500 mm and 10001000 mm,mm , withwith anan irregularirregular patternpattern and prolonged periods of low humidity.humidity. MuchMuch ofof thethe vegetationvegetation ofof sclerophylloussclerophyllous plantplant communitiescommunities has hard leather-likeleather-like leaves, an adaptationadaptation to periodsperiods ofof prolongedprolonged dry dry weather.weather. TheseThese forestforest communities areare known by severalseveral names:names: maquismaquis in Mediterranean EuropeEurope,, chaparral in CaliforniaCalifornia,, matarral inin Chile,Chile, malee scrub inin AustraliaAustralia andand fynboschfynbosch oror karrookarroa inin southwesternsouthwestern Africa. Heavy cutting of the forestforest overstoreyoverstorey results in dominationdomination of formerly forested sites with dense, evergreen woody shrub vegetation.vegetation. TheThe vegetationvegetation ofof sclerophylloussclerophyllous forestsforests tendstends toto bebe richri ch in species composition but subject toto periodicperiodic firesfires andand degrading byby heavyheavy grazinggrazing [Hora,[Hora, 1981].1981).

The MediterraneanMediterranean basinbasin ofof EuropeEurope and NorthNorth AfricaAfrica is undoubtedlyundoubtedly thethe world'sworld's best-knownbest-known example of sclerophyllous forest.forest. PriorPrior toto the developmentdevelopment ofof a heavyheavy humanhuman populationpopulation that severely affected thethe vegetation ofof thisthis regionregion,, aa canopy of holm oak (Quercus(Quercus ilex) and other evergreen broad-leaved treestrees (Figure(Figure 1.2)1.2) dominated thethe original forestforest covercover.. Other areas of sclerophyllous or MediterraneanMediterranean vegetation in thethe temperatetemperate zoneszones includeinclude southernsouthern CaliforniaCalifornia (United States)States),, portions ofof ChileChile,, thethe Cape region of South Africa and the southwestern tiptip of Australia [Hora,19811.[Hora,1981) .

Figure 1.2 A Quercus ilex dominated sclerophyllous forestforest onon thethe islandisland ofof Sardinia, Sardinia, Italy.Italy.

WARMINARM TEMPERATETEMPERATE EVERGREENEVERGREEN FORESTS

Warm temperate forestsforests covercover aboutabout 100 million haha of land area worldwide and are among the most productive of thethe world'sworld's forests.forests. TheseThese forestsforests areare foundfound wherewhere thethe meanmean temperaturetemperature isis between 0°CO°C and 18°C18°C for the coldest month of the year [Dansereau,[Dansereau, 1957].1957).

One form of warmwarm temperatetemperate forest isis anan extensionextension ofof sclerophyllsclerophyll forestforest intointo areasareas wherewhere therethere isis no summersummer drought. A classicclassic example is the PacificPacific CoastCoast ofof NorthNorth America,America, northnorth ofof 36°N36°N

6 Non-wood forest productsproducts fromfrom temperate temperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees latitude,latitude, which remainsremains moist during thethe summersummer duedue toto summersummer fogs.fogs . ThisThis forestforest isis dominateddominated byby giant conifersconifers includingincluding redwoodredwood (Sequoia(Sequoia sempervirens),sempervirens), DouglasDouglas firfir (Pseudotsuga (Pseudotsuga menziesii),menziesii), hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla)heterophyl/a) and western red cedarcedar (Thuja(Thuja plicate).plicata). Broad-leavedBroad-leaved trees (both evergreen and deciduous) that occur in this forest include big-leaf maple (Acer macrophyllum), vinevine maple (A. circinatum),circinatum), golden chinquapin (Chrysolepis(Chrysolepis chrysophylla),chrysophylla), cascara (Rhamnus(Rhamnus purshiana) and OregonOregon myrtlemyrtle (Umbellularia(Umbellularia califomica).californica) . Other examples of warmwarm temperatetemperate evergreen forests thatthat extendextend fromfrom sclerophylloussclerophyllous forestsforests includeinclude thethe NothofagusNothofagus dominateddominated forestsforests of ChileChile (Figure(Figure 11.3).3) andand thethe EucalyptusEucalyptus diversicolordiversicolor forestsforests of westernwestern Australia.Australia. In the Mediterranean region,region , a warm temperate evergreen forest occurs around the Black Sea east as far as the CaspianCaspian SeaSea andand includesincludes thethe speciesspecies richrich Tertiary-relictTertiary-relict ColicColic forestforest ofof Transcaucasia.Transcaucasia. ThisThis forest lieslies inin aa regionregion wherewhere summerssummers areare mildmild andand wetwet enoughenough forfor teatea cultivationcultivation thatthat hashas replacedreplaced much of the natural forest [Hora, 1981].1981].

Many of thethe worldworld's's warmwarm temperatetemperate forests are found along the eastern coastal regions of the continentscontinents thatthat are,are· exposed toto monsoonsmonsoons or tradetrade winds.winds. Rainfall is abundantabundant (150-300(150-300 mm/a)mm/a) andand is well distributeddistributed throughoutthroughout the year.year. InIn Southeast Asia,Asia, eastern Australia and southern BrazilBrazil,, there isis a continuouscontinuous gradation with increasing latitudelatitude from wetwet tropical to subtropicalsubtropical toto warmwarm temperatetemperate conditions. ItIt isis,, thereforetherefore,, difficult to distinguish vegetation zones inin these forests. Characteristically,Characteristically, penetration ofof these forestsforests is difficult due to the abundance of vegetation;vegetation; they are richrich inin tree speciesspecies,, includingincluding some conifers,conifers, epiphytes and climbersclimbers althoughalthough lessless soso than tropicaltropical forests.forests. SomeSome broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees are deciduous.deciduous. InIn easterneastern Australia,Australia, itit has beenbeen shownshown thatthat tropicaltropical forestforest types extend farthest south on the betterbetter soils andand moremore humidhumid sites.sites. AustralianAustralian moist temperate forests, dominateddominated by Nothofagus, occur in Tasmania and Victoria.Victoria. In Africa,Africa, onlyonly thethe DrakensburgDrakensburg mountains of South Africa havehave suitablysuitably moist conditions to support warm temperate forestsforests.. The boundaries of thethe moist temperate forests of easterneastern NorthNorth America are alsoalso poorlypoorly defineddefined becausebecause cold air masses move south as far as the Gulf of Mexico.Mexico. They are generallygenerally found along the AtlanticAtlantic and GulfGulf ofof MexicoMexico Figure 11.3.3 The warm temperate, Nothofagus coastal regions from easteast TexasTexas andand dominated forests of southernsouthern ChileChile containscontains bothboth Louisiana northnorth to NorthNorth Carolina.Carolina . TheThe deciduous and evergreenevergreen species. In thisthis scene,scene, tree flora ofof thethe NorthNorth AmericanAmerican warmwarm taken inin ParqueParque Nacional Villarica,Villa rica, thethe evergreenevergreen treetree temperate forestsforests is rich andand includesincludes is N.N. dombevi and the deciduous treetree isis N.N. antarctica. both evergreen and deciduous speciesspecies ofof oaks (Quercus spp.),spp.), Liquidambar stryaciflua)stryaciflua),, as well as conifersconifers suchsuch asas pinepine (Pinus(Pinus spp.)spp.) andand baldbald cypresscypress (Taxodium(Taxodium distichum).distichum). Another region wherewhere warmwarm temperatetemperate forestsforests areare predominantpredominant isis NewNew Zealand;Zealand; theythey includeinclude various species of NothofagusNothofagus and kaurikauri pinepine (Agathis(Agathis australis),australis), mixedmixed withwith subtropicalsubtropical broad-broad leaved species [Hora,[Hora, 1981].1981].

7 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees

Islands of warmwarm temperatetemperate forestsforests are alsoalso found atat high elevationselevations inin the tropics.tropics. For example, the high elevationelevation cloudcloud forestsforests foundfound in Central America and extending as farfar southsouth asas Colombia inin the northernnorthern tip ofof SouthSouth AmericaAmerica contain species of Quercus (author's(author's observation; Ramierez Correa,Correa, 1988;1988; Figure 1.41.4). ). TEMPERATE DECIDUOUS FORESTS

The temperate deciduous forests are undoubtedly the best known of the variousvarious typestypes of temperate zone forests. They occupy a totaltotal area of approximatelyapproximately 800 millionmillion haha worldwideworldwide and formerly covered most ofof westernwestern EuropeEurope Figure 1.4 - High elevation CentralCentral American cloud forests, such as this oneone nearnear thethe and portions of the NearNear EastEast andand Asia.Asia. TheyThey summit of thethe VolcanVolcan MombashaMombasha inin westernwestern are still extensive across eastern NorthNorth America.America. Nicaragua, contain several species of Temperate deciduous forests are restrictedrestricted toto Quercus. thethe NorthernNorthern HemisphereHemisphere apart from aa smallsmall area at the southern tip of SouthSouth AmericaAmerica and are found wherewhere the averageaverage temperature is below O0CoC for for the the coldestcoldest monthmonth ofof the the yearyear butbut withwith anan averageaverage temperaturetemperature aboveabove 100010°C for the warmest month [Dansereau,[Dansereau, 1957].1957].

A characteristic of deciduous temperate forests is leaf fall in autumn, which is an adaptation to the marked but not very prolongedprolonged coldcold seasonseason whenwhen liquidliquid waterwater isis eithereither restrictedrestricted oror unavailableunavailable toto the plant. Leaf fall is preceded by an often spectacular autumn coloration of foliage,foliage, a characteristiccharacteristic that makesmakes manymany treestrees ofof thesethese forestsforests desirabledesirable ornamentalornamental andand gardengarden plantsplants (Figure(Figure 1.5).1.5). Annual rainfall ranges betweenbetween 7070 cmcm and 150150 cmcm andand isis moremore oror less less evenly evenly distributed. distributed. Evergreen broad-leaved trees do not toleratetolerate winterwinter droughtdrought oror prolongedprolonged coldcold andand areare generallygenerally absent from these forests.forests.

Figure 1.51.5 - SpectacularSpectacular colorationcoloration ofof deciduous foliagefoliage priorprior to leafleaf fallfall in autumnautumn is aa characteristic of treestrees inin manymany temperatetemperate forests; upperupper left,left, AcerAcer circinatum,circinatum, Oregon;Oregon; upperupper right, Populus tremuloides,tremuloides, Colorado;Colorado; lower,lower, mixedmixed QuercusQuercus forest,forest, UmbriaUmbria Region, Region, (Italy).(Italy).

The temperate deciduous forests of westernwestern EuropeEurope have beenbeen reducedreduced toto fragmentsfragments ofof thethe original forest due toto agriculture,agriculture, grazinggrazing andand otherother humanhuman activities.activities. TheseThese forestsforests areare poorerpoorer floristically thanthan other temperatetemperate deciduous forestsforests because ofof the extinction of manymany speciesspecies during the PleistocenePleistocene ice ages.ages. PurePure forestsforests ofof beechesbeeches (Fagus(Fagus sylvatica)sy/vatica) (Figure(Figure 1.6)1.6) dominatedominate the higher elevation forests while QuercusQuercus spp.,spp. , TiliaTi/ia spp. and FraxinusFraxinus areare dominantdominant componentscomponents of lower elevation forests. InIn Asia,Asia, NorthNorth AmericaAmerica andand thethe NearNear East,East, therethere areare manymany moremore speciesspecies of trees includingincluding representativesrepresentatives ofof thethe generagenera Acer,Acer, Aesculus,Aescu/us, Carya,Carya, Liriodendron,Liriodendron , Liquidambar,Liquidambar, Magnolia and Juglans,Jug/ans, as wellwell asas outliersoutliers ofof somesome tropicaltropical familiesfamilies (e.g.(e.g. Diospyros)Diospyros) [Hora,1981].[Hora,1981].

8 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

For example,example, in thethe temperatetemperate deciduousdeciduous forests of thethe southern Appalachian Mountains of thethe easterneastern UnitedUnited States, there are approximatelyapproximately 140 different species of trees, ofof whichwhich aboutabout 6060 are are commercially commercially importantimportant (Figure 1.7;1.7; Westveld,Westveld , 1949).1949).

BOREAL FORESTSFORESTS

The borealboreal forestforest region encircles thethe globe at thethe northern limits of forests andand coverscovers vastvast areasareas ofof NorthNorth America and Eurasia.Eurasia. The winters are coldercolder andand longerlonger than in the temperate deciduous forest zone and much of the regionregion is dominateddominated byby extensiveextensive coniferconifer forestsforests composed of species of Abies,Abies, Larix,Larix, PiceaPicea and PinusPinus oror extensive areas of bogbog oror peatlandspeatlands [Hora,[Hora, 1981].1981]. Broad-Broad leaved trees areare poorlypoorly representedrepresented inin borealboreal forestsforests although those species that do occuroccur oftenoften covercover largelarge areas. Families and genera of broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees that are found in boreal forests includeinclude thethe SalicaceaeSalicaceae (Salix,(Salix, Populus), the BetulaceaeBetulaceae (Alnus,(Alnus, Betula)Betula) andand RosaceaeRosaceae (Sorbus) [Vasilevich,[Vasilevich, 1996].1996). In thethe northernnorthern limitslimits ofof thethe boreal forest,forest, trees are typicallytypically reducedreduced to low,low, shrubbyshrubby krumholz due to thethe shortshort growinggrowing seasonseason andand severesevere Figure 1.6 - Pure forestforest of EuropeanEuropean weatherweather.. beech in thethe ApennineApennine Mountains,Mountains, Tuscany RegionRegion (Italy).(Italy). Forests composed of typicallytypically borealboreal speciesspecies extendextend south into thethe higherhigher elevationselevations ofof thethe Appalachian,Appalachian, RockiesRockies andand CascadeCascade mountainmountain rangesranges inin North America and inin the Alps.Alps, CarpathianCarpathian andand PyrenneesPyrennees rangesranges ofof Europe.Europe.

Figure 11.7.7 - A mixed deciduous temperate forest in the southernsouthern AppalachianAppalachian Mountains of the eastern United States. ForestsForests suchsuch as these may contain as many as 140140 species of broad-broad leaved treestrees (Pisgah National Forest, North Carolina,Carolina, UnitedUnited States).States).

9 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees

CHAPTER 2 TEMPERATE BROAD-LEAVEDBROAD-' EAVED TREES IN HUIVIANHUMAN CULCULTURElURE

Because of their importanceimportance toto humanshumans sincesince prehistoricprehistoric times,times, manymany temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees have been the subjectssubjects ofof legends,legends, folklore,folklore, mythologymythology and religion.religion. Some have servedserved asas ssymbolsymbols in militarymilitary organizationsorganizations or havehave beenbeen associatedassociated withwith wisdom,wisdom, strengthstrength andand reliability.reliability. There have also been a numbernumber ofof historichistoric temperatetemperate broad-leaved trees and forests in both the Old and New World.

FOLKLORE, MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIONRELIGION

The majestic oaks,oaks, Quercus spp.,spp. , with their impressive size and longevity have been revered as sacred trees by many humanhuman cultures.cultures. TheThe evergreenevergreen oaksoaks (e.g.(e.g. thethe EuropeanEuropean QuercusQuercus ¡/exilex andand Q.Q. suber) were especially favoured and were rated as highhigh asas pinespines inin earlyearly humanhuman societiessocieties whowho worshipped treestrees as they worshippedworshipped other wonders of nature that theythey couldcould notnot understandunderstand [Mirov and HasbrouckHasbrouck 1976]. The ancientancient HebrewsHebrews considered thethe oak sacred because itit waswas under an oak that AbrahamAbraham gavegave hospitalityhospitality toto GodGod andand twotwo ofof hishis angels,angels, whowho werewere disguiseddisguised asas travellerstravellers.. This story is told in Genesis 18;18; and is one of 60 referencesreferences toto oakoak inin thethe Bible.Bible. TheThe earlyearly Gauls worshipped oakoak asas a symbol of their supreme GodGod.. To the Druids,Druids, an order of priests or ministers of religion among the ancientancient CeltsCelts ofof Gaul,Gaul, BritainBritain andand Ireland,Ireland , oakoak waswas consideredconsidered aa sacred celestial treetree.. Both oak and the mistletoe,mistletoe, Viscum albumalbum,, a plant that grows on oaks andand other trees, were involved inin almostalmost allall Celtic-DruidCeltic-Druid ritualritual ceremoniesceremonies [Lust,[Lust, 1990].1990].

One of the mostmost intriguingintriguing aspects of the oakoak asas aa sacredsacred treetree isis itsits widespreadwidespread associationassociation with thunder gods in various European culturescultures.. ThisThis isis probably duedue toto thethe factfact that oak seems to attract lightning more than other trees in the forest. To the northern EuropeansEuropeans,, itit waswas thethe treetree ofof life sacred to thethe thunderthunder god Thor.Thor. The oakoak was alsoalso sacredsacred toto thethe principalprincipal Greek god Zeus with his thunderbolts and toto hishis RomanRoman counterpart,counterpart, Jupiter.Jupiter. TheThe oracleoracle ofof Zeus Zeus atat Dodana, Dodana, Greece, Greece, mentioned by Homer,Homer, was situatedsituated inin aa sacredsacred grovegrove ofof oakoak trees.trees . PredictionsPredictions werewere mademade atat thisthis oracleoracie by interpretinginterpreting the rustlingrustling ofof oakoak leaves.leaves. TheThe SlavicSlavic countriescountries ofof easterneastern EuropeEurope hadhad theirtheir own versions of a thunderthunder god associatedassociated with oak. In Russia, his name was Perun, derived from the RussianRussian word forfor thunderbolt.thunderbolt. InIn Lithuania,Lithuania, thethe godgod ofof thunderthunder waswas calledcalled Perkunas,Perkunas, aa namename thought to bebe takentaken fromfrom anan Indo-EuropeanIndo-European name for oak [Lust,[Lust, 1990].1990]. InIn WilliamWilliam Shakespeare'sShakespeare's King LearLear,, reference is made to "oak"oak cleaving thunderbolts"thunderbolts" [Walker, 1990].1990].

In Greece and Rome,Rome, thethe oakoak andand thethe linden,linden , TiliaTilia cordata,cordata, areare associatedassociated withwith thethe mythicalmythical storystory of BaucisBaucis andand Philemon,Philemon, aa humble,humble, elderlyelderly marriedmarried couplecouple who extendedextended kindly hospitality to the disguised gods Zeus and Hermes after all of their richer neighbours had refused to do soso.. The two gods punishedpunished the inhospitableinhospitable neighbours byby covering allall of the homes in the areaarea withwith aa lakelake except for the smallsmall cottagecottage occupiedoccupied by BaucisBaucis andand Philemon,Philemon, which was transformedtransformed into a beautiful templetemple.. TheThe couple held priestly office there until theythey died.died . TheThe godsgods grantedgranted theirtheir request that they would die at thethe samesame timetime soso asas notnot toto bebe separatedseparated byby death.death .The The couplecouple waswas then transformedtransformed by the gods intointo twotwo treestrees growinggrowing sideside byby side.side . BaucusBaucus becamebecame a lindenlinden tree,tree, the symbol of conjugal love.love. PhilemonPhilemon became an oak,oak, thethe symbol of hospitalityhospitality [Lust,[Lust, 1990].1990].

In England,England , the namename "gospel"gospel oak"oak" relatesrelates to aa timetime whenwhen PsalmsPsalms andand GospelGospel truthstruths werewere saidsaid under the shade of anan oakoak tree.tree. TheyThey werewere consideredconsidered restingresting placesplaces inin thethe "beating"beating ofof parish parish boundsbounds",", a practice that has its origins in a feast to the pre-Christian god Terminus. The ceremony was performed by a clergymanclergyman and hishis parishionersparishioners going to thethe boundariesboundaries of thethe parishparish andand choosing a site,site, preferably an oakoak tree,tree, toto readread passagespassages fromfrom thethe gospelsgospels andand askask blessingsblessings forfor the people [Grieve,[Grieve, 1931].1931].

11 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees

Another temperate broad-leaved treetree wwithith a rich folklore is the EuropeanEuropean mountain ash or rowan tree (Sorbus(Sorbus aucuparia).aucuparia). AnotherAnother ofof thisthis tree'stree's commoncommon namesnames isis witchwood.witchwood .In In northernnorthern Scotland,Scotland, itit was once common practice toto plantplant rowanrowan treestrees aroundaround homeshomes toto preventprevent witcheswitches fromfrom entering.entering. Another practice involved hanging sprigs of rowanrowan aboveabove doorsdoors andand stablesstables toto keepkeep awayaway evilevil spiritsspirits.. An old German folk tale says that if you carry a leaf or a bitbit ofof woodwood from the mountainmountain ash in a bagbag onon youryour person,person, it will protectprotect youyou fromfrom harm.harm. ThisThis beliefbelief waswas broughtbrought toto northernnorthern Pennsylvania by the early German settlers who hikedhiked to the toptop ofof thethe AlleghenyAllegheny PlateauPlateau inin searchsearch of native mountain ashash.. They collected sprigssprigs ofof foliagefoliage andand pinnedpinned them them to to thethe coatscoats ofof their children when they left home to go to schoolschool [Ciesla,[Ciesla, 1990a].1990a].

According to oldold GermanicGermanic andand ScandinavianScandinavian folklore,folklore, the ash,ash , Fraxinus excelior,excelior, is believedbelieved to bebe thethe world tree; the legendarylegendary Ygdrasil or the tree that Odin rode. It takes itsits namename from thethe wayway Odin came to wisdom.wisdom. He hung himself by the arms in top of thethe treetree forfor ninenine daysdays toto learnlearn thethe secrets of the runes,runes, symbolizingsymbolizing manman hashas alwaysalways hadhad toto strugglestruggle forfor knowledge.knowledge. TheThe godsgods hadhad their meetingsmeetings at thethe basebase ofof this tree andand its branches covered thethe world (Personal communicationcommunication,, Peder Gjerdrum,Gjerdrum, NorwegianNorwegian ForestForest ResearchResearch Institute,Institute, Norway).Norway).

To the peoplepeople of Finland,Finland, birchbirch (Betula(Betula spp.)spp.) was aa sacredsacred tree.tree. InIn thethe Kalevala,Kalevala, aa FinnishFinnish epic,epic, birch was designated as a holyholy tree ofof greatgreat useuse toto humanity.humanity. TheThe GermanicGermanic peoplepeople dedicateddedicated the birch to Thor,Thor, their god ofof thunderthunder [Lust,[Lust, 1990].1990]. "Besom"Besom brooms"brooms" made of birch twigs were used in England for cleaningcleaning outout aa propertyproperty believedbelieved toto be be bewitched. bewitched. The The supernatural supernatural underworld,underworld, however,however, has a way of turning to itsits ownown usesuses thethe implementsimplements ofof lawlaw andand order.order. WitchesWitches discovereddiscovered that some of thethe badbad spiritsspirits becamebecame entangled in the twigs. A witch who secured some of these polluted brooms might bind the birch sticks to a handle made of ash wood to make a broomstick on which she could ride acrossacross thethe country,country, carryingcarrying outout thethe dutiesduties ofof herher profession.profession. TheThe ashash handlehandle protected her against drowning,drowning, aa fatefate toto whichwhich witcheswitches werewere particularlyparticularly susceptible.susceptible.

The RomansRomans believed that aa personperson standingstanding underunder aa laurellaurel (Laurus(Laurus nobilis)nobilis) wouldwould bebe shieldedshielded from infectioninfection by plague and also fromfrom lightning.lightning . During the Middle AgesAges,, laurel was believed toto provide protection againstagainst both lightning and witches [Lust,[Lust, 1990].1990]. The relatedrelated myrtlemyrtle (Myrtus(Myrtus communis) was an important tree in religiousreligious ritualsrituals andand ancientancient festivities.festivities. TheThe ancientancient PersiansPersians regarded thethe myrtle as a holy plant. InIn Egypt,Egypt, women wore blossoms of myrtle,myrtle, pomegranate and lotuslotus on festivefestive occasionsoccasions.. To thethe JewsJews,, thethe myrtle waswas aa symbolsymbol ofof peacepeace;; toto thethe ancientancient GreeksGreeks,, itit was sacred to the god Aphrodite;Aphrodite; andand toto thethe Romans,Romans, itit waswas sacredsacred toto VenusVenus [deWit,[deWit, 1967].1967].

Because the silk industry was so importantimportant toto thethe earlyearly ChineseChinese people,people, thethe mulberrymulberry (Morus(Morus spp.)spp.) was revered inin ancientancient ChinaChina asas aa sacredsacred tree.tree. SomeSome scholarsscholars connectconnect itit withwith thethe fu-sangtu-sang tree,tree , aa symbolic tree of life that appears in the mythologymythology and artart ofof thethe HanHan DynastyDynasty (202(202 BCBC toto 220220 AD).AD). In another classic legend,legend, the redred berries of thethe mulberrymulberry treetree acquiredacquired theirtheir colourcolour afterafter twotwo youngyoung Babylonian loverslovers,, Pyramus and ThisbieThisbie,, bled and died under a white mulberry tree.tree. This legend is the source materialmaterial forfor Shakespeare'sShakespeare's storystory ofof RomeoRomeo andand JulietJuliet [Lust,[Lust, 1990].1990].

Several legends concerning the crucifixion of ChristChrist involveinvolve temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees. TheThe redbud (Cercis siliguastrum),siliquastrum), a tree that producesproduces brilliant pink-red flowers in early springspring (Figure(Figure 2.1), and is also known as Judas tree. According to a legend,legend , this was the tree on which JudasJudas,, the disciple who betrayed Christ, hanged himself [Hora,[Hora, 1981].1981]. Before this incident occurredoccurred,, the tree supposedly produced white flowersflowers.. Now itit is said toto produceproduce pink-redpink-red flowers inin shame.shame. ThisThis legend spread toto North America where several species of Cercis are native. AccordingAccording toto anotheranother legend, the cross of thethe CalvaryCalvary waswas hewnhewn fromfrom thethe woodwood ofof aspenaspen (presumably(presumably PopulusPopulus tremula).tremula) . This legend also made its way to the United States where the tree was once feared by lumberjacks in the GreatGreat LakesLakes regionregion (Michigan,(Michigan, MinnesotaMinnesota andand Wisconsin)Wisconsin) wherewhere thethe indigenousindigenous P.P. tremuloides is a major component of the forests.forests. They refused to sleep in buildings built of aspenaspen wood [Graham et al.,a/. , 1963].

According to another legendlegend,, Christ was beaten by birch rods as hehe carriedcarried the crosscross toto CalvaryCalvary [Lust[Lust,, 1990].1990]. Christian people of far northern Europe belbelievedieved thatthat thethe birch ofof thethe ArcticArctic tundratundra laylay low along the groundground out of shameshame forfor thethe birchbirch rodsrods thatthat werewere usedused toto scourgescourge ChristChrist [Peyton[Peyton,, 1984].1984].

12 Non-wood forest productsproducts fromfrom temperate temperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

Box 2.1 Legends of the aspen

Two speciesspecies ofof aspen;aspen ; thethe OldOld WorldWorld PopulusPopulus tremula tremula andand thethe New New World World Populus Populus tremuloides tremuloides havehave transcontinentaltranscontinental distributions and areare amongamong thethe mostmost widely widely distributed distributed broad-leavedbroad-leaved temperatetemperate trees.trees. The leaves of aspens are hinged on petioles that acactt as a pivot,pivot, causing the foliage to move every time a breeze blows. One of the common names for P.P. tremulatremula is the GermanGerman Zitterpappel.Zitterpappe/. In Canada and the United States,States, P. tremuloides is known as quaking oror trembling aspen.aspen.

This unusual foliage characteristic has beenbeen the basisbasis ofof severalseveral legendslegends relatingrelating toto aspens.aspens. AccordingAccording toto oneone,, Christ doomed the aspen to tremble when it refused to bow down before him.him. Another legend says that the cross of CalvaryC.alvary was made of aspenaspen wood and thethe leavesleaves of thethe aspenaspen havehave notnot stoppedstopped shakingshaking since. This Old World legend made its way into the New World via European settlers.settlers. Father DeSmetDeSmet,, an early missionary to the north-westernnorth-western United States relates that the FrenchFrench coureurscoureurs du boisbois hadhad superstitions about the aspen that originated from this legend [Peattie, 1953;1953; Boom and Kleijn, 1966].

Figure 22.1.1 Redbuds or Judas trees (Cercis siliquastrum) lineline aa streetstreet inin Padria,Padria, on the ItalianItalian islandisland of Sardinia.Sardinia. According to aa legend,legend, this waswas thethe treetree onon whichwhich Judas,Judas, thethe discipledisciple whowho betrayedbetrayed Christ, hanged himself.

The hollies, 1/ex/lex sppspp.. (family Aquifoliaceae) have a wealth of folklore associated with them,them, bothboth inin the Old and New World.World . They were held by Celtic druids toto symbolize thethe sunsun,, andand sprayssprays ofof thetheirir evergreen foliage were taken into thethe dwellingsdwellings duringduring thethe winterwinter months.months. HollyHolly isis still a popular Christmas decoration among ChChristianristian culturescultures.. It was also a popular decoration during the Roman SaturnaliaSaturnalia.. In North AmericaAmerica,, holly was used as a martial emblem by some indigenous tribes and a celebration knownknown asas the "Black"Black Drink"Drink" ceremony waswas based onon the emetic properties of Ilex/lex vomitoria [Hora,1981].[Hora,1981j.

13 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

SYMBOLS

To northern European cultures,cultures, the oak leaf cluster is a symbol of heroism and victoryvictory.. ThiThiss ssymbolym bol spread to the United States where it has become a military symbol. TheThe Oak Leaf ClusterCluster isis aa ssmallmall bronze decoration consisting ofof a twig bearingbearing four oakoak leavesleaves andand threethree acorns.acorns. ItIt isis given toto holders of medals for valour,valour, wounds oror distinguisheddistinguished service,service, in recognitionrecognition of some actact justifying a second award of the samesame medal.medal. In Rome,Rome, the oak wreath crown was a prize for saving a citizencitizen's's life in battlebattle [Lust,[Lust, 1990].1990]. AA sprayspray ofof oakoak onceonce appearedappeared onon EnglishEnglish sixpencesixpence andand oneon e shilling coins [Grieve,[Grieve, 1931]1931].

The hard wood ofof thethe oakoak waswas equatedequated withwith incorruptibility.incorruptibility. The hardhard wood,wood, combinedcombined with tthehe great age that somesome oaksoaks cancan achieve,achieve, causedcaused oaks to bebe associatedassociated with bothboth strengthstrength and eternal life in many societies.societies. InIn China,China, the oak signifiessignifies malemale strength but also signifies weakness because,because, unlike the willowwillow oror bamboo,bamboo, it remains rigidrigid in storms,storms, thereforetherefore breakingbreaking underunder pressure. To some nativenative American tribes,tribes, thethe oakoak isis aa symbolsymbol ofof MotherMother Earth.'Earth .1

During Roman timestimes thethe fascesfasces,, aa bound bundle of birch sticks enclosing anan axe with the blade projectingprojecting,, waswas carried by soldierssoldiers in advanceadvance ofof emperorsemperors oror otherother importantimportant officials.officials. TheseThese fasces symbolized the state'sstate's power to punishpunish byby floggingflogging (the(the birchbirch sticks)sticks) oror byby puttingputting toto deathdeath (the axe) [Lust,[Lust, 1990].1990].

In Christian religions, oak is associatedassociated with steadfastness inin faithfaith and virtuevirtue.. The oak isis alsoalso considered to bebe aa symbol symbol of of great great achievement achievement accomplished accomplished through through patience, patience, dedication, dedication, perseverance andand commitment to thethe truth.2truth .2 In literature andand music,music, the oakoak oftenoften connotesconnotes strength, masculinity,masculinity, stability and longevity [Lust,[Lust, 1990].1990]. An example is seen in this verseverse fromfrom aa traditional English/AmericanEnglish/American folkfolk balladballad knownknown asas FalseFalse Love.Love.

I leaned my back against anan oak.oak, thinkingthinking it was a trusty tree.tree. But first it bowed,bowed, and then it broke.broke. And soso my love proved falsefalse toto me.me.

In ancient Greece and Rome,Rome, thethe hawthorn,hawthorn, CrataegusCrataegus spp.,spp. , had happyhappy associations,associations, symbolizing sweet hope, marriage and babies. It was dedicated to Hymen,Hymen, the god of marriage and was used as a symbol of hope at Greek weddings. BridalBridal attendantsattendants worewore itsits blossomsblossoms whilewhile thethe bridebride carriedcarried an entire bough. Also in Greece and Rome,Rome, torches carried inin wedding processionsprocessions were made of hawthorn. TheThe Romans putput hawthorn leavesleaves inin thethe cradles of newborn babies to ward off evilevil spirits. In medievalmedieval Europe,Europe, on the otherother hand,hand, hawthornhawthorn hadhad aa veryvery differentdifferent image.image. It waswas generally regarded as an unlucky plant and it was believedbelieved that bringing its branches inside would portend the death of one of the household'shousehold's members. Hawthorn was said to be one of the witches' favourite plants and waswas especiallyespecially toto bebe avoidedavoided onon WalpurgisWalpurgis Night,Night, whenwhen thethe witcheswitches turnedturned themselves intointo hawthornshawthorns [Lust,[Lust, 1990].1990].

The weeping willowwillow,, Salix babylonica,babylonica, is a well-known symbol of unlucky love in the western world as exemplified by the words from aa traditionaltraditional folkfolk songsong fromfrom thethe southernsouthern AppalachianAppalachian MountainsMountains of the USA: Bury me beneath the willow,willow, ''neathneath the weepin willowwillow tree,tree, for when she hears that I am sleepinsleepin'' maybe then shellshe'll thinkthink ofof me. me.

In Asia,Asia, however,however, it hashas beenbeen associatedassociated withwith thethe springtimespringtime regenerationregeneration ofof nature,nature , eternaleternal friendship,friendship, patience,patience, perseverance and meeknessmeekness [Lust,[Lust, 1990].1990].

Source:Source: Rare Earth International in 1997 (htt(http://www.golden.net/-debrusk/oleaf.htm)p://www.golden.neU-debruskioleaf.htm) Source:Source: JacksonvilleJacksonville University,University, FloridaFlorida (USA)(USA) in 19971997 (http://www.ju.edu/homepages/ju/logo.htm)(http://www.ju.edu/homepages/ju/logo. htm)

14 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

The laurellaurel,, Laurus nobilis,nobilis, a small to medium evergreen tree of the Mediterranean Region was the symbol and victory and honour.honour. DuringDuring thethe MiddleMiddle Ages,Ages, distinguisheddistinguished menmen werewere crownedcrowned withwith aa wreath of laurellaurel foliagefoliage andand berries.berries. This ceremonyceremony is the originorigin ofof thethe termterm "poet"poet laureate."laureate." University undergraduates are known asas "bachelors""bachelors" fromfrom thethe LatinLatin baccalaureus,baccalaureus, meaningmeaning laurellaurel berry. They were forbidden to marrymarry becausebecause it waswas believedbelieved thatthat thisthis wouldwould distractdistract themthem fromfrom their studies. By extension of thisthis idea,idea, allall unmarriedunmarried menmen areare referredreferred toto asas bachelorsbachelors [Hora,[Hora , 1981].1981].

The birch is associated with cleansing.cleansing. SaunaSauna bathersbathers in FinlandFinland and RussiaRussia slapslap themselvesthemselves andand each other with vasta,vasta, bundles of birch twigstwigs tied atat the buttbutt end.end. WhenWhen steepedsteeped inin hothot water,water, theythey give off a sharp,sharp, clean,clean, medicinal odour [Peyton,[Peyton, 1984].1984].

The Canadian flag is a red maple leaf on a field ofof white.white. ThisThis designdesign replacedreplaced the Canadian Red Ensign, which was used in variousvarious versionsversions betweenbetween 1870 and 1965.1965. The maplemaple leafleaf flagflag waswas adopted by resolution of thethe CanadianCanadian ParliamentParliament (House(House ofof Commons)Commons) onon 1515 DecemberDecember 19641964 andand by the Senate on 1717 December 1964.1964. TheThe maplemaple leafleaf becamebecame Canada'sCanada's officialofficial flagflag onon 1515 FebruaryFebruary 1965.31965.3

HISTORY

HISTORICAL ANECDOTES

The common name ""beech"beech" forfor the trees of thethe genusgenus Fagus,Fagus, whichwhich isis foundfound inin variousvarious formsforms throughout the Teutonic dialects,dialects, refersrefers toto "book"."book". Early books or tablets were made fromfrom thethe woodwood of this treetree [Grieve,[Grieve, 1931].1931]. TheThe modernmodern commoncommon namename forfor beechbeech inin GermanGerman isis Buche Buche [Quartier, [Quartier, 1978] while the word for book is Buch.

When the RomansRomans invaded Gaul,Gaul, they were notnot preparedprepared for thethe forebodingforeboding oakoak andand beechbeech dominated forests of northernnorthern Europe.Europe. TheyThey werewere thethe directdirect oppositeopposite ofof theirtheir ideaidea ofof civilization. civilization .To To reduce potential problems of warfare and the mental dread of mystery,mystery, darkness and the possibility of an enemyenemy bowmanbowman behindbehind everyevery tree,tree, thethe RomansRomans divided these forests with roads and fieldsfield s and brought themthem downdown toto manageablemanageable proportionsproportions [Miller [Miller and and Lamb, Lamb ,19851. 1985].

Early English kings saw oaks as a source of wealthwealth andand anan opportunityopportunity for taxing.ta xing. The numbernumber ofof swine that an oak forest could sustainsustain from itsits acorn cropcrop was usedused to determinedetermine tax ratesrates [Walker,[Walker, 1990]. An entry in the Doomsday Book,Book, compiled on the orders of William the Conqueror,Conqueror, around AD 1086,1086, says of aa certaincertain village:village: "There"There is woodwood forfor fortyforty swine,swine, andand thethe villagevillage waswas taxedtaxed accordingly."[Edlin,accordingly. " [Edlin , 1985].1985].

The oak forestsforests ofof NorthNorth AmericaAmerica werewere anan importantimportant sourcesource of cooperagecooperage even during the earlyearly colonial period.period . Casks werewere assembledassembled andand disassembleddisassembled in aa prefabricatedprefabricated stylestyle andand shippedshipped abroad.abroad. Some made thethe journeyjourney severalseveral times,times, filledfilled withwith variousvarious liquids.liquids. AA defiantdefiant Englishman Englishman named Samuel Maverick,Maverick, living in colonial America,America, was aggravatedaggravated with thethe BritishBritish GovernmentGovernment over regulations governing stave trade and marketed his material through an agent in Spain.Spain. The agent sold Maverick'sMaverick's cargo andand forwardedforwarded receipts in SpanishSpanish coin to anan EnglishEnglish merchantmerchant forfor English goods needed and notnot otherwiseotherwise availableavailable in NewNew England.England. ThisThis is howhow thethe wordword "maverick,""maverick," meaning dissenter, enteredentered thethe EnglishEnglish languagelanguage [Walker,[Walker, 1990].1990].

The American live oak (Quercus(Quercus virginiana) was a favoured source of ship'sship's ttimbersimbers in the United States until metal ships were constructed during the American Civil WaWar.r. Tree harvesters known as "live"live oakers"oakers" cut largelarge volumes of livelive oaks inin thethe southeasternsoutheastern UnitedUnited States because their timber was said to havehave a betterbetter graingrain forfor shipbuildingshipbuilding than that of the EnglishEnglish oak (Q.(Q. robur). At one time there was aa lucrativelucrative exportexport marketmarket forfor livelive oakoak ship'sship's timberstimbers inin Denmark,Denmark, England,England, FranceFrance andand other EuropeanEuropean countries.countries. DuringDuring earlyearly 1800s,1800s, AmericanAmerican gentlemengentlemen inin Louisiana and otherother southern statesstates oftenoften settledsettled theirtheir differencesdifferences by by duels duels fought fought at at thethe sitesite of a livelive oakoak treetree [Walker[Walker,, 1990].1990].

3 Information providedprovided by Vidar John Nordin,Nordin, AssociateAssociate Editor,Editor, TheThe Forestry Chronicle,Chronicle, Ottawa,Ottawa, Canada.Canada.

15 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

HISTORIC TREES AND FORESTSFORESTS

Many records exist of temperate broad-leaved trees and/orand/or forests that have historical significance.significance. InIn thethe Near EastEast,, a specimen of Quercus coccifera,coccifera, known as Abrams'Abrams' oak,oak, supposedly representsrepresents the spot where Abraham pitched hishis tent.tent. There isis a superstitionsuperstition thatthat any person whowho cutscuts or otherwise damages this tree will loselose hishis firstbornfirstborn sonson [Grieve,[Grieve, 1931].1931]. A grove of somesome 1212 oaksoaks inin thethe statestate ofof Mecklenberg-West Mecklenberg-West PomeraniaPomerania inin northeasternnortheastern GermanyGermany isis believed to contain some of the oldestoldest livingliving treestrees inin Europe.Europe. KnownKnown as thethe IvenackIvenack oaks,oaks, the oldest tree in the grovegrove hashas anan estimatedestimated ageage ofof aboutabout 11 200200 years.years. AccordingAccording toto aa legend,legend, thesethese oaks have a definite prescribedprescribed lifespan.lifespan. ItIt isis saidsa id thatthat sevenseven nunsnuns fromfrom aa CistercianCistercian conventconvent brokebroke their vows and were punished by God by being turned into oaksoaks.. According toto another versionversion ofof this legend,legend, the nuns were surprised in their sleep by robbers.robbers. As they ran half naked through the woods, they called on GodGod forfor protectionprotection andand werewere turnedturned intointo oaks.oaks. AfterAfter aa thousandthousand years,years, thethe first oak will diedie andand liberateliberate oneone nun'snun's soul.soul. EveryEvery hundredhundred yearsyears thereafter,thereafter, another oak will die and its humanhuman soulsoul willwill bebe freed.freed . InIn 1962,1962 , thethe GermanGerman DemocraticDemocratic RepublicRepublic gavegave protectedprotected statusstatus to thethe lvaneckIvaneck oaks.oaks. ThisThis statusstatus waswas maintained maintained afterafter German German reunificationreunification inin 19901990 [Bolgiano. [Bolgiano, 1997]1997]..

One of Europe'sEurope's mostmost famousfamous forests is thethe SherwoodSherwood Forest of centralcentral England.England. This forest is listedlisted in thethe NormanNorman DoomsdayDoomsday survey of 1086,1086, and at oneone timetime encompassedencompassed an area thatthat extended for 32 km northnorth ofof NottinghamNottingham andand waswas 12.812.8 kmkm wide.wide. Today,Today, developmentdevelopment hashas leftleft itit inin aa fragmented condition. SherwoodSherwood ForestForest (Shire(Shire Wood)Wood) waswas a prizeprize huntinghunting groundground forfor EnglishEnglish royalty and the legendary home of Robin Hood and hishis band of Merry Men. A massive specimen of Quercus roburrobur,, knownknown asas the Major Oak,Oak, is reputedreputed to bebe RobinRobin Hood'sHood's meetingmeeting placeplace andand isis believed to be over 1 000 years old.401d. 4 It is the largest tree in what remains today of the SherwoodSherwood Forest and has a circumference of over 10m [Bourdu[Bourdu andand Viard,Viard , 1988].1988].

An oak knownknown asas thethe CharterCharter OakOak isis thethe symbolsymbol ofof thethe statestate ofof ConnecticutConnecticut inin thethe UnitedUnited States.States. This tree playedplayed aa significantsignificant rolerole inin anan eventevent thatthat tooktook placeplace inin colonialcolonial America.America. OnOn 99 OctoberOctober 1662, the citizens of the ConnecticutConnecticut Colony received a Royal Charter fromfrom King Charles II. This charter granted ConnecticutConnecticut's's residents thethe unique right ""toto have and to hold forever this placeplace inin ''NewNew England in America'."America'." Obtaining such a charter forfor a colony was an extraordinary diplomatic coup for the citizens of Connecticut.Connecticut. Twenty-five years laterlater,, King James II had second thoughts about this charter. After negotiations aimed at persuading thethe citizens ofof this colony to surrender their charter failed,failed, thethe KingKing sentsent SirSir JamesJames AndrosAndros andand anan armedarmed forceforce toto seizeseize thethe chartercharter fromfrom the colonial government in Hartford.Hartford. After hours of debate between Andros and thethe leaders of the colony, with the Charter on the table betweenbetween opposingopposing parties,parties, the candle-lit roomroom suddenly went dark. When light was restored,restored, the chartercharter waswas gone.gone. JosephJoseph Wadsworth,Wadsworth, one of thethe colony'scolony's leaders had takentaken it to a hidinghiding place insideinside a huge,huge, ancient oak on a nearbynearby estate. As a result,result, Andros returned to England empty-handed and Connecticut'sConnecticut's chartercharter remainedremained inin thethe handshands ofof thethe colonists. The famous oak finally succumbed to a storm in 18561856 (Connecticut,(Connecticut, 1994).1994). A picture of thisthis oak isis depicteddepicted onon thethe observeobserve sideside ofof aa $US $US 0.250.25 coin,coin ,commemorating commemorating the StateState of Connecticut.

In the southeastern United States,States, 46 livelive oaks (Quercus(Quercus virginiana)virginiana) are on thethe ListList ofof FamousFamous andand Historic TreesTrees.. The EvangelineEvangeline OakOak,, located on thethe BayouBayou TecheTeche inin St. MartinvilleMartinville,, LouisianaLouisiana (Figures 2.2 and 2.3), isis sometimes referredreferred to as "the"the most famous tree inin America".America". This tree isis aa living memorial toto a tragictragic episodeepisode that occurredoccurred during thethe French and Indian War when the AcadiansAcadians,, people of French-Canadian ancestryancestry,, were forced to migrate fromfrom eastern CanadaCanada toto thethe southeastern United StatesStates.. This migration is chronicledchronicled in HenryHenry WadsworthWadsworth Longfellow'sLongfellow's epicepic poem Evangeline. According to a local legend,legend, residentsresidents stoodstood underunder thethe shadeshade ofof thisthis massivemassive oakoak to greet Acadian exiles who landedlanded there. ItIt also marksmarks thethe spotspot wherewhere GabrielGabriel waited forfor hishis lostlost love Evangeline toto arrive.arrive. A short distance upstream fromfrom the Evangeline Oak is the Gabriel livelive oak. The Sidney Lanier live oak standsstands on thethe edgeedge ofof thethe MarshesMarshes ofof GlynnGlynn nearnear Brunswick,Brunswick, Georgia. HereHere,, Sydney Lanier, aa poet and lyricist,lyricist, wrote the poempoem TheThe MarshesMarshes of Glynn.Glynn. TheThe Aaron Burr live oaks form a row at thethe entranceentrance of JeffersonJefferson College in Washington,Washington , Mississippi. It

Source - "Decline"Decline ofof Sherwood" Sherwood" -- http//www.sherwoodinitiative.co.uk/decline.html.httpllwww.sherwoodinitiative. co .uk/decline.html.

16 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees was underunder these oaksoaks thatthat thisthis famousfamous figurefigure inin AmericanAmerican historyhistory waswas triedtried forfor treasontreason inin 18071807 andand acquittedacquitted.. The County Charter Oak, a livelive oakoak inin Texas,Texas, locatedlocated easteast ofof thethe NuecesNueces River,River, waswas thethe site of an assemblageassemblage of peoplepeople from aa placeplace calledcalled Fox'sFox's settlement.settlement. At thisthis site,site, theythey drafteddrafted aa petition to the State LegislatureLegislature askingasking thatthat anotheranother countycounty bebe createdcreated sincesince theythey werewere soso farfar awayaway from SanSan Patricio,Patricio, theirtheir countrycountry seat.seat. OnOn 22 FebruaryFebruary 1856,1856, thethe newnew countycounty waswas createdcreated andand namednamed "Live Oak County"County" [Miller and Lamb,Lamb, 1985].1985].

During the days of thethe CaliforniaCalifornia goldgold rush,rush, aa massivemassive valleyvalley oakoak (Quercus(Quercus lobate)lobata) waswas designateddesignated the "Forty-niner's"Forty-niner's Tree."Tree." The tree laterlater gavegave namename toto thethe SierraSierra NevadaNevada foothillfoothill communitycommunity ofof BigBig Oak Flat. The tree was said to havehave a diameterdiameter of 11ft11ft (3.35(3.35 m) andand was soso sacredsacred to thethe goldgold prospectors, they passed aa campcamp ordinanceordinance toto protectprotect it.it. Ironically,Ironically, it was the gold miningmining activityactivity that eventually destroyed the tree.tree. MiningMining operations caused the landland toto slip,slip, carrying thethe giant oakoak with it [Peattie, 1953].1953].

EVANGELlIsIE oAK Meeting place oEvangeline i & Gabriel whosecounte( parts, Emmeline Labicheand Louis lived here.Replica Arrenaux, in Long fellow- of his home ts Park - one Evangeline State ..* % mile N.Evangelines tomb thf", rearof chicoh.

Figure 2.2 The Evangeline Oak, St. Martinsville, Louisiana.

Figure 2.32.3 Sign describing the historicalhistorical significancesignificance ofof thethe EvangelineEvangeline Oak,Oak, St. Martinvi"e.Martinville.

17 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees

CHAPlER3CHAPTER 3 VVHOLEWHOLE TREESTREES

LANDSCAPE AND ORNAMENTAL TREES

Landscape andand ornamental treestrees areare an important part of human life. They provideprovide shade and beauty around homes, schools, markets and shopping areas, places ofof work, along streets and highwayshighways,, in city parksparks andand otherother areas.areas. TheyThey alsoalso helphelp conserveconserve energyenergy andand thethe qualityquality ofof air, air, water and soil. Virtually all speciesspecies ofof temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees areare importantimportant landscapelandscape andand ornamentalornamental plants and fulfil oneone oror moremore functionsfunctions inin landscapelandscape design.design. AsAs goodgood asas allall countriescountries havehave somesome level of nursery industryindustry thatthat offersoffers forfor salesale plantingplanting stockstock forfor landscapelandscape andand ornamentalornamental purposes.purposes. Small-scale nursery operations are oftenoften anan excellentexcellent opportunityopportunity forfor smallsmall businessbusiness oror family-run family-run enterprises.

HISTORICAL ASPECTS

Trees have been used asas ornamentalornamental plantsplants sincesince thethe earliestearliest ofof times.times. MoreMore thanthan 44 000000 yearsyears ago,ago, the Egyptians wrote about trees being transplanted withwith aa ball of soilsoil aroundaround theirtheir roots.roots . SomeSome trees were moved up toto 22400 400 kmkm byby boat.boat. InIn Greece,Greece, TheophrastusTheophrastus (370-285(370-285 BC)BC) andand PlinyPliny (AD(AD 23-79) gave instructions forfor tree planting and carecare.. Many books onon thethe care of trees and woody shrubs have been written sincesince thosethose earlyearly times.times. During the MiddleMiddle Ages,Ages, botanicalbotanical gardensgardens containedcontained primarilyprimarily plantsplants ofof medicinal medicinal importance. importance. Later,Later, the gardens of privateprivate estatesestates containedcontained manymany exotic plantsplants introducedintroduced via trade and travel. Many of these gardens areare nownow publicpublic andand areare greatgreat sourcessources ofof informationinformation andand recreation.recreation. By the earlyearly 1700s,1700s, treestrees werewere beingbeing plantedplanted with somesome frequency in the citiescities andand estatesestates of Europe. During the earlyearly settlementsettlement ofof NorthNorth America,America, treestrees werewere cutcut toto makemake roomroom forfor farmsfarms andand communities.communities. During thethe late 1700s,1700s, however,however, treestrees werewere beingbeing plantedplanted in towntown squares.squares. Unfortunately, after the trees were planted, few received care, except perhaps on large estates. As settlers migrated west into the open prairies, they planted seeds ofof fruit trees and other trees to shelter their homes from highhigh winds.winds. In the early 1900s,1900s, national researchresearch institutes in Europe and North America began toto study fruit and forest treestrees andand byby thethe 1950s,1950s, thesethese institutesinstitutes beganbegan workingworking onon problemsproblems associatedassociated withwith landscape and ornamental trees. The need for this researchresearch was accelerated with the introductionintroduction of several major pestspests andand diseasesdiseases thatthat causedcaused seriousserious problemsproblems withwith bothboth forestforest andand ornamentalornamental trees (e.g.(e .g. DutchDutch elmelm diseasedisease (Ophiostoma(Ophiostoma ulmi)ulmi) andand whitewhite pinepine blisterblister rustrust (Cronartium(Cronartium ribico/a).ribicola). Experiment stations,stations, botanical gardensgardens,, arboretumsarboretums andand somesome largelarge plant nurseries have longlong been involved in the introduction and evaluation of landscape materials that are able to tolerate the rigours of thethe urbanurban environment.environment. These events ledled to thethe developmentdevelopment of thethe sciencescience ofof arboriculture - the planting and care of trees and other woody plants [Harris,[Harris, 1976].1976]. BENEFITS

Ornamental trees provideprovide a basic contactcontact withwith nature andand heightenheighten pleasure in human surroundings. TheirTheir valuevalue isis difficult to quantifyquantify inin economiceconomic termsterms butbut somesome ofof thethe aestheticaesthetic benefits they can provideprovide are:are: 1. A variety of colour, form,form , texture and pattern; 2. Softening of harsh architectural lines; 3. Formation of vistas, frame views, provision of focal pointspoints andand definition of spaces; 4. Trees can make enticing play areas; 5. Cooling shade, pleasant fragrances, intriguing sounds andand serene settings;settings; 6. They can create the impression ofof aa well-establishedwell-established placeplace inin newnew residentialresidential areasareas andand reducereduce the raw "unfinished" look.look.

19 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

Ornamental trees can add to the value of real estatesestates,, although therethere are fewfew examplesexamples ofof accurateaccurate assessments. One study in the eastern UnitedUnited States indicated that trees increased the appraised value of undevelopedundeveloped landland byby 2727 percent andand that of 0.20.2 haha residentialresidential lots with houseshouses by 7 percent.percent. IndustryIndustry officials have found that attractiveattractive buildings and landscapes result in above-above average labour productivity,productivity, lowerlower absenteeismabsenteeism andand easiereasier recruitmentrecruitment ofof workersworkers withwith hard-to-findhard-to-find skills [Harris,[Harris ,19761. 1976].

Trees can havehave considerableconsiderable effects on thethe microclimatemicroclimate of areasareas ofof heavyheavy humanhuman population.population. They absorb heat as theythey transpire,transpire, provideprovide shadeshade that reducesreduces solar radiation and reflection can reduce or increaseincrease windwind speed,speed , andand cancan increaseincrease fogfog precipitationprecipitation andand snowsnow deposition deposition [Harris,[Harris, 1976]. TreesTrees can have a significantsignificant beneficialbeneficial effect on the costcost ofof winterwinter heatingheating andand summersummer cooling of buildings.buildings. They break up urban "heat islands"islands" by providing shadeshade.. It has been estimated that thethe shadeshade providedprovided byby strategicallystrategically placed treestrees near a residentialresidential home can reduce air conditioning costs by 30-5030-50 percent,percent, andand treestrees plantedplanted asas windbreakswindbreaks aroundaround buildingsbuildings cancan reducereduce winter heating energy useuse byby 4-224-22 percentpercent [Ciesla,[Ciesla, 1995;1995; Sampson,Sampson, 1992].1992].

DESIRABLE CHARACTERISTICS

Most temperate broad-leaved treestrees areare used as ornamental andand landscape plantsplants inin some form. Desirable characteristics ofof the trees selected for this purposepurpose include include geneticgenetic variability,variability, foliagefoliage colour and density,density, overall form, growth rate (both fast andand slowslow growinggrowing plantsplants maymay bebe desired)desired) and ability to grow andand survivesurvive underunder aa widewide rangerange ofof climaticclimatic andand soilsoil conditions.conditions.

Genetic variability

Genetic variability withinwithin speciesspecies is aa desirabledesirable traittrait to havehave in trees and plantsplants usedused asas ornamentals.ornamentals. Many trees have one or moremore distinctdistinct varieties.varieties. Varieties are consideredconsidered to bebe oneone step below the species level in thethe taxonomictaxonomic hierarchy.hierarchy. ForFor exampleexample SalixSalix albaalba var.var. vitellinavitellina isis aa variety of S.S. alba found inin SwitzerlandSwitzerland that hashas especiallyespecially goodgood form andand brilliantbrilliant yellowyellow shootsshoots thatthat are very decorative [FAO, 1979].1979]. They are characterized byby havinghaving distinctdistinct characteristicscharacteristics ofof foliagefoliage or form but are inseparableinseparable at the speciesspecies level.level. VarietiesVarieties appear in nature,nature, are geneticallygenetically stable and reproduce from seed. Cultivars areare mutations oror distinct formsforms ofof plants,plants, initially found in nature, and propagated asexually by cutting or graftinggrafting withwith thethe objectiveobjective ofof maintainingmaintaining thosethose characteristics for for aa saleable plant. Cultivars are notnot partpart ofof the the classic classic Linnean Linnean taxonomictaxonomic hierarchyhierarchy.. Cultivar namesnames havehave beenbeen developeddeveloped by thethe nursery industry to reflect the characteristics ofof the plant,plant, the location where it waswas discovered,discovered, its discoverer,discoverer, etc.,etc. , but areare notnot always latinized [Harrison[Harrison,, 1975]1975].. For example,example, a purplepurple leafedleafed formform ofof FagusFagus sylvatica,sylvatica, first cultivated in Germany during the eighteentheighteenth century,century, isis designateddesignated asas F.F. sylvaticasylvatica PurpureaPurpurea [Edlin,[Edlin, 1985]. Another well-known cultivar of this tree isis F.F. sylvaticasylvatica Pendula;Pendula; aa weepingweeping formform withwith longlong branches [Samson and Samson,Samson, 1986].1986]. Certain cultivars of SalixSalix albaalba growngrown commerciallycommercially inin thethe Netherlands areare designated LiempeLiempe,, Belders and Lievelde.Lievelde. These cultivarscultivars areare producedproduced vegetatively and and areare male trees that have goodgood formform andand areare fastfast growinggrowing [FAO,[FAO, 1979].1979]. Cultivariants are cultivars that appearappear somewhatsomewhat different from theirtheir vegetativevegetative parentsparents duedue toto propagation from non-typical foliage [Harrison,[Harrison, 1975].1975].

Foliage colour

Another desired characteristic of deciduous temperate broad-leaved treestrees used as landscape or ornamentals is the foliage colour. Several trees such as variousvarious cultivarscultivars ofof FagusFagus sylvaticasylvatica andand Acer palmatum have deepdeep reddish-purplereddish-purple foliage colourcolour throughoutthroughout the growinggrowing season.season. TheirTheir colours can add interest and variety to a landscapelandscape duringduring thethe entireentire growinggrowing seasonseason [Dirr,[Dirr, 1990].1990].

Brilliant foliage colour duringduring thethe autumnautumn seasonseason isis anotheranother desirabledesirable characteristiccharacteristic ofof landscape landscape and ornamental trees.trees. ManyMany deciduousdeciduous broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees produceproduce brilliantbrilliant displays of fallfall colour.colour. For example,example, the foliage of several oaks, e.g.e.g. northernnorthern red oak (Quercus(Quercus rubrum),rubrum) , scarlet oak (Q. coccinea) and pin oak (Q.(Q. palustris),palustris), turn a brilliantbrilliant scarletscarlet colourcolour inin autumn.autumn. OtherOther trees with brightbright autumn foliage colourcolour includeinclude AcerAcer saccharumsaccharum .(red-orange), (red-orange), A. rubrumrubrum (bright(bright red),red), BetulaBetula spp.spp. (yellow), Fraxinus pennsylvanica (bright yellow or violetviolet dependingdepending onon cultivars),cultivars), ComusComus floridaflorida

20 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

(deep red),red), LiquidambarLiquidambar styracifluastyraciflua (deep(deep red),red) , PistadaPistacia chinensischinensis (bright(bright red)red) andand LiriodendronLiriodendron tulipifera (bright yellow) [Ferguson,[Ferguson, 1982].1982].

Growth

Rapid growth is aa desireddesired characteristiccharacteristic of treestrees establishedestablished in newnew developmentsdevelopments so that thethe harshness ofof new construction isis minimized inin as short a time asas possible.possible. SilverSilver maplemaple (Acer saccharinum) is a popular fast growinggrowing shade tree butbut isis susceptiblesusceptible toto ironiron chlorosischlorosis whenwhen plantedplanted on alkaline or iron poorpoor soilssoils [Dirr,[Dirr, 1980].1980]. Other fast-growing trees used in new landscapes include Alnus spp., CatalpaCatalpa spp.,spp., PaulowniaPaulownia tomentosa,tomentosa, Populus spp.,spp. , Robinia pseudoacacia, Salix spp., Sapium sebiferum and Ulmus spp.spp. [Ferguson,[Ferguson , 1982].

In other situations,situations, treestrees withwith relativelyrelatively slowslow ratesrates ofof growthgrowth maymay bebe required.required. ExamplesExamples includeinclude small gardensgardens oror patiospatios wherewhere aa fast-growing fast-growing treetree wouldwould quicklyquickly outgrowoutgrow availableavailable space.space. Examples of slow-growing trees which would work well inin limitedlimited spacespace includeinclude AcerAcer palmatum, palmatum, Cercis canadensis,canadensis, ComusComus spp., certain cultivars of Prunus,Prunus, PistaciaPistacia chinensischinensis andand OstryaOstrya virginiana [Ferguson, 1982].

Colourful flowersflowers and fruitsfruits

Flowering treestrees are especially popular in earlyearly springspring whenwhen somesome species produceproduce abundantabundant flowers beforebefore leafingleafing out.out. TwoTwo outstandingoutstanding examplesexamples areare thethe Japanese flowering cherries (Prunus serullata and P. yedoensis). Cultivars of these trees werewere givengiven byby thethe JapaneseJapanese GovernmentGovernment to thethe UnitedUnited StatesStates GovernmentGovernment andand werewere plantedplanted amongamong several famous monumentsmonuments inin Washington, DC, wherewhere thethe annual cherry blossom display is worldworld famous.famous. OtherOther treestrees thatthat produce abundant and colourfulcolourful spring flowersflowers areare AmalachierAmalachier canadensis, Crateagus spp., Comus florida,florida, SorbusSorb us spp.spp. andand flowering crab apples (Malus(Malus spp.).spp.).

Summer flowering trees continue to provideprovide colour andand varietyvariety after the springspring blossomsblossoms havehave passed.passed. SummerSummer floweringflowering treestrees include CatalpaCatalpa spp.,spp ., LiriodendronLiriodendron tulipifera,tulipifera, MagnoliaMagnolia grandifloragrandiflora and Oxydendrum arboreum [Ferguson,[Ferguson, 1982].1982].

Another desired trait is trees that produceproduce flowers in spring and brightly coloured butbut not necessarilynecessarily edible fruitsfruits later in thethe Figure 3.1 The flowering season.season. A goodgood exampleexample isis thethe flowering flowering dogwooddogwood (Comus(Comus dogwood (Cornus(Comus florida) isis florida), which typically produces white blossomsblossoms inin springspring (Figure(Figure a popularpopular ornamentalornamental treetree 3.1) and brilliantbrilliant redred fruitsfruits in autumn.autumn. SeveralSeveral pinkpink floweringflowering because it produces cultivars (rubra and CherokeeCherokee Chief) are alsoalso availableavailable [Dirr,[Dirr, attractive flowers in springspring 1990]. Other trees inin this categorycategory includeinclude CrateagusCrateagus spp.,spp. , and brilliant red fruits inin Prunus spp. and DiospyrosOiospyros khaki [Ferguson, 1982].1982]. autumn.

Ability to toleratetolerate harshharsh conditions

Landscape and ornamental trees areare oftenoften establishedestablished underunder harshharsh environmentalenvironmental conditions.conditions. These include cities where there are high levels of air pollution, exposure to high levels of reflected heatheat,, and limited open soilsoil surfacesurface forfor airair andand water.water. SomeSome temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees thatthat areare able to tolerate these conditionsconditions include Acer spp.,spp ., Aesculus carnea,camea, Carpinus betulinus,betulin us, Catalpa spp., Celtis occidentalis, Fraxinus spp.,spp., PlatanusPlatanus spp.,spp., QuercusQuercus spp.,spp., TiliaTilia cordatacordata andand UlmusUlmus spp.spp.

Ability to withstandwithstand salt spray isis aa factorfactor thatthat mustmust bebe consideredconsidered whenwhen landscapinglandscaping nearnear thethe seashore.seashore. Some trees, which cancan toleratetolerate seashoreseashore conditions,conditions, include Acer platanoides, Acer rubrum,rub rum, Arbutus spp.,spp., Carpinus betulinus, Eucalyptus spp., Nyssa sylvatica, Salix alba var. vitellina and Ulmus parvifolia [Ferguson,[Ferguson, 1982].1982].

21 Non-wood forest productsproducts fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

USES

The purpose of anyany landscapelandscape isis toto looklook pleasingpleasing toto thethe eye.eye. SomeSome specialspecial usesuses ofof broad-leaved broad-leaved trees and shrubs inin landscapelandscape designdesign areare describeddescribed inin thethe followingfollowing sections:sections:

Shade andand roadsideroadside treestrees

One of the majormajor purposespurposes of broad-leavedbroad-leaved ornamental trees is to provide shade. Many temperate broad-leaved trees characteristically have spreading crownscrowns,, dense foliage and provide excellent shade. Planting of trees alongalong roadsidesroadsides inin townstowns andand citiescities providesprovides notnot onlyonly welcomewelcome shadeshade onon warm summer days,days, butbut they alsoalso softensoften the sharpsharp edgesedges ofof homes,homes, officeoffice buildings,buildings, factories and other structures.structures.

Figure 3.2 -Plane trees (Platanus x acerifolia)acerifo/ia) provideprovide welcomewelcome shadeshade inin aa marketplacemarketplace inin Hefei, Anhui Province,Province, China.China.

Many temperate broad-leaved trees are popular shade and street trees throughout the world. The species of PlatanusPlatanus (family Platanaceae)Platanaceae) are popular street and shade trees in manymany areas.areas. NotNot only do they provideprovide goodgood shade,shade, butbut alsoalso theirtheir flakyflaky greengreen andand whitewhite barkbark isis attractiveattractive andand eye-eye catching.catching. Platanus occidentalis isis widely used in manymany NorthNorth AmericanAmerican towns and citiescities andand P.P. orientalis is often used in the NearNear East as aa shadeshade tree. InIn somesome EuropeanEuropean and Asian cities (e.g. Rome), a tree knownknown asas thethe LondonLondon planeplane treetree (Platanus(Platanus xx acerifolia),acerifolia), aa hybridhybrid betweenbetween P.P. occidentalis and P.P. orientalis,orientalis, isis aa popularpopular treetree forfor plantingplanting alongalong streets,streets, shoppingshopping mallsmalls andand markets [author's observation] (Figure 3.2). This tree can tolerate harsh city conditions and drought and is often pollarded. It does not have bright fall colouring. Another popular streetstreet andand shadeshade treetree isis the European limelime or lindenlinden (Ti//a(Tilia cordata).cordata). This treetree isis widelywidely plantedplanted inin temperatetemperate climates.climates. InIn BerlinBerlin,, GermanyGermany,, the famous street UnterUnter den Linden,Linden, whichwhich hashas manymany eighteentheighteenth andand nineteenthnineteenth century monumental buildingsbuildings,, is named for linden trees, which line the street. Other popular street trees includeinclude thethe horsehorse chestnutchestnut (Aesculus(Aesculus hippocastanum)hippocastanum) andand the NorwayNorway maplemaple (Acer(Acer platanoides). The latter has been so widely planted in parts of North America that it is said to have been "overused."overused."" This tree requires a lotlot ofof roomroom toto growgrow andand itsits rootsroots tendtend toto bucklebuckle roadwaysroadways andand sidewalks [Dirr, 1990].1990].

Another popular NorthNorth American shade tree is the American elm (Ulmus americana). Its popularity stems from itsits graceful,graceful, vase-likevase-like crown formform (Figure(Figure 3.3).3.3). ThisThis treetree waswas onceonce widelywidely plantedplanted throughout thethe eastern and mid-westernmid-western states but, unfortunately,unfortunately, mostmost of thesethese treestrees havehave succumbed to the DutchDutch elmelm disease,disease, anan introducedintroduced diseasedisease causedcaused byby thethe fungusfungus OphiastomaOphiastoma (=(= Ceratocystis) ulmi, which attacks the trees vascular system and causescauses aa rapidrapid deathdeath [Manion,[Manion, 1991].1991].

22 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees

Specimen and charactercharacter trees

The purpose of aa specimenspecimen oror charactercharacter treetree isis toto havehave aa shapeshape or formform thatthat willwill bebe attractiveattractive toto looklook atat throughout throughout thethe year.year. They can bebe usedused inin aa varietyvariety ofof different different situationssituations suchsuch asas marking the edge of aa vistavista oror characterizecharacterize aa particularparticular space.space. The size ofof aa specimenspecimen treetree mustmust bebe inin relativerelative proportionproportion toto itsits surroundingssurroundings.. IfIf the space available is tall and narrow,narrow, a treetree with a pyramidalpyramidal oror spire-likespire-like crowncrown isis mostmost suitable.suitable.

There are many examples of temperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees that are excellentexcellent specimenspecimen oror charactercharacter trees.trees. TheThe pronounced,pronounced, pendulous form of the weeping willow (Salix babylonica) or the golden weepingweeping willowwillow (S(S.. alba Tristus)Tristus) provideprovide interestinginteresting silhouettes, and the branchesbranches turnturn aa yellow-goldyellow-gold colourcolour inin springspring just priorprior toto leafingleafing out.out. TheThe massivemassive FagusFagus sylvaticasylvatica andand itsits various cultivars are popular specimenspecimen treestrees for college campuses, city parks and golf courses. InIn thethe southernsouthern UnitedUnited States,States, two popular specimen trees include Magnolia grandifloragrandiflora,, an evergreen with large white flowers that is known Figure 3.3 American elms as the -symbol"symbol of thethe south"south" andand thethe stately,stately, spreadingspreading livelive oakoak (Ulmus americana) on the (Quercus virginiana)virginiana),, aa tree thatthat gracedgraced manymany oldold southernsouthern campus of Colorado State plantations and isis the majormajor streetstreet treetree inin severalseveral southernsouthern citiescities University, Fort Collins, including Savannah,Savannah, GeorgiaGeorgia [Dirr,[Dirr, 1990; Miller andand Lamb,Lamb, Colorado. This gracefulgraceful treetree 1985]. Other temperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees usedused asas specimenspecimen was once widely planted and character trees includeinclude honeyhoney locust,locust, GledistsiaGledistsia triacanthos,triacanthos, throughout the easterneastern andand Lombardy poplar (Populus(Populus nigra Italica) and tulip tree mid-western United States butbut Liriodendron tulipifera [Ferguson,[Ferguson, 1982].1982]. many have succumbed to thethe Dutch elm disease.disease. Shelters, screens and buffers

Shelter plantings are usuallyusually designeddesigned to protectprotect adjoiningadjoining areasareas fromfrom effectseffects ofof windwind oror frost.frost. TheThe subjects they protectprotect cancan rangerange fromfrom otherother plants,plants, toto homeshomes oror greenhouses. greenhouses. ProtectionProtection maymay taketake one of twotwo formsforms - either overhead protectionprotection with overstoreyoverstorey plantsplants or sideside protection.protection. TreesTrees areare also important for screening unsightly areas such as industrial areas. The tall, columnar form of the Lombardy poplar (Populus nigra Italica) makes it an excellent choice for this purpose. The broad, spreading form of SalixSalix babylonicababylonica also makes it aa goodgood screenscreen tree.tree. AnotherAnother treetree usedused forfor thisthis purpose is Acer campestre,campestre, which can be grown inin hedgeshedges [Ferguson,[Ferguson , 1982].1982].

Wall trees

Trees with restricted root systems can be used for close planting to walls and homes without fear thatthat the roots will damage foundations.foundations. Temperate broad-leaved trees that are good candidates for wall plantingsplantings includeinclude BetulaBetula spp.,spp., CarpinusCarpinus betulusbetulus Fastgiata,Fastgiata, CrateagusCrateagus phaenopyrum,phaenopyrum ,//ex /lex opacaopaca and Laurus nobilis [Ferguson,[Ferguson , 1982].1982].

PESTS AND DISEASES

A wide variety of pestspests andand diseasesdiseases affectaffect shadeshade andand ornamentalornamental trees,trees, manymany ofof whichwhich cancan causecause significant damage. Because shade and ornamental trees are commonly planted under conditions vastly different fromfrom thosethose in their naturalnatural ranges, they are often moremore proneprone to stressstress andand subsequent invasioninvasion byby pests and diseases. TheThe widespread deathdeath ofof elms by the DutchDutch elmelm disease in Europe and NorthNorth AmericaAmerica hashas alreadyalready beenbeen mentionedmentioned andand isis aa catastrophiccatastrophic exampleexample of the loss of a highly valued group of shade treestrees.. The recent introduction into thethe United StatesStates ofof a long-hornedlong-horned wood-boringwood-boring beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis)glabripennis),, anan insect native to China,China, hashas resulted in the removalremoval of largelarge numbersnumbers of Acer platanoides and other shade treestrees in New York City [Haack et a/.,aI., 1997] and more recently,recently, in Chicago. In many European cities, infection of plane trees (Platanus acerifolia) by Ceratocytis fimbriata,fimbriata , a vascular fungusfungus native toto North America, has caused widespread death ofof manymany treestrees [author's[author's observation].observation].

23 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

BONSAI

Bonsai is a technique for retaining the essential growth form of a tree but reducing it to pocket size. A more in-depth treatment of the culture and art of bonsai was presented by thethe authorauthor inin thethe FAO Non-WoodNon-VVood Forest Forest Products Products SeriesSeries No.No. 1212 documentdocument [Ciesla[Ciesla,, 1998].

TEMPERATE BROAD-LEAVED BROAD-LEAVED TREES TREES USED USED IN IN BONSAIBONSAI

Like conifers,conifers, many temperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees areare popularpopular forfor bonsaibonsai cultureculture (Table(Table 3.1).3.1). ManyMany are popular for theirtheir hardiness.hardiness. SomeSome species,species, suchsuch asas variousvarious cultivarscultivars ofof AcerAcer palmatumpalmatum oror Fagus sylvatica, are selected because of their deepdeep redred toto pinkpink foliagefoliage colour.colour. TheThe Japanese Japanese hornbeam (Carpinus japonica)japonica) offers a symphony of bronzebronze to yellowyellow foliagefoliage colourscolours inin autumn.autumn. Several temperate broad-leaved hardwoods,hardwoods, such as some membersmembers of thethe familyfamily Rosaceae,Rosaceae, areare popular because of their seasonal flowers [Samson[Samson andand Samson,Samson, 1986].1986].

Table 3.1 Some temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees usedused inin bonsai culture Fa!lliiyFamily andan!1 species!p~Fl!ils NaturalNa,tural range Aceraceae Acer buergerianum (trident maple) Acer palmatum (Japanese maple)*maple)* Aquifoliaceae . /lex1/ex aquifolium aquifolium (common(common holly) '. Europe /lex1/ex crenata crenata (Japanese(Japanese holly) :, Japan £.1J1/exe.x serrataserrata ' ···.:.';:.;.m Betulaceae Betula nigra (River birch) Southeast United States Betula pendula (weeping birch) AsiaAsia,, Europe Carpinus japonicajaponica (Japanese hornbeam) Japan Carpinus laxiflora Korea "" " Fagaceae " . Fagus sieboldii . Japan Fagus sylvatica (European(European beech)1beech)1 Europe Quercus robur (English oak) Europe Quercus petraea Europe QUfJrcusQuercus puPe.§.Cftnspubescens (downy oak) Europe Moraceae Morus alba (white mulberry) Asia Morus issai Rosaceae Crataegus cuneta Japan Malus baccata mandshuria (Manchurian crabapple)crab apple) Japan MalusMalus. ha/lianahaJlian? (Hall's(Hall's crab apple)9PpJ.e) MaMaluslus sieboldii (Toringo crab' apple) China,China ~ Japan .Malus himekokoh Japan Prunus communis (almond)(almond) Central Asia, Near East Prunus mumemlLme (Japanese(Japapese apricot)aprico!) China,China, KoreaKOl.ea Salicaceae Europe,Europe, NearNear East,East, NorthNorth Salix alba Africa Salix babylonica (weeping willow) China,China , Japan,Japan, Korea Salix nigra (Black willow) East North America UlmaceaeUlmaceae Celtis bangeana sinensis Asia 'Celtis australis MediterraneanMediterrane.an basin ,'f;lmusUlmus parvifoliaparvifolia,(Chinese (Ch nese elm) ·" ,South China,Chir8,Iaiwan Taiwan Zelkova abelicea GreeceGreece (Crete)(Crete) ZelkovaZelko va carpinifolia Caucasus ZelkovaZelko va sin/casinica China "Zelkoval.elkova serrata (Japanese elm) .•. Japan

Various cultivars usedused Sources: FAO,FAO , 1979;1979; SamsonSamson andand Samson,Samson, 19861986

24 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees

CHAPTER 4

FLOVVERSFLOWERS AND AND FOLIAGEFOLIAGE

HONEY

Honey is aa sweet,sweet, viscous,viscous, goldengolden colouredcoloured liquidliquid thatthat isis "manufactured""manufactured" by differentdifferent speciesspecies ofof honeybees, such as Apis mellifera,mel/irera, from the nectarnectar ofof flowers.flowers. ItIt isis storedstored inin waxwax combscombs andand usedused by the beesbees asas aa foodfood sourcesource toto feedfeed bothboth immatureimmature larvallarval stagesstages andand adultadult beesbees duringduring winter.winter. Approximately 120 000 bees are required to produce 1 kg of honey and a single bee will produce only about a tablespoon of honeyhoney duringduring itsits lifetimelifetime [Thomas[Thomas andand Schumann,Schumann, 1992].1992].

Honey is also the oldest sweetener known to humans and has been an eagerly sought commodity since prehistoric timestimes.. Primitive societies hunted for trees where bees stored honey so that theythey could obtain a supplysupply ofof thethe preciousprecious sweetener.sweetener. EventuallyEventually beekeepingbeekeeping or apiculture,apiculture, the sciencescience and art of raising bees in artificial hives, where honey can easily be harvested evolved and today is a major agricultural industry. Modern beekeeping not only provides a supply of a natural sweetener but, more important,important, makes large numbersnumbers of beesbees availableavailable whenwhen agriculturalagricultural crops that dependdepend on insectinsect pollinationpollination for production ofof fruits, nuts and seed are inin flower.flower. ThisThis isis anan importantimportant agricultural industry because aboutabout one-third ofof the human diet is derivedderived from insectinsect pollinatedpollinated plants and honeybeeshoneybees are responsibleresponsible for 80 percentpercent ofof thethe pollinationpollination [National[National HoneyHoney Board,Board , 1998].

FORMS OF HONEYHONEY

Honey can come in a variety of forms. The most common is liquid honey that is extracted from the honeycomb by centrifugal force, gravity or straining.straining . LiquidLiquid honeyhoney isis thethe mostmost convenientconvenient formform ofof honey for cooking or baking and most honeyhoney isis soldsold inin thisthis form.form. CremeCreme oror spunspun honeyhoney isis broughtbrought toto the market inin aa crystallisedcrystallised state.state. TheThe crystallizationcrystallization isis controlled so that,that, at roomroom temperature,temperature, the honey can be spread like butter.butter. In many parts of the world,world, creme honey is preferredpreferred to thethe liquidliquid form. Comb honey is honeyhoney that comes as itit isis producedproduced inin thethe hive,hive, inin aa honeybee'shoneybee's waxwax comb.comb. The comb,comb, as wellwell asas thethe honey,honey, isis edible.edible. CutCut combcomb honeyhoney isis honeyhoney thatthat hashas beenbeen packagedpackaged withwith chunks of the honeycomb [National HoneyHoney Board,Board , 1998].1998].

RELATED PRODUCTSPRODUCTS

Related products of honey production are beeswax, bee pollen and royal jellyjelly.. Beeswax is sold as a by-product for candles, polishes and asas anan ingredientingredient inin cosmetics.cosmetics. RoyalRoyal jelly,jelly, thethe secretionsecretion ofof the glands of worker bees,bees, is the queen bee's sole sourcesource of nourishmentnourishment and is promoted asas a nutrient for humanhuman consumptionconsumption and energyenergy source.source. BeeBee pollenpollen isis inin demand in JapanJapan as anan aphrodisiac [Thomas and Schumann,Schumann, 1992].1992].

NECTAR SOURCESSOURCES

The flowers of many plants,plants, including trees,trees, are excellent sources of nectar for honey. The colour and flavour of honeyshoneys differdiffer dependingdepending onon thethe nectarnectar sourcesource visitedvisited byby thethe honeybees.honeybees. TheThe colourcolour rangesranges fromfrom nearly colourless to to darkdark brown and the flavourflavour varies from delectably mildmild to distinctively bold, depending on where the honeybees worked [National Honey Board, 1998].1998].

The properties of ideal bee forage are the production ofof large amountsamounts ofof honeyhoney.. FlowersFlowers mustmust notnot only produce large amounts of nectar but thethe nectarnectar mustmust bebe accessibleaccessible andand producedproduced atat thethe correct time of the year.year. Moreover, the honey should have a pleasing colourcolour andand flavourflavour andand bebe slow to crystallize. In some areas of the world,world, wherewhere finely granulated honey is used, the latter characteristic isis of little consequence.consequence. HoweverHowever,, inin the United States where liquid honey is thethe primary form consumedconsumed,, it is a valuable attribute [Ayers,[Ayers, 1992].1992].

25 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

The flowers of many temperate broad-leaved trees are excellent nectar producers and are capable of producing yields that equalequal oror exceedexceed certaincertain herbaceousherbaceous plants that are knownknown toto bebe goodgood honey producers (Table 44.1)..1). Up to 4040 speciesspecies ofof hardwoodhardwood treestrees havehave beenbeen listedlisted asas importantimportant nectar sources in the UnitedUnited StatesStates [Jones[Jones et et al., aI. ,2002]. 2002] VVild. Wild honeyshoneys fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees are locally importantimportant non-wood forest products inin many parts of thethe world.world . They often provideprovide a supplementalsupplemental income source for rural people,people, and beekeepingbeekeeping is aa popularpopular hobbyhobby inin somesome countriescountries.. Each "wild"wild"" honey has its ownown distinctdistinct colourcolour andand flavour.flavour. InIn general,general, lighterlighter coloured coloured honeys are mildermilder inin flavourflavour whilewhile darkerdarker colouredcoloured honeyshoneys areare bolderbolder [National[National HoneyHoney Board,Board , 1998].1998]. The characteristicscharacteristics ofof honeyshoneys obtainedobtained fromfrom representativerepresentative temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees are described in the following sections.sections.

Table 4.1 Honey productionproduction potentials ofof two two temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees compared to severalseveral herbaceous plants with good reputation as honey produceproducersrs

Plant or tree Honey pot~ntialpotential (kg/ha) Herbaceous plants Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) 15 1060 Yellow sweet clover (Melilotus officinalis) 10 300 WhiteVVhite clover clover (Trifolium(Trifolium repens) 16.2 200 Rape (Brassica napus)nap us 35 500 Temperate broad-leaved trees Silver leafedleafed lime (Tilia tomentosa)tOl1leptosa) 560 1200 Blac~Black.J locust()cust((Robinia F?Qpinia pseucioacacia)pseudoacacia) 200 1600 SSource:ource: AyersAyers 19921992

Eucalyptus spp.

Eucalypts are an important source of honey in Australia,Australia, where these trees are native,native, as well asas places where they havehave beenbeen introduced.introduced. There is aa distinctivedistinctive flavourflavour toto eucalypteucalypt honeyhoney andand between the honeys producedproduced from various species of thisthis genus.genus. TheseThese areare oftenoften keptkept separateseparate by producersproducers andand shopkeepersshopkeepers to meetmeet thethe demandsdemands ofof customers customers whowho havehave favouritefavourite flavours.flavours. Jacobs (1979) describes the characteristicscharacteristics ofof pollen,pollen, nectarnectar andand honeyhoney producedproduced byby 3636 speciesspecies ofof Eucalyptus.

The value ofof plantationplantation eucalypts as a sourcesource ofof honeyhoney isis beingbeing recognizedrecognized inin manymany countriescountries where various species are widely planted. Plantations often produce far more flowers than do the native eucalypt forests in Australia [Jacobs, 1979].1979].

A uniqueunique useuse ofof eucalyptuseucalyptus honeyhoney isis thethe preparationpreparation ofof thethe liqueur,liqueur , eucalittino,eucalittino, byby the the TrappistTrappist monks at the Basilica delle TreTre FontaneFontane (Three Fountains) in Rome,Rome, Italy. This liqueur has beenbeen prepared and sold at the TreTre Fontane for more than 100100 years [Jacobs,[Jacobs, 1979].1979].

Castanea sativa

The flowers of thethe EuropeanEuropean chestnutchestnut produceproduce aa flavourfulflavourful honey.honey. MieleMiele di CastaneaCastanea isis aa popularpopular item in specialityspeciality food shopsshops inin ItalyItaly andand otherother EuropeanEuropean countries.countries. BeehivesBeehives areare oftenoften keptkept inin chestnut stands and orchardsorchards duringduring thethe floweringflowering periodperiod andand provideprovide aa supplemental supplemental incomeincome source for peoplepeople whowho ownown orchardsorchards oror naturalnatural forestsforests ofof thisthis treetree [author's[author's observation].observation].

Liriodendron tu/ipiferatulipifera

The tuliptulip poplarpoplar isis nativenative toto easterneastern NorthNorth AmericaAmerica andand hashas largelarge greenish-yellowgreenish-yellow flowers that generally bloom in May.May. TulipTulip poplarpoplar honeyhoney isis producedproduced from southernsouthern New England to southern Michigan and south to the Gulf States east of the Mississippi River in thethe United States. ThisThis honey is dark amber inin colour.colour. However,However, its flavourflavour isis notnot asas strongstrong asas oneone wouldwould expectexpect fromfrom aa darkdark honey [National Honey Board,Board, 1998].1998].

26 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

Nyssa ogeche

This locallylocally popularpopular honeyhoney isis mademade fromfrom thethe flowersflowers ofof thethe OgeecheOgeeche tupelo (Nyssa(Nyssa ogeche),ogeche), a tree that growsgrows profuselyprofusely alongalong thethe Apalachicola,Apalachicola, ChoctahatcheeChoctahatchee andand OchlockoneeOchlockonee Rivers and theirtheir tributaries inin northwesternnorthwestern Florida,Florida, UnitedUnited States.States. TupeloTupelo treestrees havehave clustersclusters ofof greenishgreenish flowers,flowers, that later develop intointo soft, berry-likeberry-like fruits.fruits. TupeloTupelo isis aa leadingleading honeyhoney plantplant inin thisthis region,region , producingproducing tons of honey during April and May. The honey has a mild,mild, pleasantpleasant flavourflavour and will notnot granulate. To gather the nectar to produceproduce thisthis uniqueunique specialityspeciality honey,honey, beesbees areare placedplaced onon bluffsbluffs oror elevatedelevated platforms along the river'sriver's edge during April and May. These river valleys are the only places in the world where tupelo honey isis producedproduced commercially.commercially.

Tupelo honey is aa lightlight goldengolden amberamber colourcolour withwith aa greenishgreenish cast. The flavour isis delicatedelicate andand distinctive.distinctive. Due to itsits highhigh fructose content, content, tupelo honey will never crystallize (granulate). TupeloTupelo honeyhoney is moremore expensiveexpensive thanthan mostmost honeys because it costs more to produce.produce. To gain access to the riverriver locationlocation nearnear thethe tupelotupelo treestrees requiresrequires expensiveexpensive labour and equipment. In order to ensure the honey isis purepure tupelo, the bee colonies must be stripped of all stored honey just asas thethe whitewhite tupelotupelo bloombloom begins.begins. Then,Then, thethe newnew cropcrop must be removed before the bees can mix it with honeyhoney from other sources [National[National Honey Board,Board, 1998].1998]. OneOne apiaryapiary inin Florida has a special use permit to place over 2 000 hives in the AppalachicolaAppalachicola National Forest forfor productionproduction ofof tupelotupelo honey [Thomas and Schumann, 1992].1992].

Prosopis spp.

In the southwestern United States and Mexico, thethe flowers of mesquites (Prosopis glanulosa andand P. pubescens) are excellent sources of honey. InIn Arizona,Arizona, mesquitesmesquites are ratedrated by beekeepersbeekeepers asas the most valuablevaluable plant for honey production. Beehives on the FortFort YumaYuma andand CocopahCocopah IndianIndian Reservations areare often kept in mesquitemesquite forestsforests whenwhen thethe bees are notnot beingbeing usedused toto pollinatepollinate agriculturalagricultural cropscrops [Miller,[Miller, 1997].

The flowers of P.P. tamarugotamarugo andand P.P. chilensis are locallylocally important sources of honeyhoney inin thethe aridarid northernnorthern partsparts ofof Chile. Chile. Bloom occurs duringduring August,August, SeptemberSeptember andand partpart ofof October. October. Annual production of ProsopisProsopis honeyhoney averagesaverages 9.89.8 kg/beehivekg/beehive [Garfias Salinas etetal., al., 1995].1995] .

Robinia pseudoacacia This medium to largelarge tree, whichwhich isis nativenative toto thethe easterneastern United States, produces large clusters of whitewhite flowersflowers thatthat Figure 4.1 Flowers of honeyhoney are an excellent nectar source.source. HoneyHoney producedproduced from this tree producing temperate broad-broad isis ofof aa lightlight goldengolden colourcolour andand ranksranks amongamong thethe lightestlightest ofof leaved trees. TopTop, , black locust honeys. It is alsoalso exceptionallyexceptionally slowslow toto crystallizecrystallize [Ayers,[Ayers, (Robinia pseudoacacia). Bottom.Bottom, 1992]1992].. Black locust honey is popularpopular bothboth inin thethe UnitesUnites StatesStates European linden (Tilia cordata). and in parts ofof EuropeEurope wherewhere thisthis treetree hashas becomebecome naturalizednaturalized [author's observation]observation] (Figure(Figure 4.1).4.1).

Tiliaspp.Tilia spp.

Several species of lindenslindens oror basswoodsbasswoods are popularpopular sourcessources of honeyhoney inin EuropeEurope andand NorthNorth America. This honey is waterwater whitewhite inin colourcolour andand isis oftenoften characterizedcharacterized by itsits distinctivedistinctive bitingbiting flavour. The flowersflowers are cream-colouredcream-coloured andand theythey bloom in latelate JuneJune andand JulyJuly [National[National HoneyHoney Board,1998].Board, 1998].

27 Non-wood forest productsproducts fromfrom temperate temperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

Other broad-leavedbroad-leaved temperate trees that areare goodgood honeyhoney sourcessources includeinclude maplesmaples (Acer(Acer spp.), spp.), service berries (Amalachier(Amalachier spp.),spp.), aldersalders (Alnus(Alnus spp.),spp.), variousvarious speciesspecies ofof wild wild cherrycherry (Prunus(Prunus spp.)spp.) and willowswillows (Salix sppspp.).) [Thomas[Thomas andand Schumann,Schumann, 1992].1992]. TheThe flowersflowers of thethe sourwoodsourwood (Oxydendrum(Oxydendrum arboreum)arboreum) areare a popularpopular honeyhoney sourcesource inin thethe southernsouthern AppalachianAppalachian MountainsMountains [Wigginton[Wigginton,, 1973] (see Box 4.1).4.1).

PRODUCTION AND TRADE

According to data from FAO,FAa, worldworld honeyhoney productionproduction exceeds 1.11.1 millionmillion t/aVa and is increasing.increasing. This includes honey from all nectarnectar sourcessources (agricultural(agricultural plants,plants, wild flowersflowers and forestforest trees).trees). China,China, Mexico, Russia, Turkey and the UnitedUnited StatesStates areare amongamong thethe majormajor honey-producinghoney-producing countriescountries accounting forfor approximately 5555 percent of worldworld production.production. WorldWorld tradetrade inin honeyhoney currentlycurrently averages 300 000 t/aVa andand exportsexports havehave beenbeen risingrising steadilysteadily sincesince 1975.1975. Germany,Germany, JapanJapan,, the United Kingdom and the United StatesStates areare thethe majormajor marketsmarkets for honeyhoney [lqbal[Iqbal 1993].1993].

Updated information on production and trade of honey can bebe obtainedobtained from thethe InternationalInternational BeeBee Research Association (http://www.cf(http://www.cf.ac.uk/ibra).ac.uk/ibra) or or from from the the BeesBees for DevelopmentDevelopment Web site:site: http://www.planbee.org.uk.http://www.planbee.org.uk.

Box 4. 1 SourwoodSourwood honey - Pride of the Appalachian Mountains

Ask someone who hashas livedlived inin thethe southernsouthern AppalachianAppalachian MountainsMountains aboutabout honeyhoney andand theythey areare quickquick toto tell youyou thatthat thethe finestfinest honeyhoney comescomes fromfrom thethe flowersflowers ofof the the sourwoodsourwood (Oxydendrum(Oxydendrum arboreum).arboreum). This smasmallll to medium tree produces drooping racemesracemes of waxy,waxy, whitewhite bell-shapedbell-shaped flowersflowers inin earlyearly July.July. TheirTheir delicate fragrance attracts all the honeybees in the area.area . The long blooming period of this treetree makes itit a favourite honey-producing treetree,, eagerly worked by beesbees..

Pure sourwood honey is a light straw yellow colour,colour, much like the colour of a fine Italian white wine and has a delicate flavour.flavour.

When the author lived inin thethe southernsouthern AppalachianAppalachian Mountains,Mountains, between 1959 and 1967,1967, he became acquainted withwith Frank Lambert.Lambed. Frank waswas part Cherokee IndianIndian andand livedlived inin a cabin on the QuaIlaQualla Reservation at the foot of thethe GreatGreat SmokySmoky MountainsMountains inin SwainSwain Country,Country, NorthNorth Carolina.Carolina. FrankFrank waswas aa beekeeper and his bees worked the sourwoodsourwood treestrees inin thethe hillshills thatthat surroundedsurrounded hishis cabin.cabin. HisHis sourwoodsourwood honey was regarded as the finest in Swain County and regularly took the highest awards atat the county fair.

LEAF OILS AND FLAVOURINGS'FLAVOURINGS5

6 EUCALYPTUS OILS6OlLS

The genusgenus EucalyptusEucalyptus (Family Myrtaceae)Myrtaceae) is nativenative toto Australia and some islands to the northnorth ofof itit andand consistsconsists of _over 500500 speciesspecies of trees.trees. TheseThese growgrow underunder aa widewide range of climaticclimatic andand edaphicedaphic conditionsconditions inin theirtheir naturalnatural habitat. Eucalypts vary in form from low shrubs and multi-multi stemmed trees less than 1010m m inin heightheight (mallees)(mal/ees) toto largelarge single-stemmed trees moremore thanthan 6060 mm tall.tall.

Nearly all species of eucalypts havehave glandsglands inin their leavesleaves that produce oils and give the leavesleaves of this group of trees their characteristic odour. These oilsoils areare -essential"essential oils"oils" Figure 4.2 Honey produced fromfrom and comprise a rangerange ofof naturalnatural oilsoils thatthat collectivelycollectively givegive the flowers of black locust, eucalypt leaves their odour but cancan bebe differentiateddifferentiated intointo Robinia pseudoacacia. In Italy it is marked as Acacia honey. separate chemicals thatthat areare ofof valuevalue inin variousvarious industries.industries.

The essential oils discussed belowbelow areare allall derivedderived fromfrom trees.trees. ForFor informationinformation on oilsoils of shrubsshrubs as wellwell asas ofof annualannual plantsplants fromfrom temperatetemperate zone,zone, consultconsult thethe followingfollowing web-page:web-page: SpecificSpecific Oils- Oils- http://spas.about.com/travel/spas/msub24oils.htm.http://spas.about.comltravel/spas/msub24oils. htm. If not otherwise indicatedindicated,, the information iiss extracted the FAO publication Non-Wood ForestForest ProductsProducts SeriesSeries No.No. 1,1, wherewhere euceucalptusalptus ooilsil s are discussed in-depth.

28 Non-wood forest productsproducts fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

Types of oils and uses

The primary essential oilsoils derivedderived fromfrom eucalyptseucalypts are:are:

Cineole-rich: Used in pharmaceuticals and stainstain removers.removers. Phellandrene-rich: Used in industryindustry as a solventsolvent andand flotationflotation forfor metals.metals. ItsIts presencepresence isis prescribed byby pharmacopoeia inin essencesessences intendedintended forfor pharmaceuticals.pharmaceutical s. Terpineol-rich: This oil has a characteristic hyacinth-likehyacinth-like scentscent andand isis usedused inin perfumery.perfumery. Eudesmol-richEudesmol-rich:: Used as a fixative inin perfumes.perfumes. Eudesmyl acetate-rich: Used as a substitute for bergamot essence and mimixesxes well with lavender essence Piperitone-rich: A raw material for production of ssyntheticynthetic thymol and menthol flaflavouringsvourings

Several hundreds of species of eucalyptus havehave beenbeen shownshown toto containcontain volatilevolatile oil,oil , thoughthough probablyprobably fewer than 20 of thesethese havehave everever beenbeen exploitedexploited commerciallycommercially forfor oil production.production. Today,Today, fewerfewer thanthan a dozen species areare utilizedutilized inin differentdifferent partsparts of the world, six of which account for the greater part of worldworld productionproduction ofof eucalyptuseucalyptus oils. ThoseThose speciesspecies currently exploited,exploited, the percentage ofof oil inin their leaves,leaves, the composition ofof thethe oiloil,, their uses,uses, as well asas thethe countriescountries inin whichwhich theythey areare utilizedutilized,, are listed below. Other species thatthat have been used in thethe pastpast includeinclude E.E. cinereacinerea (medicinal), E. cneorifolia (medicinal)(medicinal) and E.E. macarthuriimacarthurii (perfumery).(perfumery).

The valuevalue ofof eucalyptuseucalyptus oiloil for medicinalmedicinal purposespurposes lieslies inin its cineolecineole content,content, whichwhich largelylargely determinesdetermines,, also,also, thethe price thatthat itit fetches.fetches. Chinese oiloil,, forfor example,example, isis commonlycommonly tradedtraded asas "eucalyptus oil 80 percent", referring to the fact that it contains at least 80 percent cineole. In early 1994 the price of standard gradegrade ChineseChinese 8080 percentpercent eucalyptuseucalyptus oiloil hadhad fallenfallen belowbelow US$US$ 3/kg3/kg fromfrom thethe US$US$ 6/kg6/kg levellevel inin 1989.1989.

The medicinal type of oiloil is used as an inhalantinhalant or chestchest rubrub toto easeease breathingbreathing difficulties,difficulties, as a mouthwash in water to refresh or easeease thethe throat,throat, andand asas aa skinskin rubrub toto provideprovide reliefrelief from from achesaches and pains. Eucalyptus oil isis alsoalso usedused asas aa generalgeneral disinfectant,disinfectant, cleanercleaner andand deodorizerdeodorizer aboutabout thethe house.house.

For the perfumeryperfumery oils,oils, aromaaroma characteristicscharacteristics areare important.important. AccordingAccording to publishedpublished standardsstandards forfo r E. citriodoracitriodora oil,oil , thethe aldehydealdehyde contentcontent calculated as citronella shouldshould bebe less no lessless thanthan 7070 percent. Eucalyptus citriodora is the majormajor ofof thethe twotwo principalprincipal perfumeryperfumery oils.oils. It differs from thethe medicinal oilsoils in containingcontaining citrinellal,citrinellal, rather than cineole,cineole, as thethe majormajor constituent.constituent. TheThe oiloil iiss employed in wholewhole formform forfor fragrancefragrance purposes,purposes, usuallyusually inin lowerlower costcost soaps,soaps ,perfumes perfumes andand disinfectants, but also as a source of citrinellal for the chemical industry.industry. The citrinellal obtained by fractionation ofof thethe crude oil may be usedused as suchsuch asas anan aromaaroma chemicalchemical or convertedconverted to other derivatives intended for fragrance use.use. The only other perfumery oil produced in anyany quantityquantity isis thatthat from E. staigeriana.staigeriana. No singlesingle chemicalchemical predominates inin the oil and itit isis used in whole form for perfumery purposes.purposes. ItIt hashas aa lemon-typelemon-type character.character.

In countries where eucalypts have been planted,planted, E.E. globulusglobulus hashas beenbeen thethe mainmain commercialcommercial sourcesource of essentialessential oils.oils. Its leavesleaves yieldyield aboutabout 11 percent of cineole and eudesmol and this can bebe considered an adequateadequate returnreturn if aa massivemassive quantityquantity of leavesleaves cancan bebe obtainedobtained followingfollowing treetree harvesting operations.operations.

Yields of oil from leafleaf varyvary somewhatsomewhat betweenbetween speciesspecies but,but, onon aa commercialcommercial scale,scale, areare ofof thethe orderorder of 1 percent on a "fresh" basis.basis. Of more relevance to the economics of production isis thethe yieldyield of oil per ha and thisthis isis dependentdependent onon thethe biomassbiomass production,production, asas well as the oil yieldyield fromfrom thethe leaf.leaf. Production from E. smithii in Swaziland yields approximately 15 tlhat/ha of leafleaf,, corresponding toto aboutabout 150 litres/halitres/ha ofof oil.oil.

There may also bebe markedmarked differencesdifferences in oil yieldyield andand qualityquality within a speciesspecies accordingaccording to the provenance originorigin ofof the seed.seed . E. camaldulensis,camaldulensis, forfor exampleexample,, hashas a very wide distributiondistribution in Australia,Australia, but onlyonly certaincertain northernnorthern QueenslandQueensland provenancesprovenances (Petford,(Petford, inin particular)particular) yieldyield anan oil,oil , which makes the species attractive as a source of medicinalmedicinal oil. In extreme cases,cases, in their naturalnatural habitat even trees within the same provenance may produce oilsoils,, which are quite different to each other. E.E. divesdives isis aa well-known well-known exampleexample andand it is possiblepossible to obtainobtain seedseed fromfrom cineolecineole andand piperitone variants.variants.

29 Non-wood forest productsproducts fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

Those species of eucalyptus which respond well to coppicingcoppicing maymay bebe growngrown specificallyspecifically for oiloil onon aa short-rotation cycle. In Swaziland,Swaziland, where oil isis obtainedobtained fromfrom E.E. smithii,smithii, thethe firstfirst cutcut isis mademade 20-2420-24 months after planting.planting . Subsequent cutscuts of the coppicecoppice regrowth are mademade atat approximatelyapproximately 16-16- month intervalsintervals,, at which time the plants are 5-6 m tall.tall. HarvestingHarvesting may continue for many years and in Swaziland somesome areasareas ofof E.E. smithiismithii areare stillstill beingbeing harvestedharvested afterafter 2020 yearsyears oror more.more.

Table 44.2.2 EucalyptusEucalyptus species used for essential leaf oils Species Percent oil Composition Uses Countries'Countries1 in leavesleaves of oil Eucalyptus globulus Labill.Labill. 1.0 Cineole and MediMedicinalcinal ChinaChina,, Portugal,Portugal, (Tasmanian blueblue gum)gum) eudesmoleudesmol SpainSpain,, India,India, Brazil,Brazil , ChChile,ile, (Bolivia(Bolivia,, Uruguay,Uruguay, Paraguay) E. smithii R. Baker Medicinal South Africa,Africa, (gu/lygum)(gully gum) SwazilandSwaziland,, (Zimbabwe) E. polybractea R. Baker(syn. E. 2.0 Cineole MediMedicinalcinal Australia fruticetorum F. Muell.Mue/l. ex Miq.) (blue mallee) E. exserta F. Muell. Medicinal China (Queensland peppermint) E. radiata Sieber exex DC.DC. 3.0-53 0-5 .0 CineoleCineole,, Medicinal (South Africa, (syn. E. australiana,australiana, E. radiataradiata var.var. terpinol disinfectant,disinfectant, Australia) australianaustraliana) a) (narrow-leaved flotationflotation peppermint) E. dives Schauer (cineole variant)variant) 3.0-4.53,0-4.5 Piperitone, Medicinal (Australia) (broad-leaved peppermint) phellandrene Manufacture of thymol and menthol E. camaldulensis Dehnh.Dehnh. Medicinal (Nepal) (syn.(syn. E. rostratarostrata Schldl.) (river red gum) E. citriodora Hook.Hook. 00.8-1.0.8-1 .0 Citronella Perfumery, China,China, Brazil, IndiaIndia (lemon-scented gum) Insect repellent E. staigeriana F. Muell.Mue/l. exex BaileyBailey Perfumery Brazil (lemon-scented(lemon-scented ironbark)iron bark) The use of parenthesesparentheses indicates-aindicates ·a minorminor producer.produ cer. Source:Source: Coppen,Coppen , 1995:1995; Jacobs,Jacobs, 1979.1979.

There exists mechanicalmechanical harvestingharvesting of E.E. polybracteapolybractea inin Australia.Australia. ThisThis systemsystem ofof harvestingharvesting waswas developed in Australia as a means of reducing labour costs and is used to harvest natural standsstands ofof E. polybractea.polybractea. The frequency ofof harvesting isis between 1818 and 24 months,months, at whichwhich time thethe shrubs are about 1 m high.

Production and trade

The essentialessential oils derivedderived from EucalyptusEucalyptus areare classified inin the trade into threethree broadbroad typestypes according to theirtheir compositioncomposition and mainmain end-use:end-use: medicinal,medicinal, perfumeryperfumery and industrial.industrial. TheThe medicinal types are the most importantimportant onesones inin termsterms ofof volumevolume ofof productionproduction andand tradetrade.

Plantation eucalypts dominatedominate worldworld productionproduction andand tradetrade in eucalyptus oils. During the periodperiod 1970-1974,1970-1974, only 8.8 percent of the world productionproduction came from natural forests in Australia. World production and trade in eucalyptus oils are dominated by the People'sPeople's RepublicRepublic of China,China, whichwhich isis the largest producer of both cineole-rich medicinal oils (about 70% of world output and trade) and perfumery oil (from E. citriodora). DuringDuring thethe periodperiod 19931993 toto 1997,1997, ChineseChinese exportsexports ofof eucalyptuseucalyptus oiloil averaged approximately 38003 800 Va,t/a, with an averageaverage annual value of US$US$ 11.911.9 millionmillion [Coppen,[Coppen , unpublished). Furthermore, several importing countries such asas Portugal,Portugal, SpainSpain andand AustraliaAustralia areare also producers and processorsprocessors ofof eucalyptuseucalyptus oilsoils andand re-exportre-export muchmuch ofof whatwhat theythey import.import.

Total world production of medicinal-type eucalyptus oil in 19911991 hashas beenbeen estimatedestimated atat aroundaround 30003000 tt,, of which approximatelyapproximately 2 000 tt werewere exportedexported [Coppen[Coppen andand Hone,Hone, 1992].1992]. ProductionProduction andand exportsexports of E.E. citriodoracitriodora oil, the mainmain perfumeryperfumery oiloil,, for 1991 are estimated atat aboutabout 15001500 tt and 500 tt,, respectively. GloballyGlobally,, the EuropeanEuropean CommunityCommunity isis the largestlargest importerimporter ofof eucalyptuseucalyptus oils.oils.

30 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

Production of E.E. citriodoracitriodora oiloil is also dominated by the People's Republic of China. In 1991 it isis estimated that thethe countrycountry accountedaccounted forfor approximatelyapproximately two-thirdstwo-thirds (1(1 000000 t)t) ofof totaltotal production,production, ofof whichwhioh perhapsperhaps 400 t werewere exported.exported. BrazilBrazil (500(500 t/a) andand IndiaIndia (50(50 t/a)tla) areare thethe onlyonly otherother producersproducers of this typetype ofof oil,oil, withwith BrazilBrazil exportingexporting aboutabout halfhalf ofof itsits production.production. BrazilBrazil isis thethe onlyonly suppliersupplier toto thethe world marketmarket ofof E.E. staigerianastaigeriana oil;oil; productionproduction isis ofof thethe orderorder ofof 6060 t/a.t/a.

Within Europe,Europe, France,France, GermanyGermany and the UnitedUnited KingdomKingdom areare the majormajor markets for eucalyptus oil-oil based products. In 19901990 theirtheir combinedcombined importsimports amounted to 11 840 t. Imports intointo thethe UnitedUnited States, the largest single countrycountry marketmarket for eucalyptuseucalyptus oils (excluding the People's Republic of China and those countries, which re-exportre-export muchmuch ofof theirtheir importsimports afterafter furtherfurther processing).processing).

Southern Africa is a majormajor producingproducing region for eucalyptuseucalyptus oil, most of itit fromfrom SouthSouth AfricaAfrica butbut aa significant proportion from Swaziland. In South America, Chile and Brazil are the major producers,producers, with smaller amounts coming from Bolivia,Bolivia, Uruguay and Paraguay.Paraguay. In recent years,years, Chile hashas exported between 47 t/atla and 144 t/a of essential oils,oils, primarily from E. globulus (extensive eucalypt plantations) (Table 4.4.2) 2) [Garfias[Garfias SalinasSalinas etet al.,al., 1995].1995] .

Table 4.3 Exports of eucalyptus oilsoils from from Chile Chile 1987-1992 1987-1992

Year Quantity exported Value (tons) (US$) 1987 66.3 700 000 1988 106.2 1 053053683 683 1989 144.1 11305752 305 752 1990 116.7 1 026026040 040 1991 79.3 700700829 829 1992 47.5 369369316 316 Source: Garfias Salinas etel al., 1995.

During the samesame period,period, the the leadingleading producersproducers ofof eucalyptuseucalyptus leafleaf oilsoils werewere countriescountries withwith Mediterranean climates. Portugal and Spain accounted for 44.244 .2 percentpercent andand 12.412.4 percentpercent ofof globalglobal production, respectively [Jacobs, 1979].1979].

BAY LAUREL

Laurus nobilis (Family(Family Lauraceae),Lauraceae), knownknown as baybay laurel,laurel, sweet bay or laurel,laurel, isis anan evergreen shrub or small tree, indigenousindigenous to thethe MediterraneanMediterranean Basin and thethe NearNear East. This plant has beenbeen admiredadmired for itsits beauty and aromatic leaves since GreekGreek and RomanRoman timestimes (see(see ChapterChapter 2).2) .

The dark green leaves of baybay laurellaurel areare fragrant and aromatic.aromatic. After drying,drying, theythey are broken,broken, cracked oror cookedcooked toto releaserelease their characteristiccharacteristic aromaaroma andand flavour.flavour. Dried laurellaurel bay leavesleaves are usedused asas flavouring in soups,soups, fish,fish, meats,meats, stews,stews, puddings, vinegars and beverages.beverages. Oil ofof Figure 4.3 Grading ofof dried baybay leavesleaves in Turkey bay or oil ofof laurellaurel leavesleaves isis anan essentialessential (photo by G. Allard). or volatile oil obtained by steam distillation of bay leaves and oleoresin has replaced thethe drydry leavesleaves inin somesome foodfood preparations?preparations.'

The foliage of some number ofof plantsplants withwith thethe commoncommon namename" " bay" bay" oror "laurel""laurel" areare poisonouspoisonous andand shouldshould notnot be be usedused as as a a substitute for Laurus nobilis.nobifis. Examples include mountain laurellaurel (Kalmia latifolia),lalifolia), sheep laurel (K.(K angustifolia),anguslifofia), cherry laurel Prunus laurocerasus), bullbull bay (Magnolia(Magnolia grandiflora),grandiffora), bayberry (Myrica pennsylvanica) and and loblolly bay (Gordonia lasianlhus)lasianthus) [Simon etel al., 1984].

31 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

The oil of laurel reaches ·a a contentcontent ofof 1-31-3 percentpercent onon aa freshfresh weightweight basis.basis. TheThe mainmain constituentsconstituents ofof this oil areare 1,8-cineole,1,8-cineole, pinene,pinene, sabinene,sabinene, 1-linalool,1-linalool, eugenol,eugenol , eugenoleugenol acetate,acetate, methyleugenol,methyleugenol, 1- terpinol acetate, phellandrene, other esters andand terpenoids.terpenoids. ThisThis oiloil is generallygenerally recognizedrecognized asas being safe for humanhuman consumptionconsumption as aa spice,spice, naturalnatural flavouringflavouring andand essentialessential oiloil extractextract andand isis used by the cosmeticscosmetics industryindustry for creams,creams, perfumesperfumes andand soaps.soaps.

The leaves and berriesberries ofof LaurusLaurus nobilisnobilis havehave alsoalso beenbeen usedused forfor treatmenttreatment ofof rheumatism,rheumatism, skinskin rashesrashes,, earaches and other medicalmedical problems.problems. Further,Further, theythey areare alsoalso usedused asas anan insectinsect repellent.repellent.

Bay leaves are collectedcollected fromfrom bothboth cultivatedcultivated andand wildwild plantsplants inin manymany MediterraneanMediterranean countries.countries. Commercial production centres in thethe MediterraneanMediterranean basinbasin includeinclude portionsportions ofof Algeria,Algeria, France,France, GreeceGreece,, Morocco,Morocco, Turkey and PortugalPortugal andand SpainSpain (minor(minor producers).producers). OutsideOutside thethe MediterraneanMediterranean Basin,Basin , bay leavesleaves areare producedproduced inin thethe CanaryCanary Islands,Islands, CentralCentral America,America, MexicoMexico and thethe southeastern United States [Simon[Simon etet al.,al., 1984].1984].

MINOR LEAF OILS

The foliage of severalseveral otherother speciesspecies of plantsplants of thethe familyfamily LauraceaeLauraceae has aromatic foliage. The myrtlewood or CaliforniaCalifornia laurellaurel (Umbellularia californica)californica) (Figure (Figure 4.4) 4.4),, aa treetree indigenousindigenous toto southwestern Oregon and northern California,California, was used as aa substitutesubstitute forfor baybay leavesleaves (Laurus(Laurus nobilis) by thethe earlyearly EuropeanEuropean settlerssettlers inin thethe regionregion [Hora,[Hora ,1981; 1981; Ciesla, Ciesla, 199013]. 1990b]. An essential oil extracted from this tree contains umbellulone and has been used both as an insecticideinsecticide and as aa condiment. This oil is a mucous irritantirritant and hashas shown some toxicological properties (see Box 4.2). Myrtlewood oiloil also contains safrolesafrole,, a compound that has been shown to have carcinogenic and hallucinogenic properties [Simon et al., 1984].

The dried,dried, ground leavesleaves ofof AmericanAmerican sassafrassassafras (Sassafras(Sassafras albidum)albidum) areare knownknown asas filefile gumbogumbo andand are usedused inin traditionaltraditional CreoleCreole oror CajunCajun dishesdishes bothboth forfor theirtheir flavouringflavouring andand thickeningthickening propertiesproperties [Harlow[Harlow and Harrar,Harrar, 1950;1950; Hora,Hora, 1981;1981 ; author'sauthor's observation].observation]. SassafrasSassafras leavesleaves do notnot containcontain safrole,safrole, a carcinogen thatthat isis found in the rootsroots and barkbark of thethe treetree andand areare safesafe forfor humanhuman consumption.consumption .

The aromatic foliage of PemusPemus boldusboldus (common(common name,name, boldo),boldo), a tree which occurs inin the mountainmountain ranges of central Chile,Chile, is richrich in alkaloids,alkaloids, flavinoids,flavinoids , tannintannin,, citriccitric acid andand relatedrelated products.products. Branches containing foliagefoliage areare harvestedharvested withwith aa machetemachete andand placedplaced inin aa shadyshady,, clean place toto dry for two toto threethree daysdays beforebefore thethe oilsoils areare extractedextracted [Garfias[Garfias SalinasSalinas et al.,al., 1995].1995]. TheThe foliagefoliage isis also the source of an herbal tea which is popular inin Chile [author's observation].observation].

Box 4.2 The headache tree

The smooth,smooth, shinyshiny foliagefoliage ofof thethe myrtlewood myrtlewood (Umbellularia(Umbellulana californica) has a strong,strong, camphor-camphor like odour. One can smell aa grovegrove ofof thesethese treestrees before one can see them.them.

The odour of its foliage is so strongstrong that peoplepeople have been known to get aa headacheheadache fromfrom sittingsitting under a tree for just aa shortshort periodperiod ofof time.time. TheThe leavesleaves,, when crumbledcrumbled,, areare also known to bebe irritating toto the nose and throat. One of itsits manymany common namesnames isis "headache"headache tree."tree ." Other common names are CaliforniaCalifornia myrtle,myrtle, CaliforniaCalifornia Figure 44.4.4 The foliage of thethe Oregon laurellaurel,, myrtlewood, pepperwood andand spicespice tree.tree. myrtlewood (Umbellularia californica) is aromatic and has been used as a substitute for This tree,tree, indigenousindigenous toto southwesternsouthwestern OregonOregon foliage of Laurus nobilis as flavouringflavouring forfor soups and northern CaliforniaCalifornia,, is one of the few broad-broad and stews. However, its principle oils leaved trees that isis found amongamong thethe giant constituent, umbellulone,umbellulone, hashas beenbeen shownshown toto bebe conifers that occur inin this regionregion [Hora,[Hora, 1981;1981 ; a mucousmucous irritantirritant andand hashas somesome toxicologicaltoxicological Ciesla, 1990].1990]. properties.

32 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

YERBAYERBAMATE MATE

YerbaVerba matemate isis aa species species of of holly, holly, 1/ex Ilex para paraguariensis guariensis (family(family Aquifoliaceae),Aquifoliaceae), which occursoccurs inin thethe subtropical/warm temperatetemperate forestsforests of southern Brazil,Brazil , UruguayUruguay ArgentinaArgentina andand Paraguay.Paraguay. TheThe evergreen foliage of this plantplant (Figure(Figure 4.5) isis harvested,harvested, drieddried andand groundground intointo aa finefine powderpowder andand isis used as a tea.tea. YerbaVerba matémate isis aa popularpopular regionalregional beveragebeverage andand thethe foliagefoliage isis harvestedharvested eithereither inin small plantations or from naturalnatural forests where thisthis plantplant grows.grows.

VerbaYerba matémate hashas aa characteristiccharacteristic maturemature flavourflavour similar sim ilar to to that that obtained obtained from from tea tea (Camellia (Camellia sinensis).sinensis). The flavour can be describeddescribed asas sweet,sweet, bitter,bitter, witheredwithered leaf-like,leaf-like, andand alfalfa-like.alfalfa-like. TheThe herbherb containscontains A, C, E,E, B1,B1, B2,B2 , BB complex;complex; carotene;carotene; riboflavin;riboflavin; pantothenicpantothenic acid;acid ; biotin;biotin ; andand vitaminvitamin CC complex.complex. Moreover, it has 1515 differentdifferent aminoamino acids,acids, plusplus significantsignificant amountsamounts ofof magnesium,magnesium, calcium,calcium, iron,iron, sodium, potassium, manganese, silicon,silicon, phosphates,phosphates, zinc, niacin,niacin, sulphur,sulphur, andand chlorophyll,chlorophyll , cholinechol ine and inositol.

To the Guarani Indians, yerba matémate is known as the "drink of the gods".gods". They used it for medical purposes such as toto boostboost immunity,immunity, cleansecleanse andand detoxifydetoxify thethe blood,blood, tonetone thethe nervousnervous system,system, combat fatigue, reduce stress andand stimulatestimulate thethe mind.mind. Still today, tens ofof millionsmillions ofof SouthSouth Americans use yerba mate for itsits medicalmedical properties.'properties B TheThe plantplant hashas stimulantstimulant propertiesproperties andand isis supposedly beneficial for headaches, migraine, neuralgia and insomnia. Its stimulant principle is caffeine but it hashas aa lowerlower caffeinecaffeine contentcontent than eithereither tea ofof coffeecoffee [Hora[Hora,, 1981; Lust,Lust, 1990].1990]. VerbaYerba matémate is usuallyusually sippedsipped from aa traditionaltraditional gourd-like cup,cup, made of wood, with a built-inbuilt-in drinking straw, bombilla, a silver strawstraw with aa bulbousbulbous filter atat itsits lowerlower endend that preventsprevents the leavesleaves from enteringentering the tubetube (Figure(Figure 4.6)4.6) [author's[author's observation].observation]. The gourds can range from simplesimple calabashes toto carved wooden or silversilver vessels,vessels, some ofof whichwhich havehave becomebecome museummuseum piecespieces (Berhardson 1996). People can be seen drinking thisthis traditionaltraditional beverage as far as thethe ArgentineArgentine Patagonia, far from thethe naturalnatural rangerange ofof Ilex/lex paraguayensisparaguayensis (author's(author's observation).observation).

Figure 4.5 TheThe foliagefoliage of the yerba mate Figure 4.6 VerbaYerba mate is usually drunkdrunk (Ilex(/lex paraguariensis) is is used in aa teatea fromfrom aa traditionaltraditional cup,cup, mademade ofof wood,wood, that isis aa popularpopular regionalregional beveragebeverage inin with a built-in drinking straw.straw. southern Brazil, Uruguay, Argentina and Paraguay.Paraguay.

Source: YerbaVerba matémate (http://www.qo-symmetry.com/yerba-mate.htm)(http://www.go-symmetrv.com/yerba-mate.htm) YerbaVerba matémate "drink of the gods" (http://www.yerbamate.com/nutrition.html(http://www.yerbamate.com/nutrition.html) ) YerbaVerba matémate - What is it? (http://noborders.net/mate/what.html)(http://noborders.netimate/whathtml)

33 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

Yerba mate becamebecame commerciallycommercially important duringduring thethe colonial era on plantationsplantations ofof JesuitJesuit Missionaries establishedestablished on on thethe upper Parana River. Today, Argentina isis the world'sworld 's largestlargest producer and consumer of mate.mate. Argentines consume an average of 5 kgkg perper personperson perper year,year, more than four times thethe averageaverage intakeintake ofof coffee.coffee. InIn Argentina,Argentina, yerbayerba matemate waswas firstfirst growngrown inin experimental plantations in 1903.1903. Cultivation has expandedexpanded considerablyconsiderably and duringduring thethe 1991/921991/92 season, production was 482 000 t with an average yield of 11 800-2 400400 kg/ha.kg/ha . AreasAreas wherewhere yerbayerba mate productionproduction isis an importantimportant part ofof thethe economyeconomy includeinclude MisionesMisiones ProvinceProvince and thethe northeastern portionportion ofof Corrientes Province. TheThe valuevalue ofof the mate production in Argentina was estimated at US$ 80 million,million, with exportsexports ofof matemate atat approximatelyapproximately US$US$ 2828 millionmillion forfor 19981998 [Résico,[Resico, 1995,1995, 2001].2001].

DECORATIVE FOLIAGE

The foliage of manymany speciesspecies ofof temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees usedused inin variousvarious kindskinds ofof home home floralfloral decorations and the harvesting of several speciesspecies provideprovide aa supplementalsupplemental incomeincome forfor ruralrural people.people.

The foliage of deciduous broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees and shrubsshrubs isis notnot asas durabledurable asas thethe foliagefoliage ofof conifersconifers or evergreen broad-leaved species and cannot be transported for longlong distances.distances. However, the foliage of some species isis locallylocally important.important. InIn Germany,Germany, forfor example,example, thethe branchesbranches and foliagefoliage ofof the North American redred oak (Quercus(Quercus rubra),rubra) , aa treetree widelywidely plantedplanted inin somesome partsparts ofof centralcentral EuropeEurope as a timber producing species,species, is considered to be a speciality product and is available for sale in some floral marketsmarkets forfor homehome decorationsdecorations [Ehlers,[Ehlers, 1968;1968; Rau,Rau, 1969].1969]. GatheringGathering the foliagefoliage ofof deciduous foliagefoliage of broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees and shrubsshrubs forfor homehome decorationdecoration is oftenoften aa popularpopular recreational activity both in EuropeEurope and NorthNorth America,America, especially in autumnautumn when thethe foliagefoliage ofof many species turns brilliantbrilliant colours.colours.

InIn British Columbia,Columbia, 19 floral greenery products,products, generated fromfrom moremore thanthan 30 species of forest plants,plants, are identified.identified. ExamplesExamples includeinclude shrubsshrubs likelike GaultheriaGaultheria shallonshallon (salal),(salal), CacciniumCaccinium ovantumovantum (evergreen huckleberry), Berberis nervosanervosa (Oregon-grape)(Oregon-grape) andand XerophyllumXerophyllum tenaxtenax (beargrass)(beargrass) [Chamberlain,[Chamberlain, Bush and Hammet, 1998].

The demanddemand forfor high-qualityhigh-quality beargrassbeargrass (Xerophyllum(Xerophyllum tenax) has increased.increased. The highesthighest gradegrade beargrass (darkest leaves) grows in areas with overstoreyoverstorey tree canopycanopy closureclosure greatergreater thanthan 6060 percent while the most productive plants produce the lowest grade beargrass,beargrass, and grow inin areasareas with less than 30 percentpercent overstoreyoverstorey treetree canopycanopy closure.9closure. 9

These floral greens are importantimportant to thethe economyeconomy ofof thethe PacificPacific Northwest.Northwest. ForFor instance,instance, thethe regional salesale of salal green reachedreached US$ 13 million,million , the one ofof beargrassbeargrass US$US$ 11.511 .5 millionmillion andand evergreen huckleberry amounted to more than US$US$ 1.71.7 millionmillion inin 19891989 [Chamberlain,[Chamberlain, BushBush andand Hammet, 1998]. In British Columbia,Columbia, exports of salal accountaccount for moremore thatthat thosethose ofof mushroomsmushrooms [Tedder[Tedder et a/.,a/. , 2000].

In Christian cultures,cultures, the spiny, dark greengreen foliagefoliage andand brilliantbrilliant redred berriesberries ofof thethe AmericanAmerican hollyholly (llex(1/ex opaca) opaca) and and the the EuropeanEuropean hollyholly (I.(/. aquifolia) areare used in the production of ChristmasChristmas wreaths and garlands. The foliage of I. opaca, aa tree that has aa naturalnatural rangerange throughoutthroughout much of thethe eastern United States, isis harvestedharvested primarilyprimarily fromfrom naturalnatural forests.forests. In thethe PacificPacific NorthwesternNorthwestern states (Oregon and Washington), plantations of the EuropeanEuropean /.I. aquifoliaaquifolia havehave beenbeen established.established. During the 1930s and 1940s,1940s, harvestingharvesting of hollyholly foliage was soso heavyheavy andand damagingdamaging toto treestrees inin natural forests along the Atlantic coast of thethe UnitedUnited StatesStates thatthat I.I. opacaopaca waswas practicallypractically eliminatedeliminated from thethe northern partpart ofof itsits rangerange [Panshin[Panshin etet al.,al. , 1950].1950].

The foliagefoliage of somesome speciesspecies ofof EucalyptusEucalyptus driesdries well andand isis popular additionsadditions to floral arrangementsarrangements.. The evergreen leavesleaves andand branchesbranches ofof LaurusLaurus nobilis,nobilis, aa MediterraneanMediterranean species,species, areare used in garlands and wreaths [Simon et al.,al., 1984].1984].

9 Source: Cispus Adaptive Management AreaArea (http://wwvv.fs.fed.us/gpnf/ama/review_1998/beargrass.htm)(http://www.fs.fed.us/gpnf/ama/review_1998/beargrass.htm)

34 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

MINOR AND TFtADITIONALTRADITIONAL USESUSES OFOF FOLIAGE

The stiff,stiff, spinyspiny foliagefoliage andand branchesbranches ofof holly holly (1/ex (/lex spp.)spp.) werewere onceonce usedused inin EuropeEurope byby chimney chimney sweeps [Hora,[Hora, 1981].1981].

The foliagefoliage ofof severalseveral speciesspecies ofof elmselms (Ulmus(Ulmus spp.)spp.) waswas onceonce thethe preferredpreferred feedfeed forfor cattlecattle overover large areas. The useuse ofof thisthis foliagefol iage waswas frequentlyfrequently mentionedmentioned byby RomanRoman agriculturalagricultural writerswriters andand persisted in parts of EuropeEurope untiluntil the earlyearly 1900s.1900s. TheThe useuse ofof UlmusUlmus wallichianawallichiana foliagefoliage asas aa cattlecattle feed isis still importantimportant todaytoday inin thethe HimalayasHimalayas [Hora,[Hora, 1981].1981]. EvenEven now,now, inin manymany developingdeveloping countries,countries, foliage of severalseveral temperatetemperate broad-leaved treetree speciesspecies isis cut andand drieddried duringduring the the summer for use as cattle feed in the wintewinterr (Figure(Figure 4.7).4.7).

The leaves of CrataegusCrataegus laevigata,laevigata, a small tree nativenative to Europe and North Africa were used in aa leaf infusioninfusion tea toto reducereduce highhigh bloodblood pressure.pressure. The leaves of this treetree werewere alsoalso usedused asas aa substitute for tobacco [Hora,[Hora, 1981].1981].

Willow (Salix(Salix spp.)spp.) foliagefoliage containscontains salicinsalicin thatthat becomesbecomes salicylic acid inin thethe humanhuman body andand is the principal ingredientingredient inin aspirin (see Chapter 6)6).. The foliage can bebe chewed toto relieverelieve minorminor painpain andand feverfever [Lust, 19901.101990].10

Figure 4.7 Temperate broad-leaved treestrees (including speciesspecies like QuerqusQuerqus castaneifolia,castaneifolia, Fagus silvatica,silva tica , Acer spp.,spp., CarpinusCarpinus spp.spp. andand Ulmus spp.) withwith their branchesbranches loopedlooped forfor Figure 4.8 Severe degradation of a fodder (Elbrouz(Elbrouz MountainsMountains inin northernnorthern Iran).Iran). TheThe temperate broadleafbroadleaf forest forest (in(in which allall branches are cut in the summer, dried and tied as remaining treestrees have their branches fodder along the treetree stemstem forfor feedingfeeding cattlecattle regularly cut-offcut-off for fodder)fodder) inin northernnorthern during the winter (photo(photo byby P.P. Vantomme). Iraq (photo(photo byby M. M. Malagnoux).Malagrioux).

10 Source: TheThe HerbalHerbal informationinformation CenterCenter (http://gic.simplenet.com/dr/herb/whitew.htm)(http://gic.simplenet.com/dr/herb/whitew.htm)

35 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees

CHAP1ER5CHAP-TER 5 SAP AND RESIN

SYRUPS, SUGAR AND CONFECTIONERY PRODUCTS

MAPLE SYRUP AND RELATEDRELATED PRODUCTSPRODUCTS

The sap of most maplesmaples (Acer(Acer spp.)spp.) containscontains relativelyrelatively high levels of sugar (2-5 percent).percent). InIn easterneastern Canada and the northeastern United StatesStates,, maple sap is harvested and eevaporatedvaporated forfor productionproduction ofof syrup and sugar and isis anan importantimportant regionalregional non-woodnon-wood forestforest product.product.

Historical aspects

IndigenousIndigenous tribestribes iinn eastern North America knew of the high sugarsugar contentcontent of maplemaple sap,sap, callingcalling itit ""sweetsweet waterwater."." They harvested the sap usingusing primitiveprimitive methodsmethods suchsuch asas piercingpiercing thethe trunktrunk ofof aa maplemaple with an axeaxe (tomahawk)(tomahawk) and inserting aa piece ofof bark or wood to collect the sap.sap. When the first European explorers and colonists arrived on the North American continent,continent, the locallocal indigenousindigenous tribestribes introducedintroduced themthem toto thethe sweet flavoured maple sap.sap. TheThe pottery of the indigenousindigenous tribestribes did not withstand heat,heat, however.however. Consequently, they were unable to boil the sap down to produceproduce syrup oror sugar.sugar. The harvesting of maplemaple productsproducts inin NorthNorth AmericaAmerica byby EuropeanEuropean settlerssettlers isis believedbelieved toto havehave begun in about 1680.1680. Blocks of maplemaple sugarsugar werewere firstfirst exportedexported fromfrom Quebec,Quebec, Canada,Canada, toto FranceFrance inin 16911691..

When the FrenchFrench settlerssettlers arrivedarrived inin easterneastern Canada,Canada, tappingtapping ofof maplemaple treestrees waswas donedone withwith aa small small axeaxe.. A wooden spile was inserted to channel the sap into a receptacle made fromfrom thethe bark of paper birch (Betula papyrifera)papyrifera).. AroundAround 18851885,, thethe woodenwooden spoutspout waswas replacedreplaced byby oneone mademade ofof metal and tapping was done withwith aa steelsteel gouge.gouge. RoughlyRoughly fivefive yearsyears later,later, woodenwooden pailspails suspendedsuspended by aa nailnail made their appearance and reduced the amount of sap lost.lost.

The first European settlers produced justjust enough syrupsyrup andand sugarsugar toto meetmeet theirtheir ownown needs. In early springspring,, when the sap begins to flow inin thethe maplemaple trees,trees, theythey wouldwould sometimessometimes traveltravel considerableconsiderable distances to reach sugaring sites.sites. Once they arrived,arrived, they wouldwould buildbuild aa temporarytemporary shelter,shelter, installinstall spouts and pails and wait for the sap to flow.flow. BarrelsBarrels ofof maplemaple sapsap werewere transportedtransported byby meansmeans ofof anan ox-driven sleigh to the boiling shack where it was boiled down in a cast iron cauldroncauldron.. After 19001900,, flatflat- bottomed panspans that were placedplaced onon enclosedenclosed stonewallstonewall firesfires replacedreplaced thethe cauldrons.cauldrons. LaterLater aa decantation siphon was added to the flat-bottomedflat-bottomed pans and evaporatorsevaporators were developed. Today'sToday's systems include integrated thermometersthermometers,, floatersfloaters that that controlcontrol thethe intakeintake andand levellevel ofof maple sapsap,, a hood to evacuate the steam and oil burners that areare replacingreplacing wood asas aa heatheat source.'1source.11

Species

Sugar maple (Acer saccharum) is the species most frequently tappedtapped forfor sap productionproduction.. ThisThis treetree isis a major componentcomponent of temperatetemperate broadleafbroad leaf forests in eastern Canada and the northeastern of the United States. Black maple (A. nigrum) is so similarsimilar to sugarsugar maplemaple thatthat itit isis oftenoften notnot differentiateddifferentiated from sugar maple andand isis alsoalso tapped.tapped. TheThe so-calledso-called "soft""soft" maplesmaples - red maple (A. rubrum)rubrum) andand silversilver maple (A.(A. saccharinum)saccharinum) - are alsoalso occasionallyoccasionally used forfor syrupsyrup production.production. However,However, aa majormajor drawbadrawbackck of usingusing these species is that budbud developmentdevelopment occurs earlier in the spring and the sap becomes unusable before the endend ofof thethe sapsap flowflow season.season . StudiesStudies indicateindicate thatthat ManitobaManitoba maplemaple (A.(A. negundo) and the EuropeanEuropean "Norway""Norway" maple (A. platanoidesl) are also consideredconsidered to be potentialpotential maple syrup producers [Walters,[Walters, 1982b],1982b], and there has been some interest in tapping big-leaf maple

1111 Source:Source: InstitutInstitut QuQuebecoiseb(k ois de l'Erablel'Érable,, QuQuebec,ebec, CaCanadanada (http://www.erable.org)(http://www.erable.org)

37 Non-woodNon-wood forestforest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees

(Acer(Acer macrophyl/um)macrophyllum),, aa treetree indigenous to the Pacific Coast of North America [Sednak and Bennick,Bennick, 1985}.1985].

Products

The principal product produced from the sap of maple trees is maple syrup (Figure 5.1)5.1).. Quite simplysimply,, maple syrupsyrup isis sap that has been boiled until much of the water has evaporated andand thethe sap has become thick and syrupy. At the beginningbeginning of the sugarsugar season,season, when the sap isis concentrated,concentrated, it takes about 20 litreslitres of sapsap toto makemake 11 litre of syrup. Toward the end of the season,season, it may take up to 50 litres of sap to makemake oneone litrelitre ofof syrup.syrup. MapleMaple sugar,sugar, whichwhich isis aboutabout twicetwice asas sweetsweet asas granulatedgranulated white cane or beet sugar,sugar, is the resultresult of continuingcontinuing toto boilboil thethe sap until all of thethe liquidliquid hashas evaporatedevaporated.. In-between thesethese two stagesstages,, at least two otherother productsproducts cancan bebe made:made: maplemaple honey,honey, which is thicker than syrup but still a liquid, and maple cream or butter,butter, which is thick and spreadable. A less expensive productproduct isis maple-flavouredmaple-flavoured syrup, which is a combination of corn or molasses syrup with a small amountamount ofof maple maple flavouring.12flavouring.12

Figure 5.1 GradeGrade A,A, darkdark amberamber maplemaple syrupsyrup produced in Vermont and packaged for retailretail sale.sale.

Maple syrup has about the same calories as an equivalent amount of white cane sugar and contains potassium and calcium along with trace amounts ofof sodium,sodium, ironiron and phosphorusphosphorus (Table(Table 5.1).5.1).

Table 5.1 NutritionalNutritional value of a tablespoontablespoon of maple syrup

Nutrient Amount Potassium 35 mgmg Calcium 21 mg Sodium > 2 mg Iron TraceTrace Phosphorus TraceTrace B vitamins TraceTrace

Calories 50"50* ** ApproximatelyApproximately equal equal to to an an equivalent equivalent amount amount of of cane cane sugar.sugar.

12 SourceSource:: EpicuriousEpicurious Food Food (http://www.epicurious.com/db/dictionary/terms/m/maple-su.htrnI) (http://www.epicurious.com/db/dictionary/terms/m/maple-su.html)

38 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees

Sap collectioncollection

Forests where maple sap is collected are referredreferred to asas "sugar"sugar bushes."bushes." Sugar bushes are generally found on privatelyprivately ownedowned woodlotswoodlots andand consistconsist ofof maplemaple standsstands ofof naturalnatural origin.origin. DifferencesDifferences inin pastpast cutting practices andand land use havehave resultedresulted inin widewide variationvariation inin thethe age,age, density,density, formform andand composition of these stands. MostMost havehave originatedoriginated fromfrom secondsecond oror thirdthird growthgrowth forestsforests oror fromfrom youngyoung stands of sugar maplemaple thatthat naturallynaturally seededseeded onon abandonedabandoned agriculturalagricultural lands.lands. AnotherAnother typetype ofof sugarsugar bush is referredreferred to as a non-forest sugar bush.bush. These are individualsindividuals or small groups of trees growing in the pasture of small dairy farmsfarms or treestrees growing along roadsidesroadsides and fence lineslines [Walters,[Walters, 1982b].1982b]. Under the best conditions,conditions, sugarsugar maplesmaples reachreach aa tappabletappable sizesize inin aboutabout 4040 years.years. TheThe numbernumber of of taps taps per tree varies by the ttree'sree's diameter atat breastbreast heightheight (dbh)(dbh).. A A guideline guideline for for the the number number of of taps taps is is:: 25- 25 38 cm,cm, one tap;tap; 39-50 cm,cm , twotwo taps;taps; andand 51-6451-64 cm, cm ,three three taps taps [Thomas [Thomas andand Schumann,Schumann, 1992].1992]. AA carefully tapped tree will give,give, drop by drop,drop, about 12 litreslitres of sapsap onon aa warmwarm springspring day,day, andand couldcould continue to produce sap for aa century.century. DuringDuring thethe maplemaple sugaringsugaring season,season, which lasts about six weeksweeks,, an average maple tree will yieldyield betweenbetween 3535 andand 5050 litreslitres ofof sap.sap. ThisThis willwill produceproduce betweenbetween 11 and 1.51.5 litre of purepure maplemaple syrup.syrup.

The maple tapping season generally lasts from mid-Marchmid-March toto mid-Aprilmid-April,, duringduring thethe thawingthawing ofof the ground after winterwinter,, but before the buds burst on the maple trees. A good maple season has warm daysdays,, but nights below freezing point. Maple sap does not flowflow duringduring thethe night.night:313

Sap collection is a labour-intensive process and accounts for more than 40 percent of the total labour involvedinvolved inin syrup and sugar production.production . Metal buckets are thethe traditionaltraditional collection utensils and are still widely used. The most commonlycommonly used metal buckets are zinc-coated and hold about 15 litres of sap.sap. Minute amounts of zinczinc dissolvedissolve inin thethe sapsap andand dissolvedissolve microbialmicrobial growth.growth. AluminiumAluminium bucketsbuckets are popular inin Canada.Canada.

Plastic bags have replaced buckets as sap collectors to some extent and have the advantageadvantage of keeping the sapsap cleanercleaner becausebecause theythey havehave narrow,narrow, coveredcovered openings.openings. Moreover,Moreover, becausebecause thethe plastic bags are transparent,transparent, the sterilizing effect of ultraviolet (UV) light from the sunsun improvesimproves sapsap qualityquality.. Plastic bags are lightweight andand,, because they lie flatflat,, require a minimum of storage space.space. On the other hand,hand, plastic bags are less durable than metal buckets and are subject to splitting and tearing.tearing.

Regardless of whether metal buckets or plastic bags are used, the sap must be collected at regular intervals during thethe tapping season. Most oftenoften,, aa gathering tanktank mounted onon aa sled or wagon isis drawn through the sugarbush and the buckets or plastic bags are emptied into the tank. SapSap lossloss from spillagespillage or missedmissed bucketsbuckets can bebe aa significantsignificant factorfactor inin thethe efficiencyefficiency ofof a a sap-collecting sap-collecting operationoperation..

Box 5.15.1 TheThe sugaringsugaring off party:party: AA maplemaple country tradition

InIn both Canada and the United States,States, thethe maplemaple syrup industry is dominateddominated byby ownersowners ofof small small woodlots,woodlots, who have managed to carrycarryon on manymany of its colorful traditions.traditions. One ofof thethe moremore colourfulcolourful traditionstraditions is the "sugaring"sugaring off' partyparty thatthat takestakes placeplace afterafter thethe finalfinal boiling of thethe sapsap hashas beenbeen completed.completed. FriendsFriends and neighbours,neighbours, especiallyespecially youngyoung childrenchildren areare invitedinvited to participate.participate. The party usuallyusually consistsconsists of a heartyhearty feast followedfollowed byby thethe makingmaking ofof maple maple Figure 5.25.2 A A traditionaltraditional sugaring-offsugaring-off partyparty inin taffy. The steamingsteaming hot syrupsyrup isis takentaken fromfrom thethe Quebec, Canada (photo courtesy of Victor evaporators and poured over clean,clean , fresh snow.snow. Brunette, La FederationFederation des ProducteursProducteurs dede BoisBois The end product isis cold and chewy and iiss a a du Quebec,Quebec, Longueuil,Longueuil ,Quebec, Quebec , Canada).Canada). memorable taste experience (Figure 5.2).5.2).

13 SSourceource - CaCanadanada MapleMaple Products, Plessisville,Plessisville, Quebec,Quebec, CanadaCanada (http://www.ivic.gc.ca)(http://www.ivic.gc.ca)

39 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

Plastic pipeline systemssystems ofof variousvarious configurationsconfigurations andand pumping systems havehave beenbeen usedused byby sapsap producersproducers withwith varying degrees of successsuccess althoughalthough manymany stillstill useuse metal buckets or plasticplastic bagsbags forfor sapsap collectioncollection [Walters,[Walters, 1982a]1982a].. TheThe collected sapsap is boiled down into syrup in flat metalmetal tankstanks oror evaporatorsevaporators inin buildingsbuildings knownknown asas sugar camps or sugar houseshouses and mustmust bebe boiledboiled thethe same day it is gathered (Figures(Figures 5.35.3 andand 5.4).5.4). Plastic pipelines,pipelines, that are attachedattached toto tappedtapped treestrees andand run to aa collectingcollecting stationstation oror directlydirectly toto thethe sugarhouse,sugarhouse, were developed duringduring thethe 1950s andand are a means of Figure 55.3.3 An evaporator in a improving the efficiency of sap collecting.collecting . Advantages of sugarhouse in QuebecQuebec,, Canada a plastic pipeline system include:include: (photo courtesy ofof VictorVictor Brunette,Brunette, 1. It permits a better distributiondistribution of labour during of labour during La FédérationFederation des ProducteursProducteurs dede sugaring;sugaring; Bois dudu Québec,Quebec, Longueuil,Longueuil, Quebec,Quebec, 2. Results in less labour during sap collection;collection ; Canada). 3. Achieves moremore sanitarysanitary collectioncollection andand transportationtransportation L-__-;:======~ of the sap;sap; 4. Eliminates road building and maintenance in sugar bushes.bushes. 5. Increases yields byby reducingreducing infectioninfection iinn the tapholetaphole byby airborne microorganisms.microorganisms.

Production and trade

The world'sworld's supplysupply ofof purepure maplemaple syrupsyrup is producedproduced in a relatively small area,area, includingincluding partsparts ofof Quebec,Quebec, OntarioOntario andand thethe Maritime Provinces ofof Canada and thethe NewNew England,England , mid-mid Atlantic and northernnorthern mid-westernmid-western UnitedUnited StatesStates [Sendak[Sendak andand Jenkins, 1982].1982]. Canada accounts for about 75 percentpercent ofof worldworld production withwith the remainderremainder being producedproduced inin thethe UnitedUnited Figure 5.4 AA sugarhousesugarhouse in States.States. In CanadaCanada,, there are about 13 000 maple syrup about13 000 maple syrup Quebec,Quebec, Canada (Photo producers andand the ProvinceProvince of QuebecQuebec accountsaccounts forfor aboutabout 9090 courtesy of Victor Brunette,Brunette, percent of all CanadianCanadian production.production. MapleMaple syrupsyrup productionproduction is La FederatFédérationion des Producteurs QuebecQuebec's's fourth leading agri-food industry in termsterms ofof exports.exports. de Bois du Québec,Quebec, LongueuilLongueuil,, During the periodperiod 1985-1995,1985-1995, averageaverage annualannual productionproduction of Quebec,Québec, Canada). maple syrupsyrup in Canada was 1313851 851 000 litreslitres (Table 55 .2)2) . Approximately 68 percent was exported,exported , valued at 120120 millionmillion CONCDN dollars. Eighty-five percent of Canadian exportsexports gogo to the United States,States, 1010 percent to Europe and 5 percentpercent to Asia.Asia . ExportsExports have been increasing at a steady rate asas newnew marketsmarkets andand tradingtrading opportunitiesopportunities develop in Asia and Europe for thisthis uniquelyuniquely NorthNorth AmericanAmerican product.14product. 14 MapleMaple syrupsyrup productionproduction inin CanadaCanada hashas seen an upgoing trendtrend.. In 1999,1999, it reachedreached 3333523 523 t, which represents an increase of 20.920 .9 percent over thethe previousprevious year.15 year. 15 The marketingmarketing of maplemaple productsproducts in CanadaCanada is centredcentred inin aa fewfew largelarge cooperativescooperatives and marketingmarketing syndicates whichwhich purchasepurchase almostalmost 7070 percentpercent ofof the syrup produced.produced. The largest of thesethese isis located in Plessisville,Plessisville, QuebecQuebec.. This facility purchases all or part of thethe productionproduction of somesome 55 000000 syrup producers.producers. The cooperatives and syndicates are oriented toward a few largelarge buyersbuyers ofof darkdark maple syrup in Canada and thethe UnitedUnited StatesStates butbut theythey alsoalso marketmarket largelarge quantitiesquantities ofof table-grade table-grade syrup in bulk lots and small retail containers [Sendak[Sendak andand JenkinsJenkins 1982].1982]. During 1991,1991 , total maple syrup production in the United States was approximately 6 180 000 litres with aa marketmarket valuevalue ofof US$ US$ 39 39279 279 000 000 [Thomas[Thomas andand Schumann,Schumann ,1992]. 1992] .Approximately Approximately two-thirdstwo-thirds of the maplemaple syrupsyrup isis producedproduced inin VermontVermont andand NewNew York.York. OtherOther states,states, whichwhich produceproduce maplemaple syrup, are Maine,Maine, Massachusetts,Massachusetts, Michigan,Michigan, New Hampshire,Hampshire, Ohio and Pennsylvania.Pennsylvania. In 1999,1999, maple syrup production totalledtotalled 11.18.18 millionmillion USUS gallonsgallons:6.16 As of the early 1980s,1980s, there were about

14 SourSource:ce: AgricultureAgriculture CanadaCanada (http://aceis.aqr.ca)(http://aceis.agr.ca) NaturalNatural ResourcesResources CanadaCanada (http://nrcan.qc.ca/cfs/proViebbinfdp/cp95/data(http://nrcan.gc.ca/cfs/proj/iepb/nfdp/cp95/data e/tab56e.htm)e/tab56e.htm) 15 15 SourSource:ce: 1999/20001999/2000 CanadianCanadian maplemaple productsproducts situationsituation and trendstrends ((www www.aqr.ca).agr.ca) 1166 SourcSource:e: 1999/20001999/2000 CanadianCanadian maplemaple productsproducts situationsituation and trendstrends ( www.aqr.ca)www.agr.ca)

40 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees

44900 900 maple producersproducers inin thethe UnitedUnited StatesStates withwith anan averageaverage ofof slightlyslightly lessless thanthan 11 000 000 tapstaps each.each . Roughly, 6060 percent ofof the syrup produced in the United States is packaged and sold in retail containers by producers. The remainder is sold inin bulkbulk drumsdrums toto processorsprocessors oror packerspackers whowho package itit for retail sales as purepure maplemaple syrupsyrup oror furtherfurther processprocess it forfor useuse inin blendedblended maplemaple products or as a flavouring in other products.products. Marketing cooperatives handle only a small portion of the maple syrup producedproduced inin thethe UnitedUnited StatesStates [Sendak[Sendak andand Jenkins,Jenkins, 1982].1982]. Grading

Federal gradinggrading systemssystems forfor pure maple syrup exist in bothboth CanadaCanada and thethe UnitedUnited States.States. InIn addition, the states of Vermont and WisconsinWisconsin havehave theirtheir ownown gradinggrading systemssystems (Table(Table 5.4).5.4). TheseThese areare based on syrup colour. The highest grades are assigned to the lighterlighter colouredcoloured syrups.syrups. TheThe CanadianCanadian system is basedbased onon spectrophotometricspectrophotometric values relativerelative toto threethree caramel-glycerinecaramel-glycerine solutions. InIn thethe United States, the method of grading is based on the glass colourcolour comparator.comparator. Research has shown that these twotwo systems dodo notnot yieldyield consistentconsistent results.results . The reasonreason for this isis thatthat thethe colouringcolouring agents in maple syrup are somewhatsomewhat differentdifferent fromfrom purepure caramel.caramel. AA syrupsyrup andand aa caramel-glycerinecaramel-glycerine solutionsolution thatthat are visually the same colourcolour willwill yieldyield differentdifferent percentpercent transmittancestransmittances whenwhen measuredmeasured atat aa singlesingle wavelength in a spectrophotometer.spectrophotometer. SyrupsSyrups areare consistently gradedgraded higher using the colourcolour comparator than they are in the spectrophotometer [Sednak andand JenkinsJenkins 1982).1982). Table 5.2 Maple SyrupSyrup Production - Canada 1985-1995 (thousands (thousands of litres) Province Year PrincePrince Edward Nova New IsIslandland ScotiaSco!ia Brunswick Quebec Ontario ManitobaManitoba TotalTotal 1985 68 50 92019 201 1005 1032410 324 1986 64 118 92749 274 614 1007010 070 1987 45 100 80018 001 536 86828 682 1988 95 164 1327413 274 714 1424714 247 1989 91 145 1472014 720 686 1564215 642 1990 11.36.36 95 155 1295612 956 764 00.60.60 1313972 972 1991 00.85.85 82 164 1251512 515 850 0.28 1313612 612 1992 11.13.13 118 768 1598415 984 13641 364 00.74.74 1823618 236 1993 11.13.13 91 374 1069710 697 936 0.80 1210012 100 1994 11.10.10 151 374 1868418 684 986 1.00 2020197 197 1995 1.10 117 367 1372713 727 10621 062 3.80 1527815 278 Average 11.00.00 92 253 1263912 639 865 1.00 1313851 851 Source: Natural ResourcesResources CanadaCanada Table 5.3 Canadian exports of maplemaple syrupsyrup and and sugar sugar 1988-1995 1988-1995 Year Maple syrup(thousandssyrupfthousands of litres) Maple sugar (kg) 1988 52580515 258 051 17078101 707 810 1989 55076245 507 624 1 014014329 329 1990 78747637 874 763 577 192 1991 82332338 233 233 582582794 794 1992 95649509 564 950 210210564 564 1993 11 570570441 441 385385116 116 1994 1397326713 973 267 289289864 864 1995 1411987714 119 877 405277405 277 Average 95127769 512 776 646618646 618 Source: Natural Resources Canada Table 5.4 Grades of maple syrup inin CanadaCanada andand thethe UnitedUnited StatesStates Countty/StateCountry/State StandardStandard Canada Number 11 Number 11 Number 11 Number 2 Number 3 (Federal and Extra Light Light Medium Amber Dark Quebec) Transmittance Transmittance Transmittance betweer Transmittance Transmittance not less than 75%75% between 60.5 and 75%75% 44.0 and 60.5%60.5% between 27.0 and 4444.0%.0% less than 27% UnitedUnited StatesStates Grade A Grade- A Grade A Grade B SubstanSubstandarddard (USDA)'(USDA)1 Light Amber Medium Amber Dark Amber For reprocessreprocessinging NoNott darker.thandarker than light Not darker thanthan medium NotNot darker darker thanthan dark Darker than dark amber amber colour ' amber colour standardstandard ambeamberr colour standardstandard colour standard (DDA) standard (NDLA)(NPLA) (NDMA) . (N[)DfI)(NDDA) .... . Vermont Fancy Grade A Medium AmberAmber GradeGrade AA DarkDark Amber Grade C NOLANDLA NDMA NDDA DDA WisconsinWisconsin Fancy A ManufacturingManufactUring GradeGrade NDMA NDDA DDA 'The states of NewNew Hampshire,Hampshire, NewNew York,York , Maine,Maine , MassachusettsMassachusetts andand PennsylvaniaPennsylvania havehave adoptedadopted thethe USDAUSDA standardstandard grades with minorminor definitionaldefinitional changes.changes. MichiganMichigan andand OhioOhio dodo notnot havehave statestate grades.grades. Source: Sendak and Jenkins 1982

41 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees

Pests and diseases

Maple decline, characterizedcharacterized by branchbranch dieback,die back, chloroticchlorotic foliage,foliage, prematurepremature fallfall colouringcolouring andand occasional tree mortality,mortality, is causedcaused byby aa varietyvariety ofof factorsfactors includingincluding drought,drought, defoliationdefoliation byby insects,insects, road salt and rootroot fungifungi [Houston,[Houston , 1981;1981 ; Manion,Manion, 1991].1991]. A regionalregional declinedecline of sugarsugar maplemaple overover portions of Ontario and Quebec began to appear during the latelate 1970s1970s andand increasedincreased inin intensityintensity during the early 1980s. This condition caused a great deal of concern about the future of the maple syrup industry,industry, especially inin Canada. Many hypotheses werewere suggestedsuggested for for thethe causecause ofof this decline including timber-harvesting techniquestechniques,, treetree ageage,, tapping for syrup,syrup, livestock grazing,grazing, soil and air pollution, weather anomalies and insectinsect defoliation.defoliation. A popularpopular causal hypothesis was that the condition was causedcaused by acidacid rain.rain . StudiesStudies confirmedconfirmed thatthat thethe regionregion receivesreceives highhigh acidacid deposition [Linzon[Linzon,, 1988],1988], however a causal relationshiprelationship betweenbetween acidacid rainrain andand maplemaple declinedecline waswas never established. A cooperative CanadianCanadian andand AmericanAmerican studystudy onon sugarsugar maplemaple declinedecline showedshowed anan apparent improvement in the health of thisthis speciesspecies afterafter aboutabout 19881988 [NAPAP,[NAPAP, 1982].1982].

BIRCH SYRUP AND RELATEDRELATED PRODUCTSPRODUCTS

The sap of variousvarious species of birch (Betula spp.) is also sweet and is tapped in springspring for syrupsyrup production in the northernnorthern forests of EuropeEurope andand NorthNorth America.America. BirchBirch syrupsyrup differsdiffers fromfrom maplemaple syrup in that the naturalnatural sugarsugar found inin birchbirch isis fructosefructose insteadinstead ofof sucrose.sucrose. TheThe sapsap flowflow inin birchesbirches occurs somewhat later than with maples but is said to flow more copiouslycopiously.. Birch sap is only about half as sweet as maplemaple sapsap andand approximatelyapproximately 100100 litreslitres ofof sapsap areare requiredrequired toto produceproduce oneone litrelitre ofof syrup [Peyton,[Peyton , 1994].1994].

Fresh birch sap isis saidsaid toto havehave justjust aa hinthint ofof sweetness,sweetness, withwith aa slightlyslightly minty,minty ,wintergreen wintergreen flavour.flavour. InIn late spring, birchbirch sapsap cancan bebe aa goodgood sourcesource ofof moisture moisture for for someone someone travelling travelling throughthrough marshymarshy areas where there is no purepure waterwater available.available. Birch syrup resembles molasses and has no hint of wintergreen flavourflavour.. Oil of wintergreen is a volatile essential oil and is driven off during the boiling process:7process.17 InIn partsparts ofof Europe,Europe, aa beer,beer, wine,wine, spiritspirit andand vinegarvinegar areare preparedprepared fromfrom birchbirch sap.sap. BirchBirch wine is produced from birchbirch sapsap collectedcollected inin March.March. Honey,Honey, clovescloves andand lemonlemon peelpeel areare addedadded andand then itit isis fermentedfermented withwith yeastyeast toto makemake aa pleasantpleasant tastingtasting cordialcordial [Grieve,[Grieve, 1931].1931].

In Belarus,Belarus, 2583 t ofof birchbirch sapsap werewere harvestedharvested inin 1996.1996. ThisThis representsrepresents onlyonly 0.60.6 percentpercent ofof thethe possible resource of 369 000 t. The commercialcommercial utilizationutilization of sapsap isis directlydirectly dependingdepending onon thethe birchbirch felling areasareas andand theirtheir accessibility accessibility [011ikainen, [Ollikainen, 1998].1998]. Birch syrupsyrup isis producedproduced fromfrom BetulaBetula papyrifera in Alaska,Alaska, UnitedUnited States,States, wherewhere itit is usedused asas aa sweetenersweetener inin coffee,coffee, onon vegetables,vegetables, pancakes and in breads and desserts.desserts.

Birch beer is mademade fromfrom thethe sapsap ofof Betula Betula lentalenta inin the the southern southern Appalachian Appalachian MountainsMountains ofof thethe eastern USA. The trees are tapped inin thethe springspring whenwhen the sapsap beginsbegins toto flow.flow. TheThe sapsap isis storedstored inin a ceramicceramic jugjug andand aa small small quantity quantity of of shelled shelled corn corn is is added added to to promote promote fermentation fermentation [VVigginton, [Wigginton, 1973].

Containing same acids and minerals found in some fruits and berries,berries, the birch sap is consideredconsidered as a healthy product in a growinggrowing numbernumber ofof countries.countries. ForFor instance,instance, inin easterneastern EuropeEurope andand AsianAsian countriescountries,, fresh birch sap is pasteurized,pasteurized, bottledbottled andand soldsold asas aa healthhealth drink.drink.

The curative propertiesproperties of birchbirch sapsap werewere referredreferred toto alreadyalready byby BaronBaron Pierre-FrangoisPierre-Frangois Percy,Percy, thethe army surgeon and inspector general to Napoleon.Napoleon. HisHis observationobservation waswas asas follows:follows:

Throughout the whole of northern Europe ...... birchbirch waterwater isis thethe hope,hope, thethe blessing,blessing, andand the the panacea of rich andand poor,poor, mastermaster andand peasantpeasant alikealike ...... ItIt almostalmost unfailinglyunfailingly curescures skinskin conditions such as pimples,pimples, scurf,scurf, acne,acne, etc.,etc. , it isis anan invaluableinvaluable remedyremedy forfor rheumaticrheumatic diseases.diseases, the after-effects of gout,gout, bladder obstructions,obstructions, and countless chronic ills against which medicalmedical sciencescience is is soso prone prone to to fail.18 fail.1 8

17 Source: Maple ssugarugar boiling monthmonth (http(http://indy4fdl.cc.mn.us/isk/food/maple/html)://indy4fdl.cc.mn .usi-isklfoodimapleihtml) 18 Source:MarleneSource: Marlene Cameron.Cameron. 19991999 AlaskaAlaska birchbirch syrupsyrup atat httphttp://www.birchsyrup.com/aboutbs.html#nutrition://www birchsyrup.comiaboutbs. html#nutrition

42 Non-wood forest productsproducts fromfrom temperate temperate broad-leaved broad-leaved treestrees

Figure 5.5:5.5: (above) A birch-rich forestforest standstand inin Alaska.Alaska. Birch trees are connected with blue hoses to collect the sap toto oneone centralcentral locationlocation insteadinstead ofof tappingtapping eacheach individual tree. (right)(right) AAjar jar of birch syrup. (Photos courtesycourtesy of:of: http://trailmastersgifts.com).

Box 5.2 Alaskan birch syrup industry

Birch syrup derived from the sap of thethe paperpaper birchbirch BetulaBetula papyriferapapyrifera is commercializedcommercialized in Alaska. The industryindustry that was initiatedinitiated tenten yearsyears ago isis todaytoday of greatgreat potentialpotential sincesince thethe demanddemand forfor birchbirch syrupsyrup andand forfor the value addedadded birchbirch productsproducts isis growing.growing.

The basic processprocess to makemake birchbirch syrupsyrup isis thethe samesame asas maplemaple thoughthough therethere areare somesome majormajor differencesdifferences between the two syrups.syrups. Compared to the maple,maple, the birchbirch treestrees tappedtapped areare smallersmaller inin diameterdiameter thanthan maplemaple,, the life span of the birch is shorter and the birch is susceptible toto heart rot early in life. In additionaddition,, the sapsap seasonseason isis muchmuch shortershorter forfor birchbirch thanthan maple.maple. InIn thethe south-centralsouth-central part of Alaska thethe sapsap runrun lastslasts an average of 19-2019-20 days.days. Since tapping only takes 10-15 percent of the total sap production of the treetree,, it does notnot injureinjure thethe trees.Thetrees. The averageaverage sugarsugar contentcontent ofof birchbirch sapsap isis 1111 BrixBrix whilewhile thatthat ofof maple maple rangesranges fromfrom 2 to 41 Brix.iBrix.1

Birch sap containscontains several acids suchsuch asas malic,malic, phosphoric,phosphoric, succinicsuccinic and citric.citric. Further,Further, inorganicsinorganics including significant amounts of potassium,potassium, calcium,calcium, manganese and thiaminthiamin areare present.present. ThereThere isis alsoalso aa difference regarding colour and flavour of the two syrupssyrups..

ValueValue-added-added products with birch syrup as a base are candies,candies, marinade,marinade, salad dressing,dressing, popcorn,popcorn , reindeer jerky,jerky, coated nutsnuts andand flavouredflavoured birchbirch syrup.syrup.

Brix = percent sucrose by weight at 20°C.20°C.

43 Non-wood forest productsproducts fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees

STYRAX

StyraStyraxx or storax is aa balsamicbalsamic oleoresinoleoresin extractedextracted from the inner bark and woodwood ofof speciesspecies of of 19 LiquidambarLiquidambar.19. ThisThis materialmaterial isis a semi-solid,semi-solid, sticky,sticky, brown-colouredbrown-coloured material and appearsappears inin response to wounds. VVhenWhen thethe youngyoung woodwood isis injuredinjured,, oil-ducts are formed in which thethe styraxstyrax isis produced [Grieve,[Grieve, 1931].1931].

USES

Steam distillation of styrax yields an essential oil that is widely used in the fragrance industry.industry. ForFor instanceinstance,, it isis usedused as fumigantfumigant inin mosquesmosques andand churches.churches. FurtherFurther more,more, styrax oil isis widelywidely usedused by the drug and cosmeticcosmetic industry.industry. For instance,instance, the cosmetic properties of styrax are used in the production of soap and detergentsdetergents and inin perfumeperfume manufacturing.manufacturing. Due to itsits medicalmedical propertiesproperties such as antiseptic and anti-parasitic,anti-parasitic, styrastyraxx isis used toto boost asthma andand bronchitisbronchitis,, asas wellwell asas to soothe dermatitis and fungal infectioninfection [Coppen,[Coppen , 1995;1995; MoussourisMoussouris andand Regato,Regato, 1999].1999].

COMPOSITION

The most abundant constituentconstituent of styrax is storesin. It exists in two formsforms,, alpha and betabeta,, bbothoth freefree and in the form of a cinnamic ester.ester. StyraxStyrax isis an amorphousamorphous substance,substance, melting at 168°C16SoC when it is readily soluble inin petroleumpetroleum benzin.benzin. VariousVarious estersesters ofof cinnamiccinnamic acidacid havehave beenbeen identified,identified , includingincluding ethyl, phenylpopyl and benzyl esters and cinnamylcinnamyl cinnamate,cinnamate, the so-called styrasinstyrasin.. The yyieldield of cinnamic acid varies from 6 to 1212 percentpercent oror eveneven asas muchmuch asas 2323 percentpercent ofof crystallizedcrystallized cinnamiccinnamic acid can bebe obtained.obtained . AnotherAnother analysisanalysis givesgives freefree cinnamiccinnamic acid,acid , vanillin,vanillin, styrol,styrol, styracin,styracin, cinnamiccinnamic acid-ethyl ester,ester, cinnamiccinnamic acid-phenylprophylacid-phenylprophyl ester andand storesinol,storesinol, partly free andand partlypartly asas cinnamic acid ester.ester.

Crude styrax contains from 1 to 99 percentpercent ofof mattermatter insolubleinsoluble inin alcohol,alcohol, andand upup toto 3030 percentpercent ofof water.water. When purified,purified, it isis brownish-yellow;brownish-yellow; viscous and transparent iinn thin layers;layers; entirely soluble in alcohol (90(90 percent)percent) andand inin ether.ether. BoiledBoiled withwith aa solutionsolution ofof potassium potassium chromatechromate andand sulphuricsulphuric acid, it evolvesevolves anan odourodour ofof benzaldehyde.benzaldehyde. ItIt losesloses notnot moremore thanthan 55 percentpercent ofof its its weightweight when when heated in a thin layer on a waterbath for one hour [Grieve,[Grieve, 1931].1931].

SPECIES

Two treestrees areare importantimportant commercialcommercial sourcessources ofof styrax.styrax .Liquidambar Liquidambar orientalis,orienta/is, nativenative toto easterneastern Mediterranean Europe and the NearNear East,East, isis thethe sourcesource ofof thethe productproduct knownknown asas AsianAsian styrax;styrax ;and and the sweetgumsweetgum (L.(L. styraciflua),styracif/ua), aa treetree nativenative toto thethe southeasternsoutheastern UnitedUnited States,States, MexicoMexico andand CentralCentral America is the sourcesource ofof AmericanAmerican styrax.styrax. L.L. formosanaformosana occurs in southeastern ChinaChina,, where it is used locally but is not important in world trade [Coppen,[Coppen, 1995].1995].

HARVESTING

Styrax is found in thethe sapwoodsapwood and inner bark of L.L. orientalis.orienta/is. Asian styraxstyrax is harvestedharvested byby removing pieces of barkbark andand boilingboiling themthem inin water.water. AdditionalAdditional styraxstyrax isis obtainedobtained byby pressingpressing thethe bark that has beenbeen "extracted""extracted" to remove any residual material. Some styrax is also harvested by making incisions into the exposed stem wood and collecting the exudate in small cans or scraping it off directly. American styraxstyrax isis collectedcollected byby tappingtapping thethe treestrees (L.(L. styraciflua).styraciflua). AA smallsmall guttergutter andand aa cup are fixed on the tree andand a cutcut isis mademade inin thethe stemstem wherewhere pocketspockets ofof styraxstyrax occur.occur.

Preliminary cleaning of Asian styrax is done by rinsingrinsing the crude materialmaterial in boilingboiling water.water. The dirtydirty water is removedremoved by decantation and the soft,soft, fluid resinresin is separatedseparated from a lowerlower layerlayer ofof sandsand and other foreign materialsmaterials [Coppen,[Coppen, 1995].1995].

19 PPleaselease note ththatat ththereere eexistsxists aanothernother intinternationallyernationall y ttradedraded resresin,in, benzobenzoin,in , wwhichhich iiss oobtainedbtained fromfrom South-EastSouth-East Asian StyraxStyrax species.species. ThisThis resinresin shouldshould notnot bebe confusedconfused withwith styrax/storaxstyrax/storax from Liquidambar.Uquidambar. (see(see NWFP SeriesSeries no.no. 6 "G"Gums,ums, RResinsesins aandnd LatLatexesexes ooff PlantPlant origiorigin,n, FAO 1995)1995)

44 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

PRODUCTION AND TRADETRADE

Turkey is thethe onlyonly sourcesource ofof AsianAsian styraxstyrax tradedtraded internationally.internationally. TheThe geographicalgeographical distributiondistribution of thethe tree inin TurkeyTurkey isis southwesternsouthwestern Anatolia.Anatolia. DuringDuring thethe decadedecade ofof thethe 1960s,1960s, exportsexports ofof TurkishTurkish styraxstyrax ranged from 50 t/at/a toto 7070 t/a.t/a . TheThe largestlargest importerimporter waswas thethe UnitedUnited Kingdom,Kingdom, followedfollowed byby Germany,Germany, France, Italy and thethe UnitedUnited States.States. TheThe UnitedUnited StatesStates isis thethe largestlargest importerimporter ofof AmericanAmerican styraxstyrax coming from L. styraciflua,styraciflua, mostmost ofof whichwhich isis producedproduced inin Honduras.Honduras. ItIt cancan alsoalso bebe foundfound inin otherother partsparts of Central America andand inin MexicoMexico [Coppen,[Coppen, 1995].1995].

Exports of styrax from Turkey have declined since its peak in thethe 1960s.1960s. InIn orderorder toto determinedetermine thethe development potential ofof styrax, a betterbetter knowledge is required. If styraxstyrax oiloil productionproduction inin TurkeyTurkey becomes uneconomic due to increased labour costs, there is a potential for the productionproduction to expandexpand in Southeast Asia (from L. Formosan) and Central America [Moussouris[Moussouris andand Regato,Regato, 1999].1999].

MASTIC GUMGUM

Mastic gum is a naturalnatural resinresin that isis extractedextracted fromfrom oneone ofof thethe mostmost characteristiccharacteristic evergreenevergreen speciesspecies in the Mediterranean maquis,2°maquis,20 thethe PistaciaPistacia lentiscuslentiscus varvar.. ChiaChia treetree.. TheThe treetree isis a slow-growingslow-growing,, coldcold- sensitive species thatthat growsgrows in limestone soil.soil. In order to obtain oleoresinoleoresin,, itit is necessary toto make incisions in the trunk.trunk. The exuded oleoresin61eoresin soon solidifies and becomes hard andand brittlebrittle.. AtAt an age of 12-1512-15 years,years, gumgum productionproduction reachesreaches itsits fullfull potential.potential. However,However, gumgum cancan bebe alreadyalready extractedextracted after the fifth or sixth year.

Even though, P.P. lentiscus is a commoncommon speciesspecies in the MediterraneanMediterranean region, it is onlyonly onon thethe GreekGreek island of Chios,Chios, justjust offshoreoffshore fromfrom IzmirIzmir inin Turkey,Turkey, thatthat large-scalelarge-scale productionproduction takestakes place.place. SmallerSmaller quantities of mastic gum areare collectedcollected inin Algeria,Algeria, MoroccoMorocco andand thethe CanaryCanary Islands.Islands.

HARVESTING, PRODUCTION AND TRADE

InIn ChiosChios,, the harvesting period is between June and mid-October. According to regulations regarding mastic gum productionproduction,, all collection activities have to terminate after 1515 October.

Preparations start by cleaning the tree, followedfollowed byby sweepingsweeping andand levellinglevelling thethe groundground beneathbeneath thethe tree.tree. Subsequently,Subsequently, the first vertical and horizontalhorizontal cuts are markedmarked on thethe bark,bark, twicetwice aa weekweek forfor aa period of five to sixsix weeks.weeks. CollectionCollection followsfollows crystallization of the first secretedsecreted gum. AfterAfter that,that, thethe second cut is inflicted,inflicted , and the gums are collected once again.again.

After collectioncollection,, thethe gumgum is sievedsieved and then givengiven toto thethe cooperativecooperative for qualityquality control.control. The cooperative sends the product to the Union of Mastic Producers, where final processing takestakes placeplace.. Production has fluctuated withwith anan averageaverage ofof 250 250000 000 kg kg aa year year during during the the first first half half of of this this century.21 century.21

The trade in mastic gum is worth US$ 14.4 million per year to the 21 villages involved on the Greek island of Chios,Chios, who havehave monopolymonopoly of production.production. The mastic gum is exportedexported to 5050 countries,countries, among which Saudi Arabia is the biggestbiggest importerimporter [Moussouris[Moussouris andand Regato,Regato, 1999].1999].

USES

There are many products of mastic gum,gum, such as masticmastic oil and rosin,rosin, bothboth ofof whichwhich areare derivedderived fromfrom mastic gum distillation.distillation. Further gumdrops,gumdrops, which have a unique pleasant flavour, are sold as chewing gumgum.. Since 1995, a processed packed product in the form ofof aa confectionconfection isis producedproduced andand marketed.marketed. InIn addition,addition, mastic gum is a culinary ingredient in the Mediterranean cuisine and patisserie and isis alsoalso used in ouzo flavouring.

By-products of mastic gum are used in varnishes and coatings and in a type of cement called asphalt masticmastic.. MoscholivanoMoscholivano,, aa solid essence derived from masticmastic gum,gum, releasesreleases aa pleasantpleasant odourodour whenwhen

20 Maquis are evergreen short tree and shrub communities. 21 SourceSource:: Mastic gum resin (http://www.execpc.com/-qoodscnt/datairs1008031.html)(http://www.execpc.com/-goodscntldata/rs1008031.html)

45 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees being burned.burned . Moreover,Moreover, mastic is usedused inin woodwood coatings,coatings, lacquers,lacquers, adhesives,adhesives, andand printingprinting inks.inks. Artists have used it for many centuries to protectprotect bothboth oiloil paintingspaintings andand watercolours.watercolours.

MoreoverMoreover,, mastimasticc gum is providedprovided withwith medicalmedical properties.properties. AlreadyAlready manymany ancientancient writerswriters suchsuch asas TheophrastusTheophrastus,, Pliny the Elder,Elder, GalenosGalenos andand DioscoridesDioscorides consideredconsidered itit as aa panaceapanacea forfor manymany maladies. Current researchresearch confirmsconfirms thethe gum'sgum's medical medical properties.22 properties 22

22 Source:Source: MasticMastic (http://www.plthomas.com/Resinsfram/Mastic.htm)(httpllwww.plthomas.com/Resinsfram/Mastic. htm)

46 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

CHAPTER 6 BARK coRK23

Cork is the soft tissue found in the innerinner barkbark of the corkcork oakoak (Quercus(Quercus suber - family Fagaceae),Fagaceae), an evergreen oak that occursoccurs inin thethe westernwestern MediterraneanMediterranean region.region . WhileWhile otherother treestrees maymay containcontain layers of soft, spongyspongy innerinner bark,bark, e.g.e.g . DouglasDouglas fir (Pseudotsuga(Pseudotsuga menziesii)menziesii),, nono otherother treetree inin thethe world produces the thick layerslayers ofof corkcork thatthat Q.Q. subersuber produces.produces. CorkCork isis aa uniqueunique andand importantimportant non-non wood forest productproduct that hashas aa widewide rangerange ofof uses, uses, including including wine wine and and champagne champagne stoppers, stoppers, insulation,insulation, floats forfor fishingfishing nets nets andand bulletinbulletin boards.boards.

HISTORICAL ASPECTS

Ironically,Ironically, thethe firstfirst people who made use of cork livedlived inin thethe eastern Mediterranean, a considerable distance from where cork oaks occur naturally.naturally. In Egypt,Egypt, tombstombs dating backback thousandsthousands of yearsyears were found to containcontain ceramicceramic amphorae with cork stoppers. The ancient Greeks used the barkbark of cork oak toto makemake buoysbuoys toto floatfloat fishingfishing nets,nets, forfor sandalssandals andand forfor stoppers stoppers ofof vessels vessels containing containing wine and olive oil.oil. TheThe GreekGreek philosopherphilosopher TheophrastusTheophrastus (fourth(fourth andand thirdthird centuriescenturies BC)BC) discovereddiscovered that one layerlayer ofof corkcork waswas strippedstripped fromfrom aa tree,tree, aa newnew sheathsheath ofof better better qualityquality waswas quicklyquickly formed.formed. Later, the Romans putput corkcork toto aa widerwider rangerange ofof uses.uses. TheThe scholarscholar MarcusMarcus Terentius Terentius Varron Varron (116- (116 27 BC) andand thethe farmerfarmer LucioLucio ColmuelaColmuela recommendedrecommended makingmaking beehivesbeehives outout ofof cork cork becausebecause ofof its its low heat conductivity.conductivity. Pliny mentioned roofs made of corkwoodcorkwood plank,plank, something that can stillstill bebe seen in partsparts ofof northernnorthern AfricaAfrica today.today. HisHis writingswritings also mentionmention the use of corkcork toto floatfloat anchoranchor ropes and fishing nets,nets, for sealing vessels containing oil or wine and inin thethe productionproduction ofof women'swomen 's shoes. Early fishermen in the Mediterranean also used cork to fashion life jackets. Dioscorides,Dioscorides, a Greek physician in the second century ADAD,, described some medicinal uses ofof corkcork.. He recorded a belief that charred cork rubbedrubbed on baldbald patchespatches withwith thethe sapsap ofof thethe laurellaurel (Laurus(Laurus nobilis)nobilis) wouldwould make hair grow again, thicker and darker thanthan before.before.

In Portugal,Portugal, where extensive forestsforests ofof Quercus subersuber occuroccur,, corkcork was an economic asset of considerable national importance byby the fourteenth centurycentury.. Cork was first exportedexported toto EnglandEngland around 1307 during the reign of DomDom Dinis.Dinis. InIn 13201320 thisthis kingking undertookundertook toughtough measuresmeasures againstagainst anyone damaging ""his"his" cork oaks. DuringDuring the reignreign ofof thethe PortuguesePortuguese kingking DomDom Fernando,Fernando, corkcork was one of the main exports to sailsail outout ofof the portport ofof Lisbon.Lisbon.

One of the mostmost significantsignificant discoveriesdiscoveries leadingleading toward the developmentdevelopment of aa modernmodern corkcork industryindustry took place during the earlyearly 1700s1700s byby thethe FrenchFrench BenedictineBenedictine DomDom PierrePierre Pérignon,Perignon , thethe proctorproctor ofof the Abbey ofof Hautvillers,Hautvillers, nearnear Epernay.Epernay. DomDom PierrePierre PérignonPerignon isis thethe personperson whowho developeddeveloped thethe process of champagne production.production. HeHe observedobserved thatthat thethe woodenwooden stoppers,stoppers, wrappedwrapped inin hemphemp andand soaked with olive oil,oil , usedused toto sealseal thethe containerscontainers holdingholding thethe sparklingsparkling wine,wine, oftenoften poppedpopped out.out. HeHe tested cork asas anan alternativealternative stopperstopper andand hadhad surprisinglysurprisingly goodgood results.results . SoonSoon corkcork becamebecame essential for all typestypes ofof wines.wines. AroundAround thethe mid-1700s,mid-1700s, manymany FrenchFrench winewine producersproducers werewere usingusing cork stoppers for wine containers. The first cork usedused toto makemake stoppersstoppers isis believedbelieved toto havehave comecome from the Landes,Landes, Var andand easterneastern PyrenneesPyrennees regions of France. Around 17501750,, in the village of Angullane,Angullane, located near the FrenchFrench borderborder inin thethe CatalonianCatalonian RegionRegion ofof Spain,Spain, thethe firstfirst corkcork stopperstopper factory opened. CorkCork productionproduction increasedincreased significantlysignificantly duringduring thethe nineteenthnineteenth centurycentury whenwhen bottlesbottles replacedreplaced woodenwooden barrelsbarrels,, aa method used sincesince RomanRoman timestimes toto storestore winewine. Today,Today, about 25 billion cork stoppers are used worldwide per year [Moussouris and Regato,Regato, 1999].1999].

The replacement of corkscorks byby otherother stoppersstoppers thatthat werewere eithereither cheapercheaper oror moremore eye-catchingeye-catching causedcaused a decline in thethe corkcork industryindustry andand dampeneddampened interestinterest inin corkcork oakoak culture.culture. However,However, inin 18911891 anan

2233 Much of the information contained in this section is taken from The Cork in 1997 http:/http://www.portugal.org/german/doingbustuyingfrom/products/cork/www.portugal.org/german/doingbus/buyingfrom/products/cork

47 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees

American by the namename ofof JohnJohn SmithSmith developeddeveloped aa processprocess forfor makingmaking agglomeratedagglomerated corkcork andand opened up a new world of opportunities for this product.product. ThisThis createdcreated aa demanddemand forfor wastewaste corkcork fromfrom the stopper industry.industry.

Box 66.1.1 TheThe traditionaltraditional corkcork stopper is challenged by synthetic substitutes

The defenders of cork and of plastic are set againstagainst each other in a wine-industrywine-ind ustry row. The public battle started when a number of bigbig BritishBritish supermarketsupermarket groups flattened that any systematic faultfault,, asas corked winewine,, was as unacceptableunacceptable in winewine asas it waswas inin anyany otherother product.product. TheThe termterm corkedcorked winewine refersrefers toto mustiness or cheesiness in the winewine influencedinfluenced byby thethe contaminantcontaminant TCATCA (trichloroanisole),(trichloroanisole), which can affect the taste and flavour of the wine and spoilspoil the wine'swine's bouquet.bouquet. Thus,Thus , the dependability of the cork stopper is questioned.questioned .

In Britain the cork's defenders attack thethe plastic substitutes as impartingimparting their own impuritiesimpurities and claim that their use would destroy thethe cork-oakcork-oak forestsforests of SpainSpain andand Portugal,Portugal, togethertogether with theirtheir dozensdozens of rarerare species of birds.

After years of increasingincreasing pricesprices andand decreasingdecreasing quality,quality, the battlebatlie hashas nownow forcedforced thethe corkcork industryindustry intointo actionaction.. The washes have been changed,changed , quality controls tightened and more care is taken that the corkscorks are notnot exposedexposed toto moisture,moisture , whichwhich encouragesencourages thethe developmentdevelopment ofof TCATCA duringduring thethe manufacturing manufacturing process. A new process,process , the so-called INOSINOS,, is designed toto use its inherentinherent sponginess asas a way of squeezing out possiblepossible contaminants.contaminants.

Since the demand for wine inin bottlesbottles isis growinggrowing faster than the supplysupply of properlyproperly prepared cork,cork, there isis room in thethe marketmarket forfor differentdifferent typestypes ofof stoppers.stoppers. However,However, thethe toptop endend ofof thethe marketmarket stillstill favoursfavours corkcork stoppers since the durability of plastic stoppers,stoppers , ee.g..g. how well they will retainretain resiliency over time,time , is stillstill unknown. In addition,addition , the ritual of opening popping a true cork is closely associated with fine wine,wine , which makes many producers unwillingunwilling toto useuse artificialartificial corks.corks. Source:Source: TheThe Economist,Economist, 55 JuneJune 1999.1999. PlasticPlastic winewine stoppersstoppers - A corkingcorking row

CORK OAK

Quercus suber is a large,large, spreading tree that grows in open woodlands on sandy,sandy, chalk-free soils,soils, with low nitrogennitrogen and phosphorus levels butbut rich in potassium andand withwith aa pH between 5 and 6.6. Ideal conditions include an annual precipitationprecipitation of betweenbetween 400 toto 800800 mm,mm , temperaturestemperatures thatthat never drop below -55°C°C and and an an elevation elevation range range between between 100100 andand 300300 m.m .These These conditionsconditions areare found inin aa relativelyrelatively narrownarrow bandband alongalong thethe westernwestern coastalcoastal areasareas thatthat boundbound thethe MediterraneanMediterranean Sea. (Figure 6.1). Within this relatively small area,area, there are approximately some 2.2 million ha of cork oak standsstands (Table 6.1). Cork oaks are not found east of thethe IonianIonian SeaSea withwith SicilySicily andand Calabria (Italy) beingbeing thethe eastern-mosteastern-most locationslocations where corkcork oakoak occursoccurs naturally.naturally. TheThe eastern-eastern most location wherewhere extensiveextensive stands stands of of corkcork oaksoaks occuroccur isis on the ItalianItalian islandisland of SardiniaSardinia [author[author's's observation].

Cork oak isis oneone ofof the the commonestcommonest indigenousindigenous treestrees inin PortugalPortugal wherewhere itit isis foundfound throughoutthroughout thethe country.country. However,However, five districts - Beja,Beja, Byars,Evora, Portalegre.Portalegre, SantaremSantarem andand SetObalSetubal - have 87 percent of the country'scountry's total corkcork oakoak cover.cover. InIn Spain,Spain, corkcork oakoak coverscovers extensiveextensive areasareas ofof thethe provincesprovinces ofof Badajoz, CaceresCáceres,, Cadiz, HuelvaHuelva,, MalagaMálaga andand Seville in southwestern SpainSpain.. TheThe exploitation ofof cork oak in SpainSpain beganbegan inin Catalonia,Catalonia, in northeasternnortheastern SpainSpain,, around 17901790.. By thethe first half of the nineteenth century,century, Catalonia'sCatalonia's corkcork oakoak forests were reduced by 45 percentpercent andand havehave nevernever recoveredrecovered.. In France,France, the most valuable cork oakoak forestsforests areare foundfound inin thethe Var,Var ,between between CannesCannes and Toulon.Toulon. The French island of Corsica alsoalso has extensive forests of this tree.tree. In Italy,Italy, the major cork oak resources are found on the islandsislands ofof SardiniaSardinia and Sicily.Sicily. OnOn thethe ItalianItalian mainland,mainland, therethere are small areas of cork oak inin the regions of Lazio,Lazio, Tuscany and inin partsparts ofof Calabria.Calabria.

Cork oak occurs on the African continent in AlgeriaAlgeria,, Morocco andand TunisiaTunisia.. AlgerianAlgerian corkcork oakoak forestsforests are confined to the coastal region between Algiers and Cape Roux and can be found at elevations as high as 11 500500 m.m. InIn Morocco,Morocco, thethe corkcork oakoak isis foundfound alongalong thethe entireentire MediterraneanMediterranean coastcoast andand along the Atlantic coast as far southsouth asas Marrakech.Marrakech. In thethe southern-mostsouthern-most part of its rangerange inin MoroccoMorocco,, it can be found at elevationselevations of upup toto 22 200200 m.m. OneOne ofof the the most most outstanding outstanding MoroccanMoroccan cork oak forests lies just to thethe easteast ofof thethe capitalcapital citycity ofof Rabat. Rabat. TunisianTunisian corkcork oakoak forestsforests areare aa

48 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees continuation of the AlgerianAlgerian coastalcoastal stripstrip andand areare concentratedconcentrated inin largelarge standsstands inin Nefza-MogodeNefza-Mogode and Khroumiria.Khroumiria. TheThe uniqueunique productsproducts of of the the corkcork oakoak andand their high value have led to thethe introduction of Q.Q. subersuber toto countriescountries outsideoutside ofof the the western western MediterraneanMediterranean regionregion withwith limitedlimited success. These include Russia,Russia, where the tree has been introduced into the Crimean Region; in California and other southern states of thethe UnitedUnited States;States; Argentina;Argentina; Australia;Australia; Israel;Israel; Japan; SouthSouth Africa;Africa; Turkey; and Uruguay.Uruguay.

24 Table 6.1 AreaArea ofof QuercusQuercus subersuber forestsforests by country 24

Region and country Area (ha) Percent of total Mediterranean Europe France 110000110 000 5 Italy 9090000 000 4 Portugal 660660000 000 30 Spain 440440000 000 20

Subtotal 1 300000300 000 59 North Africa Algeria 460 000 21 Morocco 350 000 16 Tunisia 90 000 4

Subtotal 900 000 41 Total 22002 200 000 100.00

STRUCTURE AND CHARACTERISTICS

Cork is a plantplant tissuetissue composedcomposed ofof deaddead cells,cells, generallygenerally 14-sided14-sided polyhedrons,polyhedrons, and anan intercellintercell space filled with gas virtuallyvirtually identicalidentical toto airair butbut lackinglacking carboncarbon dioxidedioxide (CO2).(C02) , ItIt hashas aa honeycomb-honeycomb like structure that has a minimal quantity of solidsolid mattermatter andand aa maximalmaximal quantityquantity ofof gaseousgaseous matter.matter. The combinationcombination of cellularcellular membranesmembranes andand thethe honeycomb-likehoneycomb-like structure gives cork itsits uniqueunique propertiesproperties..

Density

Since approximately 89.7 percent of corkcork tissue consists of gaseousgaseous material,material , thethe density ofof cork is extremelyextremely low, in thethe order of 0.120.12 toto 0.20.0.20. CorkCork isis lightweightlightweight and will float onon water.water. ForFor thousandsthousands of years, this hashas beenbeen thethe cork'scork's mostmost evident andand celebratedcelebrated characteristic.characteristic. In Ancient Greece and Rome,Rome , forfor example,example, cork was used in fishing equipment.

Elasticity

The cellular membranes of cork are flexible. This makes the cork both Figure 6.16.1 Harvesting corkcork on aa largelarge QuercusQuercus compressible andand elastic and allows it to suber tree in Portugal. return toto its original shape afterafter beingbeing subjected toto pressure.pressure. This is thethe reasonreason whywhy corkcork hashas becomebecome anan indispensableindispensable materialmaterial forfor stoppers. The cork can be fitted perfectlyperfectly against the walls of the neck of a bottle.bottle. When the corkcork isis

24 Please note that there are differentdifferent area figuresfigures accordingaccording to differentdifferent sources. According to MoussourisMoussouris and RegatoRegato (1999) the given Figures differ forfor certain countriescountries andand areare asas follows:follows: Spain 500 000 ha,ha, Italy 100 000 ha,ha, Tunisia 45 000 haha andand France 43 000 ha.ha.

49 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees subjected to strong pressure,pressure, the gas inin thethe cellscells isis compressedcompressed andand reducesreduces inin volume.volume. WhenWhen released from pressure, the cork immediatelyimmediately recovers its originaloriginal volume and bearsbears nono tracetrace ofof having been subjected to appreciable deformation.deformation.

ImpenneabilityImpermeability

The presence of suberin,suberin, a complex mixture of fatty acids and heavy organic alcoholsalcohols,, rendersrenders corkcork impermeable to both liquidsliquids andand gases.gases. Therefore,Therefore, itit isis notnot subjectsubject toto decaydecay andand maymay bebe consideredconsidered the best seal inin existence.existence. The presencepresence of tanninstannins and thethe scarcityscarcity of albumenoidsalbumenoids make it even more effective as a seal becausebecause it isis bothboth decaydecay resistantresistant and unaltered by moisture. Pieces ofof cork exist that have been submergedsubmerged forfor centuriescenturies withoutwithout rotting.rotting .

Low conductivity

The value of corkcork isis furtherfurther enhancedenhanced byby itsits lowlow conductivityconductivity ofof heat,heat, soundsound oror vibrations.vibrations. ThisThis isis because the gaseous component of the corkcork isis sealedsealed inin tinytiny imperviousimpervious compartmentscompartments thatthat areare insulated from one anotheranother byby aa moisture-resistantmoisture-resistant materialmaterial of lowlow specificspecific gravity.gravity. Therefore,Therefore, corkcork has one of the best insulating capacities of any naturalnatural substance.

Other desirable characteristicscharacteristics

Cork is alsoalso remarkablyremarkably resistant toto wear and hashas aa highhigh frictionfriction coefficientcoefficient becausebecause of itsits honeycomb structure. It does not absorbabsorb dustdust and,and, consequently,consequently, doesdoes notnot causecause allergiesallergies oror posepose a risk to people who suffer from asthmaasthma oror otherother respiratoryrespiratory diseases.diseases. CorkCork isis alsoalso firefire resistantresistant andand is a natural firefire retardant.retardant.

HARVESTING ANDAND PROCESSINGPROCESSING

Cork oak forests are managed as either high forests or coppice.coppice. Trees must be from 1515 to 20 or 3030 years old (depending(depending on different sources) toto be of sufficientsufficient size andand maturitymaturity before the first harvesting of cork cancan occuroccur [Moussouris[Moussouris andand Regato,Regato, 1999].1999]. TheThe firstfirst harvestharvest isis aa low-qualitylow-quality corkcork known as bomizborniz oror virginvirgin corkcork thatthat is is used used exclusively exclusively for for agglomerate. agglomerate. SubsequentSubsequent harvestsharvests produce what is known asas reproductionreproduction cork,cork, whichwhich isis usedused forfor bottlebottle stoppers,stoppers, washerswashers andand relatedrelated products. The second harvest is usually of somewhat better quality than the first oneone,, and the best quality cork is obtained from the third andand subsequentsubsequent peelings. Cork is generally only taken from branches greater than 1515 cm inin diameter. AA treetree usually stops producing good-quality cork after 1313 to14t014 barkingsbarkings [Moussouris[Moussouris and Regato, 1999].1999].

Cork from corkcork oakoak forestsforests managed as high forests is harvested atat 9- toto 10-year10-year intervals.intervals. Harvesting operations generally taketake place from JuneJune throughthrough SeptemberSeptember.. Peeling cork bark requires a highhigh levellevel of skill.skill. AA wrongwrong cutcut thatthat touches thethe inner core can wound a treetree irreparably and reduce the qualityquality ofof Figure 6.2 AA cork oak in Tuscany (Italy) from which planks of corkcork the cork of futurefuture harvests.harvests. have recently beenbeen harvestedharvested Trees from which cork hashas been recently harvested have a characteristic reddish-brown coloured inner bark (Figure 6.2).6.2) TheThe outer bark regenerates afterafter stripping [Moussouris[Moussouris andand Regato,Regato, 1999].1999].

50 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

For cork oaksoaks managedmanaged under the coppicecoppice system, the trees are harvestedharvested at 10-10- toto 11-year11-year intervals. The logs are taken to thethe millmill wherewhere thethe cork,cork, whichwhich isis alwaysalways virginvirgin cork,cork, isis separatedseparated from thethe woodwood andand crushedcrushed intointo agglomerateagglomerate [Iqbal,[Iqbal , 1993].

Cork must be treated properlyproperly priorprior to industrialindustrial uses.uses. ItIt isis onlyonly usedused inin itsits rawraw formform forfor traditional traditional products such as beehives or roofing for buildings.buildings. When the planksplanks of cork areare removedremoved from thethe trees, they are firstfirst sorted,sorted, and anyany materialmaterial deemeddeemed unsuitableunsuitable isis setset aside.aside. TheThe planksplanks areare thenthen stacked and exposed to the open air for about six months. Exposure to rainrain,, sun and wind triggers chemical transformations that improve the cork's quality.quality. The cork isis thenthen layeredlayered inin largelarge boilersboilers and is boiled in water for 75 minutes in order to remove any extraneous materials and to renderrender thethe planks softer and more flexible. After boiling, the planks are again stacked for another three weeks. The planks are thenthen trimmedtrimmed andand graded.graded . TheThe bestbest qualityquality planksplanks areare usedused forfor productionproduction ofof stoppers and relatedrelated products,products, while thethe remainderremainder areare usedused forfor production production ofof agglomerates agglomerates (source: http://www.mantoncork.com/aboutcork.htm).

USES

Corkwood planks are used in the manufacture of stoppers, bungs, washerswashers,, buoys, floor coveringscoverings,, facings for walls andand ceilings,ceilings, innerinner solessoles ofof shoes,shoes, records,records, polishingpolishing blocks,blocks, protectorprotector platesplates andand handicraft products (Figure 6.3)6.3).. One of the earliest uses of cork was in footwearfootwear,, a use that still is important today.today.

Waste cork from the stopper industry and low-qualitylow-quality corkcork areare used to produceproduce groundground corkcork oror granules. These are classified according to density and graingrain size.size. The finest are used in the production of linoleum,linoleum, aa productproduct that consistsconsists ofof cork,cork, linseed oil, resin, lead oxide oror magnesiummagnesium andand colourings.colourings. It is extremelyextremely resistantresistant to wear,wear, easy toto cleanclean and isis widelywidely used for flooring and table coverings.coverings. GranulatedGranulated corkcork is thethe base material for agglomerated cork.cork. Its usesuses includeinclude champagnechampagne corks, more advancedadvanced footwear, wall coverings, flooringflooring inin the automobile and aeronautical industryindustry,, musical instrumentsinstruments and,and, most recently,recently, as componentscomponents in Figure 6.3 (left)(left) GradedGraded cork slabs ready for next stage of spacecraft. Cork granules are alsoalso processing. (right) Wine stoppers cutcut out fromfrom corkcork used in buildingbuilding constructionconstruction as aa planks.planks. thermal insulatorinsulator in doubledouble walls,walls, where it cancan reducereduce heatheat lossloss byby 36 percent, andand in roofing, where it can reducereduce heatheat lossloss byby 53 percent.

Other cork products include bulletin boards, drink coasters, tile floors, decorative panelspanels,, linings of safety helmets and sports equipment such as shuttlecocks and fishing rodrod handles.handles.

PRODUCTION AND TRADE

Average productivity of corkcork oakoak forests,forests, basedbased onon extractionextraction atat ten-yearten-year intervals,intervals, isis approximatelyapproximately 150 kg of cork/ha and can be as high as 2 000 to 5 000 kg/ha in forests of largelarge trees.trees. Today,Today, thethe centre of the world'sworld's corkcork oakoak forestforest isis concentratedconcentrated inin southernsouthern EuropeEurope - France, Italy, PortugalPortugal and SpainSpain accountaccount forfor 90 percent of corkcork oakoak production.production. NorthNorth AfricaAfrica hashas thethe remainingremaining 10 percent.

51 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

Actual production ofof corkcork in the Mediterranean forests forests"25 reaches 375 000 tt/a,/a, which isis much less that potential production estimated at 913913 500500 t/at/a [Moussouris[Moussouris andand Regato,Regato, 1999].1999]. SomeSome 600600 cork-cork producing factories have been builtbuilt inin thethe westernwestern MediterraneanMediterranean regionregion,, and theythey employemploy approximately 1414 000000 workersworkers [Cesaro[Cesaro etet al., al. ,1995; 1995 ;Moussouris Moussouris and and Regato, Regato ,19991. 1999].

Portugal, with only 30 percentpercent of thethe world'sworld 's corkcork oakoak forests,forests , accountsaccounts forfor moremore thanthan halfhalf ofof thethe worldworld's's corkcork production production. During the decadedecade ofof thethe 1990s,1990s, Portugal'sPortugal's averageaverage productionproduction waswas 170 000 t/a.Va. AlthoughAlthough Portuguese corkcork isis exported toto more than 100 countries,countries, mostmost ofof its production goes to EU countries.countries. Annually cork andand corkcork productsproducts soldsold toto EuropeEurope andand thethe UnitedUnited States correspond to more than US$ 1.51.5 billion.billion. CorkCork stoppersstoppers account for US$ 1.11.1 billion,billion , whilewhile the salesale ofof agglomeratedagglomerated cork, corkcork flooring,flooring , and otherother corkcork productsproducts areare valuedvalued atat US$US$ 400400 million."million 26

During the same period,period, Spain's corkcork productionproduction averaged 110110 000 t/a;t/a ; Italy,Italy, 2020 000000 t/a;t/a ; Morocco,Morocco, 15 000 t/a; Tunisia 9 000000 t/a;t/a ; Algeria,Algeria, 66 000000 t/a;t/a ; andand France,France, 55 000000 t/a.t/a. InIn 19931993 the the estimated estimated market value of cork inin SpainSpain waswas PtasPtas 44647 647 million,million, 8080 percentpercent ofof whichwhich waswas producedproduced onon farmlands.

PESTS AND DISEASES

There have been recentrecent reportsreports ofof declinedecline andand mortalitymortality ofof corkcork oakoak inin portionsportions ofof Italy, Italy ,Morocco, Morocco, Portugal,Portugal, Spain and Tunisia.Tunisia. SymptomsSymptoms includeinclude deathdeath ofof rootsroots andand rootlets,rootlets , epicormicepicormic shoots,shoots, aa tarry exudation and tree death within one or two growing seasons after the onset of symptoms.symptoms. In southern Spain,Spain , dying trees oftenoften occuroccur inin groupsgroups andand areare associatedassociated withwith streams,streams, depressionsdepressions oror areas where standingstanding waterwater isis common.common. TheThe rootroot fungusfungus (Phytophthora(Phytophthora cinnamomi)cinnamomi) hashas beenbeen isolated from thethe rootroot systemssystems ofof symptomaticsymptomatic treestrees occurringoccurring on moistmoist sites.sites. It hashas beenbeen suggested thatthat this fungus,fungus, which is associatedassociated with aa numbernumber ofof treetree declinesdeclines [Ciesla[Ciesla andand DonaubauerDonaubauer,, 1994],1994], hashas beenbeen recently introduced intointo thisthis regionregion andand is interacting with winter drought and changing land-use patterns to bringbring about a declinedecline of bothboth QuercusQuercus subersuber andand Q.Q. ilexilex [Brasier[Brasier et al., 1993].1993] .

TANNIN

HISTORICAL ASPECTS

Tanning animal hides with extracts of bark from trees is anan ancientancient technique dating back at least 5000 yearsyears.. The oldest evidence of tanning,tanning, a tanning yard with tools,tools, piecespieces of skinskin andand leather,leather, acacia seed pods andand fragmentsfragments of oakoak bark,bark, waswas discovereddiscovered byby thethe Italian Egyptologist CC.. Schiaparelli,Schiaparelli, and shows that the EgyptiansEgyptians used a vegetablevegetable tanning process similar to that used today. Tanning was depicted in Egyptian tomb paintings from 3000 BC and was known to the Chinese as early as 10001000 BC.BC. The RomansRomans tanned with the barkbark from oak trees.trees. NativeNative Americans used a varietyvariety ofof locallocal plantsplants toto makemake leatherleather fromfrom hideshides ofof thethe AmericanAmerican bison.bison. TheThe neolithicneolithic people of Europe are believedbelieved toto havehave tannedtanned hideshides byby immersingimmersing themthem inin waterwater holesholes filledfilled withwith bark high in tannin content.

Although tanningtanning isis anan ancientancient industry,industry, thethe actualactual chemicalschemicals thatthat causecause tanningtanning werewere notnot discovered until 1790-1800 inin France,France, whenwhen tanninstannins werewere isolatedisolated asas distinctdistinct chemicalchemical compoundscompounds [Prance and Prance,Prance, 1993].1993].

COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIESPROPERTIES

The tanning process is possible because of a propertyproperty of chemicalschemicals known as tannins that allows them to combinecombine with thethe proteinprotein ofof animalanimal skins,skins, knownknown asas collagen,collagen, toto produceproduce leather.leather. This product is tougher and moremore permanentpermanent than unprocessedunprocessed (untanned)(untanned) skins.skins.

25 Algeria,Algeria, France,France, Greece,Greece, Italy,Italy, Morocco, Portugal,Portugal, Spain and TunisiaTunisia are included.included. 2625 Source: MantonManton Industrial Industrial CorkCork ProductsProducts (http://www.mantoncork.com/aboutcork.htm)(http://wWw.mantoncork.com/aboutcork.htm)

52 Non-wood forest productsproducts fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

Tannins areare chemicallychemically classifiedclassified intointo twotwo groups:groups: hydrolysablehydrolysable tanninstannins andand condensedcondensed oror nonhydrolysable tannins.tannins. Hydrolysable tanninstannins (gallotannins)(gallotannins) are are glucosidesglucosides.. TheyThey contain a central core of glucoseglucose oror otherother polyhydriticpolyhydritic alcoholalcohol withwith gallicgallic acidacid residuesresidues attachedattached outout fromfrom thethe core.core. CondensedCondensed tannins (polyphenols)(polyphenols) areare compounds ofof highhigh molecularmolecular weight.weight. TheyThey areare polyphenolic polymerspolymers apparentlyapparently lackinglacking sugars.sugars.

Tannins are acidicacidic andand astringent.astringent. This propertyproperty hashas mademade themthem anan importantimportant ingredientingredient ofof traditional medicines.medicines. InIn addition to thethe production of leather,leather, they are used inin food processing, fruit ripening and are an ingredientingredient of manymany beveragesbeverages (e.g.(e.g. cocoa, tea and red wine). When mixed with ironiron salts, tannins produce a black colourcolour thatthat hashas beenbeen usedused forfor inkink (see(see ChapterChapter 9).9). TanninsTannins areare also used as mordantsmordants inin dyedye [Prance[Prance andand Prance,Prance, 1993].1993].

Tannins are derived primarily from the bark of treestrees andand areare consideredconsidered to bebe amongamong thethe mostmost important products from tree bark. TanninsTannins areare widelywidely distributeddistributed inin thethe plantplant kingdom.kingdom. AboutAbout 500500 plant species in 175175 families areare knownknown toto containcontain varyingvarying amountsamounts ofof tannins.tannins. TheseThese compoundscompounds are particularlyparticularly abundantabundant inin variousvarious speciesspecies ofof acacias acacias (Acacia (Acacia spp.),27 Spp.),27 hemlock (Tsuga(Tsuga spp.),spp.), oaksoaks and relatedrelated genera (Quercus,(Quercus, Castanea,Castanea, Lithocarpus),Lithocarpus), andand certaincertain mangrovemangrove species.species.

PRINCIPAL SOURCESSOURCES

Among temperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved hardwoods,hardwoods, members of several genera of thethe familyfamily FagaceaeFagaceae (Castanea, Lithocarpus and Quercus)Quercus) havehave thethe highesthighest barkbark tannintannin content.content.

Until the early part of the twentieth century,century, the primary source of tannins in the United States was the bark ofof thethe easterneastern hemlockhemlock (Tsuga(Tsuga canadensis),canadensis), aa conifer.conifer. TheThe hemlockhemlock tannintannin industryindustry waswas destructive and led to thethe devastationdevastation ofof hemlockhemlock forestsforests inin thethe northeasternnortheastern UnitedUnited States.States. DuringDuring the early years of thisthis industry,industry, only thethe barkbark ofof giantgiant hemlockhemlock treestrees was usedused because there was no demand for hemlock lumber, andand thethe trees werewere leftleft in the forests to decay. As the area of hemlock forest declined, the tannin industry moved south and used the bark of CastaneaCastanea dentatadentata and various oaks (Quercus(Quercus spp.)spp.) asas thethe primaryprimary tannintannin sourcesource [Hergert,[Hergert, 1983;1983; PrancePrance andand Prance,Prance, 1993]. In the western United States, the bark of the tan oak (Lithocarpus(Lithocarpus densiflorus) was heavily exploited for tanninstannins [Peattie,[Peattie, 1953].1953]. EventuallyEventually the AmericanAmerican leatherleather tanningtanning industryindustry reliedrel ied onon importation of tannin from foreign sources, or tanning was done by alternative chemical processes [Hall,[Hall , 1971;1971 ; Hergert, 1983].1983].

The inner bark of the corkcork oak (Quercus(Quercus suber) isis anan importantimportant tannin source,source, and the innerinner barkbark of large trees, which have nevernever beenbeen strippedstripped for cork,cork, havehave thethe highesthighest tannintannin content.content. The highhigh demand for cork oak asas aa tannintannin sourcesource ledled toto the cuttingcutting of largelarge numbersnumbers of trees,trees, many of which were centuriescenturies oldold.. The finefine qualityquality ofof Moroccan leather can be related to thethe practicepractice of usingusing tannintannin extracted from the inner bark of this treetree (Figure(Figure 6.4).6.4). ThereThere was suchsuch aa greatgreat interestinterest in harvesting this material that largelarge area of MoroccoMorocco's's cork oak forests suffered irreversible damagedamage towardtoward the endend of thethe nineteenth centur¥century andand thethe beginningbeginning of thethe twentieth century.2'century2

In India,India, several speciesspecies ofof thethe familyfamily FagaceaeFagaceae Figure 6.4 AA leatherleather merchantmerchant inin Rabat, are tannintannin sources.sources. TheseThese includeinclude LithocarpusLithocarpus Morocco. The fine quality ofof MoroccanMoroccan leatherleather fenestratafenest rata (common namename,, kala chakma)chakma),, is attributedattributed to thethe useuse ofof tanninstannins fromfrom corkcork Quercus floribunda (common(common name,name, kilonj),kilonj), QQ.. oak during the curing process.process. lamellosalame//osa (common name, bujrat),bujrat), Q. leucotrichophora (common name, gray or banban oak)oak) andand Q.Q. semicarpifoliasemicarpifolia (common(common name,name, kharshukharshu oak)oak).. These trees are componentscomponents ofof thethe HimalayanHimalayan moistmoist temperatetemperate forests.forests. EuropeanEuropean andand NearNear Eastern oaks with a highhigh barkbark tannintannin contentcontent thatthat havehave beenbeen usedused inin tanningtanning includeinclude Q.Q. ¡/ex,ilex, Q.Q . infectoriainfectoria,, Q.Q. macrolepismacrolepis and and Q. Q. sube suber r.29.29

27 Acacia spp. in the tropical ecosystems will not be mentioned in this paper. 28 Source:Source TheThe corkcork oakoak inin 19971997 (http://www.portugatorg/german/doingbus/buyingfrom/products/cork) (http://www.portugal.org/german/doingbus/buyingfrom/products/cork) 29 Source:Source DrDr M.P. M.P. Shiva,Shiva, CentreCentre forfor MinorMinor ForestForest Products,Products, Dehra Dun, India.India.

53 Non-wood forest productsproducts fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

The bark of EucalyptusEucalyptus astringentsastringents isis thethe onlyonly eucalypteucalypt speciesspecies inin AustraliaAustralia thatthat isis sufficientlysufficiently richrich inin tannin to warrantwarrant export.export. OtherOther eucalyptseucalypts thatthat areare tannintannin sourcessources includeinclude E.E. accedensaccedens andand E.E. wandoo.wandoo. These are the principalprincipal sourcessources ofof tannintannin inin westernwestern AustraliaAustralia [Jacobs,[Jacobs, 1979].1979].

MINOR SOURCESSOURCES

The bark of some species of Alnus is high in a tannin that has similar characteristics to oak tannintannin.. The bark of EuropeanEuropean alderalder (A.(A. glutinosa),glutinosa), forfor example;example, containscontains aboutabout 2020 percentpercent tannintannin andand hashas been used as aa tannintannin sourcesource inin Europe,Europe, thethe NearNear East,East, SiberiaSiberia andand NorthNorth AmericaAmerica [Hora,[Hora, 1981],1981], where it hashas becomebecome naturalizednaturalized [Duke,[Duke, 1983;1983; HarlowHarlow andand Harrar,Harrar, 1950].1950]. TheThe NorthNorth AmericanAmerican speckled alder (A. rugosa = A. incana)incana) has also beenbeen used as aa tannintannin sourcesource [Hora, 1981].1981]. The bark of the common birch of Europe (Betula alba) contains only about 3 percent tannic acid but has been used extensively for tanning throughout northern EuropeEurope.. It givesgives aa pale colourcolour toto skinsskins andand isis used for the preliminarypreliminary and finalfinal stagesstages ofof tanningtanning [Grieve,[Grieve, 1931].1931]. TheThe barkbark ofof thethe EuropeanEuropean service tree (Sorbus(Sorbus domestica)domestica) hashas beenbeen usedused forfor tanningtanning leatherleather [Hora,[Hora, 1981].1981].

DYES

The bark ofof severalseveral speciesspecies ofof temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees is the traditional source of dyes. OneOne species of oak, thethe AmericanAmerican blackblack oakoak (Quercus(Quercus velutina),velutina), is thethe sourcesource ofof aa onceonce importantimportant commercial dye. Procedures forfor dyeing with bark called for stripping it from treestrees,, chopping it into fine piecespieces andand boilingboiling itit [Adrosko,[Adrosko, 1971].1971].

QUERCITRON Quercitron isis a brilliantbrilliant yellow dye that occursoccurs inin thethe midmid andand innerinner barkbark ofof Quercus Quercus velutina,velutina , commonly known as black oak, aa treetree foundfound inin easterneastern NorthNorth AmericanAmerican broadleafbroad leaf forests.forests. It isis recognized by its thick, nearly black bark and the orange-coloured inner bark. The latter is very rich in tannictannic acid. AnAn Englishman,Englishman, DrDr EdwardEdward Bancroft,Bancroft, firstfirst reportedreported thethe occurrenceoccurrence ofof thisthis dyedye afterafter returning fromfrom a journey to thethe NewNew WorldWorld duringduring thethe latterlatter partpart ofof the the eighteentheighteenth century.century. HeHe named the dyedye materialmaterial "quercitron""quercitron" and suggestedsuggested thatthat itit mightmight bebe anan inexpensiveinexpensive alternativealternative toto weld, a yellow dye extracted from ResedaReseda lutea,lutea, a herbaceousherbaceous plant indigenousindigenous to parts of Europe.Europe. InIn 1785,1785, the BritishBritish ParliamentParliament favoured BancroftBancroft's's ideaidea andand awarded himhim an exclusive right to apply quercitron to dyeing andand calicocalico printingprinting inin EnglandEngland [Adrosko,[Adrosko, 1971;1971 ; Bancroft,Bancroft, 1814;1814; Wickens,Wickens, 1986]1986].3°.30

Even before Bancroft published his discovery, American home dyersdyers probably used thethe bark of Q.Q. velutina for dyeing woollens,woollens, cottons and silks bright yellow. However, it was not untiluntil thisthis dyestuffdyestuff was introducedintroduced to EuropeEurope thatthat quercitronquercitron tooktook itsits placeplace amongamong thethe important important vegetable vegetable dyes.dyes. Quercitron remained in commercial use until the secondsecond quarter of thethe twentiethtwentieth centurycentury whenwhen itit was replacedreplaced by anilineaniline dyesdyes [Adrosko,[Adrosko, 1971].1971]. An extractextract ofof quercitron,quercitron, knownknown asas flavine,flavine, isis freefree from tannintannin andand producesproduces brighterbrighter colours colours than than the the pulverized pulverized bark bark [VVickens [Wickens 1986].1986].

In 1817, quercitron bark priced for export inin NewNew YorkYork waswas valuedvalued atat US$US$ 45-60/t.45-60/t. ApothecariesApothecaries and druggistsdruggists inin Pennsylvania sold sold the the dyedye forfor US$ 0.125 per poundpound (US$(US$ 0.2750.275 perper kg).kg). Quercitron also contains tannin and was used by tanners as well as dyers.dyers. Therefore,Therefore, home dyers were able to purchasepurchase thethe materialmaterial fromfrom tannerstanners for asas littlelittle asas US$US$ 0.050.05 perper poundpound (US$(US$ 0.110.11 perper kg) [Adrosko,[Adrosko, 1971].1971].

A wide rangerange ofof colourscolours cancan bebe producedproduced onon wools,wools, cottonscottons andand silkssilks fromfrom quercitronquercitron byby combiningcombining it with otherother dyestuffsdyestuffs or byby usingusing differentdifferent mordants.mordants. For example, a mixturemixture of quercitronquercitron with cochineal, a red dye extractedextracted from thethe femalefemale adultadult ofof aa scalescale insectinsect (Dactylopius(Oactylopius cocus),cocus), whichwhich infests prickly pear cactus (Opuntia(Opuntia spp.),spp.), producesproduces aa brilliantbrilliant orangeorange dyedye [Adrosko,[Adrosko, 1971;1971 ; Wickens,Wickens, 1983] (Table 6.2).6.2). Quercitron has also beenbeen usedused toto dyedye splintssplints andand reedsreeds forfor basketsbaskets [Bliss,[Bliss, 1981].1981].

Unfortunately, thisthis dyedye is no longerlonger produced,produced, not even for homehome dyersdyers whowho preferprefer toto workwork withwith natural rather than synthetic dyes [author's[author's observation].observation].

30 Source:- Ohio's trees - http://www.hcs.ohiostate.edu/ODNR/Education/ohiotrees/oakblack.htmhttp://www.hcs.ohiostate.edu/ODNRlEducation/ohiotrees/oakblack.htm

54 Non-wood forestforest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees

Table 6.2 RangeRange of of colourscolours availableavailable fromfrom quercitron, a commercial dye from the inner bark of QuercusQuercus velutina

Colour Material Mordant Yellow to buff WoolWool,, cotton Alum Gold WoolWool,, cotton Chrome Olive-green WoolWool,, cotton Copperas·Copperas" Orange Silk Tin

"• Ferrous sulphatesulphate Source: Lust.Lust, 19901990

TRADITIONAL DYES The bark of a numbernumber of trees ofof thethe familyfamily FagaceaeFagaceae werewere traditional sources of dye and usedused byby dyers in various parts of the worldworld (Table(Table 6.3).6.3). SeveralSeveral native North American oaks, in addition to Quercus velutina,velutina , were traditional dye sources and usedused byby dyersdyers inin thethe eighteentheighteenth andand nineteenthnineteenth centuries. For example, the bark of northernnorthern redred oakoak (Q.(Q. rubra)rubra) producesproduces aa yellowyellow dye;dye; chestnutchestnut oak (Q. montana) produces red colours;colours; and the bark of Q. alba was used to colour wool brown or a tea colour. The dye producedproduced fromfrom thethe barkbark ofof Q.Q. albaalba reportedlyreportedly doesdoes notnot fadefade whenwhen exposedexposed toto the sun [Adrosko,[Adrosko, 1971].1971]. InIn Japan,Japan, extractsextracts ofof thethe nutshell,nutshell, burrburr andand barkbark ofof CastaneaCastanea crenatacrenata areare used for dyeing oror staining.staining. VVhenWhen mordantedmordanted withwith waterwater containing ironiron,, a grey colour is obtained. When ash extract isis addedadded toto thethe ironiron water,water, aa chestnut-brownchestnut-brown colourcolour isis obtainedobtained [Kamazaki,[Kamazaki, 1984].1984]. Other traditional dyes produced from the bark ofof treestrees ofof thethe familyfamily FagaceaeFagaceae areare summarizedsummarized inin Table 6.3.

The bark of redred maplemaple (Acer(Acer rubrum)rubrum) waswas usedused duringduring thethe eighteentheighteenth centurycentury inin NorthNorth AmericaAmerica inin combination with a copperas mordant to dye worstedworsted andand linenlinen fibresfibres aa slateslate blue-greyblue-grey colour.colour. When used with an alum mordant,mordant, it producedproduced a cinnamon-brown colour. ThisThis dyedye bath waswas used to colour woollen and cottoncotton fabricsfabrics [Adrosko,[Adrosko, 1971].1971].

The Navajo Indians of thethe southwesternsouthwestern United States used the bark of alder (Alnus tenufolia) to produce dyes ranging in colour from golden tan to dark olive green [Bliss[Bliss,, 1993]. The barkbark,, as well as the nutnut husks,husks, ofof variousvarious speciesspecies of Juglans is knownknown to produce a rich brown dye (see chapter on Fruits and Nuts)Nuts) [Adrosko,[Ad rosko, 1971].1971].

The root barkbark ofof thethe OsageOsage orangeorange (Madura(Maclura pomifera,pomifera ,family family Moraceae),Moraceae), aa smallsmall toto medium-sizedmedium-sized tree indigenousindigenous toto thethe south-centralsouth-central UnitedUnited States,States, producesproduces a dyedye withwith colourscolours rangingranging fromfrom tantan toto olive green, dependingdepending onon thethe mordant,mordant, andand waswas widelywidely usedused duringduring thethe FirstFirst WorldWorld WarWar forfor dyeingdyeing khaki military uniforms [Bliss,[Bliss, 1993].1993].

Table 6.3 Traditional dyes producedproduced fromfrom thethe bark bark of of trees trees of of the the family family Fagaceae Fagaceae

-SpeciesSpeci'!s Colour/mordant _ Where used "". -~ .ReferenceRefere·nce Castanea crenata Grey to black/iron -- Japan KamazakiKarnazaki,, 1984 Yashiroda,1984Yashiroda ,1984 FaguFagus.~rgrandifoliaandifo/ia Yellow-tan/chromeYellow-tan/chror:ne and 'alum North America Casselman,1993Casselman,1993 Quercus spp.spp. Q. acutissima Brown/noneBrown/none Japan Yashiroda,1984 Black/ironBlack/iron Q. alba Blue-grey/noneBlue-grey/none United States BriggsBriggs,1984,1984 (basket splints) Adrosko,1971Adrosko,1971 Brown/none given United States (wool) Q. dentata Yashiroda ,984,984 Brown/noneBrown/none Japan Black/ironBlack/iron Q. gambe/ii Young,1978Young ,1978 None given/alum Southwest United StatesStates Q. montana (Navajo) AdroskoAdrosko,1971,1971 Red-brownRed-brown/none/none Q. robur United States Ritter-StudnickaRitter-Studnicka,1984, 1984 Grey-black/noneGrey-black/none Bosnia-HerzegoBosnia-Herzegovinavina Sverdrup,1984Sverdrup,1984 Shand,1984Shand,1984 NorwaNorwayy AdroskoAdrosko.1971,1971 Q.Q . rubra Gold/alumGold/alum United Kingdom CCasselman asselman,1993,1993 High goldgold/chrome/chrome Canada Strong yellow/tin United States Grey/iron Red-brown/vinegar and tin Q. serrata Brown/none Japan Yashidora 19841984

55 Non-wood forest productsproducts fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

CASCARA

Cascara (Rhamnus [=Frangula) purshiana, family Rhamnaceae) is a small- to medium-sizedmedium-sized tree found primarily along the PacificPacific CoastCoast ofof CanadaCanada andand thethe UnitedUnited States.States. TheThe reddish-brownreddish-brown coloured bark of this tree is consideredconsidered to be one of the mostmost importantimportant natural drugs produced in North America. Cascara is widely used in the production of laxatives and tonics and is marketed under a Spanish namename "cascara sagrada" [Lust,1990; Panshin et al., 1950]. It was accepted as an important natural medicinemedicine byby thethe medicalmedical communitycommunity inin 18771877 [Panshin[Panshin etet al., al., 1950]1950] andand isis thethe mostmost widely prescribed naturally derived laxative today [Leung,[Leung , 1977]. Cascara is found inin nearlynearly 200200 products sold in CanadaCanada includingincluding somesome veterinaryveterinary medicinesmedicines [Prescott-Allen[Prescott-Allen andand Prescott-Allen,Prescott-Allen, 1986].

Cascara bark collection is a locallocal industryindustry inin OregonOregon andand WashingtonWashington (United States) and British Columbia (Canada). Collecting usually begins in mid-Aprilmid-April andand extendsextends toto latelate August.August. YieldsYields varyvary from about 2.25 kg from a treetree 7.5 cm inin diameter at breast height to about 80 kg from a tree with a diameter at breast height of 42-42 4444 cm. cm .Daily Daily yields yields per per harvester harvester range range fromfrom aboutabout 4545 kgkg perper dayday to aboutabout 135135 kgkg perper day.day. CascaraCascara barkbark harvestingharvesting isis oftenoften excessiveexcessive andand hashas beenbeen knownknown toto killkill trees [Prescott-Allen[Prescott-Allen andand Prescott-Allen,Prescott-Allen, 1986].1986].

One estimate places the domestic market for cascara bark in the United States at 2 000 t/atla withwith aa wholesale price of US$ 0.05-0.80 beingbeing paidpaid toto thethe harvester,harvester, dependingdepending onon thethe ageage ofof thethe bark,bark, itsits moisture content, time of yearyear andand quantityquantity shippedshipped [Thomas[Thomas andand Schumann,Schumann, 1992].1992]. TheThe drieddried bark, aged for a year before being usedused asas aa laxative,laxative, commandscommands aa higherhigher priceprice [Prescott-Allen[Prescott-Allen andand Prescott-Allen, 1986].1986].

The barkbark ofof aa EuropeanEuropean speciesspecies (Rhamnus(Rhamnus fragula)fragula) hashas essentiallyessentially thethe samesame propertiesproperties asas R.R. purshiana and is alsoalso harvestedharvested for itsits medicinalmedicinal properties,properties, but to a lesserlesser degree [Grieve,[Grieve, 1931;1931 ; Panshin et al., 1950].1950].

SAPONIN

The roughrough barkbark ofof QuillajaQuillaja saponariasaponaria (common(common name quillay), aa tree whichwhich occursoccurs in thethe sclerophyllous forests of central Chile, is a locally important source of a product known as saponin [Donosa Zegers,Zegers, 1983]. Saponin has a varietyvariety ofof domesticdomestic andand industrial uses, includingincluding photographic products, cosmetics, carbonated beverages, dentaldental products and shampoos. The saponin extracted fromfrom thethe quillay is alsoalso anan essentialessential ingredientingredient in thethe manufacturemanufacture of anti-anti explosives in fuels used to propel space vehicles [Garfias[Garfias SalinasSalinas etet al.,al., 1995].1995].

Only the outer layers of barkbark areare harvested.harvested. AA three-personthree-person crewcrew cancan harvestharvest betweenbetween 150150 andand 200200 kg ofof quillayquillay barkbark perper day.day. WhenWhen thethe barkbark isis drieddried toto a amoisture moisture content content ofof approximately approximately 15 percent, it is packedpacked in cleanclean sacks and transported to a storage facility that isis dark andand cool.cool. ItIt is then packedpacked inin containerscontainers weighingweighing approximatelyapproximately 80 kg.kg. QuillayQuillay harvestingharvesting occurs primarilyprimarily inin the V to VIII regions and takes placeplace on about 44 000000 ha/ahala [Garfias[Garfias SalinasSalinas etet al.,al. , 1995].1995].

MINOR AND TRADITIONAL USESUSES

The ability of the barkbark ofof willowwillow (Salix(Salix spp.)spp.) to relieverelieve the sufferingsuffering of pain and fever has been known for at leastleast 22 000000 years.years. TheThe activeactive ingredientingredient inin willowwillow barkbark isis salicin,salicin, aa glucosideglucoside thatthat isis converted to salicylic acid in thethe body.body. SalicylicSalicylic acidacid isis aa componentcomponent ofof acetylsalicylicacetylsalicylic acid,acid, thethe active ingredient in aspirin,aspirin, one of thethe mostmost widelywidely usedused medicinesmedicines in thethe worldworld (see(see textbox).textbox). Today aspirin isis producedproduced fromfrom syntheticsynthetic materials materials [Lust, [Lust ,1990].31 1990].31

31 Sources - Herbal information Center (http:/gic.simplenet.com/dr/herb/whitew.htm) and (http://www.(http://www.inreach.com/dameron_heart/aspirin.htm). ¡nreach.com/dameronheartJaspirjn.htm).

56 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

The barkbark ofof thethe NorthNorth AmericanAmerican paperpaper birchbirch (Betula(Betula papyrifera)papyrifera) (Figure(Figure 6.5) is impervious to water and waswas usedused by indigenous tribes in the construction of small,small , narrow boats knownknown asas ccanoes.anoes. Canoes werewere constructedconstructed fromfrom largelarge ssheetsheets of bark tied together with root fibres of white spruce (Picea glauca) and smearedsmeared withwith thethe resinresin of balsambalsam fir (Abies balsamea)ba/samea) [Hora,[Hora, 1981]1981].. CContainersontainers made from thethe barkbark ofof paperpaper birchbirch werewere aalsolso used asas containerscontainers forfor collectingcollecting sapsap duringduring thethe earlyearly daysdays ofof maplemaple sugaringsugaring (see(see ChapterChapter 5).5).

The AnishinaabegAnishinaabeg,, an indigenous tribe in the Great Lakes Region of NorthNorth America,America, shapedshaped birchbirch barkbark forfor cups,cups, bowls,bowls, basketsbaskets andand traystrays byby heatingheating thethe barkbark and bendingbending itit toto thethe shapeshape needed.needed. ItIt wouldwould retain itsits shapeshape whenwhen cooled.cooled . FoldsFolds werewere piercedpierced and sewnsewn togethertogether withwith barkbark ofof basswood basswood (Tilia(TiNa americana) oror rootsroots ofof sprucespruce (Picea(Picea glauca).glauca). When aa watertightwatertight containercontainer waswas needed,needed, thethe seams were caulked with sprucespruce resin.resin . FoodFood waswas said to keepkeep betterbetter inin birchbirch barkbark containerscontainers thanthan inin containers made from otherother materials.materials. BerriesBerries andand corncorn were dried onon sheetssheets ofof birchbirch bark.bark. Blankets,Blankets, supplies and equipmentequipment werewere wrappedwrapped andand boundbound Figure 6.5 The bark of the North AmericanAmerican inin birch bark mats for the long and frequent moves paper birch (Betula papyrifera). Birch bark of these people.people. They alsoalso wrappedwrapped their dead inin had manymany traditionaltraditional uses in northern birch barkbark,, a practice that was also carriedcarried outout byby Europe, Siberia and across northernnorthern NorthNorth certain Siberian tribestribes [Peyton,[Peyton , 1994].1994]. America.

The aboriginalaboriginal people make traditional products outout ofof birch bark such as quillquill baskets,baskets, lamplamp sshades,hades, birch bed frames and birch bark desk coverings.coverings. The bark is sold inin two forms:forms: sheetssheets andand tubes.tubes. BirchBirch barkbark sheetssheets areare cutcut inin variousvarious sizes.sizes. BarkBark isis alsoalso soldsold byby case.case.

Birch bark is also used asas aa componentcomponent inin thethe floralfloral industry,industry, asas wellwell asas inin thethe designdesign ofof artificial artificial trees that areare incorporatedincorporated intointo largelarge commercialcommercial spacesspaces suchsuch asas conventionconvention centrescentres andand shoppingshopping mallsmalls.. There are markets for birch barkbark inin Canada,Canada , UnitedUnited StatesStates andand HongHong Kong. Kong. TheThe estimatedestimated demand ofof the birchbirch barkbark inin HongHong KongKong asas aa componentcomponent inin thethe floralfloral industryindustry isis estimatedestimated atat 6200062 000 ft2 [National[National Aboriginal Forestry Association, 1999].1999].

In Siberia and North America,America, strips of birchbirch barkbark with slitsslits cutcut justjust widewide enoughenough forfor thethe wearerwearer toto see through and bent down to produce just below the eyes,eyes, were worn to prevent snow blindness before dark sunglasses were invented.invented. Shoes made of birch barkbark werewere standardstandard footwearfootwear forfor thethe poor in medieval northern EuropeEurope [Peyton,[Peyton , 1994].1994].

The twigs and bark of the European birch (Betula alba) yield an oil known as oil of birch tar. This oil is used inin RussiaRussia asas aa preservativepreservative forfor leatherleather andand givesgives RussianRussian leatherleather itsits distinctdistinct fragrancefragrance [Hora[Hora,, 1981]. This oil alsoalso impartsimparts durabilitydurability to leather.leather. OldOld booksbooks withwith leatherleather coverscovers thatthat areare treated with birch oil will notnot mould.mould. TheThe productionproduction of birch tar oiloil isis aa majormajor RussianRussian industryindustry [Grieve[Grieve,, 1931].1931].

The twigs and barkbark ofof sweetsweet birchbirch (Betula(Betula lenta),lenta), aa treetree nativenative toto portionsportions ofof thethe easterneastern UnitedUnited States,States, yield oil of wintergreen.wintergreen. The twigs of this tree areare pleasantpleasant to chewchew oror cancan bebe usedused asas toothpicks [author[author's's observation].observation]. This product is still harvestedharvested from B.B. lentalenta inin smallsmall quantities;quantities; howeverhowever,, a syntheticsynthetic productproduct hashas nownow largelylargely replacedreplaced itit inin commercialcommercial tradetrade [Harlow[Harlow andand Harrar,Harrar, 1950].

According to research results,results , birch bark has a medicinalmedicinal potential, more precisely,precisely, it is referredreferred to as betulin (15%(15% of the birch bark).bark). This compound can be adapted into betulinic acid and cure and control certain healthhealth problems.problems. BetulinBetulin inin itself may havehave medicinalmedicinal propertiesproperties as well.well. TheThe University of Minnesota-Duluth (UMD) and itsits NaturalNatural ResourcesResources ResearchResearch InstituteInstitute (NRRI)(NRRI) holdhold

57 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees patents related to the useuse ofof betulinbetulin fromfrom birchbirch bark.bark. BetulinBetulin representsrepresents aa potentialpotential weaponweapon againstagainst melanoma tumours. Fifty pounds of bark might produce 100 doses of betulinic acid,acid , and a betulin-betulin based treatment might bebe moremore effectiveeffective thanthan thethe currentcurrent mostmost popularpopular herpes herpes treatmenttreatment [Lemay,[Lemay, 1999].1999).

The inner bark of severalseveral Asian.Asian, EuropeanEuropean and NorthNorth AmericanAmerican species of TiliaTilia (T.(T. americana.americana, T.T. cordata,cordata, TT. japonicajaponica andand T.T. tuan)tuan) areare used used forfor making making mats, mats ,cordage cordage and,and ,when when plaited,plaited ,shoes shoes [Hora,[Hora, 1981].1981).

The aromatic bark and roots of sassafrassassafras (Sassafras albidum) werewere atat one time widely used in eastern North America for a tea and as a folk medicine.medicine. One of its medicinalmedicinal uses was as a tonic.tonic. There was anan oldold sayingsaying inin the the southern southern Appalachian Appalachian Mountains:Mountains: "Drink"Drink sassafrassassafras duringduring thethe month of March and you won'twon't needneed aa doctordoctor allall year."year." ItIt waswas alsoalso usedused asas aa bloodblood purifierpurifier andand toto sweat out feversfevers [Wigginton,[Wigginton, 1973].1973). SassafrasSassafras bark and rootsroots werewere alsoalso usedused forfor flavouring flavouring tobaccotobacco,, forfor a beveragebeverage known as root beer and asas aa treatmenttreatment forfor licelice andand insectinsect bites.bites. TheThe aromatic oil contained in sassafrassassafras bark andand rootsroots containscontains 80 percentpercent ofof thethe phenolicphenolic compoundcompound safrole and is aa potentialpotential carcinogen.carcinogen. The use of oiloil takentaken fromfrom thethe rootsroots andand barkbark ofof sassafrassassafras inin food for humanhuman consumptionconsumption has been banned for a numbernumber ofof yearsyears becausebecause ofof healthhealth risksrisks [Coppen,[Coppen , 1995;1995; Hora,Hora, 1991].1991).

The innerinner barkbark ofof slipperyslippery elmelm (Ulmus(Ulmus rubra),rubra), aa speciesspecies indigenousindigenous toto easterneastern NorthNorth America,America, isis mucilaginous and waswas chewedchewed byby earlyearly pioneerpioneer woodsmenwoodsmen toto quenchquench thethe thirstthirst [Harlow[Harlow and and Harrar,Harrar, 1950)1950].. It isis alsoalso usedused inin medicinemedicine asas aa demulcentdemulcent toto soothsooth irritations,irritations, suchsuch asas soresore throatsthroats oror inflammationsinflammations of the digestive tract [Hora,[Hora, 1981;1981 ; Lust,Lust, 1990].1990). Slippery elm bark isis stillstill gatheredgathered forfor this purposepurpose and therethere isis aa domesticdomestic marketmarket forfor approximatelyapproximately 100100 tt/ala of thisthis materialmaterial at aa wholesale priceprice toto thethe harvesterharvester ofof US$US$ 5.505.50 perper kgkg [Thomas[Thomas andand Schumann,Schumann, 1992].1992).

Box 6.1 Aspirin - The modern miracle drug

During the 1700s,1700s, the ReverendReverend Edward Stone,Stone, of Chipping Norton,Norton, Oxfordshire,Oxfordshire, in the United Kingdom cconductedonducted experiments onon 5050 patients withwith fefeversvers andand founfoundd thatthat the bark of the willow tree containedcontained a substance that was extremelyextremely effectiveeffective in controllingcontrolling malaria and other fefevers.vers .

Over the nextnext hundred years, chemists gradually determined that the activactivee ingredient in willow bark was salicylic acid. Unfortunately this compound had an unpleasant taste and irritated the stomach.stomach . Dr FelixFelix Hoffman made a significant breakthrough when he was working in thethe BayerBayer laboratorieslaboratories inin Germany.Germany. InIn 18971897,, he managed to combinecombine salicylic acid withwith aceticacetic acidacid andand producedproduced acetylsalicylicacetylsalicylic acidacid.. This material had the same therapeutic propertiesproperties as salicylic acid but did not have the unpleasant tastetaste..

Over the nextnext century,century, acetylsalicylicacetylsalicylic acid becambecamee thethe most widely used drug iinn the world.world . It isis soldsold asas aspirin and 50 000 t are used annually.

Aspirin was also the first drug to bebe soldsold inin aa tablettablet formform andand becamebecame extremelyextremely popularpopular becausebecause itit waswas effectiveeffective and inexpensive.

Source:Source: http://www.inreach.com/dameronhttp://www.inreach.com/dameron_ heart/aspirin.htmheart/aspi rin .htm

58 Non-wood forest productsproducts fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

CHAPTER?CHAPTER 7 FRUITS

The fruitsfruits ofof manymany broad-leavedbroad-leaved temperatetemperate hardwoodshardwoods provideprovide a varietyvariety ofof beneficialbeneficial productsproducts ranging from edible fruitsfruits toto industrialindustrial oils.oils. ManyMany temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees yieldyield fruitsfruits thatthat areare importantimportant agricultural crops, worldwide, and are grown commercially inin orchards. ExamplesExamples includeinclude pome fruits suchsuch asas appleapple (Malus(Malus pumila);pumila); pearpear (Pyrus(Pyrus domestica);domestica); stonestone fruits,fruits , suchsuch asas cherries,cherries, apricots,apricots, peaches and almonds;almonds; various species of Prunus);Prunus); olives (0/ea(Olea europea);europea); and figs (Ficus(Ficus spp.). Since these fruits are consideredconsidered to be agriculturalagricultural rather than forest crops, they will not be discussed in depth in this chapter.chapter. EmphasisEmphasis is placedplaced onon those productsproducts that are stillstill gathered,gathered, at leastleast toto somesome degree,degree, inin naturalnatural oror plantedplanted forests.forests.

TUNG OIL

Tung oil or "China"China woodwood oil"oil" isis aa quick-dryingquick-drying vegetablevegetable oiloil extractedextracted fromfrom thethe seedsseeds ofof the the tungtung treetree (Aleurites fordii,fordii, family Euphorbiaceae),Euphorbiaceae), a treetree nativenative toto centralcentral andand westernwestern China.China. SimilarSimilar oilsoils areare produced from related species such asas A.A. montana,montana, nativenative toto southwesternsouthwestern China,China, andand severalseveral tropical species ofof AleuritesAleurites [Duke,[Duke, 1983;1983; PanshinPanshin etet al.,al., 1950].1950]. ThisThis treetree hashas beenbeen widelywidely plantedplanted in areas outside itsits natural rangerange [Duke,[Duke, 1983].1983].

HISTORICAL ASPECTS

Tung oiloil hashas beenbeen usedused byby thethe ChineseChinese forfor centuriescenturies toto protectprotect andand beautifybeautify timbertimber andand regardedregarded asas thethe ultimateultimate oiloil finishfinish forfor enhancingenhancing thethe naturalnatural beautybeauty andand graingrain ofof timber.timber. ItsIts propertiesproperties werewere notnot appreciated outside of China until about 1869 when the first shipmentshipment reached the United States. This is thethe yearyear thatthat marksmarks thethe beginningbeginning ofof worldworld tradetrade inin thisthis important important industrialindustrial commoditycommodity [Panshin et al.,al. , 1950].1950]. DuringDuring thethe SecondSecond WorldWorld War,War, thethe ChineseChinese usedused tungtung oiloil asas aa motormotor fuel,fuel, butbut it tended to cause gumming of engines.engines. However,However, when the oil was mixed with gasoline, itit worked well and served to extend gasoline,gasoline, whichwhich waswas inin shortshort supplysupply [Duke,[Duke, 1983].1983].

The importance of tung oiloil inin thethe paintpaint andand varnishvarnish industriesindustries andand thethe uncertaintyuncertainty ofof thethe supplysupply andand quality of this product from China led to the establishmentestablishment of experimental planting of tung trees in the United States. The first successful plantings of tung seeds was made in 1905 by the DivisionDivision ofof Foreign Plant Introduction of USDAUSDA inin Chico, California.California. The seedlings were usedused for test plantingsplanti ngs across the southeastern and PacificPacific CoastCoast states.states. ByBy thethe 1950s,1950s, therethere werewere moremore thanthan 3030 000000 haha of tungtung plantations.plantations. MostMost ofof themthem werewere establishedestablished inin Mississippi,Mississippi, followedfollowed closelyclosely byby FloridaFlorida [Panshin et al.,al., 1950]1950].. HoweverHowever,, many tung oil plantationsplantations were eithereither destroyeddestroyed oror severelyseverely damage whenwhen hurricanehurricane Camille struck Mississippi in 1969 [author's[author's observation]. TThehe establishment ofof a tungtung oil industry in the southeasternsoutheastern United States made aa significantsignificant contribution to the diversity ofof aa regionalregional agriculturalagricultural systemsystem thatthat waswas formerlyformerly basedbased almostalmost entirelyenti rely on cotton production;production; helpedhelped toto restorerestore wastelandwasteland andand resolveresolve severesevere soilsoil erosionerosion problems;problems; andand led to the establishment of aa regionalregional paintpaint andand varnishvarnish industryindustry [Panshin[Panshin etet a/.,aI., 1950].1950].

COMPOSITION

The fruit contains from 14 to 20 percentpercent oil,oil , the kernel 53 to 60 percentpercent and the nut hashas anan oiloil content of 30 toto 4040 percent.percent. TheThe componentscomponents are:are: elaeoelaeo strearicstrearic oil (75-80%),(75-80%), oleicoleic oiloi l (15%),(15%), palmitic (about 4%) and stearicstearic acidsacids (about(about 1%).1%). Tannins,Tannins, phytosterolsphytosterols and saponin are also reported [Duke,[Duke, 1983].1983].

5959 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

USES

Tung oil is used in thethe manufacturemanufacture of lacquer, varnishes, paintspaints,, linoleumlinoleum,, oilclothoilcloth,, resins,resins, syntheticsynthetic leather,leather, felt-felt based floor coverings,coverings, greases,greases, brakebrake linings and inin cleaningcleaning andand polishingpolishing compounds (Figure 7.1). Tung oil products are usedused toto coatcoat containerscontainers for food,food , beveragesbeverages andand medicines.medicines. They are also used for insulatinginsulating wireswires and otherother metallicmetallic surfacessurfaces such asas radios, radarradar,, telephonetelephone andand other communications hardware [Duke[Duke,, 1983]1983]..

HARVESTING

Tung trees usually begin to bearbear fruitfruit during the third year afterafter plantingplanting andand Figure 7.17.1 (left) Tung oil with fruits.fruits. (right)(right) AA woodwood are in commercialcommercial production by thethe finish made fromfrom tung oil on a table finished with this fourth or fifth year. They reach product. maximum production in 10-1210-12 years.years. The yield of mature trees ranges between 4.5 tlhat/ha and 5 tlha.t/ha. The average productive life ofof aa treetree in thethe UnitedUnited StatesStates isis approximatelyapproximately 30 years.years. FruitsFruits mature and drop to thethe groundground inin latelate September to early November, at which time they contain about 60 percent moisture. FruitsFruits are left on the ground for threethree toto fourfour weeksweeks untiluntil thethe hullshulls areare drydry andand thethe moisturemoisture contentcontent hashas droppeddropped below 30 percent. The fruits areare gatheredgathered byby handhand intointo basketsbaskets oror sacks.sacks. AnAn averageaverage pickerpicker cancan gather 60-80 bushelsbushels ofof fruit fruit perper day, day ,depending depending onon conditionsconditions inin thethe plantation.plantation .Fruits Fruits areare usuallyusually sacked, placed in the crotchcrotch ofof aa treetree andand allowedallowed toto drydry forfor anotheranother twotwo toto threethree weeks.weeks .Additional Additional drying may be done atat thethe millmill becausebecause wetwet fruitsfruits containcontain lessless oiloil onon aa percentagepercentage basisbasis andand pricesprices would be lower [Duke,[Duke, 1983].1983].

PRODUCTION AND TRADE

In 1969, world production waswas 107 000 t,t, and during the following year it increased toto 143 000 t. Production forfor thethe 1980s was projected toto average 199 000 t/at/a.. Prices for tung oiloil dependdepend onon production, price supports and industrialindustrial demands but havehave recentlyrecently averagedaveraged US$US$ 0.28/kg0.28/kg wholesale and US$ 0.34/kg0.34/kg for importsimports to Europe.Europe. GrowersGrowers receivereceive about US$US$ 51/t51 /t ofof fruitfruit withwith 18.5 percent oil content and US$ 63/t63 /t of fruit with 22 percent oil content.

Major producers ofof tung oil are Argentina,Argentina, China,China, Paraguay and the United States.States. The largest consumption of tung oiloil isis inin thethe manufacturemanufacture ofof paintpaint andand varnishvarnish [Duke,[Duke, 1983].1983].

CAROB

The species carob (Ceratonia(Ceratonia siliqua L.) isis aa slow-growingslow-growing evergreen tree with rich,rich , glossyglossy foliage.foliage. Carob is nativenative to thethe EasternEastern MediterraneanMediterranean area. The tree blooms in the autumnautumn and carriescarries the young fruit to the end ofof thethe nextnext summer.summer. ItsIts fruits/podsfruits/pods areare richrich inin proteinprotein andand sugarsugar andand areare usedused in chocolate and pastry manufacturingmanufacturing and forfor photographicphotographic emulsion. Carob pods are alsoalso usedused as nutritious animalanimal feed,feed, whereaswhereas thethe herbaceousherbaceous groundground covercover makesmakes goodgood pasturepasture [Moussouris[Moussouris and Regato,Regato, 1999;1999; RusselRussel andand Smith,Smith , 1950].1950].

Ceratonia siliquasil/qua L.L. bearsbears fruitfruit atat thethe age of six to eight years.years. At an average,average, a tree then yields 200-250 lb/aIb/a of fruit. The abundance of fruit is greater every second yearyear.. Also the seeds are edible and produceproduce a protein-richprotein-rich flour that contains no starch or sugar and isis idealideal forfor diabetics.diabetics. TheThe endosperm is extractedextracted from thethe seedseed toto produceproduce galactomannan,galactomannan, whichwhich formsforms locustlocust beanbean gum,gum, aa

60 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees food additive. The pod isis usedused forfor high-energyhigh-energy livestocklivestock feedfeed and in thethe productionproduction of cocoacocoa products and syrups. TheseThese are used as a substitutesubstitute for cocoa and as aa foodfood (also(also knownknown asas algarroba, St. John's bread,bread, andand locustlocust beanbean gum)gum) [Goor[Goor andand Barney].32Barney]. 32

Carob is aa typicaltypical MediterraneanMediterranean treetree speciesspecies that cancan bebe foundfound in the coastalcoastal areas.areas. In Lebanon for exampleexample it can be found up toto 800 m, where itit representsrepresents anan importantimportant sourcesource of additionaladditional revenuerevenue to manymany locallocal farmers.farmers . Both wild andand cultivatedcultivated populationspopulations can bebe foundfound,, often close to each other or eveneven mixed.mixed. The wild populationspopulations can be foundfound underunder veryvery different environmental conditionsconditions,, showing different growth characteristics.characteristics. The fruits fromfrom carob are harvestedharvested inin September.September. InIn PortugalPortugal and Spain,Spain, mostmost carobcarob plantingsplantings areare locatedlocated onon steep,steep, rock sites,sites, unsuitable for other agricultural crops andand requirerequire handhand harvesting.harvesting. HarvestingHarvesting represents 30-35 percent of thethe totaltotal productionproduction cost. Harvested carob pods are firstfirst "kibbled","kibbled", a coarse grinding process that separatesseparates thethe podpod from the unbroken seeds.seeds.

In large parts ofof itsits distributiondistribution range,range, CeratoniaCeratonia siliqua is under increasingincreasing pressure,pressure, mainly because of urbanization and conversion ofof areasareas to agriculturalagricultural land.land. ThisThis degradationdeg'radation ofof carobcarob populations seemsseems toto be symptomaticsymptomatic of thethe decline of the wholewhole naturalnatural vegetationvegetation of thethe coastal regions [Breugel and Stephan,Stephan , 1999].1999]. Figure 7.2 PodsPods ofof thethe carobcarob treetree (Ceratonia(Ceratonia siliqua)si/iqua) nearnear Limassol,Limassol, Cyprus.Cyprus. Carob production is presently centered in Portugal and Spain,Spain, which have about 100 000 ha ofof carobcarob treestrees andand processprocess aboutabout halfhalf ofof thethe worldworld's's commercial supply. World production is presently about 315 000 tonnes per yearyear andand thethe main producers are SpainSpain (42%),(42%), ItalyItaly (16%),(16%), PortugalPortugal (10%),(10%), MoroccoMorocco (8%),(8%), GreeceGreece (6.5%),(6.5%), Cyprus (5.5%) and Turkey (4.8%).(4.8%).

Carob has been introducedintroduced to temperatetemperate regions in CentralCentral AmericaAmerica and alsoalso toto Australia.Australia. MoreMore information on Carob is alsoalso describeddescribed inin thethe NonNon WoodWood ForestForest ProductsProducts SeriesSeries no.no. 6:6 :Gums, Gums, Resins and Latexes of Plant OriginOrigin (FAO,(FAO, 1995).1995).

PROSOPIS PODSPODS

The genus Prosopis (family Leguminosae) consists of about 45 species of small- to medium-sizedmedium-sized trees or shrubs. MostMost occur inin thethe WesternWestern HemisphereHemisphere inin semi-aridsemi-arid temperatetemperate regions,regions, but threethree species are found in Asia andand AfricaAfrica [Little,[Little, 1979].1979]. The seed pods of severalseveral species of ProsopisProsopis are edible and used as food for humanhuman consumptionconsumption oror asas aa livestocklivestock feed.feed.

In thethe desertdesert regionsregions ofof ArizonaArizona andand California,California, ProsopisProsopis pods were an importantimportant food for indigenousindigenous tribes.tribes. LargeLarge treestrees withwith aa 40-6040-60 cm basalbasal diameter,diameter, growing in riparian zones in this region,region, can yield up to 40 kgkg ofof podspods perper tree.tree. TheThe podspods containcontain approximatelyapproximately 1313 percentpercent proteinprotein and 35 percentpercent sugar.sugar. TheyThey werewere groundground intointo flourflour withwith stonestone mortars,mortars, andand thethe hardhard seedsseeds werewere often discarded.discarded. The podspods ofof ArgentinianArgentinian speciesspecies ofof ProsopisProsopis werewere usedused inin aa similarsimilar mannermanner andand researchresearch is currently under way inin PeruPeru toto developdevelop industrialindustrial processesprocesses thatthat willwill produceproduce productsproducts from thethe podspods ofof thesethese treestrees thatthat willwill appealappeal toto contemporary contemporary humanhuman societies.societies. InIn thethe UnitedUnited

32 Source: Spring tree cacarobrob ((http://www.springtree.com/carob.html) http://www.springtree.com/carob.html) Ecology & Evolutionary Biology ConservatoryConservatory (http://florawww.eeb.uconn.edu/acc_num/199000057.html)(http://florawww.eeb.uconn.edu/acc_num/199000057.html) Carob (http://www.humorscope.com/herbs/carob.html)(http://www.humorscope.comlherbslcarob.html)

61 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees

States,States, some cottage industriesindustries havehave arisenarisen thatthat makemake jellyjelly andand flourflour fromfrom ProsopisProsopis pods.pods .The The pods pods have a strong mocha-cinnamonmocha-cinnamon aroma,aroma, andand aa potentialpotential existsexists forfor producingproducing specialspecial bakingbaking flourflour forfor muffins and fruitcakes.fruitcakes. In India,India, thethe greengreen podspods ofof ProsopisProsopis cinerariacineraria areare aa popularpopular humanhuman food,food , and in some locationslocations thethe cropcrop priceprice inin thethe marketplacemarketplace isis US$2.00/kg,US$2.00/kg , moremore thanthan halfhalf the the averageaverage daily wage [Felker,[Felker, 1998].1998].

A current limitationlimitation to widespreadwidespread useuse ofof ProsopisProsopis podspods forfor humanhuman foodfood inin thethe UnitedUnited StatesStates isis thethe high cost of manual harvest in natural forests. If trees could be grown in straight rows in orchards and pod harvesting could be mechanized,mechanized, an industry based on production for human use could be developed [Felker,[Felker, 1998].1998].

In thethe arid regions of northernnorthern ChileChile (Regions(Regions I-III), Prosopis spp.spp.,, principally PP.. tamarugo (common name tamarugo) and P. chilensis (common name algarrobo),algarrobo), cover an area of approximatelyapproximately 20 000 ha.ha. TheThe fruitsfruits ofof thesethese treestrees areare anan importantimportant andand nutritiousnutritious sourcesource ofof fodder fodder forfor livestock, livestock, includingincluding cattle, sheep and goats [Garfias[Garfias Salinas et al.,al., 1995].1995]. InIn Argentina,Argentina, thethe fruitsfruits ofof ProsopisProsopis spp.spp. are used asas aa cattlecattle feedfeed andand inin thethe productionproduction ofof aa fermentedfermented beveragebeverage [Résico,[Resico ,1995]. 1995].

MOUNTAIN ASHASH ANDAND RELATEDRELATED TREESTREES -- SORBUSSORBUS SPP. SPP.

Approximately 80 species ofof SorbusSorbus (family(family Rosaceae)Rosaceae) areare foundfound in Asia,Asia , EuropeEurope andand NorthNorth America. Commonly known as rowans,rowans , mountainmountain ashes,ashes, whitebeams andand service treestrees,, thethe fruits of this group of trees have beenbeen usedused forfor aa widewide varietyvariety ofof purposes purposes [Hora, 1981].1981].

Several species of Sorbus,S~rbus , includingincluding thethe European mountain ash (Sorbus(Sorbus aucuparia),aucuparia), produceproduce clustersclusters ofof bright-red berry-likeberry-like fruitsfruits (Figure 7.3).7.3). The fruit ofof thisthis species has beenbeen usedused forfor aa varietyvariety ofof traditional traditional foods.foods. Several recipes exist for producing jams and jellies that are said to bebe excellentexcellent accompanimentsaccompaniments to cold gamegame oror wild fowl. A wholesomewholesome cidercider cancan bebe mademade fromfrom thethe fruit.fruit. In northernnorthern Europe,Europe, thethe fruits were drieddried forfor flourflour thatthat yielded a strongstrong spiritspirit whenwhen fermented.fermented . TheThe WelshWelsh onceonce brewed what was said to be a delicious ale from the fruits of rowanrowan but,but, unfortunatelyunfortunately,, thisthis recipe has beenbeen lostlost [Ciesla[Ciesla,, 1990;1990; Grieve,Grieve, 1931].1931].

Mountain ash fruitsfruits areare still gatheredgathered inin a numbernumber ofof European and NearNear EasternEastern countriescountries includingincluding ArmeniaArmenia (Ter-Ghazaryan and Ter-Ghazaran,Ter-Ghazaran, 1998];1998]; Belarus,Belarus, wherewhere approximately 10921092 tt areare harvestedharvested annually annually [011ikainen, [Ollikainen , 1998]; Lithuania, 12 t areare harvestedharvested annuallyannually [Rutkauska,[Rutkauska, 1998]; and Poland,Poland, withwith an annual harvest ofof 670 tt [Kalinowski[Kalinowski,, 1998]. They have a highhigh tannintannin contentcontent andand should not be eaten fresh, butbut bebe leftleft ripeningripening afterafter pickingpicking Figure 7.37.3 - Clusters of brightbright redred to develop a pleasingpleasing sweet-soursweet-sour tastetaste similarsimilar toto grapes.grapes. fruits ofof thethe EuropeanEuropean mountainmountain ashash They may also be eaten after being sun dried for 15-20 (Sorbus aucuparia).aucuparia). TheseThese berry-berry days. The berries are also a source of malic acid,acid, which is likelike fruits cancan bebe usedused forfor aa widewide variety of purposes. used as aa flavouringflavouring andand inin winewine [Bounous[Bounous andand Peano,Peano, 1990].

The fruit of the American mountainmountain ashash (S.(S. americana)americana) hashas aa sharpsharp flavour,flavour, isis richrich inin vitaminvitamin CC andand has been used inin a variety ofof herbalherbal medicinesmedicines [Ciesla,[Ciesla, 1990].1990].

The service tree (Sorbus domestica),domestica), a tree nativenative to southernsouthern Europe,Europe, northnorth Africa and thethe NearNear East,East, produces brownish-coloured pear-shaped fruitsfruits thatthat are sour but edibleedible whenwhen overripeoverripe oror after they have been exposedexposed toto frostfrost [Hora,[Hora , 1981].1981].

62 Non-wood forest productsproducts fromfrom temperate temperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

PERSIMMONS

The genus DiospyrosDiospyros (family(family Ebenaceae)Ebenaceae) isis primarilyprimarily tropicaltropical andand consistsconsists ofof aboutabout 485485 species.species. However,However, a numbernumber ofof speciesspecies extendextend intointo thethe temperatetemperate forests,forests ,primarily primarily inin ChinaChina andand Japan;Japan ;and and two species; D.D. texanatexana andand D.D. virginiana,virginiana, occuroccur inin NorthNorth AmericaAmerica [Little,[Little ,1979]. 1979]. SeveralSeveral temperatetemperate species produce aa sub-globosesub-globose berryberry thatthat isis orangeorange colouredcoloured andand tingedtinged withwith purplepurple whenwhen riperipe andand are edible [Harlow[Harlow and Harrar,Harrar, 1950].1950]. TheThe kakikaki oror JapaneseJapanese persimmonpersimmon (D.(D . kaki)kaki) isis widelywidely growngrown inin orchards both in China and Japan for its fruit. In Japan,Japan , it is regarded as the countrycountry's's national fruit [Hora, 1981].1981].

The fruitsfruits ofof thethe commoncommon persimmonpersimmon (D.(D . virginiana),virginiana), aa small to mediummedium tree ofof thethe easterneastern hardwood forests of the United States, remain on trees after the foliage has been shed in autumn.autumn . In the southeastern United States, these fruits are commonly gathered after a frost hashas occurred.occurred. Persimmon pie and jelly are traditional locallocal food of this regionregion [author's[author's observation].observation].

HAVVTHORNHAWTHORN

The various species of hawthorn or thorn apple (Crateagus sppspp.,., family Roseaceae) produce edible fruits with aa tastetaste similarsimilar toto thatthat ofof a a tart tart crab crab apple. apple. MayhawsMayhaws (C.(C .aestivalis, aestivalis, C.C. opacaopaca andand C.C. rufu/a)rufula) are indigenousindigenous to thethe southeasternsoutheastern UnitedUnited StatesStates andand produceproduce earlyearly ripening,ripening , yellowyellow toto bright-red fruitsfruits with a pleasantpleasant flavour. This small tree,tree, which isis usuallyusually foundfound inin low-lyinglow-lying wetwet areas, may be one of thethe lastlast fruit-bearingfruit-bearing trees indigenousindigenous to the UnitedUnited States that has not yetyet been widely commercialized [Payne[Payne andand Krewer,Krewer, 1990;1990; ThomasThomas andand Schumann,Schumann, 1992].1992].

Mayhaws are used to makemake jellies,jellies, marmalades,marmalades, preserves,preserves, saladsalad dressings,dressings , wines,wines, syrups,syrups ,sauces sauces and desserts. Traditional recipes for making these products have been in existenceexistence for nearlynearly 100100 years. However, there has beenbeen somesome recentrecent renewedrenewed interestinterest inin this traditionaltraditional fruit of thethe southeastern United States,States, especially in Alabama,Alabama, Georgia,Georgia , Louisiana and Mississippi. In 19911991,, a family-run mayhaw preserve company based inin LouisianaLouisiana purchasedpurchased aboutabout 4545 000000 kgkg ofof mayhawmayhaw berries and producedproduced 2323 000 casescases ofof mayhawmayhaw jellyjelly [Thomas[Thomas andand Schumann,Schumann, 1992].1992]. FreshFresh mayhaw fruits currently sell for US$ 22.75-4.40/kg.75-4.40/kg and the jelly for US$US$ 18.00/litre.18.00/Iitre. There is some interest inin the commercialization of thisthis fruit,fruit, andand oneone sourcesource predictspredicts thatthat thethe treetree maymay bebe foundfound inin commercial orchardsorchards withinwithin thethe next decade. Several cultivarscultivars havehave beenbeen developeddeveloped forfor useuse in orchards [Payne and Krewer,Krewer, 1990].1990]. The fruits ofof CrateagusCrateagus cunetacuneta areare usedused forfor thethe treatmenttreatment ofof stomach complaints inin ChinaChina [Hora,[Hora, 1981].1981].

SEA BUCKTHORN

Sea buckthornbuckthorn (Hippophae(Hippophae rhamnoidesrhamnoides L.) isis a fast-growingfast-growing deciduousdeciduous shrubshrub tree widelywidely distributed in temperate regions that produces valuable fruitsfruits for diet andand rawraw materialmaterial forfor thethe pharmaceutical industry.industry. ItsIts fruitsfruits containcontain aa widewide rangerange ofof vitaminsvitamins suchsuch asas provitaminprovitamin A,A ,vitamins vitamins BB (tiamin), B2 (riboflavin),(riboflavin), EE (okoferol),(okoferol), KK (phyllokinon),(phyllokinon), P,P, PPPP andand others.others.

It isis nativenative toto EuropeEurope andand AsiaAsia andand hashas beenbeen knownknown andand usedused byby humanshumans forfor centuries.centuries. It is mentioned in the writings of ancient GreekGreek scholarsscholars suchsuch asas DioscoridDioscorid andand Therophast.Therophast. InIn ancientancient Greece, sea buckthorn waswas known as a remedyremedy forfor horses.horses. LeavesLeaves andand youngyoung branchesbranches werewere added to the fodder. This resultedresulted in rapidrapid weight gain and a shiny coat for the horse. This, in fact,fact, gave the namename toto thethe plantplant inin LatinLatin hippohippo == horse, horse, phaosphaos == to to shineshine [Rongsen,[Rongsen, 1992].1992].

The interest inin seasea buckthornbuckthorn growinggrowing hashas increasedincreased due to the itsits variousvarious usesuses andand hashas becomebecome an important subject for domestication inin many countries. InIn thethe last years, the shrub treetree,, which previously grew exclusively in home gardens,gardens, hashas beenbeen introducedintroduced intointo plantations.plantations. TheThe seasea buckthorn industry hashas been thriving in RussiaRussia sincesince thethe 1940s1940s whenwhen scientistsscientists therethere beganbegan investigating the biologically active substances found in the fruitfruit,, leaves and bark. The firstfirst Russian factoryfactory forfor sea-buckthornsea-buckthorn product development was located in Bisk.Bisk. These products were used inin

63 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees the diet of RussianRussian cosmonautscosmonauts and as aa creamcream forfor protectionprotection fromfrom cosmiccosmic radiation.radiation . The Chinese experienceexperience with sea-buckthornsea-buckthorn fruit productionproduction isis moremore recent,recent, althoughalthough traditionaltraditional usesuses datedate backback many centuriescenturies.. Research and plantation establishments were initiated in the 1980s.1980s. SinceSince 19821982 over 300 000 haha ofof seasea buckthornbuckthorn havehave beenbeen plantedplanted inin China.China. InIn addition,addition, 150150 processingprocessing factoriesfactories have been established,established, producing over 200200 products.products. TheThe seasea buckthorn-basedbuckthorn-based sportsport drinksdrinks "Shawikang""Shawikang" and "Jianibao""Jianibao" were designated as thethe official drink forfor ChineseChinese athletes attending the Seoul Olympic Games [Rongsen,[Rongsen, 1992].1992].

The potential of seasea buckthornbuckthorn inin NorthNorth AmericanAmerican marketsmarkets stillstill remainsremains untapped.untapped.

Sea buckthorn is easy to propagate by seed or cuttings. It can grow in arid to veryvery wet conditionsconditions and tolerates cold winters.winters. ThoughThough itit prefersprefers sandysandy andand neutralneutral soil,soil , seasea buckthornbuckthorn survivessurvives inin soilssoils with pHpH valuesvalues fromfrom 55 toto 9 9[Schroeder, [Schroeder ,1995] 1995] and and tolerates tolerates seawater seawater flooding. flooding. It is aa pioneerpioneer species and often thethe firstfirst woodywoody speciesspecies colonizingcolonizing openopen areasareas suchsuch asas abandonedabandoned farmland,farmland, wasteland and rocky islands.islands. Sea buckthornbuckthorn prefers full sunlight,sunlight, does not toleratetolerate shadeshade andand suffers even under sparsesparse treetree cover.cover. LikeLike otherother membersmembers ofof the the Elaeagnaceae Elaeagnaceae family,family, seasea buckthorn is also a nitrogen fixer.

Since the discovery of thethe nutritionalnutritional valuevalue ofof seasea buckthorn,buckthorn , hundredshundreds ofof sea-buckthorn sea-buckthorn productsproducts made from the berries,berries, oil,oil , leaves,leaves, barkbark andand thethe extractsextracts fromfrom themthem havehave beenbeen developed.developed. In Europe sea-buckthorn juicejuice,, jelliesjellies,, liquorsliquors,, candy,candy, vitaminvitamin CC tablets and ice creamcream areare readilyreadily available [Bernáth[Bernath and Földesi,Fbldesi , 1992;1992; Wolf andand Wegert,Wegert, 1993].1993].

At present,present, the largestlargest producersproducers andand consumersconsumers ofof sea-buckthorn sea-buckthorn productsproducts areare China,China ,Russia, Russia ,and and Mongolia. They all havehave large-scalelarge-scale processingprocessing facilities. Processed products includeinclude:: oiloil,, juice,juice, alcoholic beveragesbeverages,, candiescandies,, iceice creamcream,, tea,tea, jam, biscuits,biscuits, vitamin C tablets,tablets, foodfood colours,colours, medicinesmedicines,, cosmetics and shampoos [Iirkina[Iirkina andand Shishkina,Shishkina , 1976;1976; Wu,Wu , 1991].1991].

Oils and oil extracts are the most importantimportant sea-buckthorn products produced in Russia. These oils are processed and sold asas essentialessential oilsoils forfor numerousnumerous medicinalmedicinal andand therapeutictherapeutic uses.uses. FruitFruit drinksdrinks were among the earliestearliest sea-buckthornsea-buckthorn products developed in China.China. TheseThese drinksdrinks havehave hadhad strong market demand and excellentexcellent consumerconsumer acceptance.acceptance. They havehave rapidlyrapidly gainedgained aa reputationreputation both as a satisfying drink and as aa nutritionalnutritional beveragebeverage thatthat enhancesenhances staminastamina andand vitality.vitality.

Cosmetic applicationsapplications of of seasea buckthorn areare wellwell known in Russia and China. In Russia,Russia , sea-sea buckthorn berries are oftenoften usedused inin homemadehomemade cosmetics.cosmetics. RecipesRecipes forfor moisturizing moisturizing lotions,lotions, dandruff control and hair-losshair-loss preventionprevention are widelywidely knownknown andand usedused inin RussiaRussia [Pashina,[Pashina, 1993].1993]. Sea-buckthorn oilsoils contain high concentrationsconcentrations ofof palmitoleic acid. This rarerare fattyfatty acidacid is aa component of skin fat and can support cell tissue and wound healing. It is generally accepted in thethe cosmetic industry that sea-buckthorn oils have unique anti-ageing properties andand,, as a result,result, are becoming an important component of many facial creams manufactured in Asia and Europe.Europe. InIn additionaddition,, the UV-spectrum of the oil shows a moderate absorption in the UV-B range which makes sea-buckthorn derived productsproducts attractiveattractive forfor sun-caresun-care cosmeticscosmetics [Quinni[Quirin and GerardGerard,, 1994].

BLACK ELDERELDER

Black elder,elder, Sambucus nigra (family Caprifoliaceae),Caprifoliaceae), is a fast-growing deciduous shrub native to Europe,Europe, western Asia and North Africa.Africa . Numerous species of elder or elderberry grow in EuropeEurope and North America.33America. 33

Elderberries havehave longlong been used as food,food , particularlyparticularly in drieddried form.form. ElderberryElderberry wine,wine, pie,pie, andand lemonade are some of the popular ways to prepare thisthis plant as food. Elder wine is prepared of dried English elder berries. These are preferred to French and other Continental elder berries since they have a more pleasantpleasant odourodour andand flavour.flavour.

The berries are alsoalso usedused forfor medicinalmedicinal purposes.purposes. OnlyOnly thosethose withwith blue/blackblue/black berriesberries areare medicinalmedicinal for diseases such as bronchitis,bronchitis, commoncommon cold,cold , sore throat,throat, infectioninfection and influenza. A tea made of

33 Source: ElderbemyElderberry (http://www.gnc.com/wellnessThatpharm/Herb/Elderberry.htm)(http://www.gnc.com/wellness/natpharm/Herb/Elderberry.htm)

64 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees the dried berriesberries isis saidsaid toto bebe aa goodgood remedyremedy forfor coliccolic andand diarrhoea.diarrhoea. InIn thethe 'Anatomy'Anatomy ofof thethe elder',elder', it is statedstated thatthat thethe berriesberries of thethe elderelder areare usefuluseful inin epilepsy.epilepsy. Further,Further, theythey were held by our forefathers toto bebe helpfulhelpful inin rheumatismrheumatism and and erysipelas.34 erysipelas 3 4

MEDLAR

MespilusMespi/us germanicus (family Rosaceae)Rosaceae) isis aa small,small , deciduousdeciduous treetree nativenative toto southeastsoutheast EuropeEurope andand Central Asia and is naturalized in the UnitedUnited Kingdom,Kingdom, as well as in other parts of northern Europe.Europe. The mediarmedlar tree,tree, which isis itsits commoncommon name,name, bloomsblooms andand bearsbears fruitfruit whenwhen veryvery young.young. ItsIts fruitsfruits areare edible and can be made into preserve or are more commonly allowed to rot (blet')('blet') forfor aa fewfew weeks.weeks. This latter process is known as bletting and is similar to the riping process of American persimmon. The bletted fruit hashas fleshflesh withwith thethe consistencyconsistency and and taste taste of of apple apple butter.35 butter35

BLACK RASPBERRYRASPBERRY

Rubus occidentalisoccidentalis L.L. (family Rosaceae) isis native to manymany partsparts ofof Europe.Europe. ItsIts fruits,fruits, calledcalled raspberries,raspberries, are fragrant,fragrant, subacid and cooling. They contain crystallizable fruitfruit sugar,sugar, a fragrantfragrant volatile oil, pectin,pectin, citric and malic acids,acids, mineral salts,salts, colouring matter and waterwater.. By adding sugar and white wine, the juice of thethe riperipe fruitfruit isis usedused toto makemake anan acidacid syrupsyrup calledcalled raspberryraspberry vinegar.vinegar. When addingadding water,water, it servesserves as aa coolingcooling drinkdrink inin summer, which alsoalso cancan bebe usedused toto boostboost feverfever asas wellwell as for soresore throats.throats. AA winewine cancan alsoalso bebe brewedbrewed fromfrom the fermentedfermented juice of riperipe raspberries.raspberries. ThisThis winewine isis antiscrofulous,antiscrofulous, and raspberryraspberry syrupsyrup dissolvesdissolves thethe tartartartar of thethe teeth. TheThe fruit is also used for dyeing purposes.36purposes.36

OTHER MINOR FRUITSFRUITS

The fruitsfruits ofof severalseveral speciesspecies ofof dogwoods dogwoods (Comus(Comus spp.) are rich inin vitamin C and the berriesberries are added to wines andand liqueursliqueurs inin northernnorthern ItalyItaly asas flavouringsflavourings [Bounous and Peano, 1990].1990].

A treetree knownknown asas strawberrystrawberry treetree (Arbutus(Arbutus unendo),unendo), which is indigenous to thethe MediterraneanMediterranean region,region, produces aa fruit thatthat is moderatelymoderately sweet,sweet, highhigh in vitamin C and maymay be eateneaten riperipe oror asas aa jellyjelly (Figure(Figure 7.4). It is alsoalso usedused inin thethe productionproduction ofof wineswines andand liqueurs on the islandsislands of SardiniaSardinia (Italy)(Italy) and CorsicaCorsica (France) [Bounous and Peano, 1990).1990). InIn Portugal,Portugal, thisthis fruit isis aa constituentconstituent ofof medronho,medronho, aa strongstrong alcoholicalcoholic spirit with aa uniqueunique flavourflavour [Hora,[Hora, 1981].1981]. Figure 7.4 Fruits and foliagefoliage ofof thethe The NorthNorth AmericanAmerican mulberrymulberry (Morus(Morus rubra)rubra) producesproduces strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo),unedo), a tree reddish to purplishpurplish colouredcoloured fruits thatthat readilyreadily dropdrop found inin Mediterranean Europe. TheThe fruits areare moderatelymoderately sweet and can be from branchesbranches whenwhen theythey areare ripe.ripe . TheThe fallenfallen fruitsfruits areare eaten ripe or as a jelly juicy andand sweetsweet andand werewere collectedcollected toto makemake jamsjams andand

3434 Source: Sambucus (http://www.healthlink.com.au/nat_lib/htm-data/htm-herb/bhp727.htm)(http://www.healthlink.com.au/naUib/htm-data/htm-herb/bhp727.htm) Sambucus nigra (http://www.msue.msu.edu/msue/imp/modop/00001315.html)(http://www.msue.msu.edu/msue/imp/modop/00001315.html) 35 Source: Plant of the week (http://www.bl.rhbnc.ac.uk/plant/medlar.html)(http://www.bl.rhbnc.ac.uk/plantlmedlar.html) The Medieval mediarmedlar (http://www.ars-grin.gov/ars/PacWest/Corvallis/ncgr/cool/medlar.html)(http://www.ars-grin.gov/ars/PacWestiCorvaliis/ncgr/cool/medlar.html) 36 Source: Raspberry (http://www.botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/r/raspbe05.html#cul)(http://www.botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/r/raspbe05.html#cul)

65 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees jellies. They were anan importantimportant foodfood sourcesource forfor indigenousindigenous tribestribes andand earlyearly EuropeanEuropean colonistscolonists inin North America [Hora,[Hora, 1981]. Mulberries are also gatheredgathered from wild treestrees inin partsparts ofof PakistanPakistan andand are dried and soldsold inin marketsmarkets [author's[author's observation].observation].

The pods andand fruits ofof severalseveral speciesspecies ofof GleditsiaGleditsia (family(family Leguminoseae) are used for a variety of purposespurposes.. TheThe Caspian locust (G. caspicacaspica and G.G. japonica),japonica), indigenousindigenous to Japan,Japan, andand G.G. macracanthamacracantha,, indigenousindigenous to to ChinaChina,, are usedused inin the manufacturemanufacture of of soap.soap. TheThe pods of G.G. macracantha are used inin tanning. The podspods ofof thethe NorthNorth AmericanAmerican G.G. triacanthostriacanthos cancan bebe fermentedfermented into a beer or fed to livestocklivestock [Hora,[Hora, 1981].1981].

Blue honeysuckle (Loo/cera(Lonicera L.L. subsect. Caerulea Rehd.,Rehd. , family Caprifoliacae)Caprifoliacae) growsgrows wildwild inin Russia,Russia, ChinaChina,, JapanJapan., Canada and in the UnitedUnited States.States. ItsIts fruitsfruits areare characterizedcharacterized by a sour-sweetsour-sweet taste and very early maturity,maturity, which occursoccurs inin June.June. InIn Russia,Russia, blueblue honeysucklehoneysuckle isis aa popularpopular berryberry crop,crop, which is usedused commerciallycommercially andand byby amateuramateur horticulturists horticulturists [Plekhanova,[Plekhanova, 1998;1998; PlekanovaPlekanova andand Streltsyna, 1998].371998]37

Figure 7.5: Fruits of (from top andand from leftleft toto right):right): BlackBlack raspberry raspberry (Rubus (Rubus occidentalis); Mulberry (Morus rubra); DogwoodDogwood (Comus(Comus spp.);spp.); PersimmonPersimmon (Diospyros spp.);spp.); HawthornHawthorn (Crateagus(Crateagus spp).;spp).; andand SeaSea Buckthorn (Hippophae(Hippophae rhamnoides).

37 Source: EncyclopediaEncyclopedia (htto://www.encyclopedia.com/articles/06017.html) (http://www.encyclopedia.com/articles/06017.html)

66 Non-wood forest productsproducts fromfrom temperate temperate broad-leaved broad-leaved treestrees

CHAPTER 8 NUTS

Many temperatetemperate broad-leaved trees produce aa fruit that isis hard andand oily,oily, commonly known as a nut. As isis thethe casecase with soft texturedtextured fruits,fruits , the nutsnuts ofof manymany temperate broad-leaved trees are important foodfood sources, and some produce edible oils.oils. Several species of nutsnuts areare used for aa varietyvariety ofof industrial industrial products.products. Some nut crops of temperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees, including English or PersianPersian walnutswalnuts (Jug/ans(Juglans regia), pecans (Carya illinoinensis), pistachios (Pistacia spp.)spp.) and hazel or filbertsfilberts (Cory/us(Corylus spp.), are produced in orchards and areare consideredconsidered Figure 8.1 AA drieddried fruit and nut marketmarket inin Quetta,Quetta, to be agriculturalagricultural ratherrather thanthan forestforest crops.crops. Balochistan Province, Pakistan. Most of the As was donedone inin ChapterChapter 7,7, emphasisemphasis isis products sold herehere areare fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-broad placed on those nuts that are gathered,gathered, at leavedleaved trees.trees. WhileWhile many of thesethese productsproducts areare grown inin orchardsorchards asas agriculturalagricultural crops,crops, othersothers least to some degree, inin naturalnatural oror plantedplanted are still gathered in natural or planted forests. forests (Figure(Figure 8.1).8.1).

ACORNS

Acorns, the nuts ofof oaksoaks andand relatedrelated treestrees (Figure(Figure 8.2) have a varietyvariety of uses.uses. TheyThey have provided a staplestaple foodfood forfor humanshumans and have beenbeen usedused asas feedfeed forfor livestock.livestock. The acorns from most oaks are alsoalso anan importantimportant foodfood forfor wild gamegame andand otherother wildlife species. Moreover,Moreover, several species of acorns have been used as aa sourcesource ofof natural dyes.dyes. Figure 8.2 - Acorns of QuercusQuercus aegilops,aegilops, anan oakoak indigenous to the Mediterranean region of HUMAN CONSUMPTION Europe. Isle of Naxos, Greece

Acorns have been a traditionaltraditional food sourcesource for manymany humanhuman societies (Table 8.1). They are a source ofof vitamin C andand starchstarch andand areare reportedreported to bebe highhigh in magnesium,magnesium, calciumcalcium andand phosphorus. When compared to barley and wheat, acorns areare slightlyslightly lowerlower inin carbohydratescarbohydrates andand protein content but are higher in fat and fibre content. Therefore theythey have a higher caloric contentcontent per unit weight (average 4 994 calories/kg) than cereal grains. Unfortunately, acorns are also high in tannintannin content.content. Tannin imparts a bitter,bitter, astringent flavourflavour toto the nutsnuts butbut isis easilyeasily leached.leached. Acorns have been eaten rawraw,, roasted or boiled. In parts of the American Midwest and Europe, a coffee-like beverage hashas been made from acorns. Acorn oiloil is used for cooking in partsparts ofof NorthNorth Africa and acorns have been usedused forfor medicinalmedicinal salves andand cookingcooking byby thethe indigenousindigenous tribestribes inin eastern North America [Bainbridge, 1986;1986; BurnsBurns andand Honkala,Honkala, 1990;1990; Derby,Derby, 1980;1980; Wickens,Wickens, 1995].1995).

Acorn production varies varies from from year year to to year year and and inin good yearsyears cancan reach levelslevels ofof 3 000-000 60006 000 kg/ha/a. Individual, openopen grown treestrees,, e.g.e.g. OregonOregon white oakoak (Quercus(Quercus garryana)garryana) cancan produce several hundredhundred kilogramskilograms inin aa singlesingle growinggrowing season season [Bainbridge, [Bainbridge, 19861. 1986).

Among their most widespread uses, acorns were used as a staple foodfood by thethe indigenous tribestribes ofof California, who worshipped both the acorn and the oak.oak. AcornsAcorns maymay havehave beenbeen anan importantimportant foodfood

67 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees source as early asas 50005000 BCBC [Schneider,[Schneider, 1990].1990]. TheThe importanceimportance of acornsacorns toto thesethese culturescultures isis recorded in the journals ofof JohnJohn C.C. FremontFremont inin hishis historicalhistorical secondsecond CaliforniaCalifornia expeditionexpedition ofof 18441844 [Peattie, 1953];1953]:

""....an. ... an IndianIndian villagevillage,, consistingconsisting of of twotwo oror three hutshuts;; we had comecome upon themthem suddenly.suddenly, and the people hadhad evidentlyevidently just runrun off.off. ThereThere hutshuts werewere lowlow andand slight. slight, made like beehives in a picture,picture, five oror sixsix feetfeet high,high, andand nearnear eacheach waswas aa crate,crate, formed of interlacedinterlaced branches andand grassgrass inin size and shapeshape likelike aa veryvery largelarge hogshead. Each of these contained from six to nine bushels. These were filled with long acorns already mentioned,mentioned, and in thethe hutshuts werewere severalseveral neatly made baskets containing quantities ofof the acornsacorns roasted.roasted. TheyThey werewere sweetsweet andand agreeably agreeably flavoured,flavoured, and we supplied ourselves with about half a bushel,bushel, leavingleaving one of ourour shirts,shirts, a handkerchief and somesome smallersmaller articlesarticles inin exchange."exchange. "

The native vegetation of the foothills of the Sierra Nevada Mountains andand coast ranges and thethe riparian zones of the Central Valley was composed of extensive woodlands and savannahs dominated by several species of oak (Figure 8.3).8.3). It is estimated that about 230 kg of acorns per personperson per yearyear waswas consumedconsumed byby indigenous hunter-gatherers. Acorns from a number of species of oaks were usedused includingincluding Q.Q. agrifolia, Q. douglasii and Q.Q. kelloggi.kelloggi. TheseThese tribes made extensive use of fire for aa varietyvariety ofof purposes, including making acorn gathering easier. Oak woodlandswoodlands were typicallytypically burnedburned just prior to the time acornsacorns ripenedripened and fell fromfrom thethe trees. The frequent use of firefire byby thesethese tribestribes helped to maintain open oak woodland [Burns[Burns andand Honkala, 1990; Rossi, 1990]

Indigenous tribestribes inin other partsparts ofof thethe westernwestern United States also made extensiveextensive useuse ofof acorns.acorns. The area onceonce dominateddominated byby thethe Apaches,Apaches, whichwhich consisted of westernwestern Texas,Texas, NewNew MexicoMexico andand Arizona in thethe UnitedUnited StatesStates andand northernnorthern SonoraSonora Figure 8.3 A grovegrove ofof blueblue oakoak (Quercus(Quercus in MexicoMexico,, coincides almost exactly with thethe doug/asil)douglasii) in thethe CoastCoast RangeRange ofof California.California. natural range of QuercusQuercus emoryi. The acorns of The acorns of thisthis andand manymany otherother NorthNorth this oak werewere groundground intointo aa sweet-tasting sweet-tasting mealmeal American oaks providedprovided a staple food and were oftenoften eateneaten rawraw [Peattie,[Peattie, 1953].1953]. TheThe source for indigenous tribes. Kalapuya tribe of the Willamette Valley of OregonOregon used the acorns of Q.Q. garryanagarryana asas aa staplestaple foodfood sourcesource and,and, likelike theirtheir counterpartscounterparts inin California,California, used fire toto clearclear competing competing vegetationvegetation andand makemake acornacorn gatheringgathering easiereasier [Boyd,[Boyd, 1986].1986]. TheThe indigenous tribes along the Columbia River of Oregon and Washington used urine toto curecure acorns,acorns, which later becamebecame known as "chinook"chinook olives"olives" byby thethe firstfirst European-AmericanEuropean-American settlers in the region.region .

Acorns are still anan importantimportant food sourcesource inin manymany partsparts ofof thethe world,world, includingincluding KoreaKorea [Bainbridge,[Bainbridge, 1986] andand Morocco. InIn MoroccoMorocco,, thethe acornsacorns ofof cork oak (Q.(Q. suber) are gathered in the fall forfor human consumption and sold inin smallsmall basketsbaskets alongalong roadsidesroadsides [author's[author's observation].observation].

The acorns of several species of Lithocarpus are also locally important foodfood sources. TheThe acornsacorns ofof Lithocarpus edulis, a species indigenous toto Japan, and ofof L.L. comeus,corneus, indigenousindigenous toto southernsouthern China, are rather sweet and edible.edible. [Harlow et al., 1979;1979; Wickens, 1995]. In India, L. xylocarpus, a component of tropical semi-evergreensemi-evergreen andand HimalayanHimalayan moistmoist temperatetemperate forests,forests, producesproduces anan edibleedible nut that isis eateneaten locally.38locally38 TheThe acorns of tanoak (L. densiflorus)densiflorus) were an importantimportant food itemitem forfor several indigenousindigenous tribestribes in the northernnorthern CoastCoast RangeRange ofof California. California. In manymany indigenousindigenous communities,communities, the main diet was salmon and tanoak acorns. Flour was made from the acorns that

38 Information provided by Dr M. P.P Shiva, DehraDehra Dun,Dun , IndiaIndia

68 Non-wood forest productsproducts fromfrom temperate temperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees were ground and then washed inin hothot waterwater toto extractextract thethe tanninstannins andand bitterbitter flavour.flavour. TheyThey acornsacorns were cooked into aa mushmush [Fowells,[Fowells, 1965;1965; Peattie,Peattie, 1953].1953].

Table 8.1 Traditional and contemporary uses of acorns for humanhuman consumptionconsumption

Species Common name Distribution How used QQ.. aegilops Manna oakoak Mediterranean Europe, Near Flour for bread in Iran and Iraq Q. agrifolia Coast live oak East Raw or roasted, ground for baking Q. alba White oak CaliforniaCalifornia,, United States DriedDried,, boiled or roasted,roasted, also as a E.E. North America coffee substitute Q.Q . coccifera Kermes oak Mediterranean Africa,Africa, Q. douglasii Blue oak Europe and Near East Traditional food Q. emoryi Emory or blackjack California,California, United States Raw or roasted,roasted , ground into meal oak,oak, bellotabellota SW-United States Q. floribunda Green oakoak,, Kilonj NN.. Mexico Q. frainetto Hungarian oak NN.. India Coffee substitute EE.. EuropeEurope,, Balkans Q.Q . gambelii GambeloakGambel oak Ground into meal Q.Q . garryana Garry Oak Southwest United States Staple food of indigenous tribes QQ.. glabra West coast,coast, North America Eaten locally QQ.. glauca Japan Himalayas QQ.. grigriseasea Gray oak Staple food of indigenous tribes Q. ilex Holm oak SW United States and N.N. Occasional food Q. kelloggii California black oak Mexico Staple food of indigenous tribes Mediterranean Region QQ.. libaniliban/ Lebanon oak CaliforniaCalifornia,, United States Roasted QQ.. lobata Valley oak RoastedRoasted,, ttraditionalraditional foodfood ofof Near East indigenousindigenous tribestribes QQ.. macrocarpa Bur oak California, United States Raw or roasted Q. macrolepis Camata,Camata, camatina Boiled or raw or valonia oak EE.. CentCentralral NA Q. marilandica Black jack oak S. Balkans, Aegean QQ.. nigra Black oak Traditional foodfood Q. oblongifolia Mexican blue oak East United States Traditional food E United States QQ.. petraea Sessile oak Southwest United States, North QQ.. phellos Willow oak MexicoMexico,, Europe Q. prinus Chestnut oak Southeast United States Traditional food, eaten raw or roastedroasted,, ground into flour for baking Q. robur English oak East United States Famine foodfood,, coffee substitute Q.Q . stellata Post oak Traditional foodfood,, eaten raw or Europe roastedroasted,, ground into flour for baking Q.Q . suber Cork oak East-central United StatesStates Sold along roadsides in Morocco for foodfood . Q. virginiana Live oak West Mediterranean Europe,Europe, Traditional food, eaten raw or North Africa roastedroasted,, ground into flour for bakingbaking Southeast United States and a sweet cooking oil.

SourcesSources: PeattiePeattie 1953,1953, LittleLittle 1979,1979 ,Miller Miller 1997, 1997 ,Shiva, Shiva , personalpersonal communication,communication , WickensW ickens 1995.1995.

DYES

Fully riperipe,, crushed acorns of thethe NorthNorth AmericanAmerican oaksoaks (Quercus(Quercus alba,alba, Q. rubra and Q.Q . meuhlenbergii) are a dye source and produce a rangerange of colourscolours dependingdepending on the mordantmordant used.used . A tan toto mediummedium brownbrown colourcolour isis producedproduced withwith chrome,chrome, darkdark brownbrown withwith ironiron andand goldengolden brownbrown with chrome and tin [Casselman,[Casselman , 1993].1993].

69 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees

Box 8.1 AcornsAcorns asas a a "natural "natural"" food

There is somesome interestinterest in thethe useuse ofof acornsacorns asas aa "natural""natural" foodfood inin thethe UnitedUnited States.States. DerbyDerby (1990) outlines a modern-day procedure forfor preparing acorn flourflour that is basedbased onon methodsmethods used by indigenous tribes prior to the European settlement.

The procedure consists in gathering acorns as they fall from the treestrees inin autumnautumn andand placingplacing the acorns inin aa bucketbucket ofof water.water. OnlyOnly thosethose acornsacorns that fall toto thethe bottombottom of thethe bucketbucket areare retained. TheThe outer shell is crackedcracked by applyingapplying pressure with plierspliers and peeledpeeled away.away. The brown skin covering the nut should also bebe removedremoved becausebecause it isis highhigh inin tannintannin content,content, andand the nuts would leachleach more rapidly if most of itit isis removedremoved.. Submerging thethe nutsnuts inin water for several hours and rolling them between the palms of the handshands can dodo this.th is.

The acornsacorns are thenthen groundground in aa mortarmortar oror inin smallsmall amountsamounts inin anan electricelectric blenderblender withwith aa fewfew teaspoonsteaspoons of water.water. SoakingSoaking andand rinsingrinsing inin clearclear waterwater leachesleaches thethe resultingresulting meal.meal. LeachingLeaching shouldshould continue with fresh water until the rinse water is no longer brown. After leaching the acorn meal,meal, ifif not used immediately, can be dried on trays in a warmwarm oven.oven. DryingDrying acornacorn mealmeal inin aa gasgas ovenoven withwith nono heat other than the pilot light for two days is generally sufficient. If acornacorn mealmeal isis sunsun drieddried,, carecare mustmust be taken to protectprotect itit from birdsbirds oror insects.insects. AfterAfter thethe mealmeal isis thoroughlythoroughly dried,dried, itit maymay bebe storedstored inin aa refrigerator or freezer.freezer.

FOOD FOR DOMESTICDOMESTIC ANIMALSANIMALS AND WILDLIFE

Acorns have been a food for hogs since medieval times when they were turnedturned looseloose inin oakoak forestsforests in England and other European countries toto graze [Edlin,[Edlin , 1985].1985]. Similarly inin Portugal, the acorns of Quercus suber and other oaks have been used to fatten hogs.hogs. Hogs are allowed to range freely in oak forests toward the end ofof OctoberOctober andand areare collectedcollected inin latelate January.January. TheyThey havehave beenbeen knownknown toto average a 30-kg30-kg increaseincrease inin weightweight whenwhen fedfed onon acorns.39acorns39

The acorns of manymany speciesspecies ofof oaksoaks areare anan importantimportant wildlifewildlife food.food . StudiesStudies indicateindicate thatthat inin Wisconsin thethe acorns ofof QQ.. bicolor were found toto make up 27 percent of the diet of wild ducks.ducks. Other animals that feedfeed onon acornsacorns includeinclude variousvarious songbirds,songbirds, pigeons,pigeons, quails,quails, turkeysturkeys andand rats,rats , bears and deer [Burns and Honkala,Honkala, 1990].1990].

BEECH NUTS

The nuts of beechesbeeches (Fagus(Fagus spp.,spp., familyfamily Fagaceae)Fagaceae) are triangular in shape and usually occur in twotwo within a burbur covered with small spines (Figure 8.4).8.4). They mature in a single season.

HUMAN CONSUMPTIONCONSUMPTION

The nutsnuts ofof American American beechbeech (Fagus(Fagus grandifolia)grandifolia) areare sweet and havehave a proteinprotein contentcontent ofof aboutabout 2020 percentpercent [Thomas and Schumann,Schumann, 1992).1992). The nutnut cancan bebe readilyreadily opened with a thumbnail andand isis reportedreported toto bebe oneone ofof thethe sweetest,sweetest, most deliciousdelicious productsproducts ofof northernnorthern forests.forests. Collection of beechnuts in northeastern forests was once a popularpopular activity.activity. TheyThey werewere collectedcollected inin largelarge numbersnumbers inin the fallfall andand soldsold commercially.commercially. TodayToday beechnutsbeechnuts areare rarely foundfound in markets asas a commercial product Figure 8.4 Foliage andand nuts of thethe because ofof "modern"modern sophistication"sophistication" [Fernald et alal.,., European beech (Fagus(Fagus sylvatica)sylvatica),, 1958]1958].. A disadvantage of beechnuts as a food itemitem forfor Parco NazionaleNazionale Abruzzo,Abruzzo, AbruzzoAbruzzo human consumption is that the fresh nutsnuts spoilspoil quickly.quickly. RegionRegion,, Italy

39 Source - httphttp://www.portugal.org/german/doingbus/buyingfrom/products/cork/://www.portugal.org/german/doingbus/buyingfrom/producIs/cork/

70 Non-wood forest productsproducts fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

They can be drieddried inin fullfull sunsun forfor oneone toto twotwo daysdays oror roasted roasted inin aa small small ovenoven toto prolongprolong storagestorage [Thomas and Schumann,Schumann, 1992].1992].

BEECH NUT OIL

The nuts of European beech (F. sylvatica),sylvatica), on the other handhand,, have never been a popular foodfood item for human consumption and were only eaten when driven by extreme hunger.hunger. An important use of beechnuts in Europe, however, waswas asas a sourcesource of oil,oil , especiallyespecially inin France.France. DuringDuring thethe earlyearly 1800s1800s,, some beech forests produced as much as two millionmillion bushelsbushels ofof nutsnuts that,that, whenwhen properlyproperly treatedtreated,, yielded oil equal to 1/61/6 the bulk of thethe original nuts.nuts. Beechnut oil was said to be equal to olive oil in flavour [Fernald[Fernald etet al.,al., 1958].1958].

Production of beechnut oil involves grinding the nuts into a pastepaste from which the oiloil isis extracted.extracted. The oil ages well if storedstored in clay jars and buriedburied in sand inin a cellar.cellar. ItIt willwill keepkeep for upup to ten years,years, and oil over sixsi x yearsyears isis consideredconsidered toto bebe thethe bestbest [Fernald[Fernald etet al.,al., 1958].1958].

Roasted beechnuts have also been used asas aa substitutesubstitute forfor coffeecoffee inin EuropeEurope [Ferruled[Ferruled et etal., a/. , 1958].

FOOD FORFOR DOMESTICDOMESTIC ANIMALSANIMALS AND WILDLIFE

The nuts of EuropeanEuropean beechbeech (Fagus(Fagus sylvatica)sylvatica) havehave beenbeen usedused to fattenfatten hogshogs [Harlow[Harlow andand Harrar,Harrar, 19501950;; Hora,Hora, 1981].1981]. BeechnutsBeechnuts are also aa valuablevaluable foodfood forfor wildlifewildlife includingincluding squirrels,squirrels, mice,mice, pigeons,pigeons, pheasants and jays [Edlin,[Edlin, 1985].1985]. Nuts of AmeriAmericancan beech (F. grandifolia) were a favouritefavourite food of thethe nownow extinctextinct NorthNorth AmericanAmerican passengerpassenger pigeon.pigeon.

CHESTNUTS

Chestnut is aa fast-growing,fast-growing, long-lived deciduousdeciduous tree tree andand itsits nuts represent oneone of thethe mostmost importantimportant nut crops inin thethe temperatetemperate zone.zone. ChestnutsChestnuts areare alsoalso gatheredgathered inin naturalnatural forests.forests. SpeciesSpecies of CastaneaCastanea (family(family Fagaceae)Fagaceae) areare indigenousindigenous to allall threethree continentscontinents ofof thethe NorthernNorthern Hemisphere,Hemisphere, and the chestnutchestnut hashas longlong beenbeen cultivatedcultivated throughoutthroughout China,Ch ina , Korea,Korea, Japan and thethe MediterraneanMediterranean basin.

HISTORICAL ASPECTS ASPECTS 40 40

ChestnutsChestnuts have been cultivated for at leastleast 30003000 yearsyears inin thethe MediterraneanMediterranean region.region. The ancient Greeks are thought to have been among the firstfirst to cultivate the nut (Chua and Klinac,Klinac, 1992]. The Romans introduced this tree to BritainBritain duringduring theirtheir periodperiod ofof dominationdomination andand colonizationcolonization betweenbetween AD 42 andand 410410 withwith thethe objectiveobjective ofof raisingraising thethe familiarfamiliar nutsnuts thatthat were,were, inin Italy,Italy, aa staplestaple foodfood forfor their legionaries.legionaries. However,However, thethe cooler climate ofof the BritishBritish IslesIsles waswas notnot conduciveconducive toto goodgood chestnut harvests [Edlin,[Edlin, 1985].1985]. InIn Asia,Asia , thethe JapaneseJapanese chestnutchestnut (C.(C. crenata)crenata) hashas beenbeen cultivatedcultivated since at least the eleventh century,century, and the Chinese chestnut (C. mollissima) possibly as long ago as 6000 yearsyears (Chua(Chua andand Klinac,Kl inac, 1992].1992].

IMPORTANT SPECIES SPECIES 41 41

Species of CastaneaCastanea that havehave eithereither beenbeen oror areare currentlycurrently importantimportant inin commercialcommercial productionproduction include the American chestnut (C.(C. dentata),dentata), thethe ChineseChinese chestnutchestnut (C.(C. mollisima),mo/lisima), thethe JapaneseJapanese chestnut C.C. crenata) and the EuropeanEuropean chestnutchestnut (C.(C. sativa)sativa) [Wickens[Wickens 1995].1995].

Castanea dentata is native to thethe easterneastern UnitedUnited StatesStates andand adjoiningadjoining portionsportions ofof Canada.Canada. ThisThis isis thethe tallesttallest membermember of thethe genus Castanea,Castanea, capable of achieving heights ofof approapproximatelyximately 20-3520-35 m

4040 For further informationinformati on oonn historicalhistori cal aspecaspectsts of chestnutschestnuts (Castanea dentata)dentata) consult,consult, forfor exampleexample thethe followingfoll owing webweb page: page: AmAmericanerican Chestnut (http://ncnatural.com/NCNatural/trees/chestnut.(http://ncnatural.com/NCNatural/trees/chestnut.html) htm I).. 4141 Much of thethe information providedprovided in this sectionsecti on was obtained fromfrom datadata accessed viavia thethe Internet from thethe AmericanAmerican ChestnutChestnut CooperatorsCooperators FoundationFoundati on (http://ipm.ppws.vt.edu/griffin/accfcast.html)(http://ipm.ppws.vt.edu/griffin/accfcast.html )

71 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

(Harlow and HarrarHarrar,, 1950] and has nuts that are sweeter than most other speciesspecies.. TheThe bursburs usually contain three nuts each. American chestnutchestnut waswas alsoalso aa primeprime timbertimber producingproducing species, species, however,however, this treetree isis nono longerlonger aa viable viable source source ofof nuts nuts or or other other forest forest products products because because it hashas beenbeen decimated by an introduced fungus,fungus, Cryphonectria (Endothia) parasitiparasiticaca that causes chestnut blight (see textbox 8.2).8.2).

Box 8.28.2: : Chestnut blight: A devastating disease

Chestnut blight,blight, caused by the fungus CryphonectriaCryphonectria (Endothia)(Endothia) paras/tica,parasitica, attacks the stems of species of Castanea and causes varying degrees of damagedamage dependingdepending onon thethe relativerelative susceptibilitysusceptibility ofof thethe species.species. The fungus is native to China,China, and both the Chinese and Japanese chestnuts areare resistant toto attackattack butbut not immune.immune.

The fungus was accidentally introduced into North America during the early partpart ofof thethe twentiethtwentieth centurycentury on Chinese chestnut nursery stock and was first observed in the New York Zoological Park in 1904. The American chestnut was highly susceptible to this fungus,fungus, andand overover aa periodperiod ofof 5050 yearsyears itit destroyeddestroyed mostmost of the native chestnut forests inin the eastern United States (Boyce,(Boyce , 1961;1961 ; Manion,Manion, 1991).1991).

The American chestnut occupied a unique pospositionition among AmericanAmerican treestrees.. ThereThere areare fewfew,, ifif any,any, native trees that could compare with this tree in terms of vigourvigour,, growth and yieldyield ofof a great variety ofof wood andand non-wood products including lumber, poles,poles, railroadrailroad sleepers,sleepers, barrels,barrels, paperpaper andand fibreboard,fibreboard , tannintannin andand nuts. Two majormajor AmericanAmerican non-woodnon-wood productsproducts industriesindustries werewere doomeddoomed asas aa resultresult ofof this this devastating devastating disease,disease, the tannin extractextract industryindustry inin thethe southernsouthern AppalachianAppalachian MountainsMountains andand thethe nutnut industryindustry (Boyce,(Boyce, 1961). Most present-day Americans areare nono longerlonger familiarfamiliar withwith chestnutschestnuts asas anan edibleedible nut.nut.

Chestnut blight was first discovered in Europe duringduring 1938.1938. The EuropeanEuropean chestnutchestnut isis susceptiblesusceptible toto thethe disease,disease, but the effects of the disease were not as devastatingdevastating it was on the American chestnut. While many trees have been killed and chestnutchestnut production has been reduced, there is still a viable nut productionproduction industry in Europe today (Chua and Klinac,Klinac, 1992;1992; Hora, 1981).1981 ).

Castanea mollisimamolí/sima isis nativenative toto China with a natural range that extends from south China to north of Beijing and isis considered to bebe thethe hardiesthardiest ofof thethe AsianAsian chestnuts.chestnuts. ThisThis treetree isis moremore resistantresistant toto the chestnut blight fungus than other species of Castanea.Castanea. Its nuts are sweeter and finer textured than those of C.C. crenata,crenata, andand itit isis currentlycurrently thethe majormajor commercial commercial nut-producingnut-producing species.species. SeveralSeveral horticultural varietiesvarieties,, with varying degrees of hardiness,hardiness, have been developed. This tree does not have good form and isis notnot importantimportant asas aa timber-producingtimber-producing species.species.

The Japanese species (C.(C. crenata) is found in hilly and mountainous regions.regions. It is not as tall as C.C. dentata,dentata, and its nutsnuts areare intermediateintermediate inin sizesize betweenbetween thosethose ofof C.C. dentatadentata andand C.C. sativa.sativa . TheThe nutsnuts are large and coarse-textured.coarse-textured. TheyThey lacklack thethe flavourflavour ofof otherother chestnutchestnut species.species.

The European or Spanish chestnut (Castanea sativa)sativa) isis aa treetree thatthat has a similar growth habit to that of C.C. dentatedentata and can reachreach similar heights.heights. This tree isis found inin southern Europe,Europe, North Africa and the NearNear East.East. InIn thethe easterneastern partpart ofof Peloponnese Peloponnese peninsulapeninsula inin southernsouthern Greece,Greece, therethere areare about 11 000 ha ofof C.C. sativasativa groves.groves. TheThe treestrees growgrow naturallynaturally butbut areare alsoalso cultivatedcultivated inin plantationsplantations [Moussouris and Regato,Regato, 1999].1999]. In thethe mountainousmountainous regionsregions of Italy,Italy, it forms pure or nearlynearly purepure stands at midmid toto highhigh elevationselevations [author's[author's observation].observation]. ThisThis treetree isis somewhatsomewhat lessless susceptiblesusceptible toto chestnut blight than the AmericanAmerican speciesspecies but cancan suffersuffer seriousserious damagedamage thatthat hashas resultedresulted inin reduced nut yields [Wickens[Wickens,, 1995]. The nuts of C. sativa are about the same size as thosethose of C.C. crenata but sweeter in flavour.

Other species of Castanea have smaller nuts and have been used locally as traditional sources of food while othersothers are importantimportant as wildlifewildlife food.food. The nutsnuts ofof thethe ChineseChinese speciesspecies C.C. henryihenryi areare small but havehave anan excellentexcellent flavour.flavour. TheThe "chinquapins""chinquapins" ofof easterneastern NorthNorth AmericaAmerica (C.(C. ozarkensisozarkensis andand CC.. pumila)pum/la) produce smallsmall,, sweet nuts thatthat have a good flavour but are difficult to shell. The nuts of these trees areare usedused toto fattenfatten hogshogs [Wickens,[Wickens, 1995].1995].

NUTRITIONAL VALUE

Chestnuts are both a tasty and healthy food and compare in nutritional value to wheat and brown ricerice.. They are high in carbohydrates andand have thethe lowestlowest fatfat contentcontent ofof allall majormajor edibleedible nutsnuts (1-3%(1-3%

72 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees compared toto 50%50% forfor somesome otherother nuts). nuts) .Chestnuts Chestnuts contain contain quality quality protein protein and and no no cholestero1.42 cholesterol 42 The nutritional value of chestnuts varies bbyy species and by thethe mannermanner inin whichwhich theythey areare preparedprepared [Wickens 1995] (Table 8.2).

PRODUCTION AND TFtADETRADE

Chua and KlinacKlinac (1992)(1992) discuss global commercial produproductionction andand tradetrade inin chestnuts by major producing regions of the world inin aa paperpaper (Table(Table 8.3).8.3).

China

China is currently the world's largest producer and exporter of chestnuts.chestnuts. FromFrom southern to northern China,China, 300300 differentdifferent cultivarscultivars areare grown underunder diversediverse andand variablevariable climaticclimatic conditions and environments,environments, but onlyonly aboutabout 50 cultivars are produced commerciallycommercially.. Yields fromfrom Castanea mollissimamollissima averageaverage about 75 nuts/kgnuts/kg.. There are some exceptionally large cultivars (40 nuts/kg)nuts/kg) butbut these are notnot common.common. AverageAverage yieldyield isis caca 8 t/ha,t/ha , with upup toto 1515 t/hat/ha possiblepossible fromfrom densedense plantings (3 x 22 m)m) andand highhigh yieldingyielding cultivarscultivars (figure 8.5).8.5).

China's statistics are not very reliablereliable ifif locallocal consumption isis includedincluded.. In 19911991,, nationalnational Figure 8.5 Burrs of the Chinese chestnut export figures were 5858 000000 t (fresh and (Castanea mollisima) HenanHenan Province,Province, ChinaChina processed),processed), but local consumption is high.high. AA conservative estimate of total Bproductionroduction is 80 000-120 000000 t.t. AnotherAnother sourcesource estimatesestimates productionproduction at 100 000 t/a to 240 000 t/at/a.'. 3However, However ,in in aa country country ofof over over oneone billionbillion people,people, nobodynobody seems to know for sure.

Castanea crenata is grown in KirinKirin ProvinceProvince withwith JapaneseJapanese joint-venture interests.interests. These nuts are cut by handhand inin aa specialspecial way,way, leavingleaving thethe rawraw fleshflesh freefree ofof thethe innerinner skinskin (pellicle),(pellicle), aa methodmethod thatthat has been introduced by Japanese technicians sent to China.China . China has beenbeen chosen overover KoreaKorea because labour is cheap (US$ 1.50 per day) and cuttingcutting is highly labour intensiveintensive.. Hong KongKong is the biggestbiggest importerimporter of freshfresh andand drieddried pellicle-freepellicle-free chestnuts,chestnuts, taking about half of China's export and then re-exportingre-exporting to SoutheastSoutheast Asia.Asia. MostMost are consumedconsumed byby overseasoverseas Chinese who eat them throughout the year,year, butbut moremore soso aroundaround October,October, November,November, andand DecemberDecember whenwhen freshfresh nutsnuts areare available for roasting.roasting . Chinese cuisine uses chestnutschestnuts inin high-classhigh-class dishes.dishes. TheThe dragon-boatdragon-boat festival aroundaround MayMay usesuses upup mostmost ofof thethe drieddried chestnutchestnut crop.crop.

Table 8.2 NutritionalNutritional value of chestnuts.'chestnuts 1

Form Water Protein Fat CarbohydratesCarbohydrates Calories (%) (%) (%)(Y.) (%) (per kg) Fresh raw 44 4 1 4949 22532253 Dried 9 7 2 8800 36263626 BoiledBoiled/steamed/steamed 62 3 1 3344 15415499 Roasted 40 4 1 52 29342934

1 Species notnot givengiven Source:Source: USDA ddataata prepresentedsented bbyy GreatGreat LLakesakes ChestnChestnutut AAlliance'lliance44

42 SourceSource: : The Farm StoreStore (http://www.square.com/the(http://www.square.com/the FarmFarm Store/htm/cooking/html.)Store/htm/cooking/html. ) 43 GreGreatat Lakes Chestnut Alliance - http://www.traverse.com/earthkeepers/potential.htmlhttp://www.traverse.com/earthkeepers/potential.html 44 Source:Source: TraverseTraverse (http://www.traversacom/earthkeepers/chsfact.html)(http://www.traverse .com/earthkeepers/chsfacthtml)

73 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees

Table 8.38.3 AnnualAnnual chestnutchestnut productionproduction by principal producer countries'countries 1

RegionlCountryRegion/Country Annual production (tons) AsiaAsia and PaPacificcific Australia 535388 China 100 000 - 240 000 Japan 6060000 000 Korea 70 000 - 8080 000000

Europe Croatia 7000070 000 France 20 000 - 25 000000 Greece 1818000 000 Italy > 50 000 Spain 2020000 000 Turkey 5522 000 1 DataData areare forfor theth e periodperiod 19781978 toto 1991.1991 . Source:Source: Great LakesLakes Chestnut Alliance, ChuaChu a and KlinacKlinac 1992.1992. Korea

The world's secondsecond largestlargest producerproducer ofof chestnutschestnuts isis Korea,Korea , withwith aa productionproduction ofof upup toto 8080 000000 t/a,tla , ofof which up to 3030 000000 tt areare exportedexported toto Japan.Japan. MostMost naturalnatural stands of chestnut were largely destroyed in the 1950s as a resultresult ofof warwar andand chestnutchestnut gallgall waspwasp epidemics.epidemics. Since thenthen,, more than 200 000 ha of orchardorchard havehave beenbeen established,established , mostlymostly inin thethe south and west, on poor soils. Yields of 2-10 t/hat/ha areare reportedreported atat 400400 trees/hatrees/ha withwith one-thirdone-third ofof the the treestrees used used asas pollination pollination sources.sources. Blocks of trees are planted in 25-year25-year cycles,cycles, with peakpeak productionproduction around year 15.15. ChestnutsChestnuts are a major export earner for KoreaKorea (US$(US$ 8080 million/yearmillion/year compared to US$US$ 6464 millionmillion forfor allall otherother fruitfruit exports combined) and much efforteffort hashas beenbeen devoteddevoted toto developingdeveloping thethe early-harvest, early-harvest, dark,dark, even-sized chestnuts preferred byby the Japanese market.market.

HoweverHowever,, since 1977 the rate of plantingplanting hashas droppeddropped duedue toto increasingincreasing labourlabour costscosts (especially(especially peeling) that in turn hashas ledled toto increasingincreasing mechanization,mechanization, where possible. Most production is by Castanea crenata x crenata (Japanese cultivar)cultivar) crosses,crosses, growngrown onon rootstocks.rootstocks .

.JapanJapan

Japan is one ofof thethe largestlargest chestnutchestnut consumingconsuming countriescountries in thethe worldworld andand thethe biggestbiggest chestnut chestnut importerimporter.. JapanJapan hashas a longlong history of chestnutchestnut cultivationcultivation and thethe developmentdevelopment ofof new,new, high-performance cultivars.cultivars. In practice,practice, however,however, they faceface severesevere productionproduction problemsproblems duedue toto blight and especially to insectinsect pests,pests, suchsuch asas thethe gallgall waspwasp thatthat enteredentered JapanJapan inin 1941.1941 .From From 19591959 to 1964,1964, thethe areaarea ofof chestnutschestnuts inin productionproduction doubled,doubled, butbut becausebecause ofof thethe gallgall waspwasp production production levels remained almost unchanged. In 1978,1978, domestic production exceeded 6060 000000 tt,, with another 23 000 t being imported.imported. TodayToday's's JapaneseJapanese marketmarket is basically segmentedsegmented into several componentscomponents.. First is the current national production of C.C. crenatacrenata of 4040 000000 t/a.tla . JapaneseJapanese chestnutchestnut prices range from US$ 6.756.75 to US$ 8.508.50 per kilogram for ordinary cultivars.cultivars. Through many years of habit and attachment to their winter festivals where food made of chestnut paste are widely eaten,eaten, Japanese prefer chestnuts as a winter food.food.

The second major source ofof chestnutschestnuts afterafter JapanJapan isis China.China. ChineseChinese chestnutschestnuts areare importedimported duringduring winter and well likedliked becausebecause their pellicle can be easilyeasily removedremoved after roasting or boiling.boiling . The period of import supply is fromfrom OctoberOctober toto December.December. They arrive inin 60-kg60-kg jute bags.bags. TotalTotal 19911991 importation was approximately 28 000 t. PricesPrices set by thethe Chinese NationalNational ExportExport Corporation are about US$ 2.75/kg2.75/kg at the wholesale level.level.

Third in importanceimportance are suppliessupplies of chestnutschestnuts fromfrom Korea.Korea . KoreanKorean chestnuts are similar to Japanese cultivarscultivars,, but Korea provides mainly hand-cut chestnutschestnuts.. TheThe cutting process iiss labour intensive,intensive, and great importanceimportance isis attachedattached toto thethe mannermanner ofof cutting.cutting. TheThe productproduct isis pricedpriced asas firstfirst or second quality according to the cut, andand the JapaneseJapanese havehave sentsent expertexpert women cutters toto KoreaKorea to train locals.locals. A toptop cuttercutter producesproduces 1010 kg/daykg/day ofof cutcut chestnuts.chestnuts. AllAll pelliclepellicle andand outerouter skinskin surfacesurface

74 Non-wood forest productsproducts fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leaved broad-leaved treestrees isis removed,removed, leavingleaving only thethe white flesh.flesh. Large chestnuts are preferred but pricing is by weight. The annual supply forfor thisthis typetype ofof cutcut chestnutchestnut isis 1515 000000 t.t.

About 11 500500 tt ofof Italian Italian chestnutschestnuts (Castanea(Castanea sativa),sativa), withoutwithout shellshell andand pellicle,pellicle, areare alsoalso importedimported intointo JapanJapan.. These are used mainly for marrons glacésglaces and also in paste form for confectionery. For marron Glico,Glico, the nutnut isis storedstored forfor aa periodperiod (chilled)(chilled) thatthat allowsallows thethe shellshell andand pelliclepellicle toto bebe removedremoved more easily from the nut byby steamsteam blasting.blasting . The nutnut isis thenthen re-frozenre-frozen for export.export. ForFor paste,paste, the Japanese are veryvery warywary aboutabout thethe preservativespreservatives used.used. Italian-shelledItalian-shelled chestnuts are shipped in 11-kg cartons.cartons.

Europe

Chestnut blight and phytophthora root rot havehave hadhad aa dramaticdramatic effecteffect onon chestnutchestnut productionproduction inin EuropeEurope.. From about the turn of thethe century,century, whenwhen chestnutchestnut blightblight waswas introduced;introduced, most of thethe traditional chestnut-producing areas of EuropeEurope havehave oftenoften shownshown aa progressiveprogressive declinedecline inin chestnutchestnut production. Both France and Italy suffered about an 85 percent decline between the turn of this century and 1965.1965. This hashas beenbeen partlypartly duedue toto urbanizationurbanization andand populationpopulation driftdrift towardtoward thethe cities;cities; partly to increasingincreasing labourlabour costscosts andand thethe difficultiesdifficulties ofof mechanization mechanization inin manymany productionproduction areasareas (trees are most often on steep slopes);slopes); butbut mostlymostly due to thethe spreadspread of thethe disease.disease. ExpensiveExpensive and prolonged research efforts into breedingbreeding new,new, diseasedisease resistantresistant cultivars,cultivars, improvedimproved diseasedisease controls and the developmentdevelopment ofof betterbetter rootstocksrootstocks andand cultivationcultivation methodsmethods havehave apparentlyapparently helped helped stabilize this decline in recentrecent years.years. HighHigh pricesprices forfor processed,processed, peeledpeeled andand frozenfrozen chestnutchestnut products,products, especiallyespecially inin thethe United States where they sell forfor moremore thanthan US$US$ 6.00/kg,6.00/kg , havehave prompted moves to expandexpand thethe chestnutchestnut industryindustry inin manymany countries.countries.

An illustration of some of thesethese changingchanging trends can be seenseen inin chestnutchestnut productionproduction in France.France. At the beginning of thethe century,century, FranceFrance grew nearlynearly 400 000 tt ofof chestnuts.chestnuts. ByBy thethe 1960s1960s thisthis hadhad dropped to 45 000 t/atla and to 2727 000000 t/at/a inin thethe 1970s.1970s. ByBy 1978,1978, FranceFrance was producing 20 000-25 000 t/at/a andand importingimporting aboutabout 1010000 000 t/a.tla. OverOver thethe samesame timetime period,period, freshfresh consumptionconsumption declined,declined, while thatthat ofof processed processed productsproducts increasedincreased proportionately.proportionately. WithinWithin thethe EuropeanEuropean Community,Community, France is now the biggest chestnut importer,importer, mostly from Italy,Italy, but also from Spain and Portugal. In 1993 the value of Italian and Spanish chestnut production reached Lit 56 452 million (35(35721 721 t) and Ptas 2 650 millions (52 300 t),t), respectively [Cesaro etet al.,al., unpublished].unpublished].

Italy is currently the largestlargest chestnutchestnut producerproducer inin Europe,Europe, atat overover 5050 000000 t/a.tla . ItalyItaly isis alsoalso thethe worldworld leader in the productionproduction of marronsmarrons and processedprocessed chestnuts.chestnuts. Most exports go to France.France. Within ItalyItaly,, the traditionaltraditional use of drieddried chestnutschestnuts as flourflour inin cookingcooking isis declining,declining, butbut overseasoverseas the popularity of these and similar products is increasing,increasing, especially in the United States. As a result,result, production is being increased,increased, with new orchards being established and research continuing on the development ofof newnew andand improvedimproved cultivars.cultivars. ExtraExtra incomein come isis generatedgenerated inin somesome chestnutchestnut orchards orchards by thethe productionproduction ofof honeyhoney and/orand/or thethe edibleedible mycorrhizalmycorrhizal fungus,fungus, BoletusBoletus edulis,edulis, whichwhich isis sometimes worthworth moremore thanthan the chestnutchestnut crop itself (see(see sectionsection onon edibleedible mushroomsmushrooms in Chapter 9).9).

Spain is thethe nextnext highesthighest EuropeanEuropean producerproducer afterafter ItalyItaly andand France.France. In 1986,1986, 120120 000 ha ofof chestnuts were being grown,grown, mostlymostly inin northernnorthern andand westernwestern Spain,Spain, producingproducing moremore thanthan 2020 000000 t.t. In addition to having a largelarge locallocal market,market, peeledpeeled nutsnuts areare exportedexported toto ItalyItaly andand France.France.

Elsewhere in Europe,Europe, somesome chestnutchestnut productionproduction is reportedreported from TurkeyTurkey (52(52000 000 t/a),tla), GreeceGreece (18(18000 000 tt/a)/a) and Croatia (70(70 000 t/a).tla). InIn Switzerland,Switzerland, 4444000 000 ha havehave beenbeen plantedplanted withwith chestnuts,chestnuts, mostly southsouth of thethe Alps.Alps. All Swiss productionproduction isis consumed locallylocally,, with an additional US$ 10 million worth importedimported annually.annually.

United States of America

In thethe United StatesStates,, the first European settlers foundfound extensive nativenative forestsforests ofof American chestnutchestnut (Castanea dentata). EuropeanEuropean chestnutschestnuts werewere introducedintroduced inin thethe earlyearly 1700s,1700s , JapaneseJapanese chestnutschestnuts by 1860,1860, andand ChineseChinese chestnutschestnuts inin thethe latelate 1800s.1800s. However,However, thethe introducedintroduced chestnutchestnut blightblight destroyed almost all natural C.C. dentatadentata forestsforests and mostmost C.C. crenatacrenata andand C.C. sativasativa plantingsplantings byby thethe 1950s1950s.. ThereforeTherefore,, many present-generation Americans are unfamiliar with chestnuts.chestnuts.

75 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

Presently in the UnitedUnited States,States, therethere areare anan estimatedestimated 800800 haha ofof nut-bearing nut-bearing chestnutchestnut plantings,plantings, and perhapsperhaps 22000 000 haha ofof non-bearingnon-bearing trees.trees. MostMost productionproduction isis concentratedconcentrated inin thethe westernwestern statesstates of California, Oregon and Washington. The objective of the UnitedUnited StatesStates chestnut industry is toto increase plantings toto 120 000000 ha.ha. This is thethe areaarea thatthat wouldwould bebe requiredrequired toto bringbring AmericanAmerican consumption toto the EuropeanEuropean levels. At present,present, thethe UnitedUnited StatesStates importimport US$US$ 20-4020-40 millionmillion chestnuts annually, mostly from Italy.Italy.

Because chestnut blightblight killedkilled offoff almost all native treestrees,, extensive effortsefforts areare underunder wayway toto re-re establish the "natural" chestnut forests of the country. This isis thethe mainmain concernconcern ofof manymany chestnutchestnut researchers andand supporters,supporters, and emphasisemphasis isis placed on forest-forest- ratherrather thanthan orchard-related orchard-related problems. Tree form and timber productionproduction oftenoften takestakes prioritypriority overover nutnut production.production.

Nevertheless,Nevertheless, an organized chestnut industry is developing.developing. PlantingsPlantings onon thethe VVestWest CoastCoast areare mostly C. sativa x C.C. crenata.crenata. EastEast ofof thethe RockyRocky Mountains,Mountains, mostmost growersgrowers plantplant thethe blightblight resistantresistant Chinese chestnut or its hybrids.hybrids. Production guidelines to growers are based on 1.8-3.61.8-3.6 trees/ha at maturity (12-15 years)years) andand aa returnreturn ofof aroundaround US$US$ 4.00/kg4.00/kg wholesale.wholesale. InIn partsparts ofof thethe country,country, chestnut production isis replacingreplacing thethe moremore traditionaltraditional growinggrowing ofof hazelnuts.hazelnuts.

Australia

Australian chestnut production is estimated at 538538 t/atla fromfrom approximatelyapproximately 250250 growers.growers. ByBy 2001,2001, production is expected toto reach 3 600 t,t, all soldsold locally.locally. MuchMuch AustralianAustralian chestnutchestnut productionproduction isis concentrated inin the state ofof Victoria,Victoria, wherewhere therethere areare sometimessometimes seriousserious diseasedisease andand storagestorage problems,problems, and many of the older,older, inferiorinferior chestnutchestnut selections are now being replaced with newer material.

CULTIVATION

Most commercial production of chestnuts is inin orchards although some areare stillstill gatheredgathered inin thethe wild (Figure(Figure 8.6).8.6). TheyThey havehave traditionallytraditionally beenbeen grown on hillyhilly landland thatthat isis unsuitableunsuitable for otherother agricultural crops. The preferencepreference ofof chestnutschestnuts for lighterlighter soilsoil providesprovides anan opportunityopportunity toto utilizeutilize land thatthat isis marginally productive.productive. ChestnutsChestnuts prefer a well-drained,well-drained , slight acidic (pH 5.0-6.9)5.0-6.9) soil andand tendtend toto thrivethrive inin sandysandy soils.soils. ChestnutChestnut trees on heavierheavier (clay)(clay) soilssoils havehave beenbeen notednoted toto perform in outstandingoutstanding fashion if thethe drainagedrainage patterns prevent standing water or soil saturation for extended periods.periods. ChestnutChestnut treestrees do not like "wet feet"feet" andand shouldshould notnot bebe plantedplanted in flood plains. Established treestrees are quitequite drought tolerant.

The nutrientnutrient requirements of chestnutschestnuts areare similar toto those ofof otherother treetree crops. TheyThey respond to an early spring application of nitrogen with acceleratedaccelerated growth.growth. In bearing Figure 8.6 A Castanea sativa orchard, LagoLago didi yearsyears,, nitrogen helps ensure largerlarger nuts.nuts. ForFor Vico, Lazio Region, Italy. other nutrients, a soil testtest isis recommendedrecommended so that anyany deficienciesdeficiencies cancan bebe identified.identified. SomeSome producersproducers recommendrecommend applyingapplying boronboron toto ensureensure nutnut set. Most soil types havehave provenproven sufficientsufficient toto somesome levellevel ofof chestnutchestnut production.production. TheThe KoreansKoreans andand Chinese have discovered that a dormantdormant application of phosphate (late November to early April) increases the ratio of female-to-malefemale-to-male blossoms,blossoms, perhaps accounting in part for thethe ratherrather stunningstunning production figures reportedreported fromfrom AsiaAsia (9(9 toto 11.211.2 t/ha).45 tlha)45

4455 Great LakesLakes Chestnut Alliance - http://www.traverse.com/earthkeepers/potential.html.http://www.traverse.com/earthkeepers/potential.html.

76 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

HARVESTING AND STORAGESTORAGE

Chestnuts are hand harvested inin thethe majormajor production areas of EuropeEurope andand AsiaAsia withwith methods little changed over the pastpast 20002000 years. HoweverHowever,, high labour costscosts in regions such as Europe and North America and changingchanging cost structurestructure inin agriculture may dictatedictate the need for mechanically assisted harvestingharvesting optionsoptions such as mechanical tree shakersshakers.. FortunatelyFortunately,, new orchards can be plannedplanned and managed to maximize the benefits of mechanized harvesting.

The simplest harvesting method is to letlet the nuts fallfall toto thethe groundground naturally,naturally, thenthen pick them up by handhand oror gathergather themthem onon tarps. NewNew,, low-costlow-cost polypropylenepolypropylene netnet tarps have helped reducereduce harvesting costs for other orchardorchard crops.crops. The use of tarpstarps to catchcatch naturallynaturally fallingfalling nuts,nuts, however,however, isis limitedlimited toto small orchards ofof 4 ha or less.less. As thethe size of thethe chestnut orchard increasesincreases,, the harvest becomesbecomes moremore difficult to manage.manage. A largelarge orchardorchard ofof seedling trees would have aa naturalnatural nutnut drop period of 10-15 daysdays mostmost yearsyears butbut may range up to 30 daysdays inin somesome years,years, depending onon environmentalenvironmental conditions.conditions. During extended harvest periods,periods, the nuts are subject toto fungalfungal infectioninfection if storedstored Figure 8.7 A streetstreet vendorvendor sellingselling freshfresh roastedroasted improperly. Fallen nuts have toto be picked chestnuts,chestnuts, PiazzaPiazza di Spagna,Spagna, Rome,Rome, Italy. up at least every few days.days.

Chestnuts addadd halfhalf ofof their final weight duringdurng the last two weeks on the tree.tree. To maximize the orchard yield and nutnut quality,quality, aa mechanicalmechanical harvestharvest (shaking)(shaking) mustmust bebe accomplishedaccomplished after the nutsnuts reach maturity and beforebefore naturalnatural nutnut fallfall begins.46begins 46

Harvested nuts may be heldheld inin refrigeratedrefrigerated storagestorage atat 0-1°C0-1 DC inin well-ventilatedwell-ventilated polyethylenepolyethylene linersliners up to several months.months. DamageDamage by weevilsweevils (Coleoptera:(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)Curculionidae) may ococcurcur during storage.storage. However, it is not possible to remove infested nuts by flotation prior to storage. TheThe risk of low-level fungalfungal infection increases if visible moulds are absent or at lowlow levelslevels andand areare notnot detected.detected. FreshFresh nuts can dry out andand hardenharden ifif notnot storedstored properlyproperly andand cannotcannot bebe roastedroasted unlessunless regeneratedregenerated byby soaking [Wickens,[Wickens, 1995]1995].

PREPARATION AND USE

Chestnuts are starchy and a short curing period of three to four days is requiredrequired to allowallow somesome ofof the starch to convertconvert toto sugar.sugar. ThisThis isis especiallyespecially truetrue ifif thethe nutsnuts havehave beenbeen refrigerated.refrigerated . EatingEating quality is best during harvest time.time. In EuropeEurope it isis traditionaltraditional for streetstreet vendorsvendors to roastroast chestnutschestnuts over charcoal fires and sell them inin smallsmall quantitiesquantities (Figure 8.7).8.7). Shelled nuts cancan bebe groundground intointo flour and eaten as a bread or porridge. They can be roasted or boiled and eaten as a vegetable or used as poultrypoultry dressing.dressing. In France,France, aa traditionaltraditional wayway toto serveserve chestnutschestnuts isis toto preservepreserve themthem inin syrup as marrons glacésg/aces oror otherother sweetssweets [Wickens,[Wickens, 1995].1995]. BeforeBefore cooking,cooking, anan "x"" XU should should bebe cutcut intointo the flat side of the chestnut with a small knifeknife inin orderorder toto avoidavoid burstingbursting thethe shellshell duringduring cooking.cooking .

46 Great LakesLakes Chestnut AllianceAlliance - http://www.traverse.com/earthkeepers/potential.html.http://www.traverse.com/earthkeepers/potential.html.

77 Non-wood forestforest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees

NUTS OF CASTANOPSIS AND CHRYSOLEPISCHRYSOLEPIS

The genera CastanopsisCastanopsis and ChrysolepisChryso/epis are closelyclosely relatedrelated membersmembers of thethe familyfamily Fagaceae.Fagaceae. Some authorities list them under a single genus (Castanopsis). The primary difference between thethe two genera isis thatthat thethe nutsnuts ofof CastanopsisCastanopsis requirerequire oneone yearyear toto maturemature andand thethe inflorescenceinflorescence spikesspikes are unisexualunisexual whereas the nuts of ChrysolepisChryso/epis require twotwo years to mature and the sexessexes are mixed on a single inflorescence spike [Hora, 1981].

Trees and shrubsshrubs ofof thethe genusgenus CastanopsisCastanopsis (Fagaceae)(Fagaceae) areare widelywidely distributeddistributed throughoutthroughout the tropical and temperate forestsforests ofof AsiaAsia.. Many species produce nutsnuts thatthat cancan be are eaten raw,raw, roasted or boiled.boiled. SeveralSeveral temperatetemperate forest species are usedused inin confectioneryconfectionery [Wickens,[Wickens, 1995]1995] (Table 8.5).

The nuts ofof thethe NorthNorth AmericanAmerican ChrysolepisChryso/epis (Castanopsis)(Castanopsis) chrysophyllachrysophylla are sweet and havehave beenbeen used as a foodfood sourcesource byby indigenousindigenous tribestribes [Wickens,[Wickens, 1998].1998]. However,However, crops areare notnot sufficientlysufficiently reliable forfor a staplestaple foodfood source.source. Moreover,Moreover, they are difficultdifficult to extractextract fromfrom theirtheir spinyspiny hullshulls [Peattie,[Peattie, 1953].1953]. The nuts of C.C. sempervirens, anotheranother NorthNorth AmericanAmerican species,species, werewere alsoalso usedused asas aa food source by indigenousindigenous tribes and are reported to be good tastingtasting when roasted and servedserved withwith butter and salt [Wickens, 1995].

Table 8.4 EdibleEdible nutsnuts fromfrom temperatetemperate forestforest species of Castanopsis spp.

Species Common NameName. Dist~ibutionDistribution Remarks C. argyophyl/aargyophylla IndiaIndia C. boisii Vietnam (northern) Locally important C. chinensis China CC.. cuspidatus China,China , Korea Eaten boiled or roasted C. echinocarpa Berangan duri India C. hysteris Katunj Eastern Himalayas C. indica Indian chestnut India C. sc/erophyl/asclerophylla China Locally important C. tibetana China (Tibet) Locally important Sources: Hora, 1981;1981 Wickens,Wickens, 19851985; ShivaShiva - Personal communication.

HAZELNUTS

Hazelnuts, alsoalso knownknown asas filberts or cob,cob, areare thethe nutsnuts ofof various various speciesspecies ofof Corylus Cory/us (family(family Betulaceae). TheyThey havehave a pleasantpleasant flavour,flavour, and drydry nutsnuts containcontain aboutabout 16.316.3 percentpercent protein,protein, 61.2 percent fat and 11.511.5 percent carbohydrates. TheThe nutsnuts areare soldsold inin shellshell toto consumersconsumers oror shelledshelled for use in various food products,products, especially for nut chocolate. The nut kernels may be ground into flour and baked as filbertfilbert bread. InIn addition toto beingbeing edible,edible, hazelnutshazelnuts are thethe sourcesource ofof bothboth edibleedible and industrial grade oils. Two species,species, thethe EuropeanEuropean hazelhazel (C.(C. avellana)avellana) and,and, toto aa lesserlesser extent,extent, thethe Turkish filbert (C. maxima) are grown in orchardsorchards and are anan importantimportant agriculturalagricultural crop inin severalseveral countries with 70 percent of world production coming fromfrom the Black Sea area of Turkey. World hazelnut production has almost doubled from 1980 (421 136 t) to 1998 (771 827 t)t).. Other areas of production include the coastal regions of ItalyItaly (20%),(20%), thethe MediterraneanMediterranean coastcoast ofof SpainSpain (7%)(7%) andand western Oregon andand WashingtonWashington (3%)(3%) [Wickens,[Wickens, 1995). Greece, France and PortugalPortugal areare countries with small shares of worldworld hazelnuthazelnut production.production. Germany has been the main hazelnut importer reaching 43 percent of world importsimports in 1997.1997. More than half of thethe world hazelnuthazelnut export goes to European countries [Sengül[Sengul andand Sengal,Sengul, 1999].1999].

In some areas of EasternEastern EuropeEurope andand thethe NearNear East,East, hazelnutshazelnuts are stillstill gatheredgathered fromfrom wild treestrees that grow inin thethe forest.forest. InIn Lithuania,Lithuania, theythey areare gatheredgathered byby familiesfamilies toto satisfysatisfy householdhousehold needs inin conjunction with edible forest mushrooms and various berries [Rutkausas, 1998]. InIn Belarus,Belarus, 2424 tt ofof hazelnuts were harvested in forests during 1996 and there is an estimated potential crop of 809 t annually [Ollikainen,[011ikainen, 1998]. 1998]. Hazelnuts Hazelnuts are are also also collected collected on on aa small scale inin ArmeniaArmenia [Ter-[Ter Ghazaryan and Ter-Ghazaryan, 1998].1998].

78 Non-wood forest productsproducts fromfrom temperate temperate broad-leaved broad-leaved treestrees

HICKORY NUTS

Trees of the genus CaryaCarya (family(family Juglandaceae),Juglandaceae), commonly known as hickories,hickories, are found in North America and Asia. ItIt isis aa fast-growingfast-growing deciduous tree;tree; several species produce edible nuts,nuts, and the nut kernels of atat leastleast oneone speciesspecies areare thethe sourcesource ofof edibleedible oil.oil.

Pecans, produced by Carya illinoensisillinoensis,, a tree native to the southeastern United States, Mexico andand parts of SouthSouth America,America, are an importantimportant agricultural cropcrop.. TheThe nut meats are widely used in confectioneries and desserts. The wild trees produce edible fatty nuts (dry druoes),druoes), which Indian tribes inin thesethese areasareas eat.47eat47 The nuts of the North American shagbarkshagbark hickoryhickory (C.(C. ovata)ovata) andand ofof the the shellbark hickory (C. laciniosa)/aciniosa) were important food sources for the indigenousindigenous tribes and are stillstill collected and marketedmarketed onon aa smallsmall scalescale inin somesome partsparts ofof the the easterneastern UnitedUnited States.States. OtherOther North North American species of Carya that produceproduce edible nuts and havehave beenbeen usedused asas foodfood forfor humanhuman consumption includeinclude C.C. aquaticaaquatica,, C. carolinae-septenriona/iscarolinae-septenrionalis,, C. cordiformiscordiformis,, CC.. g/abraglabra,, CC,, myristiciformis,myristiciformis, CC.. ova/isovalis., C. pallida,pal/ida, C.C. texanatexana andand C.C. tomentosa.tomentosa. The nutsnuts ofof severalseveral ofof these these species are astringent,astringent, bitter tastingtasting,, have small nuts or shells that are difficult to crackcrack (Thomas(Thomas and Schumann,Schumann, 1992;1992; Wickens,Wickens, 1995].1995].

Asian species ofof CaryaCarya thatthat produceproduce edibleedible nutsnuts includeinclude CaryaCarya cathayensiscathayensis ofof easterneastern ChinaChina andand C.C. tonkinensis of southern China,China , northeastern India and Viet Nam,Nam, the nuts of which produceproduce an edible oil that is also used inin lanterns [Wickens,[Wickens, 1995].1995].

Hickory nuts should be gathered as soon as they fall from the trees,trees, hulledhulled and placedplaced onon screensscreens to dry. When the kernelskernels are crisp, they should be stored in mesh bags in a cool,cool , airyairy locationlocation [Thomas and Schumann, 1992].1992].

PISTACHIOS

The genus PistadaPistacia (family(family Anacardiaceae)Anacardiaceae) consists ofof about 10 species that are indigenousindigenous to Eurasia, North America and the Canary Islands and have edibleedible nutsnuts.. PistaciaPistada vera is cultivated as an agricultural crop inin MediterraneanMediterranean Europe,Europe, thethe NearNear EastEast andand California.California.

World productionproduction of pistachiospistachios isis increasing.increasing. DuringDuring thethe periodperiod 1979-1981,1979-1981, world world production production averaged 109 000000 tlat/a and in 19931993 itit increasedincreased toto 354354 000000 t.t. Major producingproducing andand exportingexporting countries are Iran,Iran , Turkey,Turkey, Syria and the United States. These four countries produce 90 percent of pistachio world production.production . OtherOther countriescountries thatthat exportexport pistachiospistachios includeinclude Afghanistan,Afghanistan, Greece,Greece, IndiaIndia,, ItalyItaly,, Pakistan and Tunisia.Tunisia. CountriesCountries suchsuch asas Germany,Germany, Belgium,Belgium, LuxembourgLuxembourg andand thethe United Kingdom import pistachio nuts in order to re-exportre-export them to otherother countriescountries [Wickens,[Wickens, 1995;1995; SengülSengul and Sengül,Sengul, 1999].1999] .

In some regionsregions of thethe NearNear East,East, pistachiospistachios are still gatheredgathered from wild trees. For For example,example, in Balochistan ProvinceProvince,, PakistanPakistan., pistachios areare gathered from natural forests of PistaciaPistacia kinjackinjac byby local tribes for their own consumption or sold inin marketplacesmarketplaces [author's[author's observation].observation].

The nutsnuts ofof P.P. terebinthus,terebinthus, nativenative toto thethe MediterraneanMediterranean region; P. texana,texana , native to New Mexico and Texas;Texas; and P.P. mexicanus,mexicanus, nativenative to MexicoMexico and Guatemala,Guatemala, also produce edible nuts but are not grown commercially [Little,[Little, 1979;1979 ;VVickens, Wickens, 1995].19951. The The fruit fruit huskshusks ofof PistaciaPistada vera are usedused asas aa mordant and tannin source [Wickens[Wickens,, 1995]. PistaciaPistada atlantica is native toto., and common inin,, Algeria where itsits nutsnuts areare calledcalled elkhordiri.e/khordiri. TheseThese nutsnuts containcontain energeticenergetic oil,oil , whichwhich isis usuallyusually mixedmixed withwith dates and can be eaten all day along with milkmilk [Belhadj,[Belhadj, 1999].1999].

4717 Source:Source: HickoriesHickories (http://www.planet-pets.com/treehick.htm)(http://www.planet-pets.com/treehick.htm)

79 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees

WALNUTS

HUMAN CONSUMPTION

The nuts of mostmost speciesspecies ofof JuglansJuglans (family(family Juglandaceae).Juglandaceae), aa genusgenus ofof treestrees indigenousindigenous toto Asia,Asia, Near East,East, North and SouthSouth America,America, are edible.edible. The EnglishEnglish or PersianPersian walnutwalnut (Juglans(Juglans regia)regia) produces aa large, sweet:sweet, meatymeaty nutnut thatthat isis beingbeing cultivatedcultivated andand isis an an important important agricultural agricultural commodity inin parts of EuropeEurope andand NorthNorth America,America, especially California. ThisThis tree still occurs in natural forests of Turkey,Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan,Afghanistan , Central Asia and in the Himalayan range up to Bhutan,Bhutan , where nuts are gathered from this tree.tree. In the CentralCentral Asian RepublicRepublic of Krygyzstan,Krygyzstan , for example,example, natural forests of J. regia are found onon thethe southernsouthern slopesslopes ofof thethe westernwestern TyanTyan ShanShan Mountains.Mountains. These forests are state-owned but the rightsrights to harvestingharvesting walnutswalnuts areare leasedleased toto privateprivate individualsindividuals under a conceptconcept ofof collaborativecollaborative forestforest management.management. InIn exchangeexchange forfor thethe harvestingharvesting rights,rights, individuals agree to manage and protectprotect thethe forestforest (Haldimann(Haldimann etet alal 2000).2000).

The nuts of NorthNorth American black walnut (Juglans nigra) and the California walnuts (J. califomicacalifornica and J. hindsii)hindsii) havehave aa flavourflavour thatthat isis strongerstronger andand richerricher thanthan thatthat ofof the the EnglishEnglish walnut.walnut. ThisThis property makes it the nut of choicechoice for bakingbaking candy and iceice creamcream products.products. The nutnut kernelskernels are high inin fats, protein and carbohydratescarbohydrates andand compare favourablyfavourably with with meatmeat inin the amountamount of vitamins A and BB andand riboflavin.riboflavin. TheseThese trees are notnot normallynormally grown in orchardsorchards for theirtheir nutsnuts [Thomas and Schumann, 1992].1992].

Butternut (J. cinerea),cinerea), also indigenousindigenous to eastern NorthNorth America, isis aa slow-growing,slow-growing, deciduousdeciduous treetree that grows best inin moist soil but does toleratetolerate dry, alkaline soil. ItIt isis similar toto black walnut (Juglans(Juglans nigra) and is also called white walnut or oilnut.oil nut. The tree produces a thinthin,, fragrant, oily kernel thatthat can become rancid quickly and must be shelled and used soon after having been dried. The nuts serve as food both for peoplepeople andand animalsanimals (e.g.(e .g. squirrelssquirrels and otherother rodents).rodents). They are sweet and good tasting when eaten straight from the shell or cancan bebe roastedroasted oror bakedbaked inin cakescakes andand pastriespastries [Thomas and Schumann,Schumann, 1992]. They are especially popular in NewNew EnglandEngland forfor makingmaking maple-maple butternut candycandy.. The nuts occur singly or in clusters ofof two to five and remain usually on the tree until after leafleaf fall.fall.

Other temperate species of Juglans that have edible nutsnuts andand areare atat leastleast locallylocally importantimportant foodfood sources include J. ailanthifolia of China and Japan, J. australia of Argentina and southern Bolivia, J. boliviana of BoliviaBolivia and Peru,Peru, J.J. cathayensiscathayensis ofof centralcentral China,China, J.J. duclouxianaduclouxiana ofof thethe mountainousmountainous regions of Asia, J. kamaonia.kamaonia, of the western Himalayas,Himalayas, J. major of the southwestern United States and adjoining parts of Mexico,Mexico, J.J. mandchurianamandchuriana ofof northernnorthern China,China, J.J. microcarpamicrocarpa ofof westernwestern NorthNorth America and J. subtropicasubtropica of thethe AndeanAndean Cordillera.Cordillera. The nuts ofof severalseveral speciesspecies ofof walnutswalnuts areare used for extraction of cooking oiloil [Wickens,[Wickens, 1995].1995].

DYE

The hulls of thethe nutsnuts ofof Juglans Juglans regia.regia, J.J. nigra,nigra, J.J. cinereacinerea andand otherother walnuts walnuts provideprovide fastfast brownbrown dyes that can be used to dye bothboth plantplant and animal fibres.fibres . The Ancient Romans introduced J. regia to Europe both forfor itsits valuevalue asas aa foodfood itemitem andand asas aa dyestuff. dyestuff. TheThe earlyearly AmericanAmerican colonistscolonists soonsoon realized the value of both J. nigra and J. cinereacinerea as a dyedye source.source. The hulls of J.J. nigranigra yieldyield thethe most pigment and provideprovide the darkestdarkest colours.colours. HullsHulls ofof J.J. cinereacinerea werewere usedused toto dyedye thethe uniformsuniforms ofof Confederate soldiers duringduring thethe AmericanAmerican CivilCivil WarWar [Buchanan,[Buchanan, 1987].1987].

In the altiplano of northern Ecuador, weaving is an importantimportant local enterprise. Almost every home has at least one loom and productionproduction of hand-wovenhand-woven tapestries, table linens and related items are an important/artimportant/art of the locallocal economy.economy. MostMost colourscolours are nownow obtainedobtained from chemicalchemical dyes.dyes. Two natural dyes still remain in thethe repertoirerepertoire ofof thethe altiplanoaltiplano weavers,weavers, however;however; indigo,indigo, anan importantimportant blue dye source, and walnut hulls,hulls, collectedcollected from JuglansJuglans neotropica,neotropica, anan indigenousindigenous tree.tree. WeaversWeavers are able to obtainobtain aa rangerange ofof colourscolours fromfrom deepdeep chocolatechocolate brownbrown to beigebeige from the hullshulls ofof thesethese nuts that are used to makemake intricateintricate designsdesigns inin tapestriestapestries [author's[author's observation] (Figures 88.8.8 and 8.9).

80 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

Figure 8.9 WoolWool is dyed rich brownbrown Figure 8.8 JugtansJug/ans neotropica growinggrowing nearnear Otovalo,Otovalo, colour inin aa dyebathdyebath mademade fromfrom thethe on the Ecuadorean altiplano. The nut hulls of this treetree nut hullshulls of JuglansJug/ans subtropica,subtropica, are an important local dyedye source Otovalo, Ecuador

The hulls of all walnutwalnut species can be dried for storage or used freshfresh.. A few dozen nuts will dye several hundred grams of fibre. The hullshulls cancan bebe soakedsoaked overnightovernight and simmeredsimmered or boiledboiled for more intense colours.colours. However,However, thisthis processprocess givesgives offoff strongstrong odoursodours [Buchanan,[Buchanan , 1987].1987).

OTHER PRODUCTS

The processed shells ofof J.J. nigranigra areare usedused forfor aa varietyvariety ofof industrialindustrial productsproducts including:including:

• Metal cleaning and polishing -A soft grit abrasiveabrasive mademade from processed walnut shells is used for cleaningcleaning jet engines,engines, electronicelectronic circuitcircuit boards,boards, shipsships andand automobileautomobile geargear systems.systems. ThisTh is product isis also wellwell suitedsuited forfor air-blasting air-blasting operations,operations, deburring,deburring, descalingdescaling andand polishingpolishing operations because of its elasticity andand resilience.resilience. The shellshell isis non-toxicnon-toxic andand dustdust freefree andand cancan be used onon plastic,plastic, aluminiumaluminium and softsoft alloysalloys becausebecause itit producesproduces aa smoothsmooth surfacesurface withoutwithout scarring. • Oil well drillingdrilling - Black walnut shell is widelywidely usedused inin oil well drilling and inin makingmaking andand maintaining seals in fracture zones and unconsolidatedunconsolidated formations. • Paints - The paint industryindustry usesuses thethe shellsshells forfor plaster-effectplaster-effect paint.paint. PaintsPaints andand varnishesvarnishes mixedmixed with walnut shells are far superior to ordinaryordinary sandsand paintpaint • Explosives -BlackBlack walnut walnut shell shell is is used used by by manufacturers manufacturers ofof explosives explosives asas fillerfiller in dynamite. It is compatible with other materialsmaterials and works well for thisthis use.use. • Cosmetic cleaners - Black and English walnut shell is ideal as the gritty,gritty, rough agent in soaps,soaps, cosmetics and dental cleanserscleansers [Thomas[Thomas andand Schumann,Schumann, 1992].1992).

HARVESTING ANDAND PROCESSINGPROCESSING

Unlike the English walnut,walnut, which is grown in orchards,orchards, black walnuts are collected from wild or roadside trees and forest plantations grown for high-quality walnut logs. In the mid-western United StatesStates,, Juglans nigra is often grown as a forest plantation species by small private landowners and the nutsnuts cancan provideprovide anan additionaladditional sourcesource ofof income.income. ThisThis treetree is sometimessometimes grown as anan agroforestry species inin conjunction withwith wheat,wheat, milo,milo, soybeanssoybeans oror fescue.fescue . In CaliforniaCalifornia,, J. californica is a commonlycommonly plantedplanted roadsideroadside speciesspecies wherewhere nutsnuts cancan bebe readilyreadily gatheredgathered [Thomas[Thomas and Schumann,Schumann, 1992].1992).

The walnut husk must be removed before decomposition begins toto saturate thethe shellshell,, givinggiving thethe nutnut meat a bitterbitter flavour.flavour. InIn thethe absenceabsence ofof processingprocessing machinery,machinery, thisthis isis aa messymessy andand cumbersomecumbersome project. OneOne wayway is to placeplace the nutsnuts onon aa hardhard surfacesurface andand eithereither stepstep onon themthem oror runrun anan automobile over the nuts. Washing in a garbagegarbage containercontainer several times can then cleanclean the nuts.nuts.

81 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

The hulledhulled nuts are drieddried inin shallowshallow layerslayers for severalseveral weeks and stored in their shells in mesh bags in a cool location [Thomas and Schumann,Schumann, 1992].1992].

There are two plantsplants inin thethe UnitedUnited StatesStates thatthat commerciallycommercially shell black walnuts.walnuts. These are located in Lodi,Lodi , California,California, and Stockton,Stockton, Missouri.Missouri . The plantsplants purchasepurchase walnutswalnuts fromfrom farmersfarmers ofof thethe area.area. These plants market the nut meats that retail for up to approximately US$ 6.50/kg,6.50/kg , nearly twice that of commercially grown English walnuts. They also marketmarket the shells,shells, whichwhich sellsell forfor US$US$ 60-901t60-90/t [Thomas and Schumann,Schumann, 1992].1992].

PRODUCTION AND TRADE

WorldVVorld walnut walnut production production increased increased by by 3737 percentpercent fromfrom 19801980 toto 1998 whenwhen it reached the quantity of 1 095095 041041 t.t. ChinaChina (22.9%),(22.9%), UnitedUnited StatesStates (18.7%),(18 .7%), TurkeyTurkey andand IranIran areare thethe mainmain producers.producers. United States are the largestlargest exporterexporter (shelled(shelled walnuts),walnuts), accountingaccounting forfor aroundaround 5050 percentpercent ofof total total world exportsexports,, followed by China and France. The main importers are United Kingdom,Kingdom , France and Germany [Sengül[Sengul and Sengül,Sengul, 1999].1999].

ALMONDS

As for walnuts,walnuts, almonds are regarded as an agricultural crop and willwill not be discussed in detail in this document.

WorldVVorld almondalmond production has increasedincreased byby 45.145.1 percent from 19801980 (919(919620 620 t) to 19981998 (1 334442334 442 t)t).. United States (30%)(30%),, Spain (15-25%)(15-25%) and ItalyItaly areare thethe mainmain producers.producers. OtherOther producing countries areare Iran,Iran, Morocco,Morocco ,Greece, Greece ,Syria, Syria ,Tunisia, Tunisia ,Pakistan Pakistan and and Turkey. Turkey .VVorld World shelledshelled almond export doubled during the period 1980-19971980-1997,, from 105105616 616 t to 216 286 t.

The United States is the largest exporter and accounted for 70.3 percent in 1997,1997, whereas Spain is the largest exporter among thethe MediterraneanMediterranean countries.countries. The mainmain importerimporter isis thethe EuropeanEuropean UnionUnion with more than 5050 percentpercent ofof totaltotal worldworld almondalmond imports.imports. GermanyGermany accountedaccounted for 2727 percentpercent ofof world imports,imports, followed byby FranceFrance andand JapanJapan [Sengül[Sengul andand Sengill,Sengul ,1999]. 1999].

MINOR NUTS

The fruit ofof thethe SouthernSouthern HemisphereHemisphere temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees of the genusgenus NothofagusNothofagus are one-seeded nuts [Hora,[Hora, 1981].1981]. TheThe nutnut ofof N.N. alpinaalpin a (=(= procera)procera) (common(common namename rauli),rauli), indigenousindigenous toto Argentina and Chile,Chile, areare reportedlyreportedly edibleedible [VVickens,[Wickens, 11995].995] . The nuts of N.N. glaucag/auca (common(common namename hualo),hua/o), also indigenous to Argentina and ChileChile,, are more thanthan 1 cmcm longlong,, oneone ofof thethe largest nutsnuts ofof the genus Nothofagus Donoso~Donoso Zegers,Zegers, 1983].1983]. TheseThese nutsnuts werewere usedused asas foodfood byby indigenousindigenous tribestribes that inhabitedinhabited thethe area.area . 88

Several species of Pterocarya,Pterocarya, aa genusgenus ofof AsianAsian treestrees closelyclosely relatedrelated toto CaryaCarya andand JuglansJug/ans (family (family Juglandaceae),Juglandaceae), produce edible nutsnuts that are locallylocally important.important. Known as wing nuts,nuts, they includeinclude P.P. franxinofolia, indigenousindigenous to to thethe Caucasus; PP.. rhoifo/ia,rhoifolia, ofof Japan; and P. stenoptera,stenoptera, of ChinaChina [Wickens, 1995].1995]. The wing nutnut isis approximatelyapproximately 3/4"3/4" inin diameterdiameter andand growsgrows suspendedsuspended inin long,long , stringed spikesspikes fromfrom thethe tree.tree .The The nutsnuts are are riperipe in in autumn autumn when when they they turn turn tan tan in in colour.48 colour49

The nuts of yellow buckeyebuckeye (Aesculus(Aescu/us octandra),octandra), as well as of other species of this genus,genus, contain much starch but are notnot suitablesuitable forfor foodfood becausebecause theythey containcontain aa poisonouspoisonous glucosideglucoside calledcalled aesculin. However,However, several indigenous American tribestribes roasted thethe nuts among hot stones,stones, thus looseningloosening the shells.shells. The nuts were thenthen peeled,peeled, mashedmashed andand leachedleached withwith waterwater forfor severalseveral days.days. This apparently removedremoved the aesculinaesculin andand resultedresulted inin aa highlyhighly nutritiousnutritious food.food . TheThe seedsseeds ofof bothboth A.A. octandra and A. glabrag/abra areare poisonouspoisonous toto livestocklivestock [Fowells,[Fowells, 1965].1965].

48 48 Information provided by Friedrich Schlegel,Schlegel, formerly of FAO and UniversidadUniversidad Austral,Austral, Valdivia,Valdivia, Chile.Chile. 49 Source: University ofof AlabambaAlabamba (http//www(http://www.uah.edu/admin/Fac/grounds/WINGNUT.HTM).uah.edu/admin/Fac/groundsIWINGNUT.HTM)

82 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

Figure 8.10 NutsNuts ofof (from top and from leftleft toto right):right): FagusFagus sylvatica;sy/vatica; CorylusCory/us avellana;avellana; CaryaCarya spp. (hickory);(hickory); PterocaryaPterocarya spp.;spp.; AesculusAescu/us spp.;spp.; and Castanopsis sppspp..

83 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

CHAPlER9CHAPTER 9

NON-WOOD PRODUCTSPRODUCTS FROMFROM ORGANISMSORGANISMS A5S0C1A~DASSOCIATED VVITHWJTH ~MPERA~TEMPERATE BROAl).BROAD- ILEAVED EAVEDTREES TFtEES

A widewide rangerange ofof beneficial beneficial non-woodnon-wood productsproducts are derivedderived from organismsorganisms that are closelyclosely associated with broad-leavedbroad-leaved temperate treestrees,, either as parasites,parasites, symbiontssymbionts oror saprophytes.saprophytes. These include edible mushrooms,mushrooms, productsproducts fromfrom insectsinsects thatthat feedfeed on this groupgroup ofof treestrees andand parasitic plants.plants. It shouldshould be notednoted thatthat thisthis chapterchapter containscontains some overlaps withwith,, as well asas updates toto,, a previousprevious publicationpublication inin thethe FAOFAO Non-WoodNon-Wood ForestForest ProductsProducts SeriesSeries No.No . 1212 [FAO,[FAO, 1995]19951 since since severalseveral mushroomsmushrooms grow both with broad-leaved trees andand conifers.conifers.

EDIBLE MUSHROOMSMUSHROOMS

Mushrooms are the reproductive structures of fungi and are alsoalso knownknown asas sporocarpssporocarps oror fruitingfruiting bodies. While some mushrooms are highly toxic and can be fatal if eaten, many species are edible. Some are so flavourfulflavourful that they areare majormajor foodfood itemsitems inin manymany humanhuman culturescultures throughoutthroughout the world.world . Many speciesspecies ofof edibleedible mushroomsmushrooms occuroccur inin forestsforests andand areare harvestedharvested eithereither commerciallycommercially or as an outdoor recreation activity.

Fungi are lowerlower plantsplants thatthat lacklack chlorophyll.chlorophyll. TheyThey are,are, therefore,therefore, unableunable toto manufacturemanufacture nutrientsnutrients fromfrom sunlight through photosynthesis asas do green plants.plants. In order to survive,survive, fungi must functionfunction either as parasites,parasites, often causing disease in higherhigher plantsplants oror animals;animals; saprophytes,saprophytes, causing the breakdown of dead organic matter;matter; or as mutualistsmutualists or symbiontssymbionts with green plants. InIn the casecase ofof mutualism or symbiosis,symbiosis, both the fungus andand thethe greengreen plantplant derivederive benefitsbenefits fromfrom thethe association.association.

The predominantpredominant form of symbiosissymbiosis between fungi and treestrees occursoccurs withwith treetree rootsroots producingproducing structures called mycorrhizae. Mycorrhiza means "fungus-root""fungus-root" and describes the association of specialized soilsoil fungifungi with the tinytiny feederfeeder rootsroots ofof forestforest treestrees andand shrubs.shrubs. MycorrhyzalMycorrhyzal fungifungi function as an extension of the plant's root system and are the means by which almost all higher plants take up water and mineralsminerals fromfrom the soil. Only a few higherhigher plants are known to lack mycorrhizal associations [Manion[Manion,, 1991]1991].. The uptake of phosphorusphosphorus and nitrogennitrogen areare particularlyparticularly importantimportant functionsfunctions ofof these fungi.fungi. MycorrhizalMycorrhizal fungi directlydirectly enhanceenhance treetree survivalsurvival andand growthgrowth [Molina[Molina et al.,aI. , 1993]1993].

Many species of forest fungi produceproduce delicatelydelicately flavoured edibleedible mushroomsmushrooms that areare harvestedharvested inin largelarge quantities,quantities, and somesome areare cultivatedcultivated underunder semi-artificialsemi-artificial conditions.conditions. PrimarilyPrimarily mycorrhyzalmycorrhyzal fungi produceproduce them,them, butbut severalseveral saprophyticsaprophytic andand parasiticparasitic fungifungi alsoalso produceproduce highlyhighly flavourfulflavourful mushroomsmushrooms..

BOLETUS EDULIS

Boletus edulis is a mycorrhyzalmycorrhyzal fungus that grows in associationassociation with a widewide varietyvariety ofof trees,trees, including both conifers and broad-leavedbroad-leaved species.species. The mushroomsmushrooms producedproduced by thisthis fungusfungus areare widely used in a number of cuisines,cuisines, especially in Europe where it is one of the most sought-after edible mushrooms. It goes by many common names including cep or cepe de BordeauxBordeaux (France),(France), king bolete oror pennypenny bunbun mushroommushroom (English),(English), porcinoporcino (Italy),(Italy), SteinpilzSteinpilz (Germany),(Germany), zhutui morno (North China) and dajiao gu (South(South China).China).

85 Non-wood forest productsproducts fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

The mushroom produced by this fungus isis highlyhighly variable,variable, andand somesome mycologistsmycologists have split the fungus into a numbernumber ofof distinctdistinct species.species. AA commoncommon characteristiccharacteristic of thethe mushroommushroom isis aa wide,wide, barrel-shaped stem that hashas aa fine reticulatereticulate patternpattern onon itsits surface.5°surface. 50

Distribution

Boletus edulis occurs inin temperatetemperate zonezone forestsforests throughoutthroughout thethe northernnorthern hemispherehemisphere andand producesproduces fruiting bodies from the soil as scatteredscattered individuals or in small groups [Molina et a/al.,., 1993].1993]. It isis found throughout North America asas farfar south as Mexico, inin Europe fromfrom thethe northern partpart ofof thethe Nordic countries south to southern Greece;Greece; Italy;Italy; and,and , in the Near East,East, as far easteast asas Afghanistan.Afghanistan. It is also foundfound throughoutthroughout China.China. InIn thethe UnitedUnited Kingdom,Kingdom, B.B. edulisedulis isis foundfound associatedassociated withwith birchbirch (Betula(Betula palustris)palustris),, oaks (Quercus roburrobur and Q. petraea) and beech (Fagus sylvatica).sylvatica). In China it grows under mixed forests ofof pinepine andand oakoak [Dickinson[Dickinson andand Lucas,Lucas, 1979].1979].

Historical aspects

The strong,strong, distinctive flavour of this mushroommushroom hashas beenbeen appreciatedappreciated since Roman times.times. Dishes containing boletes were often used byby thethe RomansRomans toto concealconceal poisonspoisons usedused toto assassinate assassinate politicians andand other public figuresfigures.. They were also believedbelieved to havehave aa numbernumber ofof medicinal medicinal propertiesproperties,, including the removal of frecklesfreckles and blemishesblemishes,, andand aa salvesalve waswas preparedprepared fromfrom boletesboletes to treat dog bites [Dickinson[Dickinson andand Lucas,Lucas, 1979].1979].

Harvesting and use

Boletus edulis is harvestedharvested in the wild.wild . InIn Poland,Poland, it isis thethe principalprincipal wildwild mushroommushroom harvestedharvested [Grochowski[Grochowski,, 1966]. InIn thethe Casentino, a mountainous areaarea inin thethe region of Tuscany, ItalyItaly,, incomeincome and benefits derived from harvestingharvesting B.B. edulisedulis are consideredconsidered to bebe significant. About 20 percent of the totaltotal harvestharvest isis forfor personalpersonal use,use, andand thethe remainderremainder isis soldsold toto restaurants,restaurants, locallocal storesstores andand wholesalers. MushroomMushroom collectors areare mostlymostly fromfrom thethe lowerlower toto middlemiddle incomeincome classes;classes; womenwomen areare the most numerousnumerous group of collectors and nearly half of the collectors are between SO50 and 60 years old [Farolfi, 1990].1990]. Chestnut (Castania sativa) orchards are a favourable habitat for growth of BB.. edulis in Italy, and in some cases the yield of edible kingking boletesboletes harvestedharvested fromfrom thesethese orchards is worthworth moremore thanthan thethe chestnutchestnut crop.51

Boletes are harvestedharvested inin British Columbia,Columbia, mainly from HaidaHaida GwaiiGwaii (Queen(Queen CharlotteCharlotte Islands) andand the Prince George areaarea.. In aa good fruiting yearyear,, approximately 100 000 kg of fresh boletes are harvested. While in a bad 52 year there maymay bebe nono harvest harvest at at al1.52 al1. OnOn averageaverage,, pickerspickers areare paid $Can 2.50/lb2.S01lb of boletes and exporters receive around US$8/1b of of boletesboletes landed and fresh, around ACIA US$7S.00/kgUS$75.00/kg of dried and landed,landed, andand around US$5.00-6.00/kgUS$S.00-6.00/kg of frozen. Figure 9.19.1 Dried Boletus edulisedulis mushrooms. Their firm, meatymeaty texture makesmakes them popularpopular Approximately 9090 percent of allall harvestedharvested ingredients for stews,stews, casserolescasseroles andand sauces,sauces, boletes are exported dried or frozen and only and they can be stored in dried form for severalseveral around 10 percent of the harvestharvest isis exportedexported yearsyears.. fresh. Boletes are one of thethe firstfirst wildwild foodfood mushrooms to be attacked by pests,pests, and there is currently a world shortage of king boletes [Russel and Lipsey;Lipsey ,1999].53 1999].53

50 Source: Ian HallHall,, 19919933 -InInvermayvermay Agricultural Agricultural Centre, Centre ,New New ZealandZealand ([email protected]).([email protected]). 51 Source: Great LakesLakes ChestnutChestnut AllianceAlliance (ttp://www.traverse.com/earthkeepers/wrldprod.html)(ttp://www.traverse.com/earthkeepers/wrldprod.html) 52 The estimates for "good" and "bad""bad" yearyear harvestharvest quantitiesquantities areare basedbased on twotwo sources - averages of buyer estimates at field station for their rregionsegions taken in the fallfall of 1997 and import data fromfrom thethe consuming countries.countries. The same isis valid also he harvest of morelsmorels andand chanterelleschanterelles inin British Columbia.Columbia. 53 SourceSource: : Farm businessbusiness management (http://www.fbminet.ca/bc)(http://www.fbminet.ca/bc)

86 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees

This mushroom has aa firm, meatymeaty texture that standsstands upup well to prolongedprolonged cooking. Consequently it isis a popular ingredientingredient in a varietyvariety ofof stews,stews, casserolescasseroles and sauces. B. edulisedulis can alsoalso bebe easilyeasily dried, a form that permitspermits storagestorage for extended periods (Figure 99.1)..1). In some parts of Europe they are dried on strings and stored for winterwinter use.use. ItIt isis alsoalso aa commoncommon ingredientingredient inin drieddried soupsoup mixesmixes [Dickinson and Lucas,Lucas, 1979].

TRICHOLOMATRICHOLOMA MAGNIVELARE

The fungus thatthat producesproduces thethe northwestnorthwest matsutakematsutake mushroommushroom (Tricholoma(Tricholoma magnivelare),magnivelare), formsforms ectomycorrhizal associations with many tree species throughout its natural range in western North AmericaAmerica,, especially variousvarious species of Pinus [Molina et al.,al. , 1993;1993; Ciesla,Ciesla, 19981.1998]. InIn thethe PacificPacific Northwest region of the United States,States, it is the most valuable of the commercially harvested edible mushrooms [Schlosser andand BlatnerBlatner,, 1995]. ThisThis mushroom isis sold in largelarge quantitiesquantities toto JapanJapan where it is an acceptable substitute for the Japanese matsutake (Tricholoma matsutake)matsutake),, a species that grows in Pinus densiflora forestsforests andand commandscommands exorbitantexorbitant prices.prices.

The matsutake mushroom is robust and white in colourcolour when first formed.formed. LaterLater itit developsdevelops palepale brown to yellow stains. The stout stemstem isis solid,solid , toughtough andand fibrous.fibrous. ItIt isis smooth above and scalyscaly below the thick,thick, sheathing ring that flares out in young specimens. The mushrooms have a distinct spicy-aromatic odour,odour, reminiscentreminiscent ofof sweetsweet cinnamoncinnamon [Mollina[Mollina etet al.,al. , 1993].1993].

T. mago/velaremagnivelare is alsoalso associatedassociated withwith forestsforests ofof tanoak tanoak (Lithocarpus(Lithocarpus densiflorus)densiflorus) inin northernnorthern California and western Oregon.Oregon. Among the Karuk,Karuk, YurokYurok andand HupaHupa people,people, threethree indigenousindigenous tribestribes which occupy portions of northernnorthern California,California, T. magnivalare is known as the tanoaktanoak mushroommushroom and is consideredconsidered to bebe anan importantimportant traditionaltraditional food.food . InIn thethe KarukKaruk language,language, T.T. magnivelaremagnivelare is known as haiwish. The earliest documentation of the Karuk use of tanoak mushrooms dates from ethnobotanical field studies conducted in 1939,1939, whichwhich reported:reported: "A certain mushroom,mushroom, found inin November, is cooked on coals and eaten."eaten. " [Richards, 1997;1997; Schenck and Gifford,Gifford, 1952].1952].

The high demand for T.T. mago/velaremagnivelare mushrooms in Japan led to a massive increase in commercial harvesting of this species on public lands inin the westernwestern UnitedUnited StatesStates beginningbeginning inin thethe latelate 1980s.1980s. Until about 1991,1991 , there waswas littlelittle commercialcommercial mushroommushroom harvesting harvesting onon KarukKaruk ancestralancestral lands.lands. AsAs commercial pickerspickers arrivedarrived in greater numbers,numbers, locallocal tribal membersmembers complainedcomplained thatthat theirtheir traditional gathering sitessites,, many of which werewere onon landslands administeredadministered byby USDAUSDA ForestForest Service,Service, were being overharvested. In early 1993,1993, the Karuk tribe appealed a decision made by the Klamath National Forest in northern California to allowallow aa commercialcommercial mushroommushroom harvestharvest season.season. AsAs aa result,result, no commercial permits were issued, and studies on resourceresource values assigned to thisthis mushroommushroom and the basis for the resourceresource conflictconflict were established.established. Resultant work,work, some ofof which is still in progress, indicate that thethe KarukKaruk hadhad developeddeveloped mushroommushroom huntinghunting techniquestechniques basedbased onon knowledge of favourable sites, weatherweather andand phenologyphenology ofof associatedassociated plants.plants. TheyThey alsoalso engagedengaged inin harvesting practices that they believed would sustain the populationpopulation of the fungus. These practicespractices included twistingtwisting offoff the mushroomsmushrooms so as notnot toto disturbdisturb thethe fungusfungus mycellium,mycellium, leavingleaving smallsmall mushrooms toto grow and fruit andand replacingreplacing leafleaf litterlitter in sitessites wherewhere mushroomsmushrooms havehave beenbeen harvested in order to maintainmaintain soil moisturemoisture andand aa moremore favourablefavourable habitathabitat forfor productionproduction ofof fruitingfruiting bodies. The effect of thesethese traditionaltraditional harvestingharvesting practicespractices onon sustainabilitysustainability of mushroommushroom harvestsharvests requires testing inin replicatedreplicated field trials [Richards,[Richards, 1997].1997].

TRUFFLES

Truffles (Tuber spp.) are rounded,rounded, potato-shapedpotato-shaped mushrooms with a subterranean habit. They are the fruiting bodies of mychorrhizal fungi associated with the roots of various species of beech, oak and otherother broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees [Dickinson[Dickinson and Lucas,Lucas, 1979].1979]. OneOne species,species, T. gibossumgibossum,, isis associated exclusivelyexclusively withwith Douglas firfir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)menziesii) in in thethe Pacific coast of NorthNorth America [Molina et al.,al. , 1993].1993].

Important species

Several European species are considered to be prizedprized delicacies. The black Perigord truffle (Tuber melanosporum) isis widely used in Italian and French cuisines. This truffle is found in oakoak forestsforests

87 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees throughout muchmuch ofof EuropeEurope butbut thethe centrecentre ofof production production ofof the the mushroomsmushrooms isis southwesternsouthwestern FranceFrance where they occur inin light,light, porous,porous, clayclay marl.marl. InIn ItalyItaly itit isis knownknown asas tartufotartufo nero,nero, and in the regionregion of Umbria it isis an ingredientingredient inin pastapasta dishesdishes andand inin anan amaro,amaro, anan after-dinner after-dinner liqueurliqueur [author's[author's observation]. The white Piedmont truffle (T. magnatum) is the mostmost sought-aftersought-after species in Italy,Italy, where it isis addedadded inin thinthin slicesslices toto aa varietyvariety ofof pastapasta dishesdishes toto whichwhich theythey impartimpart aa distinctive,distinctive, muskymusky flavour. This truffletruffle isis producedproduced inin thethe regionregion fromfrom thethe AstigianoAstigiano toto thethe CanalleseCanal lese riversrivers inin AlbaAlba (Piedmont Region),Region), where most collectioncollection occursoccurs fromfrom OctoberOctober throughthrough DecemberDecember [Moora,[Moora, 1955].1955]. The summer truffle (T. aestivum) occursoccurs inin thethe beech forests inin the chalk downs of the UnitedUnited Kingdom,Kingdom, where a cottage industryindustry basedbased onon truffletruffle huntinghunting existedexisted duringduring thethe eighteentheighteenth century.century. Truffles were collected and marketed until the 1930s but are now considered to be tootoo smallsmall toto merit collection [Dickinson and Lucas,Lucas, 1979].1979].

Historical aspects

The unusual habitat and appearance of truffles causedcaused considerable debate as to their origin.origin. TheThe Roman naturalist and writer Pliny described truffles as ""callusescalluses of the soilsoil".". The Greek biographer Plutarch explained that their existence was thethe combinedcombined actionaction ofof thunder,thunder, rainrain andand thethe warmthwarmth ofof the soil.soil. DuringDuring thethe sixteenthsixteenth century,century, itit was widely believed that trufflestruffles were the resultresult ofof thethe semen of rutting deer.deer. DuringDuring thethe nineteenthnineteenth century,century, theythey werewere believedbelieved toto bebe aa gallgall producedproduced byby oak roots. Later inin thatthat centurycentury aa theorytheory waswas postulatedpostulated thatthat thethe truffletruffle fly,fly, anan insectinsect commonlycommonly associated with the fruiting bodies,bodies, stung the rootsroots of oak trees causingcausing the gall-likegall-like truffles to growgrow [Dickinson and Lucas,Lucas, 1979].1979].

Commercial cultivationcultivation

WhileVVhile much much truffle truffle gatheringgathering occursoccurs inin naturalnatural forestsforests,, the black PérigordPerigord truffle has been growngrown inin a moremore oror lessless organizedorganized fashionfashion sincesince aboutabout 1810,1810, usingusing anan indirectindirect cultivationcultivation procedure.procedure. AA French farmer by the name of Joseph Talon established an oak plantation by planting acorns. After a fewfew years,years, trufflestruffles beganbegan toto appearappear inin thethe plantation. plantation .VVhen When hehe repeatedrepeated thethe exerciseexercise severalseveral years later with the specificspecific intentintent to produceproduce truffles and succeeded,succeeded , he had begun an indirect method of truffletruffle cultivation.cultivation. Today aa sizeablesizeable portionportion ofof trufflestruffles harvestedharvested fromfrom FranceFrance andand exported are obtained through establishmentestablishment of newnew oakoak plantingsplantings [Dickinson[Dickinson andand Lyons,Lyons, 1979].1979]. AtAt present truffles are the onlyonly ectomycorrhizalectomycorrhizal food fungus whichwhich isis inin widespreadwidespread cultivationCUltivation inin thethe Pacific Northwest (only inin WashingtonWashington andand OregonOregon states)states) [Russel [Russel and and Lipsey, Lipsey ,19991. 1999].

Harvesting

The subterraneansubterranean habitat of trufflestruffles presentspresents somesome uniqueunique challengeschallenges for harvesting.harvesting. Pigs and dogs are oftenoften usedused toto sniffsniff outout truffles.truffles. VVhileWhile pigspigs areare reputed toto have the keenest nose for truffles,truffles, they are not easilyeasily ledled andand tendtend toto gogo astray.astray. Moreover,Moreover, theythey tendtend toto eateat thethe trufflestruffles theythey detect. A well-trainedwell-trained dog is preferablepreferable because it can detect truffles from 30 to 5050 mm andand willwill notnot eat the mushrooms. OnceOnce detected,detected, thethe truffletruffle isis liftedlifted outout ofof thethe groundground withwith aa spikedspiked stick.stick.

The secrets of where,where, when and how to collect truffles are jealously guarded, and knowledge of the best places to find trufflestruffles isis passedpassed downdown fromfrom fatherfather toto son,son , generationgeneration afterafter generation.generation. WhileWhile Italian law specifies that truffles are public property, about 80 percent of the white truffle harvest is handled by one family [Dickinson and Lucas, 1979].1979].

In 1992,1992, approximatelyapproximately 32 000 kgkg ofof Oregon Oregon whitewhite truffletruffle (Tuber(Tuber gibbosum)gibbosum) werewere harvestedharvested inin Oregon and Washington. At an average the priceprice reached US$US$ 32/lb32/1b [Russel[Russel andand Lipsey,Lipsey, 1999].1999].

Production, trade and regulation

In France,France, truffle production towardtoward thethe endend ofof the nineteenth centurycentury waswas estimatedestimated at at 200-200 250 tJat/a.. This gradually grew to 11 200200 t/atJa byby thethe mid-1960smid-1960s withoutwithout anyany concernconcern forfor overproductionoverproduction [Cagnairt[Cagnairt,, 1968].1968]. French truffle production has declined in recent yearsyears,, howeverhowever,, and by 1988 was down to about 20 t [Iqbal,[Iqbal , 1993].1993].

88 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

Cultivation

The shiitake mushroom grows naturally on logs of beech (Fagus spp.),spp.), chestnut (Castanea spp.)spp.),, oak (Quercus spp.) and hornbeamhornbeam (Carpinus(Carpinus spp.).spp.). Shiitake cultivation is carried out onon speciallyspecially cut branches from suitable trees.trees.

In itsits mostmost primitiveprimitive form,form , logslogs areare placedplaced inin contactcontact with naturallynaturally infected woodwood,, and the fungus spreads to the fresh substrate. All that is required is a favourable site to stack logs so that fruiting is encouraged. A more systematic regime involves soaking logs in water and pounding them to break the bark.bark. Another procedure involvesinvolves makingmaking holes holes inin thethe bark with a broadbroad drilldrill oror speciallyspecially designed hammer.hammer. The logs are thenthen inoculatedinoculated with aa sporespore suspensionsuspension thatthat isis preparedprepared fromfrom mature fruiting bodies or a spawnspawn mademade fromfrom myceliummycelium grown on woodwood chipschips oror sawdust.sawdust. TheThe infected logs are placed inin aa carefullycarefully selectedselected sitesite inin aa forestforest knownknown asas aa "laying"laying yard."yard ." TheThe choicechoice of site is important.important. IfIf itit isis tootoo moist,moist, naturalnatural woodwood decayingdecaying competitorscompetitors wouldwould bebe favouredfavoured andand thethe shiitake crop would be reduced or lost. The best laying yards are in ventilatedventilated clearings atat the edges of a forest. The logslogs are placedplaced crosswisecrosswise andand atat slightslight angleangle toto thethe ground.ground .

The cultivationcUltivation of shiitake is a comparatively long process. Logs remain in the laying yard for five to eight months andand areare wateredwatered whenwhen dry.dry. TheyThey areare thenthen removedremoved toto aa raisingraising yard,yard ,usually usually in in winter,winter, where environmental conditionsconditions favourfavour fruitingfruiting.. TheThe raising yard is moremore heavilyheavily shadedshaded andand watered regularlyregularly,, andand the logs areare stackedstacked inin anan uprightupright positionposition againstagainst fences.fences. TheThe firstfirst mushroom crops appear the following spring. Once logslogs havehave begunbegun toto produceproduce mushrooms,mushrooms, theythey will continue to do soso forfor severalseveral yearsyears inin springspring andand autumn.autumn. The maximummaximum cropping period on a given set of logslogs isis aboutabout sixsix yearsyears [Dickinson[Dickinson andand Lucas,Lucas, 1979].1979].

One of thethe advantagesadvantages of shiitakeshiitake production is that it makesmakes use of logslogs andand limbslimbs thatthat areare tootoo small to bebe suitablesuitable for otherother purposes.purposes. Logs must be live,live, cut during the dormant season and free from disease [Thomas[Thomas andand Schumann,Schumann, 1993].1993].

Harvesting and processing

For maximum flavour and texture,texture, thethe mushroomsmushrooms areare harvestedharvested whenwhen young.young. MostMost ofof the the shiitakeshiitake crop isis drieddried eithereither inin thethe sunsun oror in in specially specially constructed constructed dryingdrying houses.houses. ShiitakesShiitakes areare normallynormally exported inin drydry formform althoughalthough somesome areare cannedcanned oror pickledpickled [Dickinson[Dickinson andand Lucas,Lucas, 1979].1979].

Production and trade

Shiitake cultivation is widely practised in Asia,Asia , with China,China , Korea,Korea , Japan,Japan , Singapore,Singapore, andand ThailandThailand being producers of thisthis mushroom.mushroom. SeveralSeveral westernwestern countriescountries includingincluding Brazil,Brazil, Canada,Canada, thethe NetherlandsNetherlands,, thethe United Kingdom [Slee 1991]1991] andand thethe UnitedUnited StatesStates havehave begunbegun commercial commercial production.55production. 55

Japan currently produces about 90 percentpercent ofof thethe world'sworld's shiitake shiitake mushroomsmushrooms [Thomas[Thomas andand Schumann,Schumann, 1993].1993]. Shiitake cultivation in Japan is currently a major non-woodnon-wood forest enterpriseenterprise andand increased production has been a significant factor in the increased contribution of nonnon-wood-wood forestforest products to total forest earnings. In 1960,1960, only 3-4 percentpercent ofof totaltotal forestforest earningsearnings were from non-non wood products. By 1980,1980, the contributioncontribution hadhad increasedincreased toto 1313 percent.percent. ChangesChanges inin eatingeating habitshabits ofof the Japanese people after the Second World War havehave hadhad aa significantsignificant influenceinfluence onon thethe demanddemand for shiitake.shiitake. These changeschanges includedincluded a shiftshift towardtoward non-staplenon-staple foodsfoods includingincluding mushrooms,mushrooms, an increased trend toward eating out andand aa shiftshift towardtoward processedprocessed andand alreadyalready cookedcooked foods.foods. PriorPrior toto the 1950s,1950s, shiitake mushrooms were produced largelylargely for export to China and Southeast Asia,Asia, andand domestic demand waswas low. In addition,addition , the supplysupply waswas keptkept lowlow becausebecause ofof inefficienciesinefficiencies inin cultivation. Edible mushroommushroom productionproduction isis consideredconsidered toto bebe anan importantimportant sourcesource ofof income income forfor rural rural household economies, especially during periodsperiods when the demanddemand for woodwood productsproducts isis inin decline.decline. Moreover,Moreover, shiitake cultivation has filled a voidvoid leftleft byby decliningdeclining demandsdemands forfor charcoal,charcoal , onceonce aa keykey source of income for mountainmountain villagersvillagers [Noda,[Noda, 1988].1988].

55 SourSource:ce: LexxaLexxa (http://wwwlexxa.com.br/sunshiitake/cogumelo2.html).(http://www.lexxa.com.brlsunshiitake/cogumelo2. html).

90 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees

FranceFrance,, Spain and Italy are the major exporters of black truffles. In Spain truffle hunting was a local enterprise until about 19541954 whenwhen blackblack trufflestruffles werewere exportedexported to FranceFrance to meetmeet a growinggrowing demanddemand [Nicolas[Nicolas,, 1973]1973].. CurrentlyCurrently,, approximately approximately 15 15 t/a t/a to to 3030 tlat/a are collectedcollected in Spain.Spain . InIn 19931993 itsits economic value reached Ptas 411 millionmillion (25(25361 361 t) [Cesaro[Cesaro etet a/.).a/.). OtherOther principalprincipal importersimporters of black truffles are Germany,Germany, SwitzerlandSwitzerland and thethe UnitedUnited States.States. VVhiteWhite trufflestruffles,, which are lessless knownknown,, are exported primarily to restaurantsrestaurants inin the UnitedUnited StatesStates [Ciani,[Ciani, 1990],1990], butbut marketsmarkets forfor thisthis higher priced truffle havehave developeddeveloped inin Belgium,Belgium, France,France, SouthSouth AfricaAfrica andand SwitzerlandSwitzerland [Morra,[Morra, 1955]1955].. In 1989,1989, the UnitedUnited StatesStates importedimported 5.45.4 tt ofof freshfresh oror chilled chilled truffles,truffles ,mainly mainly fromfrom ItalyItaly and and France at a value of US$ 1.481.48 million or US$US$ 273/kg [lqbal,[Iqbal , 1993].1993].

The high prices that truffle commands has led to instances of fraud necessitating regulation of this industry. French lawlaw restricts thethe word truffetruffe toto membersmembers ofof thethe genusgenus Tuber.Tuber. MarketedMarketed blackblack truffles must consist of onlyonly T.T. melanosporumme/anosporum and T.T. brumalesbruma/es (winter truffles)truffles).. T. uncinatum may comprise up to twotwo percentpercent ofof fresh, fresh, labelledlabelled blackblack trufflestruffles becausebecause identificationidentification amongamong closelyclosely related species isis not possiblepossible without magnification.magnification. TheThe useuse of summersummer whitewhite trufflestruffles (T. aestivum) in pâtéspates is alsoalso regulated.regulated. ArtificialArtificial colouringcolouring ofof whitewhite trufflestruffles toto makemake themthem appearappear blackblack is illegal [Cagniart,[Cagniart, 1968].1968].

In the Alba area ofof thethe PiedmontPiedmont RegionRegion ofof Italy,Italy, wherewhere whitewhite trufflestruffles areare harvested,harvested, some 1212 tt ofof truffles are officially collected at an average value of US$US$ 2000/kg.2000/kg . A similar quantity is collectedcollected illegally and soldsold unofficially.unofficially. The collectioncollection ofof trufflestruffles alongalong withwith otherother agriculturalagricultural products,products, especially wine, gives Alba one of the highest percentages of agricultural workers and, at the same time, one of thethe highesthighest averageaverage incomeincome rates.rates. InIn additionaddition toto thethe truffletruffle collecting,collecting, relatedrelated activitiesactivities such as food-processingfood-processing industries,industries, restaurants and on-farm tourism (agriturismo) are all growing rapidly.

The Umbria Region of Italy,Italy, an areaarea with extensiveextensive oak forests and woodlands, is a majormajor area for black truffle productionproduction.. RulesRules and regulationsregulations that governgovern thethe harvesting,harvesting, cultivation andand conservation and marketingmarketing ofof trufflestruffles havehave beenbeen developed.developed. TruffleTruffle collectorscollectors havehave openopen accessaccess toto the forests and other landslands notnot underunder cultivationcultivation butbut mustmust bebe licensedlicensed beforebefore theythey cancan legallylegally gathergather truffles.truffles. Truffles under managed production are thethe property of the landownerlandowner and are subject to separate regulation. SeasonsSeasons for for collecting eacheach ofof ninenine speciesspecies ofof indigenousindigenous trufflestruffles areare stipulated. ImmatureImmature truffles truffles are are protectedprotected,, and and nono truffletruffle hunting isis to taketake placeplace atat night.night. Excavations are to bebe coveredcovered immediatelyimmediately after truffles are harvested.harvested. Before a licence is issued,issued , truffle huntershunters mustmust passpass anan examinationexamination aboutabout collectioncollection methods;methods; conservation;conservation; locallocal andand nationalnational laws;laws; and thethe biologybiology andand identificationidentification ofof locallocal species.species. TheThe governmentgovernment of UmbriaUmbria isis requiredrequired toto fund trainingtraining forfor technicaltechnical personnelpersonnel toto overseeoversee truffletruffle harvests;harvests; conductconduct researchresearch andand publicpublic education;education; and to conductconduct marketingmarketing initiatives.initiatives. FinesFines areare establishedestablished for huntinghunting trufflestruffles withoutwithout aa trained dog,dog , illegalillegal digging,digging, harvestingharvesting ofof smallsmall trufflestruffles andand improperimproper terracingterracing ofof hillsides hillsides [Giunta[Giunta Regionale del'Umbria,del 'Umbria, 1987].1987].

SHSHIITAKE I ITAKE

Shiitake (pronounced sheetasheeta'kay)'kay) is is thethe fruitingfruiting bodybody ofof the fungus LentinulaLentinu/a edodes. This is a saprophytic fungus that colonizes the dead wood of various species of trees. In Japan,Japan, it isis foundfound primarily on Quercus cuspidate,cuspidata, commonly knownknown asas shii [Wolf and Wolf,Wolf, 1947].1947]. ShiitakeShiitake is thethe second most widely cultivated mushroom inin the world,world, secondsecond onlyonly to Agaricus mellia.mellia.

The shiitakeshiitake mushroommushroom has a roundround capcap withwith aa diameterdiameter thatthat cancan reachreach upup toto 1515 cm.cm. ColorationColoration varies from darkdark brownbrown withwith patternspatterns formedformed byby whitewhite spotsspots aroundaround thethe edgesedges ofof the the cap.cap.

HistoricalH istorica I backgroundbackground

The oldest record regarding the shiitake mushroom dates back to the year AD199AD199 atat thethe timetime ofof Emperor Chuai in Japan. The cultivationcultivation ofof shiitakeshiitake mushroomsmushrooms hashas itsits originsorigins inin China,China , however,however, during the Sung DynastyDynasty (AD(AD 960-1127).960-1127). TheThe cultivationcultivation techniquetechnique waswas extendedextended toto JapanJapan wherewhere it was later perfected. InIn both China and Japan, shiitake is considered toto be an "elixir of lifelife"" and isis widely consumed.54consumed 54

54 SourceSource: : Le>o

89 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

Uses

The shiitake mushroommushroom isis thethe mostmost widelywidely cultivatedcultivated specialityspeciality mushroommushroom inin thethe worldworld andand isis bothboth aa prized medicine and a culinary delight. In Japan,Japan, shiitake is one ofof thethe mostmost popularpopular sourcessources ofof protein whereas it is aa majormajor staplestaple inin ChinaChina andand otherother partsparts ofof thethe PacificPacific Rim.Rim. ByBy beingbeing appetizing, nourishing,nourishing, dieteticdietetic andand healthful,healthful, shiitakeshiitake isis aa highlyhighly valuablevaluable foodfood source.source. ShiitakeShiitake hashas adequate nutritional qualitiesqualities to to serveserve asas aa main dish, and it adaptsadapts well toto recipesrecipes asas aa meatmeat substitute.

Shiitake has also medicinalmedicinal properties and has traditionally been used in folkfolk medicinemedicine byby havinghaving antifungalantifungal,, anti-tumour and antiviralantiviral effects.effects. ItIt isis believedbelieved toto fortifyfortify thethe immuneimmune system'ssystem's combating combating of viruses and bacteria through its polysaccharides which increase the level of macrophage activity [Russel and Lipsey,Lipsey, 1999].1999]. CurrentCurrent researchresearch revealsreveals thatthat thethe mushroommushroom combatscombats hepatitishepatitis BBand and certain types of cancer.cancer. ShiitakeShiitake mightmight alsoalso bebe anan effectiveeffective treatmenttreatment forfor thethe HIV-virus;HIV-virus ; howeverhowever this isis stillstill unproved.56unproved s6

Box 99.1.1 ShiitakeShiitake production:production: A family enterprise

The Krogmeier familyfamily ofof SpringSpring Point,Point, Iowa,Iowa, areare anan exampleexample ofof successful successful shiitakeshiitake producers.producers .They They began began with aa 200200 loglog operationoperation inin 19871987 with with relatively relatively littlelittle capitalcapital investment.investment. TheyThey purchasedpurchased theirtheir spawnspawn throughthrough a shiitakeshiitake mushroommushroom producers associationassociation that that waswas formedformed inin Iowa because of aa growinggrowing interest inin shiitake production.production. TheThe KrogmeierKrogmeier's's initialinitial supplysupply of of oakoak woodwood waswas freefree because aa family member owned a small woodlot. They used a garage to store logs and force the shiitake fruiting.

First year results were so successful that they quickly increased their production to a 3 000 log operation. This size of operation requires cutting of 600-700 new logs per year. Yield is 0.11- 0.22 kg mushrooms per log. Approximately 15 to 20 hours of labourlabour areare requiredrequired per weekweek and a netnet profitprofit ofof $US10$US 10 000-12000-12 000000 isis realized.realized .

The mushrooms are sold through the samesame associationassociation from which they obtainedobtained the spawn.spawn. TheThe association can sellsell virtually any amount of mushroomsmushrooms grown. MostMost are sold toto foodfood processingprocessing companies at ca $US13.00/kg$US 13.00/kg ofof whichwhich thethe associationassociation receivesreceives 8080 percentpercent (Thomas(Thomas andand SchumannSchumann 1993)

Korea has a smallsmall shiitakeshiitake industryindustry but,but, production is currently hampered byby thethe small scale of cultivation, lack of efficient technology, low labour productivity and lack of consistentconsistent managementmanagement [Park[Park,, 1984].1984]. A shiitake-producingshiitake-producing industryindustry hashas developeddeveloped inin thethe UnitedUnited StatesStates overover thethe past 20 years. Cultivation is typically a family-run operation and provides a supplemental income for rural familiesfamilies [Thomas and Schumann,Schumann, 1993]. InIn Brazil,Brazil , thethe commercialcommercial cultivationcultivation ofof shiitakeshiitake beganbegan during the early 1990s,1990s, mostlymostly byby smallsmall producersproducers where the woodwood ofof EucalyptusEucalyptus spp.spp. hashas beenbeen found to bebe aa goodgood growthgrowth medium.57medium. 57

MORELS

Morels (Morchella sppspp.).) areare saprophytic fungifungi thatthat are found in bothboth coniferconifer andand broad-leavedbroad-leaved temperate forests. All of thethe speciesspecies inin thisthis genusgenus areare edibleedible andand deliciousdelicious and,and, withwith thethe possiblepossible exception of truffles, are considered the mostmost delectable of mushroomsmushrooms [Alexopoulos,[Alexopoulos, 1962]. They are highly prizedprized for theirtheir culinaryculinary uses,uses, particularlyparticularly as a gourmetgourmet food andand areare usedused inin gravies,gravies, sauces and soups.soups. Morels are notnot only delicious,delicious, they are also a healthyhealthy and nutritiousnutritious food. They contain 42 percent protein on a drydry weightweight basis,basis, areare lowlow inin caloriescalories andand richrich inin mineralsminerals [lqbal,[Iqbal , 1993]1993].. Some individuals may have adverse reactions from eating morels,morels, however,however, especiallyespecially whenwhen they are consumed with alcohol.alcohol. MorelsMorels shouldshould nevernever bebe eateneaten rawraw [Molina[Molina etet al.,al., 1993].1993].

The mushroom produced byby the morelmorel fungifungi hashas aa characteristic characteristic appearanceappearance although the mushrooms of several closely related fungi have somewhat similar appearances.appearances. They have been likenedlikened toto a pine cone perched on a stem.stem. TheThe fertilefertile capcap (pine-cone(pine-cone portion)portion) isis honeycombedhoneycombed withwith pits and ridges.ridges. The cap and stem are hollowhollow and the cap cap risesrises continuouslycontinuously from the stem. The

5656 Source: LycosLycos (http://webmd.lycos.com/content/article/1677.53)(http://webmd.lycos.com/contentlarticle/1 677.53) Shiitake mushrooms (http://www.shiitakecentercom/health/health.html).(http://www.shiitakecenter.com/health/health.html). 5757 Source: Lexxa Lexxa (http://www. (http://www.lexxa.com.br lexxa . com . br/sul sunshiitakensh i itake/cog/cogum u me lo2elo2 . htm.html I ).).

91 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees stem colour ranges from white to pale brown,brown, and the colour of the cap ranges from pale yellow-yellow brown through tantan,, brown and grey-brown.grey-brown. The pits are typically the same colour as the ridges or slightly darker [Molina et al.,al., 1993].1993].

Morels grow in the temperatetemperate forests of Asia,Asia , Europe,Europe, the NearNear EastEast and NorthNorth America and are associated with many temperate treestrees [Iqbal[lqbal,, 1993]. TheyThey tendtend toto be abundant afterafter a wildfire has passed through an area and appear in earlyearly spring,spring, shortly after snow melt. InIn Europe,Europe, fires havehave been deliberately started in forestsforests inin hopeshopes thatthat theythey wouldwould encourageencourage developmentdevelopment ofof morelsmorels [Arora, 1986; Molina et a/.,al., 1993;1993; Phillips,Phillips, 1991].1991]. SomeSome species,species, suchsuch asas M.M. angusticeps,angusticeps, areare common in forests of pine,pine, DouglasDouglas fir oror variousvarious speciesspecies ofof Populus.Populus. M.M. esculenta,esculenta, a whitewhite morel,morel , is found associated with forestsforests of CaryaCarya andand LiriodendronLiriodendron tulipifera in the eastern United States [Phillips,[Phillips, 1991].1991].

In a good year,year, 225225 000000 kgkg ofof morelsmorels areare harvestedharvested inin BritishBritish ColumbiaColumbia andand inin thethe Yukon,Yukon, whereaswhereas it mightmight fallfall toto 1010000-20 000-20 000000 kgkg inin aa bad bad year. year. In In the the Pacific Pacific Northwest Northwest the the harvest harvest reachesreaches 602 649 kg [National Aboriginal ForestryForestry Association,Association, 1999].1999].

Pickers receive onon average $Can 3.00/lb ofof fresh morels.morels. For fresh and landedlanded morelsmorels the exporters receive US$ 18.00-22.00/lb and for dried and landed in the Unites States and Europe US$ 150 to $200/kg.$200/kg. MorelsMorels areare exportedexported freshfresh onlyonly aboutabout twotwo weeksweeks ofof thethe entireentire growinggrowing seasonseason because they are rapidly attackedattacked byby pestspests [Russel[Russel andand Lipsey,Lipsey, 1999].1999].

Total world production of morelsmorels isis estimatedestimated toto bebe aboutabout 150150 tt drydry weight,weight, equivalentequivalent toto 1.51.5 millionmillion t ofof freshfresh morels.morels. IndiaIndia andand PakistanPakistan areare thethe major major producing producing countries,countries, eacheach producingproducing aboutabout 50 t/atla of drydry morels,morels, allall ofof whichwhich areare exported.exported. AfghanistanAfghanistan andand ChinaChina areare twotwo additionaladditional countriescountries that trade morels internationally.internationally. AllAll areare gatheredgathered inin forestsforests althoughalthough somesome researchresearch isis underunder way way toto develop means of artificialartificial cultivation. In Pakistan,Pakistan , therethere is a racerace betweenbetween men,men, womenwomen andand children to see who can handpickhandpick the greatest quantity of morels. These are sold freshfresh or in dried form toto locallocal hopkeepers,hopkeepers, whowho drydry them.them. NoNo furtherfurther processingprocessing isis involvedinvolved untiluntil theythey reachreach thethe wholesalers/exporters. The The priceprice forfor drieddried morelsmorels inin Pakistan inin 1991 waswas US$ 133 per kg,kg , with gatherers receiving one-half toto two-thirdstwo-thirds of thisthis price. The exportersexporters de-stalk,de-stalk, gradegrade andand sometimes fumigate the morelsmorels beforebefore theythey areare exported.exported. France,France, GermanyGermany andand SwitzerlandSwitzerland areare the mainmain importersimporters of drieddried morelsmorels fromfrom IndiaIndia andand Pakistan.Pakistan. AccordingAccording to unpublishedunpublished records of the ITC,lTC, thethe importimport ofof drieddried morelsmorels toto SwitzerlandSwitzerland andand membermember countriescountries ofof thethe EuropeanEuropean UnionUnion ranges between 100 t/a and 120120 t/a [lqbal,[Iqbal, 1993;1993; NationalNational AboriginalAboriginal ForestryForestry Association,Association, 1999].1999].

International tradetrade inin fresh morels is limitedlimited becausebecause ofof thethe shortshort lifelife ofof these these mushrooms. mushrooms. HoweverHowever,, short distances between some producing countries and marketsmarkets makemake tradetrade inin freshfresh morels possiblepossible,, for example between Turkey and western EuropeEurope [Iqbal,[Iqbal , 1983].1983].

CVTARRIACYTARRIA SPP.SPP.

The fungi ofof thethe genusgenus CytarriaCytarria areare parasitesparasites ofof variousvarious speciesspecies ofof NothofagusNothofagus inin SouthSouth America.America. They infectinfect thethe twigs,twigs, branchesbranches andand occasionallyoccasionally the mainmain stemsstems ofof hosthost treestrees andand sometimessometimes cause growth loss andand deformity.deformity. SomeSome speciesspecies produceproduce edibleedible mushroomsmushrooms knownknown asas digOefle,diguene, caracucha or pinatra.58pinatra.58 InIn southernsouthern ChileChile,, fruiting bodies of C. darwinii areare soldsold alongalong roadsidesroadsides andand markets and are a popularpopular ingredientingredient in saladssalads [author's[author's observation]observation] and are also goodgood tastingtasting when fried inin butter.butter. C.C. darwiniidarwinii hashas beenbeen aa traditionaltraditional foodfood ofof thethe indigenousindigenous peoplepeople ofof Tierra Tierra deldel Fuego at the southern tip of South America [Wolf and Wolf,Wolf, 1947].1947]. The mushroom is round,round , white,white, yellowish brown or orange in colour with a dimpled texture and resembles a golf ball (Figure 9.2).9.2). They appear in clusters on infected portions of host trees in spring,spring, coincidingcoincid ing with leaf flush on various species of NothofagusNothofagus including N. antarctica,antarctica, N. dombeyii.dombeyii, N.N. obliqueobliqua [Baldini[Baldini,, 1994;1994; Minter et al.,al. , 1987].1987].

According to Gamundi and Horak (1995), four species of Cytarra are found in thethe forestsforests ofof Argentine Patagonia,Patagonia, C. darwinii,darwinii, C.C johowiijohowii,, C.C. hookerihookeri,, andand C.C. hariotiharioti.. While C. darwinii is goodgood tastingtasting,, C. johowiijohowii., and C.hookeri have a mouldy flavour. The fruitingfruiting bodies of C. harioti were used by indigenous people of the regionregion for productionproduction ofof anan alcoholicalcoholic drink.drink.

58 InformationInformation provided by Dr HHernanernan Peredo,Peredo, ForestForest pathologist,pathologist, UniversidadUniversidad Austral dede Chile.Chile ,Valdivia Valdivia Chile.Chi le.

92 Non-wood forest productsproducts fromfrom temperate temperate broad-leaved broad-leaved treestrees

Figure 99.2.2 Fruiting bodiesbodies ofof:: (starting fromfrom toptop and from left toto right)right) BoletusBoletus edulis,edulis, Tricholoma magnivelaremagnivelare;; Tuber melanosporum;melanpsporum; Morchella conicaconica;; LenLentinula tinula edodes and Cytarria darwiniidarwinii,, (on Nothofagus spp).spp).

TRAMETES VERSICOLOR

Trametes verversicolorsicolor isis aa wood-rotting polyporepolypore thatthat growsgrows onon thethe sideside ofof felledfelled oakoak loglogss andand othotherer dead or dying hardwoods.hardwoods.

TrameteTrametess versicolorversicolor hashas medicinalmedicinal properties andand is used inin cancercancer treatments,treatments, both asas preventative and as curative.curative. TheThe mushroommushroom accountsaccounts forfor aroundaround 1616 percentpercent ofof Japan's Japan's nationalnational expenditures on anti-cancer agentsagents.. The species ingredientsingredients are alsoalso thoughtthought toto enhanceenhance T-cellT-cell proliferation andand are taken inin thethe AsianAsian countriescountries asas aa nutraceutical. nutraceutical. Furthermore,Furthermore, TrametesTrametes versicolor is used as immune stimulant;stimulant; antibiotic;antibiotic; against pulmonary disorders; asas antiviral;antiviral; againstagainst hepatitis;hepatitis; and for the infectionsinfections of thethe respiratory,respiratory, urinaryurinary andand digestivedigestive tracts.tracts.

InIn Japan a nutritional supplement containing T. versiversicolorcolor isis genegenerallyrally used as a health food,food , andand testing in JapanJapan hashas shownshown thatthat it hashas cholesterol-loweringcholesterol-lowering properties.properties. Other namesnames used forfor Trametes versiversicolorcolor are Yun-Zhi,Yun-Zhi, Kawaratake and Coliolus versicolorversicolor [Russel and Lipsey,Lipsey, 1999;1999; TedderTedder,, MitchellMitchell andand Farran,Farran ,2000].59 2000] .59

MINOR FUNGI

Other fungi of medicinalmedicinal interestinterest areare speciesspecies suchsuch asas FormitopsisFormitopsis pinicola,pinicola, LaetiporusLaetiporus sulphureus sulphureus (common name:name: chicken of thethe woods),woods), GanodermaGanoderma TsugareTsugare andand GanodermaGanoderma appalanatum.appalanatum. The latterlatter grows both with broad-leavedbroad-leaved and coniferous treestrees and isis mostlymostly foundfound inin thethe temperatetemperate zones of the Northern HemisphereHemisphere'60 [Tedder, [Tedder ,Mitchell Mitchell andand FarranFarran 2000].2000].

59 SSource:ou rce: http://www.amoeba.com/mstravers.htmlhttp://www.amoeba.com/mstravers.html 60 SSource:ource: http://cvqnus.tamu.edu/PLPA/Projects/l/qanodermahttp://cygnus.tamu .edu/PLPAIProiects/1/ganoderm aapp applanatum.htmllanatum.html

93 Non-wood forest productsproducts fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

INSECTS

SILK

Silk is a fibre produced by certain caterpillars when they spin cocoonscocoons inin whichwhich toto pupate.pupate. ItIt isis thethe most luxurious of fibresfibres,, with an unsurpassed natural beauty, lustre and softnesssoftness.. It takestakes dyes well and, while seeminglyseemingly delicate,delicate, itit isis oneone ofof thethe strongest,strongest, toughesttoughest andand durabledurable fibresfibres known.known.

There are two types ofof silksilk known,known, "domestic""domestic" silk and "wild" silk. Domestic silk is the product of the domestic silkworm (Bombyx(Bombyx mori),mori) , whichwhich feedsfeeds onon thethe foliagefoliage ofof mulberrymulberry (Morus(Morus spp.).spp.). ThisThis insectinsect has been cultivated for centuries for its abilityability to produceproduce aa fine-qualityfine-quality white silk,silk, whichwhich isis calledcalled mulberry silk. Bombyx mori has become so domesticated that it hashas lostlost itsits naturalnatural pigmentationpigmentation and its ability to grasp foliage so that it must be raised under artificial conditionsconditions.. ItIt cancan no longer survive inin the wild. "Wild""Wild" silk,silk, on thethe otherother hand,hand, isis producedproduced by aa numbernumber ofof speciesspecies ofof caterpillars, manymany ofof which feed on thethe foliagefoliage ofof temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees.trees. The silksilk theythey produce is usually not white butbut rangesranges inin colourcolour fromfrom lightlight yellow,yellow, lightlight toto mediummedium beigebeige toto darkdark grey. The colour comes from the diet of thethe wildwild caterpillar.caterpillar. IfIf itit happenshappens toto feedfeed onon foliagefoliage thatthat isis high in tannin content,content, the tannin becomesbecomes partpart ofof the silksilk and colourscolours itit [Kolander,[Kolander, 1985].1985].

Historical aspects

Silk production has its origins in China. A writing from AD 90 by Ss-ma Ch'iénCh 'ien tells a story of Siling, the wife of aa fabledfabled "Yellow"Yellow Emperor,"Emperor," Huang-ti.Huang-ti. OneOne day,day, accordingaccording toto thethe story,story, sheshe droppeddropped aa cocoon into her cup of hothot tea. ItIt beganbegan toto unravelunravel andand gavegave herher thethe ideaidea ofof unreelingunreeling thethe cocoonscocoons into longlong floating threads of fibre.fibre . Silk was undoubtedlyundoubtedly inin use inin ChinaChina longlong beforebefore thisthis storystory waswas writtenwritten,, however. A symbol for silk was part of the ChineseChinese written language at the time of Huang-tiHuang-ti and Si-ling, about 2600 BC.BC.

Although silk cultivation began in ChinaChina andand fragmentsfragments ofof silksilk asas oldold asas 11 500 500 BCBC havehave been been foundfound in this country, the oldest written record of the use of silk comes fromfrom India. The Ramayana andand thethe Mahabharata speak ofof silksilk weaving.weaving. TheseThese SanskritSanskrit epicsepics areare thethe sacredsacred textstexts ofof the the AryansAryans whowho in in 2000 BC oror soso camecame downdown fromfrom thethe northernnorthern plainsplains andand eventuallyeventually establishedestablished anan empireempire fromfrom India west to thethe Mediterranean.Mediterranean. The first mention of silk inin western literatureliterature is by Aristotle about 300 BC,BC , where hehe mentionsmentions that thethe sourcesource ofof silksilk isis aa "curious"curious hornedhorned worm."worm." ByBy thethe timetime ofof the the Han Dynasty (around 200 BCBC to ADAD 200),200), silksilk hadhad becomebecome soso abundantabundant inin ChinaChina thatthat itit waswas partpart ofof a soldier'ssoldier's wages.

The establishmentestablishment of the SilkSilk RoadRoad acrossacross China,China, thethe NearNear EastEast andand finallyfinally thethe MediterraneanMediterranean region (Che Muqi, 1989] marks the beginning of abundant silk in the West. However, thethe culture of silkworms was kept aa carefullycarefully guardedguarded secretsecret byby AsianAsian cultures.cultures. InIn Rome,Rome ,wealthy wealthy womenwomen unravelled the Chinese silks with theirtheir heavyheavy designsdesigns andand rewoverewove themthem intointo revealingrevealing gauzesgauzes oror intointo tapestries.tapestries. TheThe PersianPersian merchantsmerchants soonsoon establishedestablished themselvesthemselves asas thethe solesole middlemenmiddlemen between East and West inin silksilk trade.trade. TheThe actualactual cultureculture ofof silksilk byby westernwestern civilizationscivilizations resultedresulted when war broke outout betweenbetween ByzantiumByzantium andand PersiaPersia around AD 500500 andand thethe westwest waswas cutcut offoff fromfrom itsits supply. ItIt isis saidsaid thatthat twotwo NestorianNestorian monks,monks, whowho hadhad onceonce livedlived inin China,China, offeredoffered toto returnreturn andand smuggle out the startsstarts ofof sericulture:sericulture: silkwormsilkworm eggseggs andand whitewhite mulberrymulberry seeds.seeds. TwoTwo yearsyears later,later, they returnedreturned toto ConstantinopleConstantinople (Istanbul)(Istanbul) where theythey were housedhoused inin palacepalace groundsgrounds andand slowlyslowly began the cultureculture ofof silkworms.silkworms. AllAll racesraces ofof European European silkwormssilkworms throughthrough thethe 1700s1700s descended descended from thesethese firstfirst eggs.eggs.

The Arabs werewere influentialinfluential in thethe spreadspread ofof silksilk throughoutthroughout thethe MediterraneanMediterranean Region.Region. FromFrom itsits establishment in Turkey and Greece,Greece, they introduced it into the Italian Island of Sicily. SilkSilk culture went handhand inin handhand withwith silksilk weavingweaving whereverwherever thisthis fibrefibre waswas introduced.introduced. EventuallyEventually silksilk foundfound itsits way intointo thethe BritishBritish Isles,Isles, butbut sericulturesericulture waswas unsuccessfulunsuccessful becausebecause of thethe cold,cold, dampdamp climateclimate ofof this area.area.

Silk culture was introducedintroduced intointo JapanJapan aroundaround ADAD 200200 whenwhen aa ChineseChinese emperoremperor exchangedexchanged giftsgifts with Japanese envoys. The most treasured of the gifts were silkworm eggs. At this time sericulture

94 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees was aa closelyclosely guardedguarded secret.secret. SoonSoon after,after , anan exiledexiled Chinese Chinese prince, prince, his householdhousehold and hishis followers fled toto Japan.Japan. ThereThere theythey took took upup silksilk weavingweaving asas theirtheir livelihoodlivelihood andand thusthus transplantedtransplanted the traditionaltraditional skills of ChinaChina intointo JapanJapan werewere aa silksilk industryindustry developeddeveloped that took on itsits ownown character.

Synthetic fibres such as nylon and rayon replaced silk as a fibre in the UnitedUnited StatesStates marketmarket during the second world war when the sources of silk were cut off. The Government of thethe United States subsidized the nylon industryindustry becausebecause it neededneeded aa silksilk substituteSUbstitute forfor balloonsballoons andand parachutes.parachutes. Despite the availabilityavailability of low-costlow-cost syntheticsynthetic substitutes,substitutes, there isis still a highhigh demanddemand for silksilk products [Kolander,[Kolander, 1985].1985].

Box 9.2 SilkSilk culture comes to India

The domesticated silkworm ofof China isis saidsaid to have been introduced into India sometime prior to AD 200.

It is saidsaid thatthat aa ChineseChinese princess,princess, marriedmarried offoff toto aa distantdistant foreignforeign king,king, smuggledsmuggled silkwormsilkworm eggseggs outout ofof China in herher head-dress,head-dress, possibly because she wanted to continuecontinue her sericulturesericulture and weaving,weaving, the preferred pastimespastimes ofof Chinese womenwomen.. PerhapsPerhaps she she alsoalso shrewdlyshrewdly planned planned to to bringbring aa dowry to her husband that was so valuable,valuable, she would never be slighted.

While India has many species of wild silkworms,silkworms, the delicacy and shimmering whiteness of the domestic silkworm, Bombyx mori,mari, has always been admired (Kolander,(Kolander, 1985)

SilkwormSilkwonn culture

Silk has always been an expensive commodity because the raising of silkwormssilkworms isis aa labour-intensivelabour-intensive processprocess,, one that hashas notnot changedchanged significantlysignificantly overover time (Figure(Figure 9.3).9.3). ApproximatelyApproximately oneone monthmonth isis requiredrequired for thethe silkwormsilkworm larvaelarvae toto completecomplete theirtheir feedingfeeding cyclecycle and transform intointo silk-coveredsilk-covered pupalpupal cocoons.cocoons. DuringDuring this time,time, thethe larvaelarvae mustmust bebe fed fed ever-increasing ever-increasing amounts of handpickedhandpicked mulberrymulberry leaves. If the leavesleaves are dirty,dirty, theythey mustmust bebe washedwashed beforebefore beingbeing feedfeed toto the caterpillars.caterpillars.

Damp weather or a sudden onset of coldcold weatherweather cancan cause disease amongamong thethe larvaelarvae [Kolander,[Kolander, 1985].1985]. Figure 9.3 WorkersWorkers removeremove diseaseddiseased Mature larvae must be fed two to three time per day larvaelarvae and provide fresh mulberry [author's observation] and diseaseddiseased individualsindividuals must foliage to aa domesticdomestic silkwormsilkworm colony,colony, be removed by hand in order to prevent the spread of Daton Cooperative, Hanoi, Vietnam. disease to healthy larvae (Figures 9.4 and 9.5).9.5). rs

Figure 9.4 MatureMature larvaelarvae (left) (left) and and coccoons coccoons (right)(right) ofof thethe domesticdomestic silkwormsilkworm,, Bombyx mori - Daton Cooperative, Hanoi,Hanoi, Vietnam.Vietnam.

95 Non-wood forest productsproducts fromfrom temperate temperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

Approximately two full-grown mulberrymulberry trees andand 4 000 silkworm eggs are required to produceproduce 5.5 kg of silk.silk. TheThe proportionproportion ofof raw,raw, reeledreeled silksilk toto cocoons varies becausebecause thethe reliability of thethe cocoons depends on the strength of the fibre and its uniformity,uniformity, the proportionproportion of silksilk toto pupapupa andand whether or not the cocoonscocoons are weighedweighed fresh oror dry. The usual ratio is 12:1,12: 1, i.e. 1212 kg of cocoonscocoons equal about one kg ofof reeledreeled silksilk andand anan equalequal amount ofof unreliableunreliable spinningspinning silksilk.. In Japan,Japan , where great care isis givengiven toto silksilk production,production , thethe ratio is about 6:1;6: 1; and inin Italy,Italy, at thethe heightheight of itsits silk industry at the turn of the century,century, supposedly cocoons with a reliabilityreliability ratioratio ofof 3:13:1 to 4:1 were produced.produced.

Modern breeding andand managementmanagement techniquestechniques of bothboth mulberrymulberry and silksilk wormsworms inin JapanJapan havehave doubled the productionproduction ofof silk perper hectarehectare ofof mulberries during the past 20 years. The average annual crop averages 675 kg/ha, yielding slightly more than 100 kg ofof rawraw reeledreeled silk plus some spinning fibre. These numbers are based on two rearingrearing periodsperiods per year,year, oneone inin Figure 9.5 Domestic silkworms (Bombyx(Bombyx early spring and a secondsecond inin late fall. The mon)mori) being raisedraised inin large, flat baskets.baskets. mulberries are trimmed as bushes to allowallow easyeasy Daton Cooperative, Hanoi,Hanoi, Vietnam. picking of foliage [Kohlander,[Kohlander, 1985].1985].

Production

World production of of silksilk is nearly as greatgreat as atat anyany previousprevious timetime inin humanhuman historyhistory andand isis increasing. Japan produces about 20 000 t/atla ofof raw-reeledraw-reeled silksilk andand importsimports anan additionaladditional quantity.quantity. India produces large amounts of both cultivatedcultivated and wild silk,silk, mostmost ofof which areare usedused domestically.domestically. In many parts of India,India, sericulturesericulture andand silksilk weavingweaving areare stillstill donedone onon aa smallsmall villagevillage scale.scale. ChinaChina has historically produced more silk than any other area of the world, but today only a small portion is used domestically. Most of China'sChina's silksilk cropcrop isis exportedexported toto EuropeEurope [Kohlander,[Kohlander, 1985].1985].

Wild silk

WildVVild silk, silk, also also knownknown asas tussahtussah silk,silk, is an abundant form of silk. There are manymany kindskinds ofof wildwild silks,silks, each with its ownown characteristics.characteristics. For example, some wild silks are dark coloured but dye well.well. Others are nearly white in colour but do not take dyes. Some are fine, others are strong; some are reliable,reliable, whereas others are not;not; and somesome havehave distinctivedistinctive odours. Silk-producingSilk-producing caterpillars can be found anywhereanywhere although some of the bestbest knownknown occuroccur inin tropical,tropical, subtropicalsubtropical and warm temperate regions of Asia. SeveralSeveral speciesspecies of caterpillars,caterpillars, capable of producingproducing wild silk,silk, feedfeed onon the foliage of temperate broad-leaved hardwoodshardwoods (Tables(Tables 9.19.1 andand 9.2).9.2).

Table 9.1 AsianAsian wildwild silkworms that feed on temperate broad-leaved trees and shrubs

Species Range Hosts Remarks Chinese monthly China Morus spp. Small cocoon,cocoon , prolific. Bombyx sinensis Chinese tussah China Quercus spp. Colour and quality of silk depend on climate Antheraea pernyipemyi and soil. Yama-malYama-mai silk Japan Quercus spp. White silk but does not dye well. Very strong Antheraea yama-mai and elastic Muga silk Assam Various hosts Dark in colour takes dyes well. Once Antheraea assamensis reserved for the exclusive use of the Rajas. Cynthia moth China Alianthus glandulosa Somewhat domesticateddomesticated,, introduced into Attacus cynthia Prunus spp.spp.,, PlatanusPlatanus spp.spp. North America Syringa vulgaris Source: Kolander, 19851985

96 Non-wood forest productsproducts fromfrom temperate temperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

Table 9.2 North American wild silkworms thatthat feedfeed onon temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees and shrubs

Species Hosts Remarks Polyphemus moth Betula spp. PotentiallyPotentially the most valuable of NANA silkworms. TeleaTe/ea polyphemus Quercus spp. Cercropia moth Various hosts Quality of the silk depends on host plantplant fedfed Hyalphora cercropiacercropia upon byby thethe larvae.larvae. Promethea or spice bush mothmoth Various hosts Ca/asoma promethia Luna moth Carya spp. Juglans spp. LiquidambarLiguidambar styraciflua 10lo moth Various hostshosts Automeris io

(Source: Drooz,Orooz, 1985;1985; Kolander,Kolander, 1985)1985)

Wild silk isis aa coarsercoarser fibrefibre thanthan cultivatedcultivated silk.silk. ThisThis makesmakes itit moremore durabledurable andand moremore practicalpractical forfor clothingclothing.. Traditional uses includeinclude pilepile fabricsfabrics andand carpets.carpets. BecauseBecause itit growsgrows withoutwithout cultivationcultivation andand needs only to bebe gatheredgathered andand processed,processed , wildwild silksilk isis usuallyusually lessless expensiveexpensive thanthan cultivatedcultivated whitewhite silk. It is also rarely reeled inin orderorder toto ensureensure aa continuingcontinuing supply.supply.

The cocoons are gathered after the mothmoth hashas emerged.emerged. Spinning,Spinning, rather than reeling,reeling , makesmakes for less cost and means that yarns can be mademade inin sizessizes likelike woolwool oror cotton,cotton, heavyheavy enough to bebe attractive to hand craftsmen.craftsmen .

In China, tussah silk producedproduced by the ChineseChinese tussah or tussur moth (Antheraea pernyi)pemyi) is semi-semi cultivated. This silk is alsoalso calledcalled tassar.tassar. TheThe larvaelarvae feedfeed onon variousvarious speciesspecies ofof oaksoaks (Quercus(Quercus spp.).spp.). The oaks on which the caterpillarscaterpillars feed are pruned into shrubs 1.5-2 mm highhigh onon whichwhich thethe larvae are raised.raised. TwoTwo annualannual cropscrops areare obtained.obtained. TheThe smallsmall springspring cropcrop isis usedused exclusivelyexclusively asas breeding stock for the largelarge autumnautumn crop.crop. The silk ofof thethe autumnautumn cropcrop isis mostlymostly reeled.reeled . YieldsYields average approximately 45 kg/ha of reeledreeled fibrefibre andand aboutabout 6868 kg/hakg/ha ofof spinning spinning fibrefibre [Kolander, [Kolander, 1985]. The city of Dandong,Dandong, in LiaoningLiaoning Province has been a center for tussahtussah silksilk productionproduction for two centuriescenturies and inin 19801980 providedprovided aboutabout 7070 percentpercent ofof China'sChina's output.output. TussahTussah silksilk productionproduction fluctuates;fluctuates; in 1980,1980, 75 000000 tonstons werewere producedproduced andand aboutabout 5050 000000 tonstons werewere producedproduced eacheach yearyear between 1987 - 1989 (Peigler 1999).1999).

The tensantensan silksilk moth,moth , AntherraeaAntherraea yamamai,yamamai, has been cultivated in Japan for moremore thanthan 10001000 years. ItIt was introducedintroduced into Austria in thethe 1860's1860's byby BaronBaron dede Bretton.Bretton. AlthoughAlthough notnot usedused commercially in Europe todaytoday,, the moth hashas establishedestablished itself inin oakoak forestsforests ofof lowerlower AustriaAustria andand northern Italy and is considered a pest. Today tensan silk is producedproduced in onlyonly aa fewfew placesplaces inin Japan. ItIt hashas greatgreat culturalcultural andand ritualisticritualistic significance.significance. ItemsItems producedproduced from this silksilk includeinclude smallsmall tablecloths, neckties, belts,belts, clothscloths forfor BuddhistBuddhist altarsaltars andand familyfamily frames.frames. ManyMany ofof these these itemsitems costcost the equivalent ofof thousandsthousands ofof SUS$US (Peigler(Peigler 1999).1999).

Box 9. 3 Silkworms and the gypsy moth

The gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) is an insect native to Europe and Asia that feeds on a wide range of host plants includingincluding birches,birches, poplars,poplars, oaksoaks andand otherother temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees.trees. InIn 1869,1869, aa FrenchFrench scientist by the name of L. Troulvelot brought egg masses of this insectinsect fromfrom FranceFrance intointo MassachusettsMassachusetts for the purpose of crosscross breedingbreeding themthem with thethe domesticdomestic silkwormsilkworm and develop an alternative source of silk. His experiments failed, but during thethe coursecourse ofof hishis research,research, somesome gypsygypsy mothmoth larvaelarvae escapedescaped andand became established inin the surroundingsurrounding oakoak forests.forests. WithinWithin 2020 years,years, thethe insectinsect spreadspread overover an an areaarea ofof 900 900 km2km 2 aroundaround Boston,Boston, causingcausing severesevere damagedamage toto forest,forest, shadeshade andand fruitfruit trees.trees. TheThe insect has become one of the most serious forestforest andand urbanurban pestspests inin thethe northeasternnortheastern UnitedUnited StatesStates andand CanadaCanada andand inin somesome years, years, millions of hectares have suffered serious damage (Drooz, 19851985;; Leonard, 1981).

DYES

Several scale insects (Homoptera:(Homoptera: Coccidae) infest oaks in thethe MediterraneanMediterranean regionregion andand areare thethe sourcesource of a brilliant red-crimson dye. The most important is Kermococcus vermilis (= Kermes ilicis)ilicis),, whosewhose primary hosts are the foliage of QuercusQuercus coccifera and Q. ilexilex [Schetky,[Schetky, 1984;1984; Wickens

97 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

1986]. Both areare evergreenevergreen oaksoaks thatthat are widely distributeddistributed in Mediterranean EuropeEurope and the Near East (Figure 9.6).9.6). The pigmentpigment isis kermesic acid andand thethe colourcolour descriptors, descriptors, crimson in English,English , carmoisinecarmoisine in French,French, karmir inin Armenian,Armenian, kirmizkirmiz in Persian andand kirmima in Sanskrit [Gerber,[Gerber, 1978;1978; Green,Green, 1995]1995].. The dye sourcesource isis thethe femalefemale adultadult stage of this insect [Green, 1995].1995]. At one time thesethese insectsinsects werewere raisedraised commerciallycommercially in southern FranceFrance,, SpainSpain andand other areas of Mediterranean Europe [Adrosko,[Adrosko, 1971]. TheThe insects were harvested before dawn by women carryingcarrying lanterns andand picking the insects from thethe leavesleaves withwith fingernailsfingernails thatthat were keptkept longlong forfor this this purpose purpose [VVickens, [Wickens, 1986]. Figure 99.6.6 A standstand ofof kermeskermes oakoak (Quercus(Quercus Kermes,Kermes, also referred to as "dyers"dyers coccid,"coccid ," isis coccifera) nearnear KrytsosKrytsos onon the isle ofof Crete,Crete, Greece. ThisThis treetree isis a hosthost of kermes scale, once a dye of ancient origins,origins, andand therethere areare recordsrecords the major source of aa red-crimsonred-crimson dye.dye. of itsits widespreadwidespread useuse inin thethe Mediterranean Mediterranean and Near East for dyeingdyeing woolwool andand silksilk beforebefore other red dye sources were available [Green,[Green, 1998].1998]. ItIt maymay even be the oldestoldest dyestuffdyestuff known,known , and its use can bebe dateddated backback asas earlyearly asas 14001400 BCBe byby thethe Phoenicians.Phoenicians. KermesKermes colourscolours producedproduced byby the Phoenicians were prescribedprescribed forfor thethe appointmentsappointments ofof thethe tabernacletabernacle andand forfor thethe "holy"holy garments"garments" of Aaron [Gerber, 1978]. According to Schetky (1984), alum and urine were used in the preparation of dye baths. InIn the NearNear East,East, aa traditionaltraditional scarletscarlet fez waswas dyeddyed withwith kermes,kermes, asas waswas aa capcap ofof thethe same colour in Greece. During the Renaissance,Renaissance, the city of Venice, Italy,Italy, was the principal centre for kermes trade; and thethe dye,dye, knownknown asas écarlateElcarlate dede VeniseVenise (Venetian(Venetian scarlet),scarlet), waswas quitequite famous.famous. Many reds in Gothic tapestries were produced with kermes. Dyeing with kermes became known as grain or ingrain dyeing,dyeing, and in William Shakespear'sShakespear's TwelfthTwelfth Night he uses the phrase: Tis ingrain,ingrain, Sir! Twill'Twill endure wind and weather [Wickens,[Wickens, 1986]. The dye was widely used until the middle of the sixteenth century when cochineal,cochineal , a crimsoncrimson dye extractedextracted from thethe femalefemale adultadult stagestage ofof yetyet another scale insect,insect, DactylopiusOactylopius coccus,coccus, waswas discovereddiscovered [Green,[Green, 1995].1995]. ThisThis insect,insect, whichwhich feedsfeeds on various species of pricklyprickly pearpear cactuscactus (Opuntia(Opuntia spp.)sp~.) inin MexicoMexico andand Guatemala,Guatemala, producedproduced higher yields of dye than could be obtained from kermes.'1kermes. 1 One estimate indicates that 12 times as much kermes was required to equal oneone partpart ofof cochinealcochineal [Bancroft,[Bancroft, 1814].1814]. TheThe useuse ofof cochinealcochineal asas a dye source declined with thethe adventadvent ofof anilineaniline dyesdyes duringduring thethe earlyearly twentiethtwentieth centurycentury [Adrosko,[Ad rosko, 1971].

TodayToday,, use of kermes is restricted to aa few hobbyistshobbyists whowho preferprefer toto workwork withwith naturalnatural dyes,dyes, andand thethe material is difficult toto obtain.obtain . AccordingAccording toto GreenGreen (1995),(1995), whilewhile therethere isis occasionaloccasional interestinterest inin reviving kermes as a food colorant,colorant, there isis littlelittle realisticrealistic prospectprospect of itit everever regainingregaining commercial significance because of the high cost of collectingcollecting female scales.scales.

GALL NUTS

Galls are abnormal growths on the foliage, stemsstems andand branchesbranches ofof trees.trees. TheyThey cancan bebe causedcaused byby aa variety of agents includingincluding virus,virus, bacteriabacteria andand insects.insects. SeveralSeveral kindskinds ofof insectsinsects produceproduce gallsgalls onon trees and shrubs includingincluding aphids, fliesflies (midges)(midges) and wasps.wasps. GallGall insectsinsects havehave aa hormonalhormonal effecteffect on plants and can alteralter growthgrowth patterns.patterns. EachEach gallgall insectinsect producesproduces aa gallgall ofof aa uniqueunique morphologymorphology from which thethe insectinsect speciesspecies cancan oftenoften bebe identifiedidentified [Berenbaum,[Berenbaum, 1994;1994; Felt,Felt, 1940]. HeavyHeavy infestations ofof gall insectsinsects can cause a valuedvalued ornamentalornamental tree to bebe unsightlyunsightly and,and , inin extremeextreme cases, can cause tree deformity. On the other extreme,extreme, a number of gallsgalls areare thethe sourcesource ofof materials beneficial to humans and have been used to produceproduce inksinks andand dyes,dyes, tannin,tannin, medicinalmedicinal products and food for humanhuman consumption.

61 No estimates could be found onon the dye yieldyield from thethe kermeskermes scale.scale. However,However, thethe higherhigher yieldingyielding cochinealcochineal requiresrequires about 154154 000 insectsinsects toto produceproduce oneone kgkg ofof dye.dye. OneOne haha ofof plantedplanted OpuntiaOpuntia yieldsyields aboutabout 300300 kgkg ofof cochineal cochineal insectsinsects (Adrosko,(Ad rosko, 1971)1971)

98 Non-wood forest productsproducts fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

Galls caused by wasps are commoncommon on oaks,oaks, andand manymany are highhigh inin tannic and gallic acids (Figure 9.7).9.7). The highhigh contentcontent ofof tannintannin andand otherother materialsmaterials givegive aa numbernumber ofof beneficialbeneficial propertiesproperties toto oakoak galls. These have been knownknown for centuries,centuries, and some oak galls havehave beenbeen harvestedharvested in large quantities to bebe usedused asas ingredientsingredients inin medicine,medicine, inks,inks , dyesdyes andand asas aa tannintannin source.source.

Aleppo gall

The mostmost importantimportant ofof the insectinsect galls is thethe Aleppo gall. Also knownknown asas TurkeyTurkey gall,gal/, LevantLevant gall,gal/, gall-nut,gal/-nut, gallgal/ ofof commerce commerce andand inkink marble,marble, they havehave aa sphericalspherical shape,shape, areare hardhard andand brittlebrittle,, about the size of aa wildwild hickoryhickory nut,nut, andand appear on the stems andand branchesbranches of QuercusQuercus aegilopsaegilops,, Q.Q. infectoria, Q.Q. pendiculata and otherother oaksoaks.. The gallgall is producedproduced by a waspwasp ofof thethe familyfamily CynipidaeCynipidae (Cynips(Cynips tincttinctoria),.oria), which isis foundfound inin easterneastern EuropeEurope andand thethe NearNear East,East, including portions of Greece,Greece, Hungary,Hungary, IraqIraq andand TurkeyTurkey.. This gall has beenbeen of commercial importance sincesince the timetime ofof AncientAncient GreeceGreece and hashas beenbeen usedused forfor aa varietyvariety ofof purposes purposes [Fagan,[Fagan , 1918;1918; Felt,Felt, 1940].1940]. Figure 99.7.7 InsectInsect galls on oak near Dunrobbia,Dunrobbia, The primaryprimary use of AleppoAleppo gall was inin thethe Umbria Region, Italy.Italy. GallsGalls such as thesethese manufacture of of anan ink knownknown as ironiron gallo-gallo have aa highhigh tannictannic and gallic acid content andand have beenbeen widelywidely usedused inin the production of tannate ink oror iron-galliron-gall ink. There are manymany inks, dyes and tannin published recipes (see Box 9.4), but the defining components of these inks are iron, in the form of an iron salt such as ferrous sulphate,sulphate, tannic and gallic acids. The addition of an iron salt to tannic acid produces a brown to blackblack colour.colour. GumGum arabic,arabic, anotheranother non-woodnon-wood forestforest product,product, isis addedadded toto the inkink toto delaydelay thethe saturationsaturation ofof thethe paper.paper. ThisThis inkink flowsflows wellwell andand cancan readilyreadily bebe appliedapplied toto paperpaper or parchment with a pen.pen . The bondingbonding ofof iron-galliron-gall inkink withwith paperpaper oror parchmentparchment mademade itit superiorsuperior toto carbon ink, an ink mademade fromfrom lampblack,lampblack, for useuse onon documentsdocuments becausebecause itit couldcould notnot bebe washedwashed from the surface as gum boundbound carboncarbon inkink Table 9.3 ChemicalChemical contentcontent ofof thethe AleppoAleppo gall could [Burandt,[Burandt, 1994]. The AleppoAleppo gallgall has a particularly high tannic acid content ComponentCornpQnellt Percent and also contains gallic acidacid (Table(Table 9.3).9.3). The acids are extractedextracted from thethe AleppoAleppo Tannic acid 65.0 gall by soakingsoaking andand boilingboiling andand werewere Gallic acid 2.02.0 highly regarded becausebecause theythey producedproduced Ellagic acid and luteo-gallic acid 2.0 permanent inksinks thatthat did not fade.fade . WhenWhen Chlorophyll and volatile oiloil 0.7 durable ink was required, as in the casecase Brown extractive matter 2.5 of legallegal documents, local lawslaws often Gum 2.52.5 required thatthat the records be made of inks Starch 2.0 Woody Fibre 10.510.5 produced from AleppoAleppo gall.gall. Ninth andand Minor components 1.3 tenth centurycentury monks whowho usedused itit for Sugar, AlbumenAlbumen copying manuscripts knew ink made from Potassium sulphate/gallate gall-nuts. Even as late as the early part of PotassiumPotassium,, Phosphate the twentieth century, inks purchasedpurchased byby Gallate and Oxalate of lime the Treasury of thethe UnitedUnited States,States, BankBank Moisture 11.5 of England, the GermanGerman ChancelloryChancellory andand the Danish Government were requiredrequired to Total 100.0 be mademade fromfrom acidsacids extractedextracted fromfrom thethe SourceSource: FaganFagan 19181918. Aleppo gall [Fagan,[Fagan, 1918].1918].

The brown to blackblack solutionsolution producedproduced whenwhen anan ironiron saltsalt isis addedadded toto aa tannictannic acidacid solutionsolution waswas alsoalso widely used as aa dye.dye. Again,Again, thethe favouredfavoured tannintannin sourcesource waswas AleppoAleppo gall.gall. This dyedye waswas widelywidely used for dyeing furs and leather.leather. Another popular use was for dyeingdyeing hairhair black.black. AsAs recentlyrecently asas 1914, Aleppo gall nuts valued at US$US$ 1717000 000 were importedimported intointo the UnitedUnited StatesStates fromfrom Baghdad,Baghdad, IraqIraq,, for dyeing seal-skin furs [Berenbaum,[Berenbaum, 1994;1994; Fagan,Fagan, 1918].1918].

99 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

The earliest use of Aleppo gall was in medicine by the Greeks and Romans.Romans. In Greece,Greece, Aleppo gall was known to be of medicinalmedicinal value by HippocratesHippocrates in the fifth century BC and by Theophrastus in the third century BC. According to the RomanRoman Pliny,Pliny, Aleppo gall was used in somesome 23 remedies,remedies, including treatmenttreatment ofof ulcerationsulcerations of thethe mouth,mouth , gumgum disease,disease, malformedmalformed nails,nails, hanghang nails,nails, toothache and burns. Because of their high tannic acid content,content, Aleppo galls were also a highly regarded tannin source for tanning hides and skins. OverOver 2 000000 yearsyears ago,ago, thethe RomanRoman naturalist,naturalist, encyclopedist and and writerwriter PlinyPliny wrotewrote that Aleppo galls were widely usedused forfor tanningtanning hideshides [Berenbaum, 1994;1994; Fagan,Fagan, 1918].1918].

Box 9.4 An ancient recipe for ink

According to an old Italian recipe for production of ink, ingredients include a source of tannin, an iron salt, a solventsolvent,, a thickening agent and an anti-fermentationanti-fermentation agent. Recommended sources of tannin include gall nutsnuts,, wood and bark of oak,oak, bark of chestnut or grapegrape skins.skins. RecommendedRecommended iron salts are ferrous or ferric sulphate. Gum arabicarabic,, white grape skinsskins,, honeyhoney,, olive oil or nut oil may be used as a thickening agent and vinegar is suggested as an anti-fermentation agent (Tiburzi,(Tiburzi , 1993).1993).

Otherother galls

Many galls on oaks indigenous to Europe,Europe, NorthNorth AfricaAfrica andand thethe NearNear EastEast containcontain tannictannic andand gallicgallic acids and havehave beenbeen usedused for thethe samesame purposespurposes as the AleppoAleppo gall. Another gall that resemblesresembles the Aleppo gall andand isis producedproduced byby thethe CynipidCynipid waspwasp (Cynips(Cynips insana)insana) containscontains 26 percentpercent tannictannic acid and 1.61.6 percentpercent gallicgallic acid.acid. TheThe gallgall isis knownknown asas thethe madmad appleapple ofof Sodom, Sodom, DeadDead SeaSea fruit,fruit, Mecca gall or Bussorah gall and is foundfound onon variousvarious speciesspecies ofof QuercusQuercus inin southeasternsoutheastern Europe and the NearNear East.East. ThisThis gallgall hashas beenbeen usedused inin thethe productionproduction ofof aa dyedye knownknown asas TurkeyTurkey red.red .The The knoppern or acorn gall,gall, caused by C.C. quercus-calycis,quercus-calycis, occurs on several oaks inin Austria,Austria, Bosnia-Bosnia HerzegovinaHerzegovina,, HungaryHungary,, SerbiaSerbia,, SloveniaSlovenia,, Greece and less frequently in FranceFrance,, GermanyGermany,, Italy and the Netherlands.Netherlands. This gall ranked second in importance toto thethe Aleppo gall. In Austria it has been used by tanners and has been substituted by dyers to the Aleppo gall. The knoppern gall contains about 45-50 percentpercent tannin.tannin. TheThe DevonshireDevonshire gallgall isis causedcaused byby C.C. kollarikollari andand occursoccurs onon variousvarious oaks oaks in central and southern Europe, North Africa and thethe Near East. In 18581858 or so,so, thisthis insectinsect was was introduced into England where concern was initiallyinitially expressedexpressed about itsits potentialpotential toto causecause severesevere damage to oakoak forests.forests. However,However, it waswas laterlater discovereddiscovered to bebe anan excellentexcellent sourcesource ofof tannintannin forfor making inks [Fagan,[Fagan , 1918].1918].

Some oak galls (species unspecified)unspecified) are sources of hueshues otherother thanthan thethe blackblack producedproduced byby thethe Aleppo and relatedrelated galls.galls. When usedused with an alumalum mordant,mordant, they produce a yellow dye, when used with a chromechrome mordantmordant theythey produceproduce aa greenishgreenish yellowyellow colourcolour and,and , whenwhen usedused withwith nono mordant,mordant, can produce yellow to yellowish brown hues [Bliss, 1981].1981]. The Navajo,Navajo, an indigenousindigenous tribe of thethe southwestern United States, used many native plants and minerals occurring in their native area to dye wool for traditionaltraditional weavings. A cone-shaped gallgall foundfound on Quercus pungenspungens,, aa small to medium scrub oak foundfound inin portionsportions ofof western western Texas, Texas, Southern Southern NewNew Mexico, Mexico, southeastern southeastern Arizona and northernnorthern Mexico,Mexico, waswas oneone ofof theirtheir dyedye sources.sources. VVhenWhen usedused withwith anan alum mordantmordant,, thethe green or brownbrown galls produceproduce a lightlight goldgold oror lightlight yellowish-tanyellowish-tan colourcolour [Bryan[Bryan etet al.,al., 1978;1978; Little,Little, 1976].

There has beenbeen littlelittle interestinterest inin thethe useuse ofof gallsgalls occurringoccurring onon NewNew WorldWorld oaksoaks asas ingredientsingredients inin inksinks and dyes or as a tannin source although several have been shown toto have high tannintannin levels.levels. OakOak gallsgalls,, caused by Disholcaspis weldi on Quercus reticulate,reticulata , have reportedly been sold in fruit stands in Mexico;Mexico; and the gall known as oak apple isis saidsaid toto bebe sweetsweet and tasty.tasty. The gallgall knownknown as blackblack oak wheat,wheat, caused by CallirhytisCallirhytis spp.,spp., hashas beenbeen usedused inin ArkanasArkanas andand MissouriMissouri asas feedfeed forfor cattle,catt/e , hogs,hogs, sheep,sheep, turkeys and chickens [Fagan,[Fagan, 1918]1918].

MISTLETOES

The leafy mistletoes of temperatetemperate deciduousdeciduous forestsforests (Viscum(Viscum albumalbum inin Europe,Europe, northernnorthern AfricaAfrica andand the Near EastEast andand variousvarious speciesspecies ofof PhoradendronPhoradendron in North America) are parasitic plants that

100 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees infest many temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees.. These plants havehave fascinatedfascinated peoplepeople forfor centuries.centuries. Their ability to stay greengreen inin winterwinter andand theirtheir seeminglyseemingly magicalmagical abilityability toto livelive withoutwithout roots,roots, nevernever reaching thethe ground, led ancientancient humanhuman culturescultures to believebelieve thatthat theythey werewere divinedivine gifts,gifts, perhapsperhaps created by thunderbolts.thunderbolts. Mistletoes havehave an importantimportant place in manymany ancientancient religiousreligious ritualsrituals among tree worshippers of WesternWestern Europe,Europe, includingincluding thethe CelticCeltic Druids,Druids, earlyearly ScandinaviansScandinavians andand Germans. Ceremonies of both the summersummer andand winterwinter solsticessolstices involvedinvolved thethe harvestharvest ofof mistletoe mistletoe plantsplants.. Druid priests cut the mistletoemistletoe with aa goldengolden sicklesickle ontoonto aa whitewhite clothcloth toto keepkeep thethe plantplant fromfrom touching the groundground.. Mistletoe harvest was also part of Norse ceremonies involvinginvolving BalderBalder,, thethe sonson of OdinOdin.. Because of its role as a parasite of the all-powerfulall-powerful oak (see Chapter 2)2),, mistletoe became a symbolicsymbolic source of protectiveprotective and medicinalmedicinal powers.powers. The burningburning of oakoak logs,logs, humanhuman sacrificesacrifice and the harvest of mistletoe were intertwining ceremonies. Mistletoe was also brought into houses forfor protection of the house and itsits occupants [Schumann,[Schumann, 1991].1991].

In contemporary Christian cultures, thethe femalefemale mistletoemistletoe plantplant containingcontaining white,white, berry-likeberry-like fruits,fruits , isis part of the Christmas traditiontradition.. A sprig of mistletoe is often hung over a doorway andand,, when a man or woman walks through the doorwaydoorway,, it is appropriate forfor a member ofof the opposite sexsex to pick a berry and kiss the person.person. MistletoeMistletoe sprigs,sprigs, collected in forests, are a popular decorative item sold during the Christmas holiday season in EuropeEurope andand NorthNorth America.America. TheThe mistletoemistletoe sprigssprigs areare oftenoften harvested from the crown of tall trees by shootingshooting them out with a shotgunshotgun [author's[author's observation]. An early use of the berriesberries ofof ViscumViscum albumalbum was to makemake aa productproduct knownknown as birdlime.birdlime. This is aa sticky material that was spread on twigs andand branchesbranches ofof treestrees byby fowlersfowlers toto traptrap birds.birds.

Figure 9.8 Berries of ViscumViscum album.album.

101 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

CHAPlER10CHAPTER 10

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONSCONCLUSIONS

The world'sworld's temperatetemperate broadleafbroad leaf forestsforests areare composedcomposed ofof aa diverse diverse andand economicallyeconomically importantimportant group of trees that have providedprovided humanshumans with a wide rangerange of bothboth woodwood andand non-woodnon-wood products.products. Many of these trees (e.g.(e .g. oaks,oaks, laurel,laurel , birchesbirches and mountain ash) have also become integral parts of humanhuman culturescultures throughoutthroughout the worldworld andand havehave importantimportant placesplaces inin folklore,folklore , mythologymythology andand religion or as symbols of bravery,bravery, valour,valour, reliability and authorityauthority.. The leaf of one temperate broadbroad- leaved tree, the sugar maple (Acer(Acer saccharum)saccharum) appearsappears onon thethe nationalnational flagflag ofof Canada.Canada.

Temperate broad-leaved treestrees areare the source of manymany importantimportant and,and , inin somesome cases,cases , uniqueunique NWFP.NWFP. They come from virtually every part of these trees:trees: flowers,flowers, foliage, barkbark,, sapsap,, fruits and nuts. Other important NWFP come from organismsorganisms closely associated with these trees either asas parasites,parasites, symbionts oror saprophytes.saprophytes. ExamplesExamples include edible mushroomsmushrooms and productsproducts suchsuch asas silk and natural dyes,dyes, which come from insects that use these trees as hosthost material.material. Virtually all temperate broad-leaved trees are important,important, to some degree,degree, as ornamental and landscape plants,plants, and many are popular for thethe ancientancient artart ofof bonsai.bonsai.

The fruits and nutsnuts ofof manymany broad-leavedbroad-leaved temperatetemperate trees are edible andand havehave beenbeen usedused asas foodfood by humanshumans sincesince prehistoricprehistoric times.times. Today,Today, manymany areare importantimportant agriculturalagricultural cropscrops andand areare growngrown throughout the world.world. ExamplesExamples includeinclude thethe pomepo me fruits,fruits, suchsuch asas applesapples andand pears;pears ; stonestone fruits,fruits, such as cherries,cherries, peaches,peaches, apricots and plums;plums; various nuts, such as almonds,almonds, English or Persian walnuts,walnuts, pecans and pistachios;pistachios; and olives.olives. TheThe edibleedible fruitsfruits oror nutsnuts ofof some some temperatetemperate broad-broad leaved treestrees,, such as chestnutschestnuts or hazelnuts,hazelnuts, may be grown inin orchards in some regionsregions of thethe world but inin otherother areasareas areare stillstill gatheredgathered inin thethe forests.forests . StillStill otherother edible fruits and nuts,nuts, such as the fruits of mountainmountain ash,ash, persimmon,persimmon, hawthorn,hawthorn, blackblack walnutswalnuts andand hickoryhickory nuts,nuts, areare stillstill gatheredgathered almost entirely from naturalnatural oror plantedplanted forests.forests. TheThe nutsnuts ofof somesome temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees areare also important sources of edible and,and, inin somesome cases,cases, industrialindustrial gradegrade oils.oils. ExamplesExamples are walnuts,walnuts, hazelnuts,hazelnuts, olives andand oil fromfrom thethe AsianAsian tungtung tree.tree.

Temperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees produceproduce manymany NWFPNWFP thatthat areare commerciallycommercially importantimportant todaytoday andand areare significant factors in many local and regionalregional economies.economies. These include wild honeys;honeys; essential oils and flavourings from the foliage;foliage; syrupsyrup andand relatedrelated productsproducts fromfrom maplemaple andand birchbirch trees;trees; cork;cork; tannins; medicinal products; and edible nuts. Cork,Cork, thethe soft,soft, spongy innerinner bark of Quercus suber,suber, isis a particularlyparticularly interestinginteresting productproduct becausebecause it isis thethe onlyonly productproduct acceptableacceptable forfor useuse asas bottlebottle stoppers inin finefine wineswines andand champagne.champagne. CommerciallyCommercially importantimportant productsproducts fromfrom organismsorganisms closelyclosely associated with temperate broad-leaved trees include edible mushrooms,mushrooms, produced by fungifungi,, and silk,silk, produced byby caterpillarscaterpillars feedingfeeding onon thethe foliagefoliage ofof mulberrymulberry oror otherother broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees.trees.

Some NWFP of temperate broad-leaved trees are of sufficient importance toto bebe subject toto grading standards and harvestingharvesting regulations.regulations. BothBoth CanadaCanada andand thethe UnitedUnited StatesStates havehave nationalnational standardsstandards for grading maplemaple syrupsyrup basedbased on colour.colour. InIn thethe MediterraneanMediterranean region,region , cork isis gradedgraded forfor useuse asas bottle stoppers and related products or forfor agglomerate.agglomerate. France,France, ItalyItaly andand SpainSpain havehave strictstrict rulesrules governing the harvestingharvesting andand labellinglabelling ofof truffles,truffles, andand ItalyItaly requiresrequires thatthat truffletruffle huntershunters bebe licensed.licensed.

The useuse ofof somesome non-woodnon-wood forestforest productsproducts ofof temperate temperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees isis expanding.expanding . TheThe development ofof products from agglomerated corkcork inin the latelate nineteenthnineteenth century resulted in aa significant expansion of the corkcork industry.industry. TheThe introductionintroduction ofof tungtung treetree intointo thethe southeasternsoutheastern UnitedUnited States resulted in a significant expansion of the use of tung oil and the development of a regional paint and varnish industry.industry. The shiitakeshiitake mushroom,mushroom, once a strictlystrictly AsianAsian delicacy,delicacy, isis nownow widelywidely cultivated in western countries. There is an increasing demand for North American maple syrup in Europe and Asia and for European truffles inin the UnitedUnited States.States.

Opportunities also exist for additional expansion of certain NWFP of broad-leaved temperate treestrees.. A potentially important enterprise is the expansion of a viable chestnut industry in the United States based on blight-tolerant or resistant varieties of chestnut,chestnut, as well as development of this industry in places such as Australia,Australia, New Zealand,Zealand , Argentina and Chile.Chile. Another is the expandedexpanded use ofof

103 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

Carob and ProsopisProsopis podspods asas aa food food for for human human consumption. consumption .Additional Additional opportunities opportunities includeinclude increased production of silksilk fromfrom wildwild silkwormssilkworms andand thethe developmentdevelopment ofof additional additional edibleedible fruits,fruits, such as the hawthorn inin the southernsouthern UnitedUnited States.States.

This group of trees isis alsoalso thethe sourcesource ofof manymany productsproducts thatthat werewere importantimportant inin thethe pastpast butbut havehave been replaced by cheaper oror moremore effectiveeffective syntheticsynthetic alternatives.alternatives. TheThe developmentdevelopment ofof aniline aniline dyesdyes during the early partpart ofof thethe twentiethtwentieth century,century, forfor example,example, providedprovided aa cheapcheap alternativealternative sourcesource forfor many natural dyes, including quercitron, which was once an important source of a brightbright yellowyellow dye. Similarly, the carmine or brightbright redred dyedye obtainedobtained fromfrom thethe oakoak kermeskermes scalescale waswas firstfi rst replacedreplaced by the larger,larger, easier to rearrear cochinealcochineal insectinsect andand laterlater byby syntheticsynthetic dyes.dyes. GatheringGathering of thethe summersummer truffle in thethe UnitedUnited KingdomKingdom becamebecame lessless profitableprofitable becausebecause ofof increasedincreased labourlabour costscosts andand theirtheir relatively small size.size. BeechBeech nuts,nuts, onceonce aa popularpopular edibleedible nutnut inin northeasternnortheastern NorthNorth America,America, areare nono longer important on a commercial scale because ofof theirtheir smallsmall sizesize and thethe fact that they were replaced by other foods. SalicylicSalicylic acid, one ofof thethe ingredientsingredients ofof aspirin,aspirin, waswas onceonce extractedextracted fromfrom willow bark butbut isis nownow producedproduced fromfrom alternativealternative syntheticsynthetic sources.sources .Moreover, Moreover ,several several non-woodnon-wood forest products from temperate broad-leaved trees were of great importanceimportance toto primitive,primitive, aboriginal societies but are of littlelittle moremore thanthan academicacademic interestinterest today.today. Examples include the use of acorns from various species of LithocarpusLithocarpus and QuercusQuercus by indigenousindigenous tribes inin NorthNorth AmericaAmerica andand thethe use of birch bark for shelters,shelters, canoes, drinking cups and other products across the boreal forests of the Northern Hemisphere.Hemisphere.

The value of many NWFPNWFP of temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees has been appreciated for thousands of years. Use of tannin from oak bark for curingcuring hides,hides, for example,example, was known by the Egyptians at least as early as 30003000 BC.BC. SilkSilk maymay havehave beenbeen aa commoditycommodity inin ChinaChina asas earlyearly asas 26002600 BC.BC . TheThe unique properties of cork were known by the Greeks and Romans as early as 100100 BC. IndigenousIndigenous North American tribes used the sapsap ofof bothboth birchbirch andand maplemaple treestrees asas aa sweetener sweetener longlong beforebefore thethe Europeans arrived, and a permanent ink,ink, made from oak galls,galls, was used in Europe as early as the ninth and tenth centuries.centuries.

The use ofof somesome NVVFPNWFP ofof temperatetemperate broad-leaved treestrees,, on the other hand,hand, is of relativelyrelatively recentrecent origin. For example, the use of thethe barkbark ofof RhamnusRhamnus purshianapurshiana as aa naturalnatural laxativelaxative waswas notnot appreciated until the late nineteenth century. The same is true of the useuse ofof UlmusUlmus rubrarubra barkbark toto soothe irritations.irritations.

Some usesuses ofof NVVFP NWFP ofof temperate temperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees havehave resultedresulted in overharvestingoverharvesting,, unsustainable practices, land-use conflicts and introduction ofof destructive pests. These have had adverse effects on trees thatthat areare sourcessources ofof non-woodnon-wood products.products. ExamplesExamples includeinclude overharvestingoverharvesting of oak, chestnutchestnut andand tanoaktanoak forfor tannintannin inin NorthNorth America;America; overharvestingoverharvesting ofof corkcork oakoak forfor bothboth corkcork and tannin inin MediterraneanMediterranean Africa and Europe;Europe; and harvestingharvesting of cascaracascara barkbark inin thethe PacificPacific Northwest region of the UnitedUnited States.States. IncreasedIncreased demanddemand forfor thethe AmericanAmerican matsutakematsutake mushroommushroom by JapanJapan hashas resultedresulted inin conflictsconflicts between between commercialcommercial mushroommushroom harvestersharvesters andand traditionaltraditional harvesting byby indigenous tribestribes in California. Introduction ofof thethe Asian chestnut blight into both Europe and North AmericaAmerica hashas hadhad devastatingdevastating effectseffects onon nativenative chestnutchestnut forests,forests, especiallyespecially inin North America, where chestnuts have almost beenbeen forgottenforgotten asas aa foodfood source.source. IntroductionIntroduction ofof the the Dutch elm disease, another Asian pathogen,pathogen, intointo EuropeEurope andand NorthNorth AmericaAmerica hashas hadhad devastatingdevastating effects on a favouritefavourite groupgroup ofof ornamentalornamental andand shadeshade trees.trees. GypsyGypsy mothmoth waswas purposelypurposely introducedintroduced from Europe intointo the UnitedUnited States inin anan attemptattempt toto developdevelop a hybridhybrid silkwormsilkworm thatthat would feed on oaks. Instead,Instead, this insectinsect hashas beenbeen responsibleresponsible forfor defoliationdefoliation ofof millionsmillions ofof hectares hectares ofof broadleaf broad leaf forests across eastern NorthNorth America,America, andand thethe areaarea ofof infestationinfestation continuescontinues toto expand.expand.

There areare manymany opportunities,opportunities, worldwide,worldwide, to developdevelop oror expandexpand profitable,profitable, sustainablesustainable andand environmentally sound NWFPNWFP enterprisesenterprises inin conjunctionconjunction withwith economiceconomic developmentdevelopment projectsprojects either as primaryprimary oror supplementalsupplemental sourcessources ofof income.income. Obviously,Obviously, the developmentdevelopment of suchsuch anan enterprise must be basedbased onon thethe availabilityavailability ofof anan existentexistent forestforest resourceresource oror thethe existenceexistence andand availability ofof sitessites capablecapable ofof supportingsupporting treetree plantations.plantations. An appreciationappreciation of NWFPNWFP oror thethe presence of traditionaltraditional usesuses ofof NWFPNWFP byby locallocal residentsresidents isis aa significantsignificant advantageadvantage whenwhen developingdeveloping such enterprises. In addition to thethe potentialpotential economiceconomic benefits to bebe derivedderived fromfrom developmentdevelopment and expansionexpansion of NWFPNWFP enterprises,enterprises, other factors to considerconsider are thatthat thethe managementmanagement andand harvesting practicespractices areare sustainablesustainable andand thatthat thethe harvestharvest isis compatiblecompatible withwith otherother forestforest uses.uses.

104 Non-wood forest productsproducts fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Adrosko, R.J. RJ. 1971. 1971 .Natural Natural dyes dyes and and home home dyeing. dyeing. NewNew York, York ,Dover Dover Publications. Publications. 154154 pp.pp . Alexopoulos, C. J.C.J. 1962 1962.. Introductory Introductory. mycology.mycology. NewNew York,York ,John John VVileyWiley and Sons Inc.Inc. 163163 pp.pp. Anonymous,Anonymous, 1997.1997. CarobCarob agroforestryagroforestry in PortugalPortugal andand Spain.Spain. TheThe AustralianAustralian NewNew CropsCrops NewsletterNewsletter,, Issue No.NO.7 7.. University of Queensland,Queensland, Queensland, Australia,Australia, 4 pp.pp. Aris, P.P. 1990.1990 . RecipesRecipes fromfrom aa SpanishSpanish village.village. London,London, ConranConran OctopusOctopus Ltd.Ltd . 144144 pp. Arora,Arora, D.D. 1986.1986 .Mushrooms Mushrooms demystified.de mystified. Berkeley,Berkeley, California,California, TenTen Speed Press. 958 pp. Ayers, G.S.G.S. 1992.1992. CharacteristicsCharacteristics ofof blackblack locustlocust asas beebee forage.forage .In In Proceedings: Proceedings: InternationalInternational Conference on Black Locust Biology,Biology, Culture and Utilization,Utilization, 17-2117-21 June 19911991 DepartmentDepartment of Forestry,Forestry, Michigan State University,University, East Lansing,Lansing, Michigan.Michigan . pppp 243-257. Bailey, R.G.RG. 1996.1996. EcosystemEcosystem geography.geography. Springer.Springer. 204 pp.pp. Bainbridge, D.A.D.A. 1986.1986. Quercus,Quercus, aa multipurposemultipurpose treetree forfor temperatetemperate climates.climates. The Int.Int. TreeTree CropsCrops Jour. 3:3: 291-298.291-298. Baldini, U.A.,U.A., Le-Quesne,Le-Quesne, G.C., G.C., Puentes,Puentes, M.O. M.D. & & Ojeda, Ojeda, G.P. G.P. 1994. 1994 .Daños Oanos bi6ticos bi6ticos enen roble,roble, raulirauli y coihue:coihue: Guia de reconocimiento. Chile,Chile, CorporaciónCorporacion NacionalNacional Forestal.Forestal. Bancroft, 1814.1814. ExperimentalExperimental researches researches concerningconcerning thethe philosophyphilosophy ofof permanent permanent colourscolours andand the the best meansmeans ofof producingproducing themthem byby dyeing,dyeing, calicocalico printing,printing, etcetc.. PhiladelphiaPhiladelphia,, ThomasThomas DobsonDobson.. Belhadj, S.S. 1999.1999. PistachioPistachio situationsituation inin Algeria.Algeria. FAO-IHEAMFAO-IHEAM NucisNucis Newsletter 8:8: 30. Berenbaum, M.R.M.R 1994.1994. BugsBugs inin thethe system.system. HelixHelix Books,Books, 377377 pp.pp. Bernardson, W.,W. , 1996.1996. Argentina,Argentina, UruguayUruguay & ParaguayParaguay - A A LonelyLonely PlanetPlanet TravelTravel SurvivalSurvival Kit.Kit. HawthornHawthorn,, VictoriaVictoria,, Australia,Australia, Lonely Planet Publications. 759 pp.pp . Bernáth,Bernath, J.J. && Földesi, F6ldesi, D. D. 1992. 1992 Sea-buckthorn. Sea-buckthorn (Hippophae (Hippophae rhamnoidesrhamnoides L.):L.): aa promisingpromising newnew medicinal and food cropcrop.. J. Herbs, Spices & Medicinal Plants 1(1/2): 27-35. Bliss, A.A. 1981.1981. AA handbook handbook of of dyes dyes from from naturalnatural materials. materials. NewNew York,York, CharlesCharles ScribnerScribner && Sons.Sons. 180 pp. Bliss, A.A. 1993.1993. North North AmericanAmerican dye dye plants.plants. Loveland,Loveland, Colorado,Colorado, InterweaveInterweave Press.Press. 288288 pp.pp. Bolgiano, C. C. 1997.1997 .Sylvan Sylvan regards. regards. AmericanAmerican Forests Forests 103(2):103(2): 35-36.35-36. Boom, B.K.B.K. && Kleijn,Kleijn H., H. 1966. 1966. The The glory glory of ofthe the tree. tree .New New York,York, Doubleday.Doubleday. Bounous, G. G. & & Peano, Peano, C. C 1990.. 1990. Frutti Frutti dimenticari. dimenticari. Monti Monti e e Boschi Boschi 41(4): 41 (4) :23-32. 23-32. Bourdu, R.R. && Viard,Viard, M. M. 1988. 1988. Arbres Arbres souverains. souverains . Paris,Paris, EditionsEditions du Mai.Mai . 207 pp.pp . Boyce, J.S.J.S. 1961.1961 .Forest/athology. Forestl athology. NewNew York,York, McGraw-HillMcGraw-Hili BookBook CompanyCompany Inc.Inc. 572 pp.pp. Boyd,Boyd, R.R 1986.1986. StrategiesStrategies ofof Indian Indian burningburning inin thethe WillametteWillamette Valley.Valley. Can.Can. J.J. ofof Anthropology Anthropology 5:65- 5:65- 8686.. Brasier, C.M.,C.M ., Robredo,Robredo, F.F. && Ferraz,Ferraz, J.F.P.J.F.P. 1993. EvidenceEvidence forfor PhytophthoraPhytophthora cinnamomicinnamomi involvement in Iberian oak decline. Plant/athologyPlantiathology 42:42 : 140-145.140-145. Breugel, P.P. vanvan & & Stephan, Stephan J., J. 1999. 1999 Carob. Carob distribution distribution in in Lebanon. Lebanon. FAO-1HEAM FAO-IHEAM NucisNucis NewsletterNewsletter. 8: 30.30. Briggs, R.T.RT. 1984.1984. PlymouthPlymouth colony'scolony's dyedye plants.plants. PlantsPlants andand GardenGarden -- BrooklynBrooklyn BotanicBotanic GardensGardens Record 20(3):20(3): 39-40.39-40. Bryan, N.G.,N.G., Young,Young, S.S. && Shirley,Shirley, C.K. C.K 1978.. 1978 .Navajo Navajo native native dyes, dyes ,their their preparation preparation andand use.use. Palmer Lake,Lake, Colorado,Colorado, Filter Press. 75 pp.pp . Buchanan, R.R 1987.1987 .A A weaver'sweaver's garden.garden. Loveland,Loveland , Colorado,Colorado, InterweaveInterweave Press. 230 pp. Burandt, J.J. 1994.1994. AnAn investigationinvestigation towardtoward thethe identificationidentification of traditional drawingdrawing inks.inks TheThe Book and Paper Group Annual:Annual: 13 (Accessed via the Internet).Internet). Burns, R.M.RM. && Honkala,Honkala, B.H.,B.H., technical technical coordinators.coordinators. 1990.1990. SilvicsSilvics of NorthNorth America,America, Vol. 2.,2., Hardwoods.,Hardwoods., Washington,Washington , D.C.,D.C. , USDAUSDA ForestForest Service. 877877 pp.pp. Cagniart, P.P. 1968.1968. CommerceCommerce etet réglementationreglementation dede lala truffe.truffe. In:In: AttiAtti del dell 1 congressocongresso intemazionaleinternazionale sulsui tartufo,tartufo, 24-25 May 1968,1968, Spoleto,Spoleto, Italy.Italy. pppp 1-6.1-6. CameronCameron,, M.M. 1999.1999. EstablishingEstablishing an AlaskanAlaskan birch syrup industry:industry: Birch syrup - it'sit's thethe un-maple.un-maple. 10 pp. Casselman, KK.L..L. 1993.1993. Craft of the dyerdyer -- ColorColor from from plantsplants andand lichens.lichens. NewNew York,York, DoverDover Publishers. 249249 pp.pp. Cesaro, L., Linddal,Linddal, M. M. && Pettenella, Pettenella, D. D. 1995. 1995 .The The economic economic rolerole ofof non-woodnon-wood forest products and services in rural development. MeditMedit 6(2):6(2): 28-34.28-34. Cesaro, L., Linddal,Linddal, M. M. && Pettenella, Pettenella, D. D. unpublished. unpublished. RegionalRegional differencesdifferences inin benefitsbenefits of non-wood forest products and services inin Europe.Europe. 1212 pp.pp.

105 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

Chamberlain, J., Bush,Bush, R.R. && Hammet, Hammet, A.L. A.L. Non-Timber Non-Timber Forest Forest ProductsProducts TheThe OTHEROTHER forestforest products. For.For. Pro.Pro. J.J. 48(10) Ciani, A.A. 1990.1990. IIII circuitocircuito commercialecommerciale deldel tartufotartufo inin Italia.Italia. InIn M.M. BencivengaBencivenga && B.B. Granetti,Granetti , eds.eds. AttiAtti del II" congressocongresso intemazionaleinternazionale sulsuI tartufo,tartufo, Spoleto,Spoleto, Italy.Italy. ComunitaComunita MontanaMontana deidei MontiMonti Martani e del Serano.Serano. pp 621-631. Ciesla, B.B. 1990a.1990a. Rowan,Rowan, treetree ofof waxwingswaxwings andand witches.witches. Forest WorldWorld 6(3):6(3): 27-31.27-31 . Ciesla, B.B. 1990b.1990b. Myrtlewood,Myrtlewood, magnificentmagnificent hardwoodhardwood ofof thethe bigbig timbertimber country.country. ForestForest WorldWorld 6(2):6(2): 20-23. Che Muqi. 1989.1989. TheThe silksilk road,road, pastpast andand present.present. Beijing,Beijing, ForeignForeign Languages Press. 319 pppp.. Chua, C.S. && Klinac,Klinac, D.J. D.J. 1992. 1992. World World chestnut chestnut production. production. NewNew Zealand Zealand ChestnutChestnut Conference,Conference, November 19921992 (Accessed via the Internet).Internet). Coppen, J.J.W.J.J.W. Unpublished.Unpublished. NationalNational Statistics.Statistics. Coppen, J.J.W.,J.J.W., ed.ed. MedicinalMedicinal andand aromaticaromatic plants:plants: IndustrialIndustrial ProfilesProfiles - Eucalyptus.Eucalyptus. Amsterdam,Amsterdam , Harwood Publishing. In preparation Dansereau, P.P. 1957.1957. Biogeography,Biogeography, anan ecologicalecological perspective.perspective. NewNew York,York, RolandRoland PressPress Co.Co. 394 pp. David, E.E. 1987.1987. ItalianItalian food.food. London,London , BarrieBarrie & Jenkins.Jenkins. 240 pp. della Croce,Croce, J. J. 1996. 1996. Salse Salse di di pomodoro. pomodoro .San San Francisco,Francisco ,Chronicle Chronicle Books.Books. 132132 pp.pp . Derby, JA.,J.A., 1980. 1980 .Acorns Acorns for for modern modern man. man .In: In :Ecology, Ecology , managementmanagement andand utilizationutilization of CaliforniaCalifornia oaks, 26-28 June 1979,1979, Claremont,Claremont, California.California. USDA ForestForest Service,Service, PacificPacific NorthwestNorthwest Forest and RangeRange ExperimentExperiment Station,Station, Berkeley,Berkeley, California.California. GeneralGeneral TechnicalTechnical ReportReport PSW-44PSW-44,, pp. 360-361.360-361 . deWit, H.C.D.H.C.D. 1967.1967. PlantsPlants ofof thethe worldworld -- TheThe higherhigher plants.plants. Vol.Vol. 2.2. NewNew York,York, E.P.E.P. DuttonDutton && Co.Co. IncInc.. Dickinson, C.C. && Lucas,Lucas, J., J. eds., eds 1979.. 1979 The. The encyclopedia encyclopedia of of mushrooms. mushrooms .New New York,York, G.P.G.P. Putnam'sPutnam's Sons. 280 pp.pp. Dirr, M.A.M.A. 1990.1990. ManualManual ofof woody woody landscapelandscape plants:plants: TheirTheir identification,identification, ornamentalornamental characteristics,characteristics, cultureculture,, propagation and uses. Champaign,Champaign, Illinois,Illinois, Stipes Publishing Company.Company. 10071007 pp.pp . Drooz, A.T.A.T. 1985.1985. InsectsInsects ofof eastern eastern forests.forests .USDA USDA Forest Forest Service, Service ,Miscellaneous Miscellaneous PublicationPublication 1426.1426. 608 pp. Duke, J.A. 1983. Handbook of energy crops.crops. Unpublished data accessed via httphttp://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/.://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/. Edlin, H.L.H.L. 1985.1985. Broadleaves.Broadleaves. ForestryForestry CommissionCommission BookletBooklet 20.20. London,London, HerHer Majesty'sMajesty's StationeryStationery OfficeOffice.. 104104 pp.pp. Ehlers, H.-U.H.-U. 1968.1968. DerDer Wald Wald alsals Schmuckgrünlieferant.Schmuckgrunlieferant. Forst-Forst- undund Holzwirt Holzwirt 22(24): 22(24) :528-530. 528-530. Escoffier, A. A. 1982. 1982 .2 2000 000 favourite favourite FrenchFrench recipes.recipes .London, London ,Treasure Treasure Press.Press. 884884 pp.pp. Fagan, M.M.M.M. 1918.1918. TheThe usesuses ofof insectinsect galls.galls. AmericanAmerican NaturalistNaturalist 52:52: 155-176.155-176. FAD.FAO. 1979. Poplars and willowswillows inin woodwood production andand landland use.use. Rome.Rome. 328328 pp.pp. FAD.FAO. 1979. Eucalypts forfor planting,planting, byby M.R.M.R. Jacobs.Jacobs. FAOFAO ForestryForestry SeriesSeries NoNo 11,11 , Rome.Rome. 677677 pp.pp. FAD.FAO. 1993. InternationalInternational trade in non-woodnon-wood forest products:products: An overview,overview, by M.M. lqbal.Iqbal. Rome.Rome. FO:FO : Misc/93/11. 100 pp.pp. FAD.FAO. 1994.1994. Decline and diebackdieback of treestrees andand forests:forests: AA globalglobal overview,overview, byby W.M.W.M. CieslaCiesla && E.E. Donaubauer. FAO Forestry Paper No. 120, Rome FAD.FAO. 1995. Climate change,change, forests and forest management -- AnAn overview,overview, byby W.M.W.M. Ciesla.Ciesla. FAOFAO Forestry Paper No.No. 126,126, Rome.Rome. 128128 pp.pp . FAD.FAO. 1995.1995. Edible nuts,nuts, byby G.E.G.E. Wickens.Wickens. FAOFAO NWFPNWFP SeriesSeries No.No.5. 5. Rome.Rome. 198198 pp.pp. FAD.FAO. 1995. Natural colourants and dyestuffs,dyestuffs, by C.L.C.L. Green.Green . FAO NWFP Series No.No.4 4,, Rome.Rome. 116116 pp. FAD.FAO. 1995.1995. Gums,Gums, resinsresins andand latexeslatexes ofof plant plant origin,origin, byby J.J.W.J.J.W. Coppen.Coppen. FAOFAO NWFPNWFP SeriesSeries No.No .6.6. Rome. 142 pp.pp. FAD.FAO. 1998.1998. Non-wood forest products from conifers by W.MW.M.Ciesla.. Ciesla. FAOFAO NWFPNWFP SeriesSeries No.No. 12,12, RomeRome.. FAD.FAO. 2001.2001. GlobalGlobal ForestForest ResourcesResources Assessment 20002000.. FAO Forestry Paper No.No . 140.140. Rome.Rome. 479pp. Farolfi, S.S. 1990.1990. RuoloRuolo economicoeconomico deidei prodottiprodotti secondarisecondari spontanei spontanei deldel bosco:bosco: un'indagineun 'indagine nelnel CasentinoCasentino.. Monti e Bosch'Boschi 41(1):41 (1): 49-52. Felt, E.P.E.P. 1940.1940. PlantPlant gallsgalls andand gall gall makers.makers . Ithaca,Ithaca, NewNew York,York ,Comstock Comstock PublishingPublishing Company.Company. Felker, P.P. 1998.1998. TheThe valuevalue ofof mesquitemesquite for the ruralrural southwest. J. of For.For. 96(3):96(3): 16-20.16-20. Ferguson, B., B., ed. ed .1982. 1982 .All All about about trees. trees .San San Francisco,Francisco, OrthoOrtho Books,Books, ChevronChevron ChemicalChemical Company.Company.

106 Non-wood forest productsproducts fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leaved broad-leaved treestrees

Fernald, ML.,M.L., Kinsey,Kinsey, A.C. A.C. & & Rollins, Rollins, R.C. R.C. 1958. 1958 Edible. Edible wild wild plants plants of of eastern eastern North North America.America. Harper & Row. 452 pp.pp. Fowells, HA.H.A. 1965. 1965. Silvics Silvics of of forest forest trees trees of of the the United United States. States. USDA USDA Forest Forest Service Service Agriculture Agriculture Handbook 271. 762762 pp.pp. Gamundi, I.I. AndAnd E. E. Horak, Horak 1995., 1995. Fungi Fungi of of the the Andean Andean Patagonian Patagonian forests. forests. Buenas Buenas Aires: Aires :Vazquez Vazquez Mazzini Editores,Editores, 141141 pp.pp. Garfias Salinas,Salinas, R.,R., CarmonaCarmona Cerda,Cerda, R.,R. , Barros,Barros, D.,D., Cabello,Cabello, J.A.J.A. && BalidiniBalidini U.A. U.A. 1995. 1995 .Chile. Chile. In: Memoria - ConsultaConsulta dede expertosexpertos sobresobre productosproductos forestalesforestales nono maderosmaderos parapara AméricaAmerica Latina y elel Caribe,Caribe, Santiago,Santiago, Chile. FAO Regional OfficeOffice forfor Latin America and the CaribbeanCaribbean,, Serie Forestal #1,#1 , pp.pp. 200-208. Gerber, F.H.F.H. 1978.1978 .Cochineal Cochineal and and the the insectinsect dyes. dyes .Ormond Ormond Beach, Beach ,Florida, Florida ,self- self -published.published .70 70 pp. pp. Giunta RegionaleRegionale dell'Umbria, dell'Umbria 1987., 1987 Norme. Norme concernenti concernenti la la disciplina disciplina della della raccolta, raccolta ,coltivazione, coltivazione, conservazione e commercio dei tartufi.tartufi. BollettinoBollettino UfficialeUfficiale delladella RegioneRegione dell'Umbriadell 'Umbria 1818 (81(81 - parts 1,21,2 and 3):3) : 2156-2161.2156-2161 . Graham, S.A.,S.A., Harrison Jr.,Jr., R.P.R.P. && WestellWestell Jr.,Jr., C.E.C.E. 1963.1963. AspensAspens - PhoenixPhoenix treestrees of the Great Lakes Region.Region. Ann Arbor,Arbor, University of Michigan Press. 272 pp.pp . Grieve, M.M. 1931.1931. AA modemmodern herbal,herbal , Vols.Vols. 11 && 2.2. NewNew York,York, DoverDover Books.Books. 902902 pp.pp. Grochowski,Grochowski, W.W. 1966.1966 .Les Les productions productions forestières forestieres secondairessecondaires enen Pologne.Pologne. RevueRevue ForestièreForestiere FrFrançaiseam; aise 18(3): 160-170.160-170. Haack, R.A.R.A.,, LawLaw,, K.R.,K.R., Mastro,Mastro, V.C.,V.C., SharonSharon Ossenbruggen,Ossenbruggen, H. H. & & Raimo,Raimo, B.J.B.J. 1997.1997. New YorkYork's's battle with the Asian long-hornedlong-horned beetle.beetle. J.J. ofof For.For. 95(12):95(12): 11-15.11-15. HaldimannHaldimann,, E., J.J. Carter,Carter, R.R. KuranalievKuranaliev and and M. M. Kamytov, Kamytov 2000., 2000 The. The potential potential for for collaborative collaborative forest management inin the juniper (archa)(archa) forests of Kyrgyzstan.Kyrgyzstan. Paper presented at thethe International Symposium on Juniper Forest Management Problems,Problems, Osh,Osh, Kyrgyzstan,Kyrgyzstan, 7-11,7-11 , August 2000. Hall, J.A.J.A. 1971.1971. UtilizationUtilization ofof Douglas-fir Douglas-fir bark.bark. USDAUSDA ForestForest ServiceService PacificPacific NorthwestNorthwest ForestForest andand Range Experiment Station,Station, Portland,Portland , Oregon.Oregon . Harlow, W.M.W.M. && Harrar,Harrar, E.S. E.S. 1950. 1950 .Textbook Textbook ofof dendrology. dendrology. NewNew York,York, McGraw-HillMcGraw-Hili BookBook Co.Co. 555 pp.pp. HarlowHarlow,, W.M.,W.M., Harrar,Harrar, E.S.E.S. && White, White, F.M. F.M. 1979. 1979 Textbook. Textbook of of dendrology. dendrology .6th 6th edition.edition. NewNew York,York, McGraw-HillMcGraw-Hili BookBook Co.Co. Harris, R.W.R.W. 1976.1976. Arboriculture:Arboriculture: CareCare ofof trees,trees, shrubsshrubs andand vines. Prentice Hall Inc.Inc. 688 pppp.. Harris, V.,V., 1996.1996. RecipesRecipes fromfrom anan ItalianItalian farmhouse.farmhouse . London,London, Conran Octopus Ltd. 160 pppp.. Harrison, C.R.C.R .1975. 1975 .Ornamental Ornamental conifers. conifers . NewNew York,York, HafnerHafner Press.Press. 224224 pp.pp. Hergert, H.L.,H.L., 1983.1983. TheThe tannintannin extractionextraction industryindustry inin thethe UnitedUnited States.States. J. of For.For. History 27:27: 92-93.92-93. Hora, B.B. 1981.1981 . TheThe OxfordOxford encyclopediaencyclopedia ofof trees trees ofof the the world.world .Oxford, Oxford ,Oxford Oxford UniversityUniversity Press. Press. Houston, D.R.D.R. 1981.1981 . StressStress triggeredtriggered treetree diseases:diseases: TheThe diebacksdiebacks andand declines.declines. USDAUSDA ForestForest Service Northeastern Forest ExperimentExperiment Station,Station , NE-INF-41-81.NE-INF-41-81 . lirkinalirkina, ,M.I. M.1. && Shishkina,Shishkina E.E., E.E. 1976. 1976. Sea-buckthorn Sea-buckthorn food food products.products .Sadovodstov Sadovodstov 8:8: 29.29 . JonesJones,, E.;E.; McLain,McLain, R.R. andand Weigand, Weigand, J. J. 2002. 2002. Nontimber Nontimber Forest Forest Products Products inin thethe UnitedUnited States.States. University Press of Kansas.Kansas. 445pp.445pp. Kalinowski, M.M. 1998.1998 .Non-wood Non-wood forestforest productsproducts inin Poland.Poland . InIn SustainableSustainable DevelopmentDevelopment OfOf Non-Non wood Goods And Benefits (NWGB) From Boreal And ColdCold TemperateTemperate Forests.Forests. ProceedingsProceedings of thethe InternationalInternational WorkshopWorkshop Joensuu,Joensuu, FinlandFinland 18-2218-22 JanuaryJanuary 1998.1998. EuropeanEuropean ForestForest InstituteInstitute,, EFI Proceedings No.No. _ Kamazaki, A.A. 1984.1984. PlantPlant dyeingdyeing peculiarpeculiar to Japan.Japan. Plants and Garden -- Brooklyn BotaniBotanicc GardGardensens Record 20(3)20(3):: 41-44.41-44. Kohlander, C. C. 1985.1985. A A silk silk worker's worker's notebook. notebook. Loveland,Loveland ,Colorado, Colorado, InterweaveInterweave Press.Press. 155155 pp.pp. Lemay, K. 1999.1999. The giving tree - MedicineMedicine maymay soonsoon join birch'sbirch's long list of gifts.gifts. Lake SuperiorSuperior MagazineMagazine,, Apr.-MayApr.-May.. Leonard, D.E.D.E. 1981.1981. BioecologyBioecology of thethe gypsygypsy moth.moth. InIn:: The gypsy moth:moth: ResearchResearch towardtoward integrated pest management.management. USDAUSDA ExpandedExpanded GypsyGypsy MothMoth ResearchResearch andand DevelopmentDevelopment Program. Technical Bulletin 1584,1584, pp.pp . 9-29.9-29. Leung, A.A. 1977.1977. CascaraCascara sagrada:sagrada: newnew standardsstandards areare needed.needed . DrugDrug andand CosmeticCosmetic IndustryIndustry 121(6):121 (6 ): 42-44,42-44, 143-145.143-145. Lewis, W.H.W.H. 1977.1977. EcologyEcology fieldfield glossary.glossary. Westport,Westport, Connecticut,Connecticut, and London,London, Greenwood Press. 152 pp.pp . Little, E.L.E.L. Jr.Jr. 1976. 1976. AtlasAtlas of of United United States States Trees,Trees ,Vol Vol .3.3 MinorMinor westernwestern hardwoods.hardwoods. USDAUSDA ForestForest Service Miscellaneous Publication 1314.1314.

107 Non-wood forestforest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees

Little, E.L.E.L. Jr.Jr. 1979. 1979 .Check Check list list of of United United States States Trees Trees (Native (Native andand Naturalized). Naturalized) .USDA USDA Agriculture Agriculture Handbook 541.541 . 375375 pp.pp. Lust, J.J. 1990.1990. TheThe herbherb book.book. BantamBantam Books.Books. 659659 pp.pp. Manion, P.D.P.D. 1991.1991. TreeTree diseasedisease concepts.concepts. EngelwoodEngelwood Cliffs,Cliffs, New JerseyJersey,, Prentice-Hall. 402 pp. Miller, H.A.H.A. && Lamb,Lamb, S.H. S.H. 1985. 1985 .Oaks Oak sof of North North America. America Happy. Happy Camp, Camp ,California, California ,Naturegraph Naturegraph Publishers Inc.Inc. 327 pp.pp. Miller, R.K.RK. 1997.1997. SouthwestSouthwest Woodlands:Woodlands: CulturalCultural usesuses of thethe "forgotten"forgotten forest."forest. " J. of For.For. 24(11):24(11): 24-28.24-28. Minter, D.W., Cannon, P.F. && Peredo,Peredo, H.L.H.L. 1987.1987. SouthSouth AmericanAmerican speciesspecies of CytarriaCytarria (A remarkable and beautiful group of edible ascomycetes). TheThe MycologistMycologist 21(1):21 (1): 7-11.7-11 . Mirov, N.T.N.T. && Hasbrouck,Hasbrouck, J. J. 1976. 1976 .The The story story of of pines. pines. IndianaIndiana UniversityUniversity Press.Press. 148148 pp.pp . Molina, R.,R, O'Dell, T.,T., Luoma,Luoma, D.,D., Amaranthus,Amaranthus, M.,M., Castellano,Castellano, M.M. && Russell, Russell, K. K. 1993. 1993 .Biology, Biology, ecologyecology,, and social aspects ofof wildwild edibleedible mushroomsmushrooms ofof the the PacificPacific Northwest..Northwest: A preface to managing commercial harvestharvest.. USDA Forest Service,Service, Pacific NorthwestNorthwest ResearchResearch Station PNW-GTR-309,PNW-GTR-309, 4242 pp.pp. Morra, F.F. 1955.1955. LaLa produzioneproduzione eded ilil commerciocommercio deidei tartufi.tartufi. AllioniaAI/ionia 2(2):2(2) :51-55. 51-55. MoussourisMoussouris, ,Y. Y. 1999. 1999. Cork Cork certification certification according according to to FSCFSC principles principles and and criteria. criteria. WWF.WWF. 2626 pp.pp. Moussouris, Y.Y. && Regato, Regato, P. P 1999.. 1999. Forest Forest harvest: harvest: An An overview overview of of Non-Timber Non-Timber ForestForest ProductsProducts in the Mediterranean Region.Region. WWF.WWF . 2525 pp.pp . NAPAP (National Acid PrecipitationPrecipitation Assessment Assessment Program). Program). 1992. 1992 Assessment. Assessment programprogram 1982.1982. Report to Congress,Congress, Chapter 5.5. pp.pp. 65-73.65-73. . National AboriginalAboriginal ForestryForestry Association,Association, 1999. Non-TimberNon-Timber ForestForest Products.'Products: ExploringExploring opportunities for aboriginal communities.communities. NationalNational Aboriginal ForestryForestry Association.Association. 137137 pp.pp. National HoneyHoney Board. Board. 1998. 1998 .http://www.nhb.org. http://www.nhb.org .Longmont, Longmont, Colorado,Colorado, USA.USA. Nicolas, J.J.J.J. 1973. 1973. La La trufa.trufa. BoletínBoleUn dede lala EstaciónEstaci6n CentralCentral dede EcologíaEcologla 2(3):2(3): 3-28.3-28. Noda, H.H. 1988.1988. PolicyPolicy relatingrelating toto specialspecial forestforest products.products. InIn R.R. Handa.Handa . ForestForest policypolicy inin Japan. Japan. Tokyo,Tokyo, Nippon Ringyo Chosaku.Chosaku. Ollikainen,011ikainen, T.T. 11998.998 . BelarusBelarus forestry strategicstrategic plan andand thethe non-woodnon-wood forestforest products.products. InIn:: Sustainable development of non-wood goods and benefits (NWGB) from boreal and coldcold temperate forests.forests. Proceedings of the internationalinternational workshopworkshop.. Joensuu,Joensuu, Finland 1818-22-22 JanuaryJanuary 1998.1998. European Forest Institute,Institute, EFIEFI ProceedingsProceedings No.No. _223_3_ Park, M.K. M.K. 1984.1984. AA studystudy onon thethe investmentinvestment effectivenesseffectiveness ofof oakoak mushroommushroom cultivation.cultivation . JournalJournal ofof the Korean Forestry SocietySociety 63:63: 61-68.61-68. Panshin, A.J.,A.J., Harrar,Harrar, E.S.,E.S., Baker,Baker, W.J.W.J .& & Proctor, Proctor, P.B. P.B. 1950. 1950 Forest. Forest products products - -TheirTheir sources, sources, production and utilization. McGraw-HillMcGraw-Hili BookBook Company,Company, Inc.Inc. 549549 pp.pp. Pashina, L.L. 1993)1993) Plants Plants andand cosmetics. cosmetics . Minsk.Minsk, ByelorussiaByelorussia 130130 pp.pp . Payne, J.A. && Krewer, Krewer, G.W.G.W. 1990.1990. Mayhaw:Mayhaw: AA newnew fruitfruit cropcrop forfor thethe South.South. InIn J.J .Janick Janick && J.E. J.E. Simon,Simon, eds. Advances inin newnew crops.crops. Portland,Portland, Oregon,Oregon , TimberTimber PressPress pp.pp. 317-321.317-321 . Peattie, D.C.D.C. 1953.1953. AA naturalnatural historyhistory ofof westernwestern trees.trees. Boston,Boston, Houghton Mifflin CompanyCompany.. 751 pp. Peigler, R.S.,RS., 1999.1999. Wild silks of the world.world . Spin-OffSpin-Off,, 2323(4): (4): 62-71.62-71. Peyton, J.L.J.L. 1994.1994. The The birch,birch ,bright bright tree tree ofof fife life andand legend. legend . Blacksburg,Blacksburg, Virginia,Virginia , TheThe McDonaldMcDonald andand Woodward PublishingPublishing Company.Company. Phillips, R. R 1991.1991. Mushrooms Mushrooms of of North North America. America .Little, Little ,Brown Brown andand Company.Company. 319319 pp.pp. Piir, R.R && Kelt, Kelt, K. K. 1998. 1998. Chemical Chemical composition composition ofof Hippophae Hippophae rhamnoidesrhamnoides fruitsfruits inin Estonia.Estonia. In:In : Metsanduslikud UurimusedUurimused XXXXXX forestry studies InternationalInternational Conference wild berryberry culture: An exchange of western and eastemeastern experiences 10-1310-13 August 1998.1998. pp.134-139pp .134-139 Plekanova, M.N.M.N. 1998.1998. LoncieraLonciera Subsect.Subsect. CaeruleaCaerulea (Caprifoliaceae)(Caprifoliaceae) genetic resources in RussiaRussia and neighbouring countries. In: Forestry Studies XXX International Conference wild berries culture: An exchange of western and eastemeastern experiencesexperiences 10-1310-13 August 1998.1998. Plekanova, M.N.M.N. && Streltsyna,Streltsyna, S. S. 1998. 1998. Fruit Fruit chemical chemical composition composition ofof Lonicera Lonicera subsect.subsect. CaeruleaCaerulea (Caprifoliaceae) species.species. InIn:: Forestry studiesstudies XXXXXX InternationalInternational ConferenceConference wildwild berriesberries culture: An exchange of western and eastemeastern experiencesexperiences 10-1310-13 AugustAugust 19981998 Prance, G.T. & Prance,Prance, A.E.A.E. 1993.1993. Bark:Bark: TheThe formation,formation, characteristicscharacteristics and uses of barkbark around the world. Portland, Oregon,Oregon, Timber Press.Press. 174174 pp. Prescott-Allen, C. && Prescott-Allen,Prescott-Allen, R.R 1986.1986. TheThe firstfirst resource: resource: WildWild speciesspecies inin thethe NorthNorth American economy.economy. NewNew Haven,Haven, Connecticut,Connecticut, YaleYale UniversityUniversity Press.Press. 529529 pp.pp. Quartier, A.A. 1978.1978. Bäume Baume + + Str5ucher. Straucher .Munich, Munich ,BLV BLV Verlagsgesellschaft,Verlagsgesellschaft, 259259 pp.pp. Quinn,iQuirin, K.W. && Gerard,Gerard, D.D. 1993.1993. Sea-buckthomSea-buckthorn pulppulp andand kernelkernel oils:oils: ValuableValuable lipids for skin care. Unpublished Report, Flavex NaturextrakteNaturextrakte Co. 8 pp.pp.

108 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

Ramierez Correa,Correa, L.A.L.A. 1988. 1988 .Agentes Agentes causales causales deldel secamiento secamiento deldel robleroble (Quercus(Quercus humboldtiOhumboldtii) en el norte de Antioquia. INDERENA,INDERENA, ServicioServicio NacionalNacional dede ProtecciónProtecci6n ForestalForestal 2:2: 2-14.2-14. Rau, R.R 1977.1977. ErfahrungenErfahrungen beimbeim AbsatzAbsatz von von Waldgrün Waldgrun und und Weinachtsbäumen. Weinachtsbaumen. AllgemeineAllgemeine Forstzeitung 32(46): 1139-1142.1139-1142. Résico,Resico, C.C. 1995.1995. Argentina.Argentina. In:In : MemoriaMemoria -- ConsultaConsulta de de expertos expertos sobre sabre productos productos forestales forestales nono maderos para Americana LatinaLatina y elel Caribe.Caribe. Santiago,Santiago, Chile.Chile. FAOFAO RegionalRegional OfficeOffice forfor LatinLatin America and the Caribbean,Caribbean , SerieSerie ForestalForestal #1,#1 , pp.pp . 125-128.125-128. Richards, R.T.RT. 1997. 1997 .What What the the natives natives know know - -VVildWild mushroomsmushrooms andand forestforest health.health. J.J. ofof For. For. 95(9):95(9): 55-10.-10. Riotte, L.L. 1975.1975. NutsNuts forfor thethe foodfood gardener.gardener. Carlotte,Carlotte, Vermont, Garden Way Publishing.Publishing . 179 pp. Ritter-Studnicka, H. H. 1984. 1984 .Old Old recipes,reoipes ,recent recent teststests -- A A study study of of dye dye plants plants formerlyformerly usedused inin BosniaBosnia and HerzegovinaHerzegovina.. Plants and Garden -- BrooklynBrooklyn Botanic Gardens Record 20(3)20(3):: 57-5857-58.. Rongsen, A.A . 1992.1992. SeabuckthomSeabuckthorn aa multi-purposemulti-purpose plantplant speciesspecies forfor fragilefragile mountains.mountains. ICIMODICIMOD Occasional Paper No.No. 20, Khathmandou.Khathmandou. 62 pp.pp. Rossi, R.S.RS. 1990.1990. HistoryHistory ofof culturalcultural influencesinfluences onon thethe distributiondistribution andand reproductionreproduction ofof oaksoaks inin CaliforniaCalifornia.. InIn:: Ecology,Ecology, management andand utilization ofof California oaks. 26-28 June 1979,1979, ClaremontClaremont,, California. USDA ForestForest Service,Service, Pacific Northwest Forest andand RangeRange Experiment Station, Berkeley,Berkeley, California,California, General Technical ReportReport PSW-44,PSW-44, pppp 7-15.7-15. Russel~Russel', M.W. & Lispey,Lispey, R.G.RG. 1999.1999. AnAn economiceconomic strategystrategy toto developdevelop non-timbernon-timber forest products and servicesservices in British ColumbiaColumbia.. Forest RenewalRenewal BCBC ProjectProject No.No. PA97538-ORE. PA97538-0RE. (Accessed via the Internet).Internet). Rutkausas, A.A. 1998.1998. Non-woodNon-wood resourcesresources andand utilizationutilization inin LithuanianLithuanian forests.forests. InIn:: SustainableSustainable Development of non-wood goods and benefitsbenefits (NWGB)(NWGB) fromfrom borealboreal andand coldcold temperatetemperate forests. Proceedings of thethe InternationalInternational WorkshopWorkshop Joensuu,Joensuu, FinlandFinland 18-2218-22 JanuaryJanuary 1998.1998. European Forest Institute. EFI Proceedings No. 23. Salas Estrada,Estrada, J.B.J.B. 1993.1993. Arboles Arboles de de Nicaragua. Nicaragua .Managua, Managua, InstitutoInstituto NicaragüenseNicaraguense dede RecursosRecursos Natrales y del Ambiente.Ambiente. 388388 pp.pp. Sampson, R.N.,RN., Moll,Moll, G.A.G.A. && Keilbaso,Keilbaso, J.J. J.J 1992.. 1992. Opportunities Opportunities toto increaseincrease urbanurban forests and the potential impacts on carbon storagestorage andand conservation.conservation. In:In: ForestsForests andand GlobalGlobal Change.Change. Washington,Washington , DC, American Forests.Forests. pppp 51-67.51 -67. Samson, I.I. && Samson, Samson, R. R 1986.1986 .The The creative creative art art of of bonsai. bonsai .Ward Ward Lock.Lock. 168168 pp.pp . Schenck, S.M.S.M. && Gifford,Gifford, W. W. 1952. 1952 .Karok Karok ethnobotany. ethnobotany .Anthropological Anthropological RecordsRecords 13:13: 377-392.377-392. Schetky, E.E. McD.McD. 1984.1984. TheThe agelessageless artart ofof dyeing. dyeing. In:In :Handbook Handbook ofof plantsplants andand dyeing.dyeing. PlantsPlants andand Gardens 20(3):20(3): 4-7.4-7. Schlosser, W.E.W.E. && Blattner, Blattner, K.A. K.A. 1995. 1995. The The wild wild edible edible mushroom mushroom industry industry of of Idaho, Idaho, OregonOregon andand WashingtonWashington:: A 1992 survey of prócessors.pr9cessors. J. of For. 93(3): 31-36.31-36. Schneider, M.M. 1990.1990. AcornsAcorns asas aa staplestaple foodfood -- DifferentDifferent types types andand changechange ofof exploitation exploitation throughthrough timetime.. Bodenkultur 4141(1): (1): 81-88.81-88. Scholtz, E.E. 1984.1984. DyeDye plantsplants aroundaround thethe world.world. In:In : HandbookHandbook ofof plantsplants andand dyeing.dyeing. PlantsPlants andand Gardens 20(3): 38-76.38-76. . Schroeder,Schroeder, W.R.W.R 1995.1995 .Improvement Improvement ofof conservation conservation treestrees andand shrubs.shrubs . PFRAPFRA ShelterbeltShelterbelt CentreCentre Supp. Rpt. #95-1#95-1,42, 42 p.p. Schumann, G.L.G.L. 1991.1991. PlantPlant diseases: diseases: TheirTheir biologybiology andand control.control. St.St. Paul,Paul , Minnesota.Minnesota. ASP Press.Press. 397 pp. Sednak, P.E.P.E. && Jenkins,Jenkins, W.L. W.L. 1982. 1982 .Market Market structure structure ofof the the maple maple industry industry and and syrupsyrup grading grading standardsstandards.. In:In : Sugar maple research: Sap production, processing and marketing of maplemaple syrup. USDAUSDA ForestForest Service,Service, NortheasternNortheastern ForestForest ExperimentExperiment Station,Station , Broomal, PA,PA, General Technical Report NE-72.NE-72 . pp. 98-102. Sednak, P.E.P.E. & Bennick,Bennick, J.P. J.P. 1985. 1985 .The The cost cost of of maple maple sugaring sugaring inin Vermont.Vermont. USDAUSDA ForestForest Service,Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station,Station , Broomal,Broomal, PA,PA, ResearchResearch PaperPaper NE-565.NE-565. 1414 pp.pp. Sengul,Sengiil, S.S. && Seng01, Sengul, H.H. 1999. 1999. The The nut nut sector sector in inTurkey. Turkey FAO-1HEAM. FAO-IHEAM NucisNucis NewsletterNewsletter 8:30.8:30. December 1999 Shand, W.A. 1984.1984. DyeingDyeing wool in thethe OuterOuter Herbrides.Herbrides. Plants and Garden -- BrooklynBrooklyn BotanicBotanic Gardens Record 20(3):20(3): 62-65. Shizou Tsujii.Tsujii. 1984. 1984. Japanese Japanese cooking, cooking ,a a simple simple art. art .Tokyo, Tokyo, KodanshaKodansha International.International. 517517 pp.pp. Simon, J.E.,J.E., Chadwick,Chadwick, A.F. A.F. & & Craker, Craker, L.E.1984. L.E.1984. Herbs: Herbs: an an indexed indexed bibliography, bibliography, 1971-1980.1971-1980. TheThe scientific literature on selected herbsherbs andand medicinalmedicinal plantsplants ofof the the temperatetemperate zone.zone .Hamden, Hamden, Connecticut,Connecticut, Archon Books.Books. 770770 pp.pp . Slee, R.W.RW. 1991.1991. TheThe potentialpotential ofof smallsmall woodlotswoodlots inin BritainBritain forfor edible edible mushrooms mushrooms production. production. Scottish Forestry 45(1):45(1): 3-12.3-12.

109 Non-woodNon-wood forestforest products from temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees

Skifkas, G.G. 1991.1991. TreesTrees andand shrubsshrubs ofof Greece. Greece. EfstathiadisEfstathiadis GroupGroup S.A.SA 213 pp. Siimisker, T.T. 1998.1998. Sea-bucktornSea-bucktorn cultivarcultivar trialstrials at Ri5huR6hu TestingTesting Station.Station. In: MetsanduslikudMetsanduslikud Uurimused XXXXXX forestry studies International Conference wildwild berryberry culture: AnAn exchange ofof westernwestem and eastern experiences 10-1310-13 August 1998.1998. pp.162-168.pp .162-168. Stowell, J.P.J.P. 1966.1966. BonsaiBonsai - - IndoorsIndoors andand out.out. D.D. VanVan NostradNostrad CompanyCompany Inc.Inc. 134134 pp.pp. Sverdrup, S.S. 1984.1984. UsingUsing plantsplants forfor dyesdyes inin Norway.Norway. PlantsPlants andand GardenGarden - Brooklyn BotanicBotanic Gardens Record 20(3):20(3): 66-68,66-68. Tedder, S., Mitchell, D.D. && Farran,Farran, R.R. 2000.2000. SeeingSeeing thethe forestforest beneathbeneath the trees: The social andand economiceconomic potentialpotential ofof non-timber forestforest products andand services in thethe QueenQueen CharlotteCharlotte IslandsIslands/Haisal Haisa GwaiiGwaii,, SouthSouth Moresby Forest Replacement AccountAccount.. (Accessed(Accessed viavia the Internet)Internet).. Ter-GhazaryanTer-Ghazaryan,, G.G. && Ter-Ghazaryan,Ter-Ghazaryan, K. K. 1998. 1998 .Non-wood Non-wood forestforest products products (NWFP)(NWFP) inin Armenia.Armenia. In:In: Sustainable developmentdevelopment of of non-woodnon-wood goods goods andand benefitsbenefits (nwgb)(nwgb) fromfrom borealboreal andand cold temperatetemperate forests. Proceedings of thethe International Workshop Joensuu,Joensuu, Finland,Finland, 18-2218-22 JanuaryJanuary 1998. EuropeanEuropean Forest InstituteInstitute,, EFI Proceedings No. 23.23 The Economist. 1999. 1999 .Plastic Plastic winewine stoppersstoppers aa corkingcorking row.row. 5 June. Thomas, M.C. & Schumann,Schumann, D.R.D.R. 1992.1992. SeeingSeeing the forest instead ofof the treestrees - IncomeIncome opportunitiesopportunities in special forest productsproducts.. Kansas City, Missouri,Missouri, Midwest Research Institute. Tiburzi, P.P. 1993.1993. AppuntiAppunti sulsui corsocorso didi tecniche tecniche didi conservarzione conservarzione legaturelegature ee restauro.restauro. CittàCitta deldel VatVaticanoicano (Vatican City),City), Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana didi Biblioteconomia.Biblioteconomia. Vasilevich, VI.,V.I .1996., 1996 Birch. Birch forests forests in in Russia. Russia. In In S.K S.K Majumdar, Majumdar , E.W.E.W. MillerMiller && F.J.F.J . Brenner.Brenner. Forests -- AA global perspectiveperspective.. The Pennsylvania Academy of Science.Science. pp. 444-456. Walker, L.C.L.C. 1990.1990. Forests,Forests, aa naturalist'snaturalist's guideguide toto treestrees andand forestforest ecology.ecology. JohnJohn WileyWiley andand Sons.Sons. 288 pp. Walters, R.S.R.S. 1982a.1982a. SugarSugar maplemaple sapsap collection.collection. In: SugarSugar maplemaple research:research: SapSap production,production, processing and marketing of maplemaple syrup.syrup. USDAUSDA ForestForest Service,Service, NortheasternNortheastern ForestForest Experiment Station, BroomalBroomal,, PA,PA, General Technical Report NE-72,NE-72, pp 16-24. Walters, R.S.R.S. 1982b1982b.. SugarbushSugarbush management.management. InIn:: Sugar maplemaple research..research: SapSap production,production, processing and marketing of maplemaple syrup.syrup. USDAUSDA ForestForest Service,Service, NortheasternNortheastern ForestForest ExperExperimentiment StatStation,ion , BroomalBroomal,, PA,PA, General Technical Report NE-72,NE-72, pp 25-37. Westveld, R.H.R.H. 1949.1949. AppliedApplied silviculturesilviculture in thethe UnitedUnited States.States. AnnAnn Arbor,Arbor, Michigan,Michigan, EdwardsEdwards Brothers Inc.Inc. 590 pp. Wickens, H.H .1986. 1986. NaturalNatural dyesdyes forfor spinnersspinners andand weavers.weavers. London,London, B.T.B.T. BatsfordBatsford Ltd.Ltd. 96 pp. Wigginton, E., E., ed. ed. 1973. 1973 .Foxfire Foxfire 2. 2 .Garden Garden City, City ,New New York, York ,Anchor Anchor Press/Doubleday. Press/Doubleday. 410410 pp.pp. Wolf, F.A.F.A. && Wolf,Wolf, F.T. F.T. 1947. 1947. The The fungi.fungi. Vol.Vol. 2.2. NewNew York, York, JohnJohn WileyWiley && Sons Sons Inc.Inc. 353353 pp.pp. Wolf, D.D. && Wegert,Wegert, F. F. 1993.1993. ExperienceExperience gainedgained inin thethe cultivation,cultivation, harvestingharvesting andand utilizationutilization of sea-sea buckthorn. In: Cultivation andand utilization of wildwild fruitfruit crops.crops. BernhardBernhard ThalackerThalacker VerlagVerlag GmbH & Co.Co . pp.pp. 23-29 (in(in German). Wu, F. 1991.1991 . A seriesseries ofof HippophaeHippophae drugs in the USSR. Hippophae 2: 38-41.38-41 . YashirodaYashiroda,, K.K. 1984.1984 .Home Home dyeing,dyeing, aa hobbyhobby inin JapanJapan today. Plants and Garden - Brooklyn BotanicBotanic Gardens Record 20(3): 39-40.39-40.

110 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

APPENDIX 11

GLOSSARY OF OF KEYKEY TERIVIS TERMS

Agglomerate Sheets of cork mademade fromfrom corkcork granulesgranules agglutinatedagglutinated withwith resin.resin.

Apiculture The science and art of raising bees (mostly Apis mellifera)mel/itera) in hives for productionproduction of honey and/or pollination ofof agriculturalagricultural crops.crops.

Arboriculture The science and art ofof plantingplanting andand caringcaring for treestrees andand otherother woodywoody plantsplants forfor theirtheir products or for landscape and ornamental purposes.purposes.

Astringent A substancesubstance that contractscontracts thethe tissuestissues oror canalscanals ofof the the body,body ,therefore therefore diminishesdiminishes blood blood flow.flow.

Bonsai An ancient art formform withwith originsorigins inin ChinaChina andand JapanJapan thatthat involvesinvolves cultivationcultivation ofof trees trees andand shrubs in tiny pots.pots. The objective of bonsaibonsai isis toto produceproduce miniatureminiature plantsplants thatthat retainretain theirtheir original growth form.

Copperas A common name for ferrous sulphate, a chemical commonly used as a mordant for dyesdyes..

Coppice A silvicultural technique that involves regenerating trees from stump sproutssprouts..

Cultivar A mutation or distinct form of a plant,plant, initiallyinitially found in naturenature andand propagatedpropagated asexually with the objective of maintainingmaintaining thosethose characteristics.characteristics .

Cultivariant Plant cultivars that appearappear somewhatsomewhat different from theirtheir vegetativevegetative parentparent duedue toto propagation fromfrom non-typicalnontypical foliage.foliage.

Decoction The end result of boiling a substance in water in order to extract certain propertiesproperties..

Demulcent A substance that is usually mucilaginous and has soothing or mollifying propertiesproperties..

Essential oils VolatileVolatile,, aromatic oilsoils extracted fromfrom thethe foliagefoliage,, woodwood oror otherother partsparts ofof aa plant that are used inin thethe manufacturemanufacture ofof cosmetics, cosmetics, flavourings,flavourings , medicinalmedicinal products,products, perfumesperfumes andand cleaning products.

File gumbo The powdered,powdered , dry leaves of Sassafras albidum, which are used as a flavouring in stews and gumbo, a traditional seafoodseafood stewstew inin thethe southernsouthern UnitedUnited States.States.

Glucoside An extensive group of compoundscompounds that yieldyield glucoseglucose andand somesome otherother compoundscompounds whenwhen treated with a dilutedilute acidacid oror whenwhen decomposeddecomposed byby fermentationfermentation oror an an enzyme.enzyme.

Mordant A chemicalchemical added to a dye bathbath toto alteralter thethe colourcolour ofof thethe dyedye oror changechange itsits abilityability toto penetrate a fibre.fibre .

Mycorrhizae Certain fungi which form a symbiotic relationship with higher plants. They form extended root systems and help the host plant take inin nutrients. The fruitingfruiting bodiesbodies oror sporocarpssporocarps ofof many species of mycorrhizae are edibleedible andand commerciallycommercially important.important.

Nut Generally a one celledcelled,, one seeded fruit with a bonybony,, woodywoody,, leathery or papery wall and usually partially or wholly encased inin aa husk.husk.

Parasite An organism that is dependent on another living organism (host)(host) forfor itsits nourishment,nourishment, oftenoften resulting in stress,stress, disease or deathdeath ofof thethe host.host.

Pellicle A thin skin or membrane such asas thethe innerinner skinskin ofof aa nut.nut.

Planks Strips of corkwood removed from thethe corkcork oak,oak, QuercusQuercus suber.suber.

Pollard A technique of severe tree pruning that involves removal ofof all of thethe branches.branches. This results in the production of a dense mass of new branchesbranches..

111 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees

Quercitron A yellowyellow dye extractedextracted from thethe innerinner barkbark ofof thethe NorthNorth AmericanAmerican blackblack oak,oak, QuercusQuercus velutina.

Reproduction Cork planks obtained from the secondsecond andand subsequentsubsequent harvestsharvests of corkcork oakoak trees.trees . cork Reproduction corkcork is generally ofof good quality and can be used for productionproduction of bottle stoppers and related products.products.

Saponins Amorphous, glucosidal compoundscompounds ofof steroid structure that are obtainableobtainable from manymany plants. Aqueous solutions of some saponins foam like soap and are used as detergents.

Saprophyte An organism that causes the breakdownbreakdown of dead organicorganic matter (e.g. certain fungi that produce edible mushrooms).mushrooms).

Sericulture The art and science of raising silkworms,silkworms, Bombyx mori,mori, for production of silksilk..

Sporocarp The reproductivereproductive stagestage of aa fungus.fungus. ManyMany sporocarpssporocarps areare commonlycommonly knownknown asas mushrooms. Some species are edible and important NWFP while others are poisonous.

Sugarbush A maple forest dedicated to collection of sap for syrup and sugar productionproduction..

Sugarcamp A building or site where maple sap is boiled down into syrup.

Symbiont An organism that coexistsco-exists with with another another organism organism forfor thethe mutualmutual benefitbenefit andand survivalsurvival ofof both organisms (e.g.(e.g. mychorrhyzalmychorrhyzal fungifungi onon treetree roots).roots).

Tannin A group of astringentastringent compounds taken from plants or insect caused plant gallgallss that are used in the curing of leather.leather.

Taphole A holehole mademade inin thethe trunktrunk ofof aa maplemaple treetree fromfrom whichwhich sapsap isis collectedcollected forfor productionproduction ofof syrup or sugar.sugar.

Tussah Silk produced by certaincertain speciesspecies ofof wildwild silkwormssilkworms (Lepidoptera:(Lepidoptera: Saturniidae)Saturniidae) indigenous to China andand India.India.

Variety A plantplant populationpopulation thatthat hashas distinctdistinct morphologicalmorphological characteristics but is not separableseparable at the species level.level. Varieties are one stepstep below speciesspecies inin thethe taxonomictaxonomic hierarchy,hierarchy, appear inin naturenature,, are genetically stable and reproducereproduce fromfrom seed.seed.

Virgin cork The cork obtained from the first harvest of a mature cork oak tree. Virgin ccorkork is of inferior quality to reproduction cork and is used in the production of agglomerate.

112 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

APPENDIX 2

SELECSELECTED I ED RECIPES

MAPLE SYRUPSYRUP MAPLE PECANPECAN PIEPIE

3 slightly beaten eggs 250 mlml pure maple syrup 150 grams packed maple sugar 30 ml melted butter 32 grams all-purpose flour 1 teaspoon vanilla,vanilla, salt 75 to 125 grams chopped pecanspecans 1 unbaked 23 cm pie shell

Mix eggs,eggs, syrup, sugar,sugar, butter,butter, flour,flour, vanilla and salt. Beat until smooth with a rotaryrotary beater.beater. Stir inin nuts. Fill pastry shell. BakeBake atat 180°1800 C for aboutabout 40 minutes.minutes.

ACORNS ACORN COOKIES - CALIFORNIA, USA

125 grams brown sugar 250 grams flour 100 grams shortening 2.5 grams nutmeg 2 eggs 5 grams cinnamon 250 ml buttermilk 5 grams baking powder 10 ml vanilla 5 grams baking soda 2.52.5 grams salt 125 grams instantinstant oatmealoatmeal 1 cup acorn meal

Cream sugar,sugar, shorteningshortening andand eggs.eggs. StirStir inin vanilla,vanilla ,add add buttermilkbuttermilk alternatively alternatively withwith drydry ingredients. ingredients. Mix well. Stir in oatmeal and acorn meal. DropDrop teaspoonfuls onto a greased baking sheet. Bake for 12 minutes at 190190 °C°C (Derby,(Derby, 1990).1990).

CHESTNUTS

COOKING CHESTNUTSCHESTNUTS 62 62

Prior to cooking chestnutschestnuts,, aa small ""x"x" shouldshould bebe cutcut throughthrough thethe shellshell intointo thethe flatflat sideside ofof the nut with a small,small, sharpsharp knife.knife. ThisThis willwill preventprevent thethe nutsnuts fromfrom burstingbursting duringduring cooking.cooking.

For fireplace roasting,roasting, use a longlong handledhandled pan oror aa fireplacefireplace popcornpopcorn basket.basket. DoDo notnot crowdcrowd thethe chestnuts because all sides should be in contactcontact with the pan.pan. ShakeShake thethe panpan andand holdhold itit justjust aboveabove thethe flames,flames, notnot inin thethe flames.flames. CookCook inin thisthis mannermanner forfor aboutabout 1515 minutesminutes or untiluntil thethe outsideoutside shellshell isis black. Remove the nuts from the panpan toto anan areaarea wherewhere theythey cancan cool.cool. WhenWhen theythey areare coolcool enoughenough toto touchtouch,, peel and eat. The interiorsinteriors should havehave a creamy texturetexture

For oven roasting,roasting, lay the nutsnuts inin oneone layerlayer inin anan ovenproofovenproof dish.dish. BakeBake atat 180°C180°C forfor aboutabout 3030 minutesminutes.. For stovetop cooking,cooking, cook in a heavy,heavy, cast-iron pan. Again,Again, do not crowdcrowd thethe chestnuts.chestnuts. Cook over moderate heat andand shakeshake thethe pan.pan . CookCook untiluntil shellsshells appearappear cookedcooked oror youyou cancan smellsmell thethe nuts.

62 The Farm StoreStore (http://vvvvvv.sguare.com/the(http://www.square.com/the Farm Farm Store/htm/cooking/html).Store/htm/cooking/html).

113 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

CHESTNUT STUFFING STUFFING - USAUSA

Chestnut stuffing has been an accompanimentaccompaniment toto the traditional roast turkey served during the Thanksgiving holiday season inin NorthNorth America.America.

00.5.5 to 0.75 kg loaf of bread, dried 125-250 ml cooking oiloil 5 grams salt 2.5 grams pepper 'h1/2 cup cup minced minced onion 32 grams poultry seasoning %1/2 kg kg chestnuts chestnuts cookedcooked and chopped

Cut sliced bread into 2.5 cmcm cubes.cubes. TossToss allall ingredientsingredients togethertogether lightly.lightly. StuffingStuffing maymay bebe bakedbaked inin anan oiled ring mold or loaf pan if you do notnot want to bakebake itit with fowl or meat.meat. When stuffing is removed from the ring mold, hothot cookedcooked vegetablesvegetables maymay bebe placedplaced inin thethe center.center.

CHESTNUT, MILK AND RICE SOUP - MINESTRA 01DI RISO,RISO, LATTELATTE EE CASTAGNECASTAGNE -ITALY- ITALY

200 gramsgrams freshfresh chestnuts 150 grams pudding rice 500 ml milk 30 grams unsalted butter,butter, saltsalt

PPierceierce thethe chestnuts withwith aa fork, put them in a pan, cover with lukewarm water and boil for 5 to 88 minutes. Drain,Drain, then remove the shell and soft inner skin.skin. Place in a large pan with about 11 'h1,/2 liters liters of salted water andand boilboil overover mediummedium heatheat forfor 2 2 1/2 'h hour or until the nutsnuts areare disintegratingdisintegrating andand thethe liquid halved.

Add the rice andand cookcook forfor anotheranother 1212 minutesminutes oror untiluntil thethe ricerice isis halfhalf cooked,cooked, thenthen addadd thethe milkmilk andand butter.butter. Cook until the soup is very thick andand creamy,creamy, then season and serve hot. Serves 4 (Harris 1989).

PERSIMMONS PERSIMMON JAM JAM -USA USA

5-6 average-sizeaverage-size veryvery ripe ripe persimmons persimmons 1 cup water 1 package pectin 'h1/2 cup cup lemon lemon juicejuice 6 cups sugar

Prepare fruit by cutting into small pieces and then pureé.puree. Measure fruit and water into large kettle.kettle. Stir in pectin and lemon juicejuice.. Bring to a fullfull rollingrolling boilboil andand boilboil forfor 3030 seconds.seconds. AddAdd sugarsugar andand again bring to aa rollingrolling boilboil forfor exactlyexactly 44 minutes,minutes, byby thethe clock.clock . StirStir constantly.constantly. RemoveRemove fromfrom heatheat and pourpour intointo sterilizedsterilized containers.containers. MakesMakes 6 6 jars jars of of jam.63 jam.53

6363 Source: ChefChef Mike, Mike, [email protected]@persimmon.com 1997,1997, PersimmonPersimmon IT,IT, Inc.Inc.

114 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

EDIBLE MUSHROOMSMUSHROOMS

BORDEAUX STYLE CÈPESCEPES (CÈPES(CEPES A LA BORDELAISE) - FRANCE

0.5 kg freshfresh cepescèpes (Boletus edulis) oil, salt, pepper 5 grams chopped shallot 16 grams breadcrumbs lemon juice chopped parsley

Wipe the oboes,cepes, trim the heads and chop the stalks. Add a little seasoningseasoning.. Heat some oil in a sautesauté pan and cookcook thethe oboescepes untiluntil theythey beginbegin toto brown.brown . AddAdd thethe shallotshallot andand breadcrumbs.breadcrumbs. SautéSaute all together forfor a fewfew minutes.minutes. Put inin aa servingserving dish,dish, addadd lemonlemon juicejuice andand sprinklesprinkle withwith parsleyparsley or,or, if preferred, add two tablespoons ofof meltedmelted meatmeat jelly (Escoffier(Escoffier 1992).1992).

CEPES WITH CHEESE (CÉPES(CEPES AU FROMAGE) - FRANCE

Canned cepescèpes (Boletus edulis) Salt, Pepper Flour Oil Butter Grated cheese Tomato sauce

Rinse and dry the cepesoboes and cut into thin slicesslices.. Season, coatcoat withwith flourflour andand cheesecheese andand sautesauté inin oiloil or butter.butter. PutPut intointo smallsmall cocettes,cocettes, sprinklesprinkle withwith cheesecheese andand covercover withwith thethe tomatotomato sauce.sauce. AddAdd aa littlelittle melted butter and putput intointo aa moderatemoderate ovenoven forfor aa fewfew minutesminutes (Escoffier(Escoffier 1992).1992).

TRUFFLES COOKED UNDERUNDER CHARCOALCHARCOAL CINDERSCINDERS (TRUFFES(TRUFFES SOUSSOUS LELE CENDRE)CENDRE) - FRANCE

Choose some nicenice freshfresh truffles,truffles, cleanclean themthem carefullycarefully butbut dodo notnot peel.pee l. SaltSalt themthem sparinglysparingly andand add add aa dash of brandy.brandy.

First wrap each truffle in a thin slice of porkpork fat,fat, thenthen inin aluminiumaluminium foil. PlacePlace them onon aa bedbed ofof hothot charcoal cinders andand cover with another layerlayer ofof cinders. OnOn top of this,this, placeplace aa sheetsheet ofof ironiron containing more cinders,cinders, soso thatthat aa regularregular heatheat maymay bebe sustained.sustained .

Cook for 30-45 minutes,minutes, dependingdepending onon thethe sizesize ofof thethe truffles.truffles.

Remove the foil and serve on a folded napkin with butter (Escoffier,(Escoffier, 1992).1992).

BOILED RICE WITH WHITE TRUFFLES (RISO IN BIANCO CON TARTUFITARTUFI BIANCHI) -ITALYITALY

This is one of the classicclassic waysways ofof eatingeating thethe whitewhite truffletruffle ofof thethe PiedmontPiedmont RegionRegion ofof northernnorthern Italy.Italy.

Prepare a dish of boiledboiled rice,rice, pourpour overover itit aa largelarge quantityquantity ofof thethe bestbest gratedgrated ParmesanParmesan cheese,cheese, anan equally generous amountamount ofof fresh,fresh, unsaltedunsalted butterbutter andand rawraw trufflestruffles cutcut inin thethe finestfinest ofof slicesslices (David,(David, 1987).

115 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

APPENDIX 3

SUMIVIARYSUM~YOFNUUORNO~WOODFO~ OF NIAJOR NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS OF TEMPERATETEMPERATE BROAD-'BROAD-LEAVED EAVED TREES BY FAMILY, GENUSGENUS AND SPECIES

FAMILY ACERACEAE

Genus. and Species Common name(s) Natural Range Principal NWFPNWFP Type of useuse'1

Acer buergerianum Trident maple East China Bonsai C Ornamental C

Acer campestre Common or fieldfield maplemaple EuropeEurope Ornamental C

AcernigrumAcer nigrum Black maple East NorthNorth AmericaAmerica Syrup (sap) C

Acer palmatumpalma tum Japanese maple Japan Bonsai C Ornamental C

Acer platanoides Norway maple Europe Ornamental C

AcerAcerrubrum rubrum Red maple East North America Dye (bark) T Ornamental C

Acer saccharum Sugar maple East North AmerAmerica ca Ornamental C Syrup (sap) C

Acer saccharinum Silver maple East North America Ornamental C

FAMILY AQUIFOLIACEAE

Genus and Species Common name(s) Natural Range Principal NWFPNWFP Type of use

1/ex/lex aquifoliaaquifolia Holly Europe Decorative greenery C Ornamental C

1/ex/lex opacaopaca American holly East United States Decorative greenery C Ornamental C

1/ex/lex paraguariensis paraguariensis VerbaYerba matematé North ArgentinaArgentina Herbal tea L South Brazil Paraguay

1/ex/lex vomitoriavomitoria Yaupon Southeast United Ceremonial T StatesStates,, Mexico

1 C - CommerciallyCommercially importantimportant atat regional or international levellevel,, LL - CommerciallyCommercially important important inin individualindividual countries or portions of countries, TT -- Traditional,Traditional ,historic historic use use or or in in currentcurrent useuse byby tribaltribal cultures.cultures. A - AgriculturalAgricultural crop.crop.

117 Non-wood forest productsproducts fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

FAMILY ANACARDIACEAE

I Genus and SpeciesSpE!cies Common name(s)name(s) Natural RangeRange Principal NWFPNWFP Type of use

Pistacia kinjac Pistachio Afghanistan Edible nuts L Pakistan

PistaciaPistada terebinthus Mediterranean Edible nuts L Tannin (galls) T Turpentine T

Pistacia texana Texas Pistachio Texas,Texas, United States,States, Edible nut L Central Mexico

Pistacia vera Pistachio Near East Edible nut A Mordant (fruit husks) T Tannin (fruit husks) L FAMILY BETULACEAE

Genus and Species Common name(s)name(s) Natural Range Principal NWFPNWFP Type of use

Alnus glutinosa Black alder Europe Tannin (bark) T Near East Siberia Alnus rugosa Speckled alder North America Tannin (bark) T

Alnus tenutenufolia folia Mountain alder North America Dye (bark) T

Alnus spp. Honey C Ornamental C

Betula alba European birch Europe Essential oil (bark) L Tannin (bark)(bark) T Syrup (sap) L

Betula lenta Sweet birchbirch East United States Essential oil (twigs and L bark) L Birch beer (sap) L

Betula nigra River birch Southeast North Bonsai C America Betula papyrifera Paper birch North North America Syrup (sap),(sap), L Ornamental C Canoes, shelters,shelters, etc.,etc., T (bark) Betula pendula Weeping birchbirch Europe Ornamental C Bonasi C

Carpinus betulus European hornbeam Europe Ornamental C Near East Carpinus laxifolia Korea Bonsai C Carpinus japonica Japanese hornbeam Japan Bonsai C

Corylus avellana European hazelhazel Europe Edible nut (cultivated) C,C, A Edible and industrial C nut oil Corylus maxima Turkish filbert Near East Edible nut (cultivated) C Edible and industrial C nut oil

Ostrya virginiana American hop East North America Ornamental C hornbeam

118 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

FAMilYFAMILY CORNACEAE

~g=;;mt! ' 00!:;T . ;:;r ",'·'i 'F!"'=~ 'f'". ;"'1'1',,-, Genus and Species ComCommon monnafile( name(s) s) Natural Range' Principal NWFP Type of use

Comus florida Flowering dogwood East North America Ornamental C Comus mas CornelCornelian ian cherry South Europe Fruit added to wines L and liqueurs Comus sanguiensis Dogwood South Europe Fruit added to wines L and liqueurs ComusCornus stolonifera Red-osier dogwood North America Ornamental C

FAMILYFAMilY EBENACEAE

~. "N'" *""" N.. . . , Genus: ahdand Species Common name(s) Natural Range Principal NWFPNWFP Type of use

OiospyrosDiospyros khaki Japanese persimmon Japan Edible fruit A Ornamental C OiospyrosDiospyros virginiana Common persimmon Southeast United Edible fruit L States

FAMilYFAMILY ERICACEAE

o '" GenusGenul;j,~ and. nd SpeciesSPecies CommCommon name(s) Natural Range! rrincipalPrincipal NWFPNWFP . Type of use

Arbutus unendo Strawberry tree Mediterranean JelliesJellies,, wineswines,, liqueurs L Oxydendrum arboreum Sourwood East United States Honey L Ornamental C

FAMilYFAMILY EUPHORBIACEAE

Genus and Species Common name(s)n,.i'me(s) Natural Range PriPrincipal.ncipal NWFPNWFP Type of ·use

Aleurites fordii Tung Central-west China Tung oil (seeds) A Aleurites montana Tung Southwest China Tung oil (seeds) L

FAMilYFAMILY FAGACEAE

Genus and SpeciesSpecies Common name(s)narn,e(s) Natural RangeRange Principal NWFPNWFP Type of use

Fagus grandifolia American beech East North America Edible nut T Dye (bark) T Fagus sieboldii Japan Bonsai C Fagus sylvatica European beech Europe Nut oil L Ornamental C Bonsai C

Castanea crenata Japanese chestnut Japan Edible nut A Dye (nut hull,hull , bark) T Castanea dentata American chestnut East North America Edible nut T2 Tannin (bark) T2 Castanea henryi China Edible nut (small) L Japan Edible nut Castanea mollisima Chinese chestnut China Edible nut A Castanea ozarkensis Ozark chinkapin South-central UnitedUnited Edible nut L

2l DestroyedDestroved bybv Asian chestnut bliqht.

119 Non-wood forest productsproducts fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

Castanea pumila Allegheny chinkapinchinkapin East United States Edible nut L

Castanea sativa European chestnut Mediterranean Europe Edible nut A Near East Honey C Ornamental C Tannin (bark) L

CastanopsisCastanopsis// Golden chinkapin Asia, Western NorthNorth Edible nut LL,, T Chrysolepis spp.3Spp. 3 (USA) America

LitLithocarpus hocarpus densiflorusdensiflorus TanTan oakoak California,California, Oregon, Edible nut (acorn) T USA Tannin (bark) T Lithocarpus fenestra Kala chakma India Tannin (bark) L

Nothofagus alpina Rauli Argentina, Chile Edible nut T Nothofagus glauca Hua/oHualo Argentina, Chile Edible nut T Quercus spp.spp. Oak Dye (bark) T4T4 Edible nut (acorn) LL,T5,T5 Tannin (bark) LL,T,T

Quercus aegilops Valonea oak Mediterranean Europe Tannin (galls) T Near East

Quercus coccifera Kerm or holly oak Mediterranean Europe Dye (kermes scale)scale) T Near East

Quercus coccinea Scarlet oak East North America Ornamental C

Quercus floribunda Kilonj India Tannin (bark) L

Quercus ilex Holm oak Mediterranean EuropeEurope Tannin (bark,(bark, galls) L, TT Near East Dye (kermes scale) T Ornamental C

Quercus infectoria Lusitania oak Mediterranean EuropeEurope Tannin (bark, galls) T Near East

Quercus lame//osalamellosa Bujrat IndiaIndia Tannin (bark) L

Quercus Gray or ban oak IndiaIndia Tannin (bark) L leucotrichophora Pin oak East North America Ornamental C Quercus palustris Common oak Europe Tannin (galls)(galls) T Quercus pendiculata Northern red oak E NA Ornamental C Quercus rubra Dye T Tannin (bark)(bark) T

Kharshu oak IndiaIndia Tannin (bark) L Quercus semicarpifolia Cork oak West MediterraneanMediterranean Cork (bark) C Quercus suber Tannin (bark) C

Black oak East North America Quercitron dye (bark) T Quercus velutina

Live oak Southeast United Ornamental T Quercus virginiana States 3 See table 8.5 for detail. 4 See Table 6.36.3 for detail. 5 See Table 8.1 for detail.

120 Non-wood forest productsproducts fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

FAMILY HAMAMELIDACEAE

Genus and Species Common name(s) Natural Range Principal NWFP Type of use

UquidambarLiquidambar Southeast ChinaChina Styrax (resin) L formosiana UquidambarLiquidambar orientalisorienta/is Liquidambar Mediterranean EuropeEurope Styrax (resin) C Near East UquidambarLiquidambar styraciflua SweetSweet gumgum East United States Styrax (resin) C MexicoMexico,, Honduras Ornamental C

FAMILY HIPPOCASTANACEAE

Genus and Species Common name(s) Natural Range Principal NWFP Type of use

Aescu/usAesculus Horse chestnut Europe Ornamental C hippocastanum Near East

Aescu/usAesculus octandra Yellow buckeye Eastern United StatesStates Edible nutsnuts'2 T 2 2 Contain poisonous glucosides and require leaching before use.

FAMILY JUGLANDACEAE

Genus and Species Common name(s) Natural Range Principal NWFP Type of use

Carya spp.spp. Hickory Asia, North America Edible nut A,A, L,L, T

JuglansJug/ans alianthifoliaa/ianthifo/ia China, JapanJapan Edible nut L JuglansJug/ans australia Argentina Edible nut L South Bolivia JuglansJug/ans bolivianabo/iviana Bolivia Edible nut L Peru Edible nut C JuglansJug/ans califomicaca/ifomica California walnut CaliforniaCalifornia,, USA Edible nut L JuglansJug/ans cathayensiscathayensis Central China Edible nut L JuglansJug/ans cinereacinerea Butternut East North America Dye (nut hulls) T Edible nut T JuglansJug/ans duclouxianaduc/ouxiana Asia Edible nut L JuglansJug/ans hindsii North California walnut North California Edible nut C Jug/ansJuglans kamoniana West Himalaya Edible nut Jug/ansJuglans major Arizona walnut Arizona Edible nut L North Mexico Jug/ansJuglans North ChinaChina Edible nut L mandchuriana Little walnut Central-southwest Edible nut L Jug/ansJuglans microcarpa United States L Ecuador Dye (nut hulls) L Jug/ansJuglans neotropica Peru Edible nut L

Black walnut Eastern NorthNorth Industrial products fromfrom C Jug/ansJuglans nigra America nut hulls Edible nut C Dye (nut hulls and bark) T Edible nut English or Persian walnutwalnut Europe,Europe, Near East Dye A JuglansJug/ans regia Edible nut T Wingnuts Asia, Near East L Pterocarya spp.spp.

121 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

FAMILY LAURACEAE

j' ~'~;1 ' '' ' r :0 P , ; , ,, ::' ~ Genu~Genus; and Species :lCommon~ommon name(s)n~m~(s) NaturalRangeNatural Range Principal NWFP Type of ~ use

Laurus nobilis Laurel Mediterranean DecorativeDecorative greenerygreenery C Flavouring,Flavouring, foliage C Sassafras albidum Sassafras East United States Flavouring (foliage) L

Umbellularia califomicacalifornica Myrtlewood CaliforniaCalifornia,, Oregon Flavouring (foliage) L Honey C

FAMILY LEGUMINOSAE

GenusGenJ~and and Species "Common name(s)name(s) Natural Range Princi~alPrincipal NWFPNWFP Type of use

Cercis canadensis Redbud East United States Ornamental C

Cercis siliquastrum Judas tree Mediterranean Europe Ornamental C Near East

Gleditsia caspica Caspian locust Near East Soap (pods) L

Gleditsia japonica Japanese locustlocust Japan Soap (pods) L

Gleditsia macracantha China Soap (pods) L Tannin (pods) L

Gleditsia triacanthos Honey locust East United StatesStates Beer (pods) T Ornamental C

Prosopis chilensis AlgarroboAigarrobo North Chile Fodder (pods) L Honey L

ProsopisProso pis cineraria IndiaIndia Edible pods C

Prosopis glandulosa Honey mesquite Southwest UnitedUnited Edible pods T States Honey L North Mexico JellJelly,y, flour (pods) L Honey Prosopis pubescens Screwbean mesquite Southwest United JellyJelly,, flour L States L North MexicoMexico Prosopis tamarugo Tamarugo North Chile Fodder (pods) L Honey L

Robinia pseudoacacia Black locust East United States Honey C Ornamental C

FAMILY MAGNOLIACEAE

Genus and Species Common name(s)name(s) Natural Range Principal NWFPNWFP . Type of use

Liriodendron tulipifera Yellow poplar East United States Honey L Ornamental C

Magnolia acuminata Cucumber tree East United States Ornamental C

Magnolia grandiflora Evergreen magnolia Southeast United States Ornamental C

122 Non-wood forest productsproducts fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved treestrees

FAMILYFAMIL Y MORACEAEMORACEAE

" Genus :andandSpecies Species ComJ11onCommon name(s)nam~(s) Natural Range Principalrincipal NWFPNWFP Type of use

Mac/uraMaclura pomifera Osage-orange South-central United Dye(rootDye (root bark) T States Morus alba White mulberry Asia Bonsai C Food for silkworms C (foliage) Morus issai Asia Bonsai C Morus rubra Red mulberry East North America Edible fruit L FAMILY MYRTACEAE

Genus and Species Common name(s) Natural Range Principal NWFPNWFP Type of use

_ ~<~M*=_~~~

Eucalyptus spp. Eucalypts Australia Decorative greenery C Papua New Guinea Essential oilsoils'2 C Honey C Liqueur L Eucalyptus accedens Powder bark wandoo Australia Tannin (bark) L

Eucalyptus astringens Brown mallet Australia Tannin (bark) L

Eucalyptus wandoo Wandoo Australia Tannin (bark) L

Myrtus communis Myrtle Mediterranean Europe Decorative T Near East 2 See Table 4.24.2 for detail. FAMILY NYSSACEAE

Genus and SpeciesSpecies Common name(s) .Natural.Natural Range Principal NWFPNWFP Type of use

Nyssa ogeche Ogeechee tupelbtupelo FloridaFlorida,, Georgia Honey L

Nyssa sylvatica Black tupelo East North America Ornamental C

FAMILY OLEACEAE

Genus and Species Common name(s) Natural Range Principal NWFPNWFP Type of use

Fraxinus spp. Ash Asia Ornamental C Europe NA 0/eaOlea europeaeuropea Olive Mediterranean Edible fruit (cultivated) C Edible oil (cultivated) FAMILY PLATANACEAE

Genus and Species Common name(s) Natural Range Principal NWFPNWFP Type of use

Platanus x acerifolia London plane Hybrid Ornamental C

Platanus occidentalis American sycamoresycamore East United StatesStates Ornamental C

Platanus orientalis Oriental plane Sourtheast Europe Ornamental C Near East

123 Non-wood forest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees

FAMILY RHAMNACEAE

Genus ,,!ndand Species Common name(s)nam~(s) NaturalNi;ltural RangeRan"ge PrincipalPrincipalNWFP NWFP Type of use

Rhamnus fragula Alder buckthorn Europe Medicinal (bark) L

Rhamnus purshiana Cascara buckthorn Pacific Coast,Coast, NANA Medicinal (bark) C

FAMILY ROSACEAE

Genus and Species Common name(s) Natural Range Principal NWFPNWFP Type of use Amalanchier spp. Service berry Asia Ornamental C Europe North America

Crataegus spp.spp. Hawthorn Asia Edible Fruit L Europe Ornamental C North America

Crataegus aestivalis Mayhaw Southeast UnitedUnited Edible fruit L Crataegus opaca States Crataegus rufula

Crataegus cuneta Bonsai C Japan Malus pumilapumila Apple Europe Edible fruit A Near East

Malus spp. Crabapple Asia Bonsai C Near East Edible fruit L Ornamental C

Prunus amygladus Almond Asia Edible nut A

Prunus avium Sweet cherry Asia Edible fruit A Europe

Prunus domestica Plum Asia Edible fruit A Europe

Prunus persica Peach Near East Edible fruit A

Prunus serullata Japanese flowering Japan Ornamental C cherry

Prunus yedoensis Japanese flowering Japan Ornamental C cherry

Pyrus domestica Pear Edible fruit A

SorbusSorb us americana Mountain ash East North America Bird lime (fruit) T Edible fruit TT,, LL Ornamental C

SorbusSorb us aucuparia Mountain ash, rowanrowan Europe Herbal medicine (fruit)(fruit) T,T, LL

SorbusS~rbus domestica Service tree North Africa,Africa, EuropeEurope Edible fruit T,T, LL

124 Non-wood forestforest products fromfrom temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees

FAMILY SALICACEAE

, ... ', . ~ , Genus and Species Common name(s)inune(s) NaturalRangeNatural Range Principal NWFPNWFP Type of use

Salix alba WhiteVVhite willowwillow Europe Medicine salicylic acid T (bark) Ornamental C

Salix babylonica Weeping willow Asia Ornamental C

Salix spp. Honey L

Populus alba White poplar Ornamental C

Populus nigra Lombardy poplar Ornamental C 'Italica'Italica''

FAMILY TILIACEAE

~~~""~ ;I~ = '"",'w"",''''i''''?'·' Genus and Species Common name(s)nanle(s) NaturMRangeNatural Range Principal NWFP . Type of use

Tilia americana American basswood Europe Honey C MatsMats,, cordage (bark) L

Tilia cordata European lindenlinden East North America Honey C MatsMats,, cordage (bark) L Ornamental C

Tilia japonicajaponica Japan Mats,Mats, cordage (bark) L

Tilia tomentosa Silver leafedleafed lime Europe Honey C

Tilia tuan Mats,Mats, cordage (bark) L

FAMILY ULMACEAE

Genus and Species Common name(s)name(s) Natural Range Principal NWFPNWFP Type of - use --~

Celtis australis Nettle tree Mediterranean Bonsai C

Celtis bangeana sinensis Asia Bonsai C

Celtis occidentalis Hackberry East North America OrnamentalOrnamental C Ulmus americana American elm East North AmericaAmerica OrnamentalOrnamental C2 Ulmus parvifolia Chinese elm China Bonsai C Ornamental C Ulmus rubra Slippery elmelm East NorthNorth AmericaAmerica MedicinalMedicinal (bark)(bark) C Zelkova BonsaiBonsai'3 C Ornamental C

2 2 Use limited by Dutch elm diseasedisease 3 See Table 3.13.1 forfor detail.detail.

125 FAO TECHNICAL PAPERSPAPERS

NO\NON-WOOD -WOOD FORESTFOREST PRODUCTSPRODUCTS

1. Flavours and fragrances of plant origin (1995)(1995)

2. Gum naval stores: turpentine and rosinrosin from pinepine resinresin (1995)(1995)

3. Report of the International ExpertExpert ConsultationConsultation on Non-WoodNon-Wood ForestForest ProductsProducts (1995)(1995)

4. Natural colourants and dyestuffs (1995)(1995)

5. Edible nuts (1995)

6. Gums, resins and latexes of plantplant origin (1995)(1995)

7. Non-wood forest products for rural income and sustainable forestry (1995)

8. Trade restrictions affecting international trade in non-wood forest products (1995)(1995)

9. Domestication and commercialization of non-timber forest products in agroforestry systems (1996)(1996)

10. Tropical palms (1998)

11. Medicinal plants for forest conservation and healthhealth care (1997)

12. Non-wood forest products from conifers (1998)(1998)

13. Resource assessment of non-wood forest products Experience and biometric principles (2001)(2001)

14. Rattan - Current research issues and prospects for conservation and sustainable development (2002)(2002)

15. Non-wood forest products from temperate broad-leaved trees (2002)

The FAOFAO Technical Papers are available through the authorizedauthorized FAOFAO SalesSales AgentsAgents

[email protected] "" ....' , . I 'I'" I '- ;' '.'\ " ' /~\

Temperate broad-leaved treestrees growgrow in very different ecosystems inin thethe northern and southern hemispheres,hemispheres, but are also foundfound extensively in many tropical and subtropical mountain areas.areas. A wide range of non-wood products are derived from temperatetemperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees, and theirtheir description is organized in this volume according to the part of the tree from which theythey areare obtainedobtained (whole(whole tree,tree, foliage,foliage, flowers, etc.). This information isis presentedpresented inin order toto raiseraise awareness on, on, and and assist assist in in identifying, identifying, opportunities opportunities forfor the management andand productionproduction of non-wood products from temperate broad-leavedbroad-leaved trees.trees. The intended audience of this publication rangesranges from interestinterest groupsgroups in the forest, i agriculture andand ruralrural developmentdevelopment sectors sectors toto conservationconservation agencies in developed and developing countries. ~/,

ISBN 92-5-104855-X92·5·104855·X ISSN 1020-33701020·3370

II111111111111II 111111111111II 9 789257 8 9 2 5 11 0048 4 8 5559 5 9

TCTC/M1Y4351E/1/12.0212100/MIY 4351 E/1/12.02121 00 . ' I ." rirki;;:4 t'1r~ \~+

~ ~ ftN,