CRITERIA OF MODERNISM IN EARLY HEBREW HASKALAH LITERATURE

Moshe Pelli

Historians and critics of Hebrew letters- from Klausner to Lahover, from Shapira to Sha'anan, and onward-have attempted to identify the beginning of modern Hebrew literature wi th a certain writer or a group of writers. Underlying the respective selections of these literary historians is the notion that their choice represents the beginning of modernism in Hebrew literature. T he beginning of modem Hebrew literature is said to have coincided with the beginning of modem times in Jewish history. 1 A detailed analysis of all these theories will not be undertaken here as it extends beyond the scope of this study. Such analysis may be found, however, in several of the studies which I cite below, especially those by A vraham Holtz, Arnold Band and Uzi Shavit. Nevertheless. reference will be made to some of them in order to point out their orientation and some of their inherent weaknesses. Subsequently, several alternative avenues will be suggested for further attempts to define the concept of modernism in Hebrew literature. At the outset, we should note that criteria for modernism in literature may be classified according to extra-literary as well as literary classifications. The extra-literary criteria are based on disciplines such as the history of ideas, or religion, rather than literature. Undoubtedly, they were adopted to reflect changes in literature as well, and thus it can be argued that they may be used also for literary purposes. The literary classification refers to discussions of major trends toward modernism in strictly literary terms. This approach may be further subdivided into European or Judaic orientations. The former relies on European trends

129 130 Moshe Pelli which found their way into Hebrew literature, a phenomenon that is said to represent the modern inclination in Hebrew letters. The other orientation is inclined to define the new trends in Hebrew literature from within the confines of the Jewish literary corpus without reference to European literary criteria. While the concept of 'modernism' in Hebrew literature has not been defined satisfactorily, if at all, it was generally believed to be represented by a major shift from normative Jewish tradition to secularism. Thus Joseph Klausner defines modern Hebrew literature as 'essentially secular' in that 'it started a new direction-to enlighten the people and resemble in its form and contents more or less the literature of all European peoples. '2 Apart from the criteria of setting a new direction and enlightening the people, the concept of secularism is taken for granted as a term which needs no definition. The notion that secularism epitomizes the modern trends, as advocated by Klausner and others, was generally accepted in Haskalah historiography. Both Lahover3 and Sha'anan4 used the notion without defining it. As with modernism, the concept of secularism was originally presented in an intuitive fashion. Historians and social historians such as Bernard (Dov) Weinryb, Jacob Katz and Azriel Shohet later identified certain social trends prevalent among West-European Jews which were said to represent an emerging secularism.5 There was, however, hardly any attempt to define secularism in strictly literary terms. It was Barukh Kurzweil who dwelt most upon the concept of secularism in modern Hebrew literature. He identified a radical gap between traditional Jewish literature and modern Hebrew literature, claiming that the latter represents a complete discontinuity from the former. Traditional Jewish literature, he said, has acted throughout its history from within a background of a sanctified world. Modern Hebrew literature, however, was said to have possessed 'secularism ... [which] emerges from a spiritual world that became void of the primordial certainty with a backdrop of sanctity encompassing the totality of life's phenomena and providing a criterion for their evaluation'.6 Klau~ner's theory of modernism identifies Naphtali Herz Wessely as the person who initiated modern Hebrew literature. He considered Wessely 'a new man', SQmeone who 'fought for a new life, a new education, and a new Hebrew style' .7 Although Klausner's criteria for modernism now becomes clearer, his selection of Wessely to represent secular modernism in Hebrew letters is problematical. His choice is based on Wessely's Divrei shalom ve­ 'emet. However, Wessely's other writings, before and after this controversial treatise on education, lean very heavily on the traditional aspects of Judaism. While there is something to be said for Klausner's choice of Wessely, it is not entirely satisfactory. For more than any other writer in the early Hebrew Criteria of modernism in Haskalah literature 1 3 1

Haskalah, Wessely epitomized in most of his writings-with the exception of Divrei shalom ve-' emet-the traditional values in Judaism. 8 He represented the very norms of traditional Judaism rather than a still-to-be defined modern secularism. Paradoxically, his writings contained a major innovation which Klausner failed to discern, and which will be discussed below. Lahover identifies signs of a modern literature in the writings of Moshe Hayyim Luzzatto even though he, too, accepts the criterion of secularism as identifying modernism.9 The selection of Luzzatto as a-·mode_rnist is questioned by Klausner and other scholars. H. N. Shapira, for example, asserts that the beginning of modern Hebrew literature should be identified with the me'assfim, the writers and editors of Ha-me'assef IO Kurzweil's definition of secularism as applied to the Haskalah is too broad and too general. His concept of Haskalah, while fitting the late phenomenon of Hebrew Enlightenment, is nevertheless incongruous with regard to the early Hebrew Haskalah. Another theory was offered by Simon Halkin. His major criterion for identifying 'modernism' was 'humanism'. Accordingly, modern Hebrew literature is characterized by the shift from the theocentricity of traditional Judaism to an anthropocentricity modelled on European tendencies. Halkin borrowed this concept from the European Enlightenment, but stressed that European humanists were religious people. Thus, according to Halkin, modern Hebrew literature's inclination towards anthropocentricity does not represent a revolutionary trend, as suggested by Kurzweil, but rather an evolution. 11 Classifying these theories according to the literary or extra-literary classifications, it seems that Klausner's definition is both extra-literary as well as literary, for he identified the new trends in modernism as attempts to emulate European literatures in form and content. Employing the second classification, European or Judaic, his orientation is definitely European. Kurzweil, on the other hand, dealt mostly with the context of religion in an extra-literary fashion which nevertheless had a major bearing on literature. He seemed to concentrate on the Judaic-rather than the European-milieu, although by implication, the new trends were European-inspired. While Halkin keeps referring to modern Hebrew literature, his criteria are basically extra-literary in origin, and are European-oriented. Although his terminology did not originate in the sphere of literature, he applied it to Hebrew literature. A more recent attempt to define the modern trends of Haskalah was made by Uzi Shavit. Rejecting Kurzweil's notion of secularism, Shavit presented a concept which he had borrowed from Brenner. Accordingly, Haskalah 132 Moshe Pelli literature is characterized not by its 'secularism', but by its 'hofshiyut'-its 'freedom' or 'freethinking'_ 12 Ironically, Shavit's argument with Kurzweil's definition may also be applied to his own concept of 'hofshiyut' which, I believe, does not generally characterize the early Hebrew enlighteners. Although one may find a high degree of clandestine 'freethinking' in the writings of Isaac Euchel, Saul Berlin and Isaac Satanow-some of the extremists among the early maskilim-they were in no way 'free Jews', as may be deduced from Shavit's definition. They were functioning either within, or at the periphery of organized Jewish life and organized institutions, which, indeed, they tried to change. Euchel tried to form an Enlightenment substitute for the traditional structure of the kehillah, while Saul Berlin officiated as a rabbi, but was clandestinely involved in the Haskalah.13 Noting the inability to present modern trends of the Haskalah by a single concept, Shavit suggests three fundamental principles of the Hebrew Haskalah: Belief in the human mind (sekhel), in reason and in science, belief in God and in a revealed religion, and belief in the power of aesthetics. 14 He considers these principles as the common denominators of both early and late Haskalah. Even though his definitions are broad enough, one may question whether these criteria have the same weight and significance in both the early as well as the late Haskalah. One may also question whether all three principles carry the same weight, and whether the first two cancel or complement one another in the mind of the maskilim. Shavit's criteria combine both extra-literary and literary orientations, and capitalize on European Enlightenment concepts that also prevailed in medieval Jewish philosophy. Recently Arnold Band has examined the question of modernism and the beginnings of Hebrew literature. He has scrutinized past theories, and has applied Hans Robert Jauss' theory of literary reception 'of a work of art by certain audiences' to both Wessely's Shirei tiferet and Moshe Hayyim Luzzatto's Layesharim tehillah. Both works exerted a seminal influence on subsequent Haskalah writers. But Band argues that as no one has regarded these literary.works as modern in the sense of being secular, or rationalist, he suggests caution in the use of the term 'modern', and proposes Berdiczewski as the herald of modernism in Hebrew literature. 15 It indeed seems that Berdiczewski was considered to be aher-'other'-by his contemporaries. But his 'otherness' vis-a-vis Ahad Ha- 'am, Bialik, Tchernichowsky, and Frischmann, I submit, does not make him a modernist in contradistinction to them. Both Berdiczewski and his contemporaries were products of the Huska/ah and experienced its aftermath, the advent of a national movement, differently. To some, Frischmann represents some degree

modern modern critic, critic, Dov Dov Sadan, Sadan, broadens broadens the the scope scope of of 'modern 'modern literature' literature' to to include include

development development of of an an old old literature literature which which had had stopped stopped developing. A A more more

17 17

want want to to create create a a new new literature literature on on a a new new basis, basis, but but to to continue continue the the

that that early early Hebrew Hebrew maskilim, maskilim, such such as as Wessely Wessely and and Solomon Solomon Maimon, Maimon, did did not not

Hebrew Hebrew Haskalah Haskalah writers writers in in Germany. Germany. Ahad Ahad Ha-'am, Ha-'am, for for example, example, believed believed

accepted accepted universally universally that that change change had had occurred occurred in in the the first first generation generation of of

the the difference difference between between the the two two periods periods of of literature. literature. However, However, it it is is not not

premise: premise: first, first, on on the the occurrence occurrence of of change change and and on on our our ability ability to to distinguish distinguish

A A definition definition of of modern modern Hebrew Hebrew literature literature is is predicated predicated on on the the following following

modernism. modernism.

encompassing encompassing the the variety variety of of phenomena, phenomena, some some of of which which are are the the result result of of

'modernism', 'modernism', which which may may be be said said to to consist consist of of mega-trends, mega-trends, or or major major shifts, shifts,

these these criteria criteria are are correct, correct, but but they they do do not not represent represent the the essence essence of of

symptoms symptoms of of a a transitional transitional process process leading leading towards towards modernism. modernism. Many Many of of

change; change; however, however, they they were, were, in in effect, effect, the the result result of of an an occurring occurring change, change,

represent represent the the change change towards towards modernism. modernism. They They did did indeed indeed occur occur with with the the

It It is is my my contention contention that that these these common common denominators denominators only only appear appear to to

literary literary phenomena phenomena which which are are alleged alleged to to represent represent the the change change to to modernism. modernism.

writers?' writers?' The The answer, answer, then, then, identifies identifies

social, social, cultural, cultural, religious religious and/or and/or 16 16

answering answering the the question question 'What 'What are are the the common common characteristics characteristics of of Haska/ah Haska/ah

of of the the picture. picture. Other Other criteria, criteria, and and some some of of the the above, above, have have been been arrived arrived at at by by

emphasis emphasis on on man, man, utilitarianism, utilitarianism, or or freedom freedom of of thought, thought, etc., etc., is is only only a a part part

disrespect disrespect for for the the religious religious authority, authority, or or skepticism, skepticism, rationalism, rationalism, humanism, humanism,

criterion, criterion, as as they they were were purported purported to. to. Thus, Thus, each each single single criterion, criterion, such such as as

they they do do not not necessarily necessarily in in themselves themselves represent represent the the only only answer, answer, or or the the only only

say, say, that that they they do do represent represent phenomena phenomena which which indicate indicate aspects aspects of of a a new new trend, trend,

Furthermore, Furthermore, while while some some of of the the observations observations seem seem to to be be correct, correct, that that is is to to

to to a a single single idea idea which which was was purported purported to to have have represented represented the the new new trends. trends.

complicated complicated process process of of social social and and ideological ideological changes changes to to a a single single individual individual or or

attempt attempt to to address address a a complex complex issue issue in in a a simplified simplified manner. manner. They They attribute attribute a a

In In addition, addition, some some of of these these observations observations are are inherently inherently weak weak because because they they

Hebrew Hebrew letters. letters.

the the subject subject while while attempting attempting to to present present a a new new notion notion of of modernism modernism in in

successive successive Hebrew Hebrew critics critics as as they they reviewed reviewed their their on on predecessor~~-£.omments predecessor~~-£.omments

observations observations and and even even to to refute refute them. them. This This was was done done quite quite successfully successfully by by

based based on on the the literature literature itself. itself. Thus, Thus, it it is is often often easy easy to to question question some some of of these these

observations observations and and intriguing intriguing generalities, generalities, but but on on the the whole whole lack lack textual textual proof proof

In In assessing assessing previous previous theories, theories, one one notes notes that that they they contain contain insightful insightful

modernism modernism are are to to be be found, found, as as I I shall shall presently presently show, show, in in the the early early Haskalah. Haskalah.

1890s 1890s represent represent modernism modernism at at its its peak. peak. However, However, the the beginnings beginnings of of

of of this this 'otherness' 'otherness' which which is is found found in in Berdiczewski. Berdiczewski. Unquestionably, Unquestionably, the the

Haskalah Haskalah Criteria Criteria of of modernism modernism in in literature literature 133 133 134 Moshe Pelli hassidic and mitnagdic literatures, and not only Haskalah literature. He even expands the scope of the discussion beyond Hebrew to include Yiddish and other modem European languages. 18 Thus, according to Sadan, the question of modernism disregards the major criterion of secularism as epitomizing the modem age. Second, we should take into consideration the gradual process of that change and its relative scope, whether in society, within the individual, or in literature. It was limited in size and in scope, and did not encompass the totality of Jewish experience, or the totality of the Jewish people at any given time or place. Nor did the change appear to be uniform and universal even within a given group of writers which considered itself to be 'enlightened'. Third, we must discard attempts to arrive at a one-sentence definition of modernism in Hebrew literature. We are dealing here with a very complex issue, and with a process which covers a number of areas of human endeavour, and thus has had its impact on society, religion and culture as well as on literature. In the same vein, we must acknowledge the multiplicity of Haskalah phenomena as an essential premise for its study. The term Haskalah is used to refer to diverse individuals and groups in different localities and at different times. 19 Even with a given group in the same locality and of the same period, maskilim may differ from one another in their interpretation of what Haskalah means and in their implementation of it. In order to identify modernism in Hebrew literature we should bear in mind the need to examine the very early period of the Haskalalz in order to distinguish aspects of the new period and its literature from those in the earlier period. This premise presupposes, for the sake of discussion, that the early period of the Hebrew Haskalah in Germany contains sufficient inherent signs of change which may-or may not-signal the beginning of different, or yet to be defined, modem Hebrew literature. Last, and more importantly, any definition of modernism in literature should come from the literature itself. In other words, contemporary Hebrew Haskalah literature itself should convey to us its own sense of modernism. If possible, it should lead to its own definition. Thus, we must search the literary works for a definition, or else look for literary phenomena which represented these new trends in Hebrew letters. However, we should not confuse symptoms of modernism-which are of importance and indeed quite relevant-with major shifts in Weltanschauung leading to modernism. Those major shifts in outlook, unlike symptoms of the change, were mega-trends, representing the all-encompassing transformation which in effect radically

teaching teaching stop stop not not do do they they night night and and day day nations; nations; all all in in arrived arrived has has knowledge knowledge

of of era era 'The 'The Jews: Jews: the the among among change change similar similar a a also necessitated necessitated also nations nations

European European among among change change this this that that argued argued further further writers writers Hebrew Hebrew These These

another. another. one one to to related related are are two two the the that that and and

tolerance, tolerance, namely namely love, love, and and knowledge knowledge are are epoch epoch new new the the of of components components two two

the the that that note note us us Let Let Europe.' of of countries countries the the all all in in love love and and

knowledge knowledge of of 20 20

fruits fruits first first the the of of days days 'the 'the as as it it to to referring referring Europe, Europe, in in epoch epoch new new emerging emerging

the the detect detect writers writers These These modernism. modernism. into into transition transition complex complex the the way way

subtle subtle a a in in reflects reflects language language very very the the Thus, Thus, use. use. secular secular for for language language Hebrew Hebrew

sacral sacral the the employing employing of of trend trend linguistic linguistic the the signals signals It It concept. concept. updated updated

an an convey convey to to idiom idiom biblical biblical sacred sacred the the of of use use the the detect detect may may one one observation observation

this this of of thrust thrust the the Behind Behind times. times. new new the the of of nature nature the the indicate indicate to to me'assef me'assef

Ha­ of of editors editors the the by by used used was was which which outside', outside', sings sings now now wisdom wisdom behold behold

'and 'and :20, :20, I I Proverbs Proverbs from from quotation quotation modified modified the the example, example, for for Consider, Consider,

times. times. changing changing the the of of awareness awareness linguistic linguistic and and literary literary the the represent represent

clearly clearly they they yet yet naive, naive, even even or or melitzah, melitzah, in in were were they they as as expressed expressed euphuistic,

sound sound may may They They modernism. modernism. for for paper paper litmus litmus a a as as serve serve indeed indeed which which reason reason

of of age age new new a a of of advent advent the the announced announced expressions expressions these these of of Many Many orientation. orientation.

(modem?) (modem?) current current more more a a to to thought thought and and life life of of way way traditional traditional a a from from

change change a a necessitated necessitated times times changing changing the the that that believed believed was was It It trends. trends. these these

emulate emulate to to need need the the of of statements statements by by followed followed were were expressions expressions These These scene. scene.

European European the the on on emerged emerged had had that that changes changes the the of of awareness awareness deep deep a a indicate indicate

They They Ha-me'assef. Ha-me'assef. in in maskilim maskilim Hebrew German German Hebrew early early the the by by enunciated enunciated

expressions expressions overt overt several several find find we we awareness, awareness, of of kind kind this this for for Looking Looking

transformation. transformation. of of process process spiritual spiritual or or cultural, cultural, historical, historical, own own their their

discern discern to to ability ability writers' writers' the the question question especially especially should should They They insight. insight. and and

accuracy accuracy for for phenomenon phenomenon or or text text literary literary other other any any would would they they as as critically critically

them them assess assess and and interpret interpret then then should should They They maskilim. maskilim. Hebrew Hebrew early early the the of of

writings writings the the in in manifested manifested as as change change this this of of expression expression linguistic linguistic and and literary literary

the the and and modernism modernism of of sense sense ostensible ostensible this this locate locate and and trace trace identify, identify, to to critics critics

or or historians historians literary literary the the of of role role the the is is it it Consequently, Consequently, writings. writings. Hebrew Hebrew

p~rmeated p~rmeated the the modernism modernism of of awareness awareness the the that that time time the the from from literature literature

Hebrew Hebrew in in modernism modernism that that hypothesize hypothesize may may we we b.~gan b.~gan above, above, the the on on Based Based

records. records. historical historical and and social social some some than than modernism modernism into into insight insight

better better a a contribute contribute may may literature literature that that argue argue thus thus may may One One trends. trends. cultural cultural

and and spiritual spiritual changing changing the the concerning concerning awareness awareness of of expressions expressions covert covert as as well well

as as overt overt register register to to prone prone is is sensitivity, sensitivity, unique unique its its to to due due which, which, literature literature

in in proper proper especially especially is is corpus corpus the the within within from from definition definition a a find find to to need need The The

culture. culture. and and society society surrounding surrounding their their and and tradition tradition their their vis vis

vis-a­ themselves themselves of of view view Jews' Jews' the the and and life life on on outlook outlook Jewish Jewish the the changed changed

135 135 Haskalah Haskalah literature literature in in modernism modernism of of Criteria Criteria 136 Moshe Pelli their children [both] language and book. And we, why should we sit idle? Let us get up and revive [those] stones from the heaps of dust. •2! Undoubtedly, the me'assfim discerned a major change taking place in Europe, and they advocated its adoption by European Jewry. Their continuous efforts to introduce changes in all spheres of Jewish endeavour helped bring about these changes among the Jews. Thus, if our assertion is correct, these expressions-and many others which should be explored-indicate that the writers and editors of Ha-me'assef were the exponents and the proponents of modernism in the eighteenth century.22 Simultaneously, some contemporary writers displayed their sensitivity through covert expressions of the ensuing transformation. Unlike the overt expressions, as cited above, these were subconscious expressions; they indicate a subterranean sensitivity to the budding changes and they foreshadow the new trends. They may be even more important than the overt expressions because of the covert message which they carry concerning Judaism and the Jewish religion in modern times. Those subtle signals in Hebrew literature conveyed the notion that traditional Judaism, as practiced and transmitted, was no longer self-sufficient and self-contained. They implied that Judaism in the modern age could no longer be a self-contained entity upon which its adherents could exclusively rely. There was a feeling that traditional Judaism was inadequate for the needs of modern man. This expression signaled a major turning point in Jewish history. This change took place in the minds of some maskilim as they projected the sense that traditional Judaism was, moreover, subservient to Western civilization. Thus, they believed that in order to survive, modern Judaism had to adapt and adjust to its surrounding culture. For if it did not, Judaism would be doomed. I believe that this awareness represented a new phenomenon in eighteenth­ century Judaism. It shattered the age-old notion that Judaism was an all­ encompassing way of life, which addressed all relevant issues and gave satisfactory answers to all the needs of the individual Jew and Jewish society. Halki_n has already observed that the total sufficiency of a Jew in his inner Judaic life typified his confines 'within the walls' until the eighteenth century. Afterwards, the Jew is inclined more towards more worldly issues.23 Additional study should be directed at this transitory period to ascertain whether these aspects of modernism had not occurred earlier. What is so impressive about this new awareness is that it was first detected in the writings of a moderate maskil, Naphtali Herz Wessely. In other words, even traditionalist maskilim were aware of some inadequacy of Judaism vis-a­ vis European culture in modem times, and manifested this attitude in their writings. As I have shown elsewhere,24 this traditionalist maskil seemed to

maskilim maskilim early early the the that that historiography historiography Raska/ah Raska/ah in in notion notion accepted accepted the the

hand, hand, other other the the On On authorities. authorities. rabbinic rabbinic contemporary contemporary the the appease appease to to made made

pronouncements pronouncements various various by by misled misled be be not not should should one one However, However, maskilim. maskilim.

many many of of goal goal the the definitely definitely was was Judaism Judaism of of version version modern modern traditional, traditional,

neo­ re-defined, re-defined, a a with with tradition tradition existing existing the the Replacing Replacing model. model. past past a a of of

terms terms in in Judaism Judaism modern modern re-define re-define to to desire desire a a also also but but historians, historians, literary literary by by

asserted asserted is is as as tendency, tendency, secular secular the the only only not not reflect reflect may may then, then, Modernism, Modernism,

times.25 times.25 modem modem in in Judaism Judaism for model model the the as as Judaism, Judaism,

rabbinic rabbinic contemporary contemporary to to opposed opposed as as Judaism, Judaism, rabbinic rabbinic early early selected selected

thus thus Satanow Satanow humanism. humanism. and and science science to to contribution contribution lasting lasting its its made made people people

Jewish Jewish the the felt-that felt-that then-he then-he was was scholarship. scholarship. and and It It knowledge knowledge wisdom, wisdom,

of of degree degree highest highest its its at at Judaism Judaism representing representing as as Satanow Satanow by by conceptualized conceptualized

were were periods periods talmudic talmudic and and mishnaic mishnaic The The Judaism. Judaism. rabbinic rabbinic early early

in in Judaism Judaism authentic authentic of of epitome epitome the the found found he he Interestingly, Interestingly, Enlightenment. Enlightenment.

the the in in emulated emulated be be should should and and could could which which Judaism Judaism authentic authentic of of vision vision his his of of

model model historical historical a a for for searched searched Satanow, Satanow, Isaac Isaac Raskalah, Raskalah, the the for for spokesman spokesman

major major a a Judaism, Judaism, rabbinic rabbinic contemporary contemporary of of phenomenon phenomenon the the reject reject

to to desire desire a a In In Judaism. Judaism. re-define re-define to to writers writers its its of of efforts efforts concerted concerted the the through through

modernism modernism toward toward orientation orientation its its manifested manifested also also has has Raska/ah Raska/ah The The

civilization. civilization.

Western Western to to position position inferior inferior an an in in it it placing placing towards towards encompassing encompassing

all­ and and self-sufficient self-sufficient as as values values its its and and Judaism Judaism on on reliance reliance total total from from shift shift

a a reflecting reflecting as as construed construed be be then then may may Judaism Judaism in in Modernism Modernism letters. letters. Jewish Jewish

in in period period modem modem the the to to Judaism Judaism traditional traditional from from shift shift major major a a represents represents this this

Unquestionably, Unquestionably, heritage. heritage. his his of of proud proud was was who who Jew, Jew, devout devout a a writer, writer, Hebrew Hebrew

a a by by made made were were observations observations these these Significantly, Significantly, Enlightenment. Enlightenment. of of age age the the

until until been been had had it it as as self-sufficient self-sufficient as as longer longer no no was was considered, considered, he he Judaism, Judaism,

itself. itself. by by entity entity an an as as exist exist not not could could it it and and culture, culture, Western Western to to subservient subservient

was was times times modern modern in in Judaism Judaism that that felt felt he he Accordingly, Accordingly, age. age. and and day day his his

in in Judaism Judaism affecting affecting changes changes the the sensed sensed Wessely Wessely as as such such maskil maskil traditional traditional

a a even even Thus, Thus, it. it. on on dependent dependent completely completely is is it it that that and and age, age, modern modern

the the in in culture culture Western Western to to namely namely ha-'adam, ha-'adam, Torat Torat to to subordinated subordinated is is Judaism, Judaism,

is, is, "that "that ha-shem, ha-shem, Torat Torat that that believes believes Wessely Wessely civilization. civilization. Western Western and and

knowledge knowledge seculm: seculm: importantly, importantly, more more and and manners, manners, and and customs customs social social but but

man, man, of of laws laws the the only only not not include include to to broadened broadened is is ha-'adam ha-'adam Torat Torat Similarly, Similarly,

general. general. in in Judaism Judaism but also also but God, God, of of laws laws the the only only not not mean mean to to ha-shem, ha-shem,

Torat Torat term, term, first first the the expands expands He He man. man. of of Jaw Jaw ha-'adam-the ha-'adam-the Torat Torat and and God, God,

of of teaching, teaching, or or Jaws, Jaws, the the as as translates translates literally literally which which ha-shem, ha-shem, Torat Torat between between

distinction distinction a a makes makes He He Judaism. Judaism. of of view view his his to to related related concepts concepts major major two two

discusses discusses Wessely treatise treatise educational educational this this In In (1782). (1782). 'emet 'emet ve- shalom shalom Divrei Divrei

book book controversial controversial his his in in civilization civilization Western Western to to Judaism Judaism subordinated subordinated have have

Haskalah Haskalah 137 137 literature literature in in modernism modernism of of Criteria Criteria 138 Moshe Pelli

2 rejected the Talmud must, as I have shown, be re-examined and revised. 6 Hebrew scholarship must examine aspects of modernism within the neo­ traditional, cultural elements of Haskalah Judaism. Admittedly, the term 'neo-traditional' may not be construed in a religious, observant fashion, or as 'modern Orthodoxy', as it is conceptualized nowadays. In this respect, Kurzweil's view of modern Hebrew literature as a complete break from the past must be questioned. There was yet another subtle awareness of a major shift in modern Judaism. Its covert manifestation emerged from questioning accepted fundamentals and values of normative Judaism. Isaac Satanow asserted that love of God ('ahavat ha-shem) and trust in God (bitahon ba-shem)-major tenets in traditional Judaism-were no longer binding in the age of Enlightenment. He even questioned the very faith in God ('emunah). Instead, these essential Jewish values were replaced by skepticism as the fundamental value and vital principle of modern Judaism in modern times. 27 Significantly, these extra-literary observations are found in Satanow's belles lettres, in Mishlei Asaf (1789-1802), and are therefore related to literary phenomena within Haskalah literature. Modernism may be further identified by significant changes in the conceptualization of major historical processes in Judaism by the early maskilim. There emerged an important change in the view of, and attitude towards, Jewish history. For the first time, as far as I know, a Jewish writer questions the inevitability of Jewish history and the course it had taken. It was an attempt to fathom the meaning of Jewish historical existence. The effort of the Haskalah to change the course of Jewish history reflects this modern aspect of eighteenth-century Judaism. The Haskalah exponent of this new attitude was a rabbi and a maskil, Saul Berlin. His views on Jewish historiosophy were presented in a satirical piece entitled Ktav Yosher (1795). Berlin's objective was to shatter accepted notions and major concepts in Jewish historiosophy and to destroy some normative values in Judaic tradition. He questioned the sacred attitude towards kiddus~ ha-shem, martyrdom, and the ostensibly predestined fate of Jews in history. Atrrcmg other fundamental phenomena in Judaism, Saul Berlin scrutinized the phenomenon of galut (state of exile), the nature of ge 'u/ah (divine redemption), the chosenness of Israel, and gentiles' hatred of the Jews.28 Behind the satire, Saul Berlin gave voice to ideas which, I believe, represent a watershed in Jewish history and Hebrew literature. They mark a shift in view of Jewish history. No longer was there passive acquiescence to, and acceptance of, the tragic consequences of Jewish history. A bitter protest now emerged against Jewish fate. Moreover, the Hebrew maskil protested Criteria of modernism in Haskalah literature 139 against the Jewish mentality which accepted Jewish history as a God-given gift to be welcomed in the past as in the future. Saul Berlin expressed a changing attitude towards the concept of galut: it was no longer viewed as inevitable, or as reflecting the nature of Jewish existence in modern time. Ge 'ulah, on the other hand, was no longer conceptualized as being confined to the Divine, and the alleged chosenness of Israel was questioned.29 From a Judaic point of view, these changes reflected substantial shifts in Jewish outlook that may be said to reflect modernism. ·--...., Another mega-trend of the shift in conceptualizing Judaism was asserted in the writings of two major writers of the early Haskalah: the editor of Ha­ me'assef, Isaac Euchel, and Saul Berlin, cited above. For the first time in the modern age, the question arose as to whether traditional Judaism could bring happiness to the individual Jew and to Jewish society as a whole. Aware of the centrality of mitzvot (precepts) and kiyyum mitzvot (observing the mitzvot) to traditional Judaism, Euchel and Berlin doubted whether the modern Jew could achieve happiness through observance of mitzvot.30 The major shift seemed to be a natural development of Wessely's view of the revised relationship between Judaism and Western civilization. With the abandonment of traditional Judaism as the exclusive, unique provider of happiness for the Jew, the door to modernism seemed to be wide open even for those who continued to observe the precepts of Judaism. Both Euchel and Berlin touched upon the most significant aspect of the change towards modernism in that period: the desire of the modern Jew to achieve worldly happiness. They manifested a mega-trend towards secularism-prevalent in modern Judaism to this day-in its inception. Our discussion so far has concentrated on criteria of modernism borrowed from non-literary disciplines and applied to literature. To address the issue fully, we should also attempt to define modernism in strictly literary terms. One prospective avenue is the study of emerging new literary genres and new literary phenomena in the Haskalah. It will, I hope, lead to a different concept of modernism in Hebrew literature. Accordingly, a new definition of modernism may be based on the shift from traditional Hebrew literature to modern Hebrew literature by noting the changes in literary genres. Regrettably, as of now, Hebrew criticism has not produced a detailed, thorough and comprehensive study of the Haskalah 's literary genres. Until such time that the whole of Haskalah literature is dissected and classified it will be difficult, perhaps even impossible, to arrive at any satisfactory definition along these lines. For the time being, however, we may use some working hypotheses to guide us in our endeavours. 140 Moshe Pelli

We may nonetheless hypothesize that the literary genres of the Hebrew Enlightenment indicate a dual trend.31 There is certainly a noticeable element of continuity in Haskalah literary genres. Many of the Hebrew maskilim continued to use accepted genres in the traditional Jewish literary corpus. Parables, fables and aphorisms, for example, represent a continuity. Of course, their contents reflected contemporary preoccupations. There was also a tendency to revise accepted Judaic genres, or rather to search for established genres in the Judaic corpus. These genres were then re­ presented either in the appearance of the old cast, such as in Satanow's Mishlei Asaf, or as a re-introduction of a genre, such as the religious disputation in Satanow's Divrei rivot. A student of modernism must then take into account the neo-literary genres which were re-introduced into Haskalah literature. On the other hand, modernism is manifested by the introduction into Hebrew literature of European literary genres such as satire, epistolary writing, the travelogue, the biography and autobiography. These often show a strong European influence, with different degrees of Hebraic colouring, indicative of some background in past Hebrew literature.32 It may be suggested that modern Hebrew literature began with the introduction of a sufficient number of new literary genres. They represent a substantial literary shift which we can refer to as a shift towards modernism. The search for literary definitions of modernism would be incomplete without the necessary probe into the subtle changes that affected the Hebrew language. The process of secularization of Hebrew should be part of a study of modernism for it reflects-and it affects-the inner Weltanschauung not only of literature but also of the Jewish people at that time. Many sacred concepts, terms and words, which had been venerated for centuries, underwent acute, albeit subtle, changes, and were pressed into a secular, that is, modem use. The topic of language as well as others which I have touched upon in this paper indicate the need to re-examine the complex issue of modernism in Hebrew literature closely from within the Huska/ah literature itself. ·

Notes

I. Sec F. Lahovcr, To/dot ha-sifrut ha-'ivrit ha-hadashah, I (Tel Aviv, 1963), p. I: ' .. .it [modern Hebrew literature] echoes the modern times.' Joseph Klausner, Historiah she/ ha-sifrut ha- 'ivrit ha-hadashah, I (Jerusalem, 1952), p. 9: 'The term "Modern Hebrew Literature" should be changed to the Hebrew literature of modern times .... ' Shimon Hal kin, Derakhim ve-tzidei derakhim ba-sifrut, I (Jerusalem, 1970), p. 155: 'Modern times in the history of the

25-26. 25-26. pp. pp. Literature', Literature', Hebrew Hebrew Modern Modern of of Beginnings Beginnings 'The 'The Band, Band, 15. 15.

25. 25. p. p. Shirah, Shirah, Shavit, Shavit, 14. 14.

427-469. 427-469. pp. pp. 1987), 1987), (4, (4, 52 52 Zion, Zion, ', ', be-germaniah be-germaniah ha-haskalah ha-haskalah tenu'at tenu'at

she! she! Eichcl-Ha-'yazam' Eichcl-Ha-'yazam' 'Yitzhak 'Yitzhak Feiner, Feiner, Shmucl Shmucl Also: Also: Haskalah. Haskalah. of of Age Age

The The book book my my in in Satanow Satanow and and Berlin Berlin Euchcl, Euchcl, on on chapters chapters respective respective the the See See 13. 13.

9. 9. p. p. 1986), 1986),

Aviv, Aviv, (Tel (Tel ha-hadashah ha-hadashah 'ivrit 'ivrit ha- ha-shirah ha-shirah Be-fetah Be-fetah in in previously previously published published

16; 16; p. p. 1987), 1987), Aviv, Aviv, (Tel (Tel ve-'ideologiah ve-'ideologiah Shirah Shirah mavo', mavo', 'Masat 'Masat Shavit, Shavit, Uzi Uzi 12. 12.

36. 36. p. p. 1950]). 1950]). in in published published [first [first 1970 1970 York, York, (New (New Literature Literature Hebrew Hebrew Modern Modern

his his in in earlier earlier views views his his formulated formulated had had Halkin Halkin 31. 31. p. p. ), ), 1984 1984 (Jerusalem, (Jerusalem,

1 1 ha-hadashah, ha-hadashah, ha-'i1•rit ha-'i1•rit ba-sifrut ba-sifrut ve-tzurot ve-tzurot Zeramim Zeramim Halkin, Halkin, Simon Simon 11. 11.

publication). publication).

of of date date the the for for above above 3 3 note note (sec (sec 16 16 p. p. I, I, sifrut, sifrut, Maslulei Maslulei Rabinowitz, Rabinowitz,

Yaakov Yaakov by by earlier earlier presented presented was was notion notion This This 57-58. 57-58. pp. pp. 1967), 1967), Gan, Gan,

(Ramal (Ramal ha-hadashah ha-hadashah 'ivrit 'ivrit ha- ha-sifrut ha-sifrut To/dot To/dot Shapira, Shapira, N. N. H. H. example: example: For For 10. 10.

4. 4. p. p. ha-hadashah, ha-hadashah, 'ivrit 'ivrit ha- ha-sifrut ha-sifrut To/dot To/dot Lahovcr, Lahovcr, 9. 9.

47-55. 47-55. pp. pp. 1988), 1988), Aviv, Aviv, (Tel (Tel temurah temurah ma'avkei ma'avkei

Be­ Pelli, Pelli, VI; VI; eh. eh. 1979), 1979), (Leiden, (Leiden, Haskalah Haskalah of of Age Age The The Pclli, Pclli, Moshe Moshe See See 8. 8.

10. 10. p. p. Historiah, Historiah, Klausner, Klausner, 7. 7.

Hebrew). Hebrew). the the from from (translated (translated culture' culture' Jewish Jewish of of unit unit

the the over over hovering hovering been been had had that that holiness holiness divine divine of of void void world world a a of of out out comes comes

it it because because secular secular is is literature literature Hebrew Hebrew modern modern ...... ' ' 44: 44: p. p. also: also: 16; 16; p. p. 1960) 1960)

Aviv, Aviv, (Tel (Tel mahapekhah mahapekhah 'o 'o masoret masoret ha-hadashah: ha-hadashah: Sifrutenu Sifrutenu Kurzwcil, Kurzwcil, Baruch Baruch 6. 6.

328-334. 328-334. pp. pp. 1965), 1965), September September (203-204, (203-204,

XXIII XXIII Mo/ad, Mo/ad, gcrmaniah', gcrmaniah', be-yahadut be-yahadut ha-haskalah ha-haskalah 'Rcshit 'Rcshit Shohet, Shohet, 1960); 1960);

(Jerusalem, (Jerusalem, tekufot tekufot hilufei hilufei Im Im Shohet, Shohet, Azriel Azriel 1977). 1977). York, York, (New (New Crisis Crisis

and and Tradition Tradition Katz, Katz, 24; 24; 21, 23, 23, 21, 20, 20, eh. eh. 1958), 1958), (Jerusalem, (Jerusalem, u-mashber u-mashber Masoret Masoret

Katz, Katz, Jacob Jacob 416-436; 416-436; pp. pp. 1938), 1938), Aviv, Aviv, (Tel (Tel III III Knesset, Knesset, ', ', be-gcrmaniah be-gcrmaniah

ha-yehudit ha-yehudit ve-sotzialiyim ba-haskalah ba-haskalah ve-sotzialiyim kalkaliyim kalkaliyim 'Gormim 'Gormim Weinryb, Weinryb, Dov Dov 5. 5.

302-306. 302-306.

pp. pp. 1952), 1952), (Jerusalem, (Jerusalem, 1947 1947 ha-yahadut, ha-yahadut, 'ei 'ei le-maria le-maria 'o/ami 'o/ami ha- Ha-kinnus Ha-kinnus

ha-hadashah', ha-hadashah', sifrutcnu sifrutcnu she! she! reshitah reshitah 'Li-she'elat 'Li-she'elat Bar-Dayan, Bar-Dayan, Hayim Hayim by by 1947 1947

in in discussed discussed was was literature literature Hebrew Hebrew modern modern of of beginning beginning the the of of indicative indicative

as as secularism secularism of of question question The The 1-26. 1-26. pp. pp. 1988), 1988), (Spring-Fall (Spring-Fall XIII XIII Review, Review,

AJS AJS "Modernity"', "Modernity"', on on Perspectives Perspectives Literature: Literature: Hebrew Hebrew Modern Modern of of Beginnings Beginnings

'The 'The article article elaborate elaborate his his in in later, later, years years twenty twenty Band, Band, Arnold Arnold does does as as 261, 261,

p. p. 1967), 1967), 3, 3, (No. (No. XI XI West, West, and and East East Literature Literature Literature', Literature', Hebrew Hebrew Modern Modern

of of History History Literary Literary a a to to 'Prolcgomcnon 'Prolcgomcnon his his in in historians historians literary literary Hebrew Hebrew the the

by by used used as as term term the the of of ambiguity ambiguity the the on on comments comments Holtz Holtz Avraham Avraham faiths'. faiths'. and and

epinions epinions of of wor1Cl wor1Cl Jewish Jewish the the to to secularism secularism of of penetration penetration ...... 18: 18: p. p. 1962), 1962),

Aviv, Aviv, (Tel (Tel 1 1 li-zrameha, li-zrameha, ha-hadashah ha-hadashah 'ivrit 'ivrit ha- Ha-sifrut Ha-sifrut Sha'anan, Sha'anan, Avraham Avraham 4. 4.

320. 320. p. p. 1964), 1964), 13, 13, March March 19, 19, (No. (No.

43 43 Hadoar, Hadoar, u-vikortah', u-vikortah', ha-haskalah ha-haskalah mahut mahut 'Li-vdikat 'Li-vdikat Barzi1ay, Barzi1ay, Isaac Isaac also: also:

Sec Sec 1919). 1919). in in published published (originally (originally 5 5 p. p. 1971), 1971), (Jerusalem, (Jerusalem, I I sifrut, sifrut, Maslu/ei Maslu/ei

Rabinowitz, Rabinowitz, Yaakov Yaakov by by earlier earlier presented presented was was It It secularism.' secularism.' towards towards now now

was was inclination inclination 'The 'The 4: 4: p. p. I, I, ha-hadashah, ha-hadashah, 'ivrit 'ivrit ha- ha-sifrut ha-sifrut To/dot To/dot Lahover, Lahover, 3. 3.

9. 9. p. p. Historiah, Historiah, Klausner, Klausner, 2. 2.

Hebrew). Hebrew). in in originally originally quotations quotations

above above (the (the literature' literature' Hebrew Hebrew modern modern to to birth birth gave gave nation nation the the and and world world

41 41 1 1 Haskalah Haskalah literature literature in in modernism modernism of of Criteria Criteria 142 Moshe Pelli

16. Sec ibid., p. 15. 17. 'Ha-lashon vc-sifrutah', Li-shc'clat ha-lashon, Kol kitvei Ahad Ha- 'Am (Tel Aviv, 1956), p. 95. 18. Dov Sadan, 'Al sifrutenu-masat mavo (Jerusalem, 1950), pp. 1-9; first chapter published earlier in ' 'Al tchumci sifrutcnu ha-hadashah ', Mo/ad, II (1948-9), pp. 38-41. Sadan reiterated his views in other articles and recently in' 'Al sifrutenu-masat hitum', Yerushalayim, XI-XII (1977), pp. 162-171. 19. On the concept and term 'haskalah' sec Uzi Shavit, 'Ha-"haskalah" mahi', Mehkerei yerushalayim be-sifrut 'ivrit, XII (1990), pp. 51-83. 20. 'Nahal ha-bsor', Prospect of Ha-me 'assef, bound with vol. I (1783-4 ), p. 3. 21. Ibid., p. 13. 22. An observation made, on other grounds, by H. N. Shapira, in his To/dot ha­ sifrut ha- 'ivrit ha-hadashah, p. 58. 23. Halkin, Derakhim ve-tzidei derakhim, pp. 156-157; Halkin, Zeramim ve­ tzurot, p. 11. 24. Pclli, The Age of Haskalah, p. 121-124; Pelli, Be-ma'avkei temurah, pp. 54- 61. 25. See The Age ofHaskalah, eh. VIII; Be-ma'avkei temurah, eh. III. 26. The Age of Haskalah, eh. III. 27. The Age of Haskalah, pp. 166-169; Be-ma'avkei temurah, pp. 120-122. 28. Be-ma'avkei temurah, pp. 14-17. Sec also The Age of Haskalah, eh. IX, and my two additional articles on Saul Berlin published in Leo Baeck Year Book, XX (1975), pp. 109-127; XXII (1977), pp. 93-107. 29. Be-ma'avkei temurah, pp. 17, 144. 30. Be-ma'avkei temurah, pp. 13-14. 31. Avraham Holtz has lamented this phenomenon in the article cited in note 4, p. 268. Note also Shmucl Werses' comprehensive review of the study and research of the haskalah, 'Al mchkar sifrut ha-haskalah be-yameinu ', Megamot ve-tzurot be-sifrut ha-haskalah (Jerusalem, 1990), pp. 356-408, published previously in the Newsletter of World Union of Jewish Studies, 25 (Summer, 1985) and 26 (Winter, 1986). 32. In the published studies on the genres of the Haskalah 1 have discussed the following genres: satire, biography, autobiography, epistolary writing, dialogues of the dead, religious disputations, travelogues, utopian and wisdom literature, and pseudo-Halakhah.