Social Relations, Communication, Mobility

84. Role of personal ornaments: Vlakno cave (Croatia)

Barbara Cvitkušić and Dario Vujević

In an attempt to understand the culture and social behaviour of Mesolithic populations, personal ornaments are of particular importance. Personal ornaments in their formal expressions (marine gastropods and bivalves, freshwater gastropods, modified bones, and teeth) not only point to the universal idea of decoration and aesthetic sensibility, but also reveal mutual contacts and communication pathways. Vlakno cave on the island of Dugi Otok (Croatia) is one of the most prominent Late Pleistocene/Early Holocene sites discovered in Dalmatia recently. Research here has been conducted since 2004 with some interruptions, and a depth of 5 m was achieved in 2013, reaching the layers belonging to the Early Epigravettian. In the large assemblage of ornamental finds that come from different strata, it is possible to recognize changes over time regarding the type and frequency of finds. Perforated animal teeth, mostly deer canines, are gradually replaced by marine gastropods and bivalves. So far, almost 400 specimens of body ornaments have been found, along with numerous unperforated marine gastropods, making Vlakno cave one of the richest archaeological sites in personal ornaments on the eastern Adriatic coast.

Keywords: Early Holocene, body ornaments, material diversity, eastern Adriatic

Introduction gastropods, perforated animal teeth, and modified ani- Personal ornaments, as nonverbal means of social commu- mal bones. Although a bead composition can carry a great nication, are used in almost every contemporary human deal more information than merely the small amount of society. The ethnographic record demonstrates that many material from which they are made, prehistoric bead com- different meanings are embedded in their visual appear- positions are rarely preserved. Well-known exceptions are ances, such as marital or social status, markers of age and found in burial contexts such as the eastern Gravettian Pal- gender, signs of power, wealth, personal, or group identity aeolithic site of Sungir (White 1993) or the Grimaldi caves (Stiner 2014, 53). The production of decorative items might in north-western Italy (Stiner 1999). At most Palaeolithic have begun as early as the time of the Neanderthals, with a and Mesolithic sites, however, ornamental assemblages are large increase occuring with the appearance of anatomical- found scattered among other waste. The reason is probably ly modern humans (e.g. Álvarez-Fernández 2007, 15; Zil- the small size of the objects, post-depositional disturbanc- hão et al. 2009). Currently the earliest evidence of personal es, fragility due to the fact that organic material that binds adornments are the 100,000-year-old marine gastropods composition is hard to preserve, and broad circulation of gibbosula from the site of Es Skūhl in Israel (Henshil- these artefacts. wood et al. 2004, 404). The same type of beads with traces of ochre have been found in the Middle Palaeolithic layers Site background of Grotte des Pigeons in Morocco, dated to 82,000 uncal Dugi otok is one of the largest islands on the Croatian BP (Bouzouggar et al. 2007, 9964). A recent analysis sug- coast. In this karst environment, there are numerous caves gests that talons taken from a white-tailed eagle found at and rockshelters that present an enormous potential for the Mousterian site of Krapina in Croatia, which dates to c. exploring the prehistoric period. Vlakno cave, on the in- 130,000 years ago, might have also been used for personal ner side of Dugi Otok, halfway between the settlements of adornment (Radovčić et al. 2015). Luka and Savar, is one of the most prominent Epigravet- During the Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic, body tian and Mesolithic sites discovered recently. A small inner ornaments appeared in many different forms, such as cave space (40 square metres) served as an ideal campsite marine gastropods, bivalves, and scaphopods, freshwater for small communities of hunter-gatherers during the Late 544 Barbara Cvitkušić and Dario Vujević

Table 84.1. Type and number of perforated and unper- site on the eastern Adriatic coast. Most of the raw mate- forated raw material used for ornamental production rial for the decorative assemblage is from local resources. at Vlakno Cave. All of marine gastropods and bivalves at Vlakno General cave are present in the Adriatic Sea (Giannuzzi-Savelli et al. Species Perforated Unperforated classification 2001, 2002, 2003), except the freshwater gastropod Litho- glyphus naticoides, which could be found in the rivers of Marine Cardium rusticum 1 – the continental regions (Radoman 1983). gastropods Columbella rustica 352 104 and bivalves According to raw material types, the ornamental as- Conus 1 – semblage can be divided into three groups: (1) marine gas- mediterraneus tropods and bivalves; (2) freshwater gastropods; and (3) 80 – terrestrial mammals (teeth) (Table 84.1). In the first group, Glycymeris sp. 2 2 the most abundant type used for bead manufacturing is Columbella rustica (n=352) and Tritia neritea (n=80). Oth- Lamellaria sp. 2 - er marine gastropods and bivalves are present with one or Nassarius sp. 2 4 two specimens only (Table 84.1). The second group is rep- Pecten jacobeus – 1 resented by three perforated Lithoglypus naticoides, while Freshwater Lithoglypus 3 – the third group is represented by four perforated Cervus gastropods naticoides elaphus canines. Unperforated species are also present in the assemblage with the abundance of Columbella rustica Terrestrial Cervus elaphus 4 2 (n=104) (Table 84.1). mammal Metric data were recorded for the beads made of Colum- Total 447 113 bella rustica and Lithoglyphus naticoides in two general categories: (1) the dimension of the ornaments (maximum length and width of the entire artefacts); (2) the dimension Pleistocene and Early Holocene. Excavations in the cave of the perforations (maximum length and width). started in 2004 (Brusić 2004). So far, a depth of 5 m has The size and morphology of perforations are quite been reached with continuous cultural layers that can be uniform. Perforations are mostly oval or quadrangular in traced back to 19,550 cal BP (Beta-302247). shape. Most of them have irregular edges, which indicate Vlakno cave is currently the only site in northern Dal- a simple technique of piercing (Benghiati et al. 2009; Cris- matia available for studying the Palaeolithic/Mesolithic tiani et al. 2014). Experiments carried out during the ex- transition. Mesolithic layers basically start from the sur- cavation of the site of Abri Šebrn in Istria showed that the face of the cave, but most layers belong to the Pleistocene use of direct percussion as a perforation technique resulted period. In the excavated area, various deposits can be rec- in rough, large openings (Benghiati et al. 2009, 734). This ognized without visible hiatuses, separated by layers of is entirely consistent with the perforations of Columbella ash and burnt soil that represent occupation floors from rustica from Vlakno cave. There is no notable difference in the period when the cave was used. At the depth of c. 200 the average dimension of the perforated and unperforated cm, there is a layer of tephra, coming from the eruption Columbella rustica. The average dimensions of the perfo- that took place at the Phlegraean Fields near Naples c. rated specimens are 13.80 by 8.72 mm, whereas the average 14,500 years cal BP (Vujević and Parica 2011, 26). Above dimensions of unperforated ones are 13.96 by 8.58 mm. the tephra, the stratigraphy is divided into five units (Strata These metric data suggest that marine gastropods were 1–5). The upper three strata belong to the Holocene, while not selected for bead production on the basis of their size. the last two can be attributed to the Pleistocene. Since Columbella rustica do not have nutritional value, lack of perforations can suggest intentional collection for pur- Mesolithic ornamental assemblage: poses beyond subsistence (Stiner 1999). The unperforated Methods and results specimens (a total of 104 of the 456, i.e. 23 percent of the The ornamental assemblage analyzed in this paper covers total assemblage) may represent a reserve of ‘raw material’ the time period from 8420±40 uncal BP (Beta-311088: 7570 collected and prepared for the future use. to 7450 cal BC 95 percent confidence; 9520 to 9400 cal BP Although metric data were recorded on three perforat- 95 percent confidence) to 10,970±50 uncal BP (Beta-363142: ed species of freshwater gastropod Lithoglyphus naticoides, 10,990 to 10,750 cal BC 95 percent confidence; 12,940 to due to the small amount of finds there is no possibility for 12,700 cal BP 95 percent confidence), or in a stratigraphic a statistical analysis. Lithoglyphus naticoides is present in sense it covers Strata 1–4 (Fig. 84.1). In general, the orna- the rivers of the Black Sea drainage basin (Radoman 1983). mental assemblage is well preserved. So far, 447 decorative In addition to Vlakno, during the Mesolithic of the east- items have been found, which is far more than at any other ern Adriatic coast, perforated specimens of Lithoglyphus 84. Role of personal ornaments: Vlakno cave (Croatia) 545

Figure 84.1. Selection of ornaments from Vlakno cave.

naticoides were found at Zala and Pupićina caves, which which as a body ornament had a widespread spatial and are located in the vicinity of local resources of this fresh- temporal distribution. Its use has been documented as far water gastropod (Cristiani 2013; Komšo and Vukosavljević back as the Aurignacian, although finds from Upper Pal- 2011). aeolithic contexts are rather rare (e.g. Borić and Cristiani Technological analysis of the mode of perforating Cer- 2019; Vanhaeren and d’Errico 2006, 1108; Stiner 2014). As vus elaphus canines shows a uniform pattern of perfora- this type lives in moderately warm waters, it is logical that tion. On all perforated canines the first stage of prepara- it appeared only with the amelioration of climatic condi- tion – grooving and thinning through the root – is present tions (Mussi 2001, 355). At the end of the Pleistocene, their on both sides. The perforation was finished with a bifacial frequency therefore increased, and in the Holocene a very drilling technique. On one of the perforated canines, an large number of finds are recorded at coastal sites, as well early stage of preparation for the perforation can be seen as as in areas far from the coast: the western Mediterranean the perforation was not completed. (Álvarez Fernández 2003, 2008), central Mediterranean (Álvarez Fernández 2008; Benghiati et al. 2009; Cristiani Discussion 2013; Komšo 2007; Mussi 2001; Stiner 1999), eastern Med- The Mesolithic period in the eastern Adriatic is charac- iterranean (Bar-Yosef Mayer 2005; Kuhn et al. 2001), and terized by the use of personal ornaments made of marine continental Europe at sites far away from the Mediterra- gastropods and bivalves (91 percent), freshwater gastro- nean coast (e.g. Álvarez Fernández 2003, 2008; Borić and pods (7 percent), and perforated animal teeth (2 percent) Cristiani 2019; Borić et al. 2014; Eriksen 2002). (Cvitkušić 2015, 71). The dominant type of marine gastro- In the Mesolithic layers of Vlakno cave, Columbella rus- pod used in bead manufacturing in this region is Colum- tica represents 79 percent of the ornamental assemblage. A bella rustica (Cristiani et al. 2014, 28; Cvitkušić 2015, 115), practical explanation for the predominance of this marine 546 Barbara Cvitkušić and Dario Vujević gastropod at Vlakno might be the relative proximity of the specimens’ scattered spatial distribution and the results of Adriatic seashore, the natural habitat of this species (Gi- experiments from other sites that show how the colour and annuzzi-Savelli et al. 2003). Yet, accessibility may not be preservation we see on archaeological shells are difficult to the only reason why it became the preferred material for achieve by accidental exposure to fire (Claassen 1998; Per- making ornaments, not just at Vlakno cave, but also across lès and Vanhaeren 2010, 308; Stiner 1999). Hence the possi- the region as a whole (Cristiani et al. 2014; Cvitkušić 2015; bility of intentional exposure of shells to fire at Vlakno cave Komšo 2008). There are numerous other marine gastropods should be considered. A reason for changing shells’ colour and bivalves that can also be easily collected and perforated, might have been to create a contrast between light and dark but Mesolithic groups always selected the same species. The body decoration in order to make unique visual effects for selectivity in the raw material choice can be interpreted in the person who wears them. the context of a uniform, nonverbal, visual communication, A new type of ornament in Mesolithic layers of Vlakno and the existence and expression of not only local but also cave is the perforated freshwater gastropod Lithoglyphus regional identities. The establishment of such visible ‘social naticoides. This type of ornament is present in Mesolithic links’ as a ‘safety net’ (Whallon 2007) is considered an im- layers of Pupićina cave (n=8) and Lim 001 (n=2) in Istria portant part of the survival strategies of that time, especially (Cvitkušić 2015, 69), in Zala cave (n=34) (Komšo and Vu- during periods of major climatic oscillations, which caused kosavljević 2011) in the eastern Adriatic hinterland, and at significant changes to the availability of food sources. Vlasac in the Danube Georges area (Cristiani and Borić Furthermore, large numbers of finds and the local ori- 2014; cf. Borić and Cristiani 2019). Based on the analysis gin of raw materials might indicate the daily use of personal of the perforated specimens of Lithoglyphus naticoides at ornaments at Vlakno cave, when compared to examples of Pupićina and Zala caves, Komšo and Vukosavljević (2011) exotic raw materials used for making personal ornaments in presumed the existence of communication pathways be- the context of burial or ritual (e.g. Cristiani and Borić 2012; tween Istria and the hinterland of the eastern Adriatic Perlès and Vanaheren 2010). Daily use might also be indi- coast during the Mesolithic. The presence of this freshwa- cated by a simple perforating technique taking only a few ter gastropod at Vlakno cave and Lim 001 may indicate the minutes (Benghiati et al. 2009; Cristiani et al. 2014), in con- existence of wider regional communication pathways and trast to the examples where a few hours for the production contacts, but due to the small number of finds further anal- of a single bead was needed, such as in the case of ornaments ysis could not be conducted. from the Sungir burial (White 1993, 98). But it should be Red deer canines have been used for bead production kept in mind that what is somewhere an object of every- since the Upper Palaeolithic, but their usage decreased dur- day use, elsewhere can be an exotic material, like the use of ing the Mesolithic (Vanhaeren and d’Errico 2006). Similar Columbella rustica on the eastern Adriatic coast compared to this general pattern, at Vlakno cave perforated red deer to its role in the Danube Gorges region (Cristiani and Borić canines (n=4) are less well represented during the Meso- 2012). In that sense, the large number of Columbella rustica lithic than they were during the Upper Palaeolithic (n=10). found at Vlakno cave can offer some other interpretations In the Mesolithic layers of Vlakno cave less than one per- as well. At some smaller sites of the Tyrrhenian coast, such cent of the total sample belongs to this type of adornment. as Grotta della Madonna, Grotta della Serratura, and Rip- In the eastern Adriatic zone, perforated red deer canines aro Blanc (Mussi 2001), it has been noted that the numbers are also present in Nugljanska cave (n=1) and Pupićina cave of Columbella rustica were far above local needs, especial- (n= 6) in Istria. The results of analysis have shown some ly if one takes into account that some sites were small and similarities in the technique used for their perforation seasonally inhabited, very much like Vlakno. It is therefore at these three sites (Cvitkušić 2015, 115). Red deer is also possible that at these places one finds some kind of produc- present in the Mesolithic faunal assemblage (Radović and tion units where shells were collected, prepared, and stored Vujević this volume). In Stratum 2, red deer remains are before being taken to another place to be exchanged (Mussi represented in the faunal assemblage, while in Stratum 3, 2001, 355; Vujević and Bodružić 2014). very much like in the Pleistocene layers, it is the dominant Change of natural colour is present on 8.5 percent of hunted species. This could indicate that a smaller number the perforated and 23 percent of the unperforated marine of deer canines in the Holocene decorative assemblages re- gastropods and bivalves from Vlakno cave. According to flects cultural changes beyond a simple change in the econ- Claassen (1998) change of colour can be divided into three omy due to adjustments to new climatic conditions. groups: (1) natural colour (no exposure to fire); (2) black or During the Late Upper Palaeolithic, perforated ani- dark grey (exposure to fire and high temperatures); (3) light mal teeth and bones were the dominant types of body or- grey (heating but not burning, low temperatures). At Vla- naments at the Istrian sites (Cvitkušić and Komšo 2015; kno cave all three categories are present. The presence of a Karavanić 1999; Komšo 2007), while in Dalmatia and fireplace could have caused an accidental burning of some its hinterland, the dominant type of personal ornaments specimens. However, we should take into account such were the marine gastropod Tritia neritea (Cvitkušić 2015, 84. Role of personal ornaments: Vlakno cave (Croatia) 547

112). Tritia neritea, as a typical Epigravettian ornament in technologies used in the production of decorative orna- northern Italy (Dalmeri and Focchi 1998; Fontana et al. ments show similarities with the systems of symbolic com- 2009; Stiner 1999) is also found in the Mesolithic layers of munication in the wider Adriatic region. Several patterns Vlakno cave (n=25, Strata 2 and 3). At Vlakno cave, most of can be noticed. Compared to the Upper Palaeolithic, per- the Tritia neritea beads were found in Stratum 4 (n=55), a sonal ornaments are more abundant (Cvitkušić 2015). The transitional stratum from the Pleistocene to the Holocene, Mesolithic ornamental assemblage from Vlakno cave is the dated from 10,270±50 to 10,970±50 uncal BP (Beta-423618: largest collection in the wider eastern Adriatic area (cf. Bo- 10,180 to 10,000 cal BC at 95 percent confidence; 12,130 to rić and Cristiani 2019). The only site with similar numbers 11,950 cal BP at 95 percent confidence). of decorative items is Vela Spila on the island of Korčula, Marine food resources are more abundant in the Holo- but there is a pronounced difference in the extent of the cene layers of Vlakno cave compared to the faunal assem- excavated areas between the two sites. blage from the Late Pleistocene (Vujević and Radović this Patterns indicate a gradual transition to a typical Mes- volume). The economy was based on fish, shellfish, and sea olithic Columbella rustica-dominated ornamental assem- snails, combined with various game . The trend of blage, with a clear Epigravettian tradition still represented using marine resources is also present in the selection of by Tritia neritea and perforated red deer canines. Changes raw materials for personal ornaments. Marine gastropods in the ornamental assemblage from a Glycymeris sp. and and bivalves, especially Columbella rustica, are far more Tritia neritea ornamental assemblage typical of the Late abundant in the Holocene than in the Late Pleistocene pe- Upper Palaeolithic to the one predominated by Columbella riod not only at Vlakno cave but also at other sites along the rustica used for the manufacture of decorative items in the eastern Adriatic coast, such as Pupićina cave or Vela Spila Mesolithic layers corresponds well to the Pleistocene-Hol- (Cristiani et al. 2014; Komšo 2007). This pattern may be ocene transition and a shift to Mesolithic lifeways in the interpreted within the context of sea level rise during the whole of the Adriatic area (Cristiani et al. 2014; Cvitkušić Last Glacial Maximum. After the initial stagnation during 2015; Komšo 2008). the Younger Dryas, there was a rapid sea level rise. Levels of Columbella rustica, as the dominant type used for body the Adriatic Sea are recorded to have ranged from –41.5 m ornaments at Vlakno cave, is also found at most of the oth- (c. 9200 cal BP) to –10 m (c. 7800 cal BP) (Surić 2006, 166, er eastern Adriatic Mesolithic sites, such as Pupićina cave, 182). As a result, marine species became much more ac- Abri Šebrn, Nugljanska cave, and Lim 001 in Istria, Vela cessible for exploitation. Changes observed in the archaeo- cave on the island of Lošinj, Zala cave in the hinterland, logical material reflect shifts in lifeways during these times and Vela Spila on the island of Korčula (Cristiani et al. (Cristiani et al. 2014; Cvitkušić 2015). 2014; Cvitkušić 2015; Komšo 2007; Komšo and Vukosav- The existence of unperforated gastropod species (a to- ljević 2011). A selectivity in raw material choices can be tal of 113 of the 560 found at Vlakno, i.e. 20 percent) in- interpreted in the context of a uniform, nonverbal visual cluding those with their colour altered (23 percent) may communication, and in the context of not only local but be interpreted as a reserve of ‘raw material’ collected and also regional identities. Based on the analysis of Columbel- prepared for future bead manufacturing. Most of the raw la rustica and Lithoglyphus naticoides finds, there appear to material specimens belongs to Columbella rustica (n=104) have been communication pathways between Istria and the (Table 84.1). Due to this fact, an in situ production at Vla- hinterland of the eastern Adriatic coast during the Mes- kno cave can be considered (Cvitkušić 2015; Vujević and olithic (Komšo and Vukosavljević 2011). Due to a small Bodružić 2014). A similar situation is also present in the number of freshwater gastropods at Vlakno cave further Mesolithic horizons of Vela Spila on the island of Korčula, analysis could not be conducted. where Columbella rustica is the only type of personal orna- Preliminary results of the faunal analysis at Vlakno ment during the Mesolithic period (Cristiani et al. 2014). cave show a link between survival strategies and the se- Regarding Cristiani et al.’s (2014, 30) notion ‘that Vela Spi- lection of raw materials used in manufacturing personal la was a key locale for the acquisition and transformation ornaments originating from the Adriatic Sea. This trend is of C. rustica shells into ornaments during the Mesolithic present not only at Vlakno but also at other eastern Adri- across the whole Adriatic region’, Vlakno cave shows that atic sites, such as Pupićina and Zala caves (Cvitkušić 2015). there might have been not one but several of those key lo- Doubtless, further research and analysis of the Vlakno cave cales in the region. assemblage will contribute to our better understanding of the role of personal ornaments more generally. Conclusion The Mesolithic ornamental assemblage from Vlakno cave Acknowledgements is rich and diverse and corresponds to changes in the Mes- Research at Vlakno cave has been conducted through the olithic populations’ lifeways, which, in turn, reflect chang- following project of the Croatian Science Foundation: UIP- es in climatic conditions. Raw material preferences and 2014-09-1545 ‘Transition and tradition in the Vlakno cave: 548 Barbara Cvitkušić and Dario Vujević

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