The Supreme Reality - A Comparative Perspective in the Nizarl

Isma'IlI ginans and in the sayings of Kabir

Seminarieuppgift i Fdk. i Indologi nyindisk inriktning: Hindi Framlagd den 22 maj 1996 av:

Yasmin D. Mandani

Institutionen for Orientaliska sprAk Avdelningen for Indologi Stockholms universitet TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract...... ;...... p. 1.

1. INTRODUCTION...... p. 1. 2. THE SUPREME REALITY IN THE HINDU TRADITION...... p. 3. 2.1. The Vedic scriptures...... p. 3. 2. 2. The philosophy and teachings of Sankara...... p. 6. 2.3. The Sant tradition...... p. 7. 2. 3.1. Classification of the Devotional Hindi Literature...... p. 7. 2. 3. 2. The Background of the Sant tradition...... p. 9. 2. 3. 3. The Supreme reality in the Sant tradition...... p. 10. 2. 4. The philosophy and poetry of Kabir...... *...... p. 11. 3. THE SUPREME REALITY IN ISLAM...... p. 15. 3.1. The Qur'an...... p. 15. 3. 2. Historical and religious background of the Isma'ilis...... p. 17. 4. THE SUPREME REALITY IN ISMA'lLlSM...... p.18. 4. 1. The Faiimid Ima'ilis...... p. 18. 4. 2. The Isma'Ili missionaries in India...... p. 20. 4. 3. The Isma'ili religious literature - the ginans...... p.21. 5. SOURCE MATERIAL- SELECTED VERSES FROM GINAN AND KABIR...... p. 23. 6. COMPARISON AND CONCLUSION...... p. 32. 7. LIST OF ABBREVATIONS...... p. 36. 8. APPENDIX...... p. 37. 8.1. The source material on ginans...... p. 37. 8.1.1. Original text from Ginans (G:l-28) in Gujarati...... p. 37. 8.1. 2. Reference to own tranlated verses from Ginans (G:l-28)...... p. 41. 8. 2. The source material on Kabir...... p. 42. 8. 2.1. The Hindi verses of Kabir...... p. 42. 8. 2. 2. Reference to the Hindi verses of Kabir...... p. 45. 9. BIBLIOGRAPHY...... p. 46. 9.1. Primary sources...... p. 46. 9. 2. Secondary sources...... p. 46. Abstract Until now the Isma'ili religious literature in India, the ginan, has been studied from an Islamic point of view. The relationship between Isma'ili religious literature and North Indian bhakti has so far been neglected. This paper attempts to illustrate similarities and differences in the notion of the Supreme Reality between the ginan and Kabir, the most famous poet of the nirguni bhakti literature.

1. INTRODUCTION

In Indian tradition the poets belonging to the nirguna stream are more commonly known as Sants. The word Sant was mainly used for those devotees (Sk. bhakta) who were active in Maharashtra from 13th to 18th centuries.

Barthwal (1978:IX) was the first to define the notion of Sant and the sant mat. Sant mat is taken as an equivalent of nirguni bhakti. These Sants were called nirguna bhaktas since their main object of devotion was a non-qualified (nirguna) aspect of the supreme Brahman, the One non-personal, all pervading, ineffable Reality which only can be spoken of in negative terms. The Sant's notion of the Supreme as nirguna is almost the same as the Upanisadic concept of the Brahman- Atman and the advaita interpretation of the Vedantic tradition. This notion denies any distinction between the self and Brahman and urges man to recognise his true divine nature within himself.

According to the Indian literary tradition, the Sants are adepts of the nirguna aspect while the Vaisnavas are adepts of the saguna aspect of the supreme Being (Vaudeville 1987:37). Kabir h the chief exponent of nirguna bhakti, was very much influenced by the Nath panthi form of Yoga. He rejected Nath panthi practices and made fun of their pretension of conquering death and achieving bodily immortality. Yet Kabir incorporated this very idea into his sayings which provided him with a particular esoteric vocabulary. In order to understand the actual words which Kabir uses to express his mystical experience, it is necessary to consider the Nath background. However, this is not within the scope of the present study.

1 It is generally accepted that he was born in 1398 and died in 1448 AD. The problem of Kabir's dates has been discussed by Catuivedi (1964:845-870), Vaudeville (1974:36-39) and Barthwal (1978:252-253).

1 The Isma'ili movement entered the Indian subcontinent when the bhakti religious movement and Sufi preaching swept across northern and central India. The Isma'ili community in India has developed its own religious literature, the ginan (G. ginan, < Sk. jnana). The composition of ginans covers the period between the 13th and 17th centuries. The Isma'ili missionaries had their headquarters first in Sind and later in Gujarat. It is obvious from their ginans that there must have been some contact with their contemporaries, as Brahma prakasa1, a ginan attributed to PIr Shams (post 1300 AD), mentions several poets such as Gorakh, Ramanand, Kabir, Namdev, Guru Nanak and Dadu. To avoid persecution in India, the Isma'ili missionaries disguised themselves as Sufi Shayks and made use of their doctrine which formed a transition between Isma'ilism, Sufism and Hinduism (Ivanow 1952:20). This might be one of the reasons why there is hardly any mention of the Isma'ili missionaries or their activities on the Indian soil in bhakti literature.

The vocabulary of ginan is much closer to the vocabulary of the nirguna bhakti than to any other bhakti tradition. A comparison of the ginan with Kabir would therefore be fruitful. Since Kabir, is the major poet of the nirguna bhakti, I will compare a few of his works with those of the Isma'ili missionaries who were active during the same time i. e. Pir Satgur Nur (1094? AD), Pir Shams (post 1300 AD), and Hr Sadruddin (d. 1416? AD). A survey of ginan literature and the sayings of Kabir indicates similarities regarding the notion of Supreme Reality, Guru, Sabda and Meditation.

The aim of this paper is to examine one of these topics i. e. the Supreme Reality and to investigate the following:

1. Is the Isma'ili notion of Supreme Reality closer to the notion of Brahman in Hinduism or to the notion of Allah in Islam ? 2. Is there any similarity or difference between the views of the Firs and the views of Kabir on Supreme Reality ? 2

2 Traditionally Brahma prakasa is attributed to Pir Shams and it consists of 150 verses. According to Shackle and Moir (1992:173), it is uncertain who the author is.

2 To achieve the aim, it is necessary :

* to examine the Supreme Reality, its development in Hinduism, including the Sant tradition, its development in Islam and in the Isma‘111 tradition. * to compare the notion of Supreme Reality in the ginans and in Kabir.

In this study the meaning of Supreme Reality is based on a definition by Radhakrishnan and Moore (1989:38). 'The Supreme in its inner being as the one self-subsistent reality cannot be defined by logical categories or linguistic symbols. It is the incomprehensible nirguna (qualityless) Brahman, the pure Absolute. It is envisaged as saguna (with qualities) Brahman or isvara, a personal god, when It is viewed as the constitutive reality of the many or the cause of the world, as the source, ground, and dwelling-place of selves'.

2. THE SUPREME REALITY IN THE HINDU TRADITION

2.1. The Vedic Scriptures

The term for Supreme Reality, Brahman, has been interpreted in different ways in the Hindu tradition. In Vedic literature, at an early stage, the neuter noun Brahman means magical power in the sacred utterance connected with sacrifice. The masculine form of the word Brahman denotes the priest who is imbued with the power of the sacred utterance of the word. The word Brahman in Rgveda is used in the sense of 'sacred knowledge or utterance, a hymn or incantation'. However, Hillebrandt (1909:797) finds it difficult to accept the application of the word Brahman to be limited to these meanings. Any holy, mystic utterance is Brahman. It is applied both to the ritual hymns of Rgveda (RV.) and the magic charms of the Atharvaveda (AV.).

In Atharvaveda, Brahman is mentioned as the Supreme Principle and the ruling and guiding spYit of the universe. In the later parts of Rgveda, a search began to discover a principle which controlled all forces in the world (RV.10,129:2-3). Who was That One (Sk. tadekam) breathed, but without breath, who was That One who by force of its own fervour (Sk. tapas) came into being? Many suggestions are found in both the Rgveda and Atharvaveda to describe the first principle of the universe. Well known examples are the cosmic Man (Sk. purusa, in RV.10, 90), Holy Utterance (Sk. vac, in RV.10, 125), Heat or Creative Fervour (Sk. tapas, in

3 AV.8, 10:25) and Support (Sk. skambha. in AV. 10, 7 & 8). However, the most important hymns focus on Brahman.

In Atharvaveda, the term Brahman was no longer just the power of the mantras or of the sacrifice, but it was seen as a basic cosmic principle, the 'womb of both the Existent (Sk. sat) and Non-existent (Sk. asat)' (AV.4, 1). Moreover, it was the Self of man (Sk. atman)3 in a more specific meaning as the vital part of man, his inner self, the principle that gave him his essential nature (AV.10, 8:44).

One finds that the term Brahman gradually changed from meaning the Vedic mantras, or the power of the sacrifice, to a more comprehensive understanding of Brahman as the Supreme or Absolute Reality of the universe. All things come from Brahman and are supported by Brahman. Atharvaveda (10, 8:44) states that the person who knows that Brahman, which is atman of the universe, is his own atman, has no need to fear death, for this atman is complete in itself, self-existent, wise and immortal. This is the first and oldest passage known to us in which atman is proclaimed without reserve as the World-principle.4

Various attempts have been made to establish the linguistic derivation of the word Brahman, but scholars have often disagreed regarding the 'original meaning' of the term. Gonda (1950:50) agrees with the ancient Indian searchers who maintained that Brahman < brh means strong or firm, as the ideas of firmness and immovability are often expressed in connection with Brahman or God in Indian literature.

The Upanisads seek to investigate the Supreme Reality i. e. Brahman. In these texts Brahman is explained as Brahman in itself and Brahman in the universe. Brahman in the universe is described, among other things, as Wind (Sk. vayii)5, the

3 The origin of the word atman is doubtful. It is derived either from the root < an 'breath', at 'to go' or av 'blow', and the meaning, would therefore be breath, soul and self. In the Upanisads atman together with Brahman often signifies the inner essence of the individual as well as of the whole world, which cannot be considered separate from each other (Deussen 1909:195). Aoording to (Schmithausen 1971:601-603) in Rg Veda atmanl serves as a reflexive pronoun: it is said or referred to as self, "the Self". In later Vedic texts atman is described as Soul of Breath and Soul of Blood etc. Atman leads to the description of Light. Atman is pure which can only be discussed in negative terms. 4 '... die erste und al teste Stelle, die wir kennen, in der riickhalllos der Atman als Weltprinzip proklamiert wird' (Deussen 1915:334). 5 Taittiriya Up.1:1.

4 Breath of Life (Sk. prana)6, Lightning (Sk. vidyut)7, 8 Space (Sk. akasa)^, Finest Essence (Sk. anima)9 of all things in the world. Thus, this whole world is Brahman and this Brahman is 'manifest, well-fixed, moving ... In it is centred all that which moves breathes and winks'10. In this sense Brahman in the universe appears as the supreme Lord who is the creator and source of all energy* 11. Brahman in itself is One only without a second (Sk. ekamevadvitlyam)i2 1314. It is ungraspable (Sk. agrahya), eternal (Sk. nitya), all-pervading (Sk. vi.hhu)}3, omnipresent (Sk. sarva-gata), exceedingly subtle (Sk. susuksma),^ imperishable (Sk. aksara)15. It cannot be known through language, mind or sight16. Brahman is said to be beyond all description, and whatever it is said to be, it may also be rendered as 'not this, not that' (Sk. netineti, in Brh. Up. 3, 9:26).

An important development in the Upanisads is the identity of the individual self (Sk. atman) with the Universal Self (Sk. Brahman). Very often these two concepts are used without any distinction. The Chandogya Upanisad (3:14) begins with the words 'Verily, this whole world is Brahman', and ends with a statement in Book six that Brahman and atman are one17. This doctrine is expressed in the famous saying, 'That art thou' (Sk. 'tattvamasi Ch. Up. 6, 8:7),18 which means that Brahman, the power which creates the worlds, supports them. This all-mighty, all­ pervading, eternal power is identical with the eternal principle which is within you.

Vedanta, one of the six systems of philosophy (Sk. darsana), represents the culmination (Sk. anta) of the entire Vedic speculation (Sk. Veda). The Vedanta system rests on the Upanisadic doctrine of Brahman, the All-One. The Vedanta

6 Bfliadaranyaka Up. 4, 1:3. 7 Brhadaranyaka Up. 5:7. 8 Chadogya Up. 3, 18:1 holds that, with 'reference to the person' the mind is Brahman and', with reference the natural phennomena, (Sk. adhidaivata) space (Sk. dka£a) is Brahman. 9 Chadogya Up. 6, 8:7. 10 Mundaka Up. 2, 2:1. 11 This is generally known as the doctrine of the lower Brahman. This teaching is for those who were incapable of comprehending higher knowledge (Sk. paravidya) (Geden 1921:546). 12 Chandogya Up. 6, 2:1. 13 with multifarious manifestations (Sankara 1964:502). 14 Mundaka Up. 1, 1:6. 15 Mundaka Up. 2, 2:2. 16 'naiva vaca na manascipraptum sakyo na caksusa' Katha Up. 2, 3:12. 17 Chandogya Up. 6, 16:3. 18 This famous text emphasises the divine nature of the human soul. This is applied to the inward person, antah purusa and not to the empirical soul with its name and family descent (Radhakrishnan 1953:458).

5 Sutra, also called Brahma Sutra (c. 200-450 AD) ascribed to Badarayana, attempts to summarise and systematise the basic philosophy of the Upanisads, composed in the aphoristic sutra style. Vedanta Sutra, the first standardised version of Vedanta, serves as the scriptural authority for the whole Vedanta school of thought. The other two foundations are the Upanisads and the Bhagavadgita. These three are referred to as the prasthanatraya of Vedanta.

2. 2. The philosophy and teachings of Sankara

The earliest complete surviving commentary on the Brahma Sutra is that of Sankara (788-820 AD), the most outstanding exponent of the non-dualistic (Sk. advaita)19 Vedanta system. Advaita affirms the non-duality of Brahman, the non­ reality of the empirical world, and the non-difference between the individual soul and Brahman.. Influenced by Gaudapada, Sankara held Brahman to be the sole reality, the world to be an appearance and the atman to be identical to Brahman. Sankara's Brahman, as in the Upanisad, is the One only without a second (Sk. ekam evadvitiyam), and without qualities (Sk. mrguna). Brahman, being the Indivisible One, does not 'become' many individuals; it can only 'appear' as many.

According to Sankara, the appearance is taken to be real due to ignorance (Sk. avidya), which not only conceals (Sk. avarana) the true nature of unqualified Brahman but also distorts (Sk. viksepa) it by means of a process known as superimposition (Sk. adhyasa). As a result of this process, atman or Brahman becomes reflected as many individual conscious beings on the one hand and as God (Sk. Isvara) on the other. The most famous analogy on which he based this argument is that of the rope and the snake. He asserts that a man mistakes a rope for a snake and runs away in fear. Once he has been convinced that the thing he feared is a rope, he realises his error. The false perception of a snake creates fear but the presence and then the absence of his erroneous notion have made no difference to the rope itself (Reese 1980:526). In a similar way, false attributes are superimposed on Brahman. If ignorance is eliminated, the superimposition is dissolved and Brahman alone shines. For Sankara, liberation is nothing but the

19 The first great expositor of Advaita before Sankara was Gaudapada a thinker who in his Karika (verses) set forth the principles of az/v«z7aand the theory of the identity of Brahmin mA atman. According to him, the absolute, being self-existent, is never the creator, and the world, being only an appearance, is never created. (Walker 1968:382). His Gaudapadakarika (memorial verses of Gaudapada) is the earliest treatise on the subject, (for further details on (Jaudapddakari.ka, see Dandckar (1987:209).

6 removal of ignorance, the deep realisation of the ultimate truth, i. e. atman and Brahman are identical.

Sankara's non-dualism allows no distinction between Brahman and the individual self (Sk. atman). The apparent duality between Brahman and the individual self is a result of ignorance which hides man from his essential nature. Once higher knowledge (Sk. paravidya)2Q is obtained, the veil of illusion is destroyed and the individual soul realises its identity with Brahman. To realise this oneness is to be liberated from the samsara (the continuous cycle of birth, death and rebirth). Knowledge alone brings realisation.

The whole world (Sk. jagat) belongs to the level of appearance (Sk. vivaria). For Sankara the phenomenal world, though it has categories of space, time and causality and appears to be real, is the product of ignorance. Brahman, as the creator and governor of the world, and as the finest essence of all things in the world, is depicted as Lord (Sk. iwara)* 21. Attributes are given to the attributeless Brahman for the sake of worship or meditation (Sk. upasana), but Brahman in its impersonal aspect as attributeless, not subject to categorisation, is described as nirguna. Thus, for Sankara, ignorance creates the illusion of duality and imposes attributes on the nirguna Brahman. Sankara, without challenging the established pragmatic teachings of the Veda, states that the world was basically illusory (Sk. maya) and that only the Absolute, Brahman, was wholly real. Sankara's philosophy of non-dualism (Sk. advaita) was not totally accepted in the more popular theistic philosophies which gained ground during the medieval period.

2. 3. The Sant tradition

2. 3. 1. Classification of the Devotional Hindi Literature

All post Sankara Vedanta commentators who disagree with Sankara's interpretation of the advaita Vedanta show either a modification or negation of advaita Vedanta.

Higher or esoteric knowledge proclaims the non-dualistic Brahman to be the absolute truth, free from all attributes and qualities (Sk. nirguna), (Garbe 1921:597). 2^ This can be seen as lower or exoteric knowledge (Sk. aparavidya), where Brahman, due to ignorance, appears to be endowed with attributes (Sk. saguna), because those who cannot rise to gain the highest knowledge need an object for worship and meditation. Thus, Brahman appears as a personal God, who creates and rules the universe, which is looked upon as real. It rewards or punishes men according to their deeds (Garbe 1921:597).

7 Of the commentators on Vedanta philosophy, the four most renowned Vaisnava teachers (Sk. acaryas), are Ramanuja,22 Nimbarka,23 Madhva24 and Vallabha25. The difference between their system of Vedanta, which may be called Vaisnava Vedanta (Dandekar 1987:213), and Sankara’s advaita Vedanta is mainly associated with the nature of Brahmin. Sankara asserts that Brahman, in its ultimate form, is impersonal, devoid of qualities. It is described as possessing qualities only for the purpose of meditation or worship (Sk. upasana). On the other hand, the Vaisnava teachers uphold the idea of a personal God, describing Brahman as having attributes and identifying Brahman with a personal deity, generally Visnu.

These different views on the nature of Brahman paved the way for the two principal varieties of devotion (Sk. bhakti), the saguna and the nirguna The saguna bhakti is dedicated primarily to the worship of either Krsna or Rama as incarnated deities. In contrast, the nirguna bhakti perceived the Supreme Reality in abstract and non-anthropomorphic terms as Sankara also did. It is on this theological distinction between the saguna and nirguna conception of deity that the familiar taxonomy for popular devotion in medieval North India rests (Hawley 1987:191).

22 Ramanuja's (1017-1137 AD?) doctrine is known as "qualified non-dualism" (Sk. visistadvaita). The Ultimate Reality is referred to as Brahman, Isvara or Visnu. Ramanuja establishes three kinds of Reality: Lord (Sk. isvara), soul (Sk. cit) and matter (Sk. acit). The individual soul is not indentical with the Ultimate but a part or fragment of it (Sk. amsa). Dependent on the Ultimate Reality, the human soul (jiva) has a separate identity; when the two are finally reunited, they retain their own identiy as both possess Reality. Through devotion one can achieve salvation, for love of mankind, isvara, incarnates in various forms and the most perfect incarnation is Rama (Walker 1968:285-287). 23 Nimbarka (1130-1200 AD?) held that Brahman has an independent Reality. He is absolute existence. The individual soul (sk. jiva) and inanimate world (Sk. prakriti) are both created and sustained by Brahman but they are distinct from Brahman. This philosophy is known as dualistic non-dualism (Sk. dvaitadvaiia). Devotion at the lotus-feet of Krsna and his consort Radha was the most effective path to salvation and the end of the eternal process of samsaia (Walker 1968:133-134). 24 Madhva (1197-1280 AD) totally rejected Sankara's advaita. In his dualism (Sk. dvaita), Brahman is supreme, and the cause of the world but He is different from the jiva. They are different in the world of samsara but identical when jiva is freed, jiva is dependent on Brahman, but it is an active and responsible agent. Madhva worshipped Visnu. Vayu, the son of Visnu, helps mankind to obtain release (Walker 1968:133-134). 25 Vallabha (1479-1531 AD) held that Sahkars's advaita was not a true monism but a mere form of it. He called it keval-advaita, since it had to depend on illusion. Vallabha called his own type of monism pure monism (suddhadvaita). Brahman created the universe as there was a desire to become many. Brahman is whole and the individual is part, and the relationship between the two is that of the spark to the fire. The phenomenal world is not an illusion since it is separated from Brahman's own will. The Supreme Deity is personified as Krsna. He is the creator and also the enjoyer of the world. His system is sometimes called "abundance way" (pusti-marga), since it calls upon its followers to enjoy the good things of nature which have been provided for men's delight (Walker 1968:547-549).

8 Ramcandra Sukla (1884-1940)26 was the first Hindi historian to make the distinction between the saguna and nirguna conception of deity. He classified the medieval bhakti poetry into two streams (dhara), i. e. saguna and nirguna. In his book History of Hindi Literature'27 these two streams are again bifurcated into two branches (sakha). The saguna stream was divided into two according to which deity the poets aspired to adore, either Krsna or Rama. Similarly, the nirguna stream was divided into jnanasrayl (based on knowledge) and. premamargi (path of love) branches. Throughout Indian religious history, the saguna and nirguna bhakti designate two major modes of conceiving the Supreme Reality. The saguna mode is associated with the way of devotion (Sk. bhakti) and nirguna with the way of knowledge (Sk. jhana). However, in practice, these two modes do not remain strictly separated. The scriptural lineage of the saguna can be traced back mainly to the Epics and Purana, while that of nirguna is mainly associated with the Upanisads.

2. 3. 2. The Background of Sant tradition

The Sants were the main preachers of the Vitthala or Varkari28 tradition (Sk. sampradaya) and their practice (Sk. sadhana) was based on nirguna bhakti. Later the word Sant was also used for a group of devotees who were active from the 15th century onwards in the Hindi-speaking areas of Punjab and Rajasthan in North India. They believed in a supreme god conceived as beyond all qualifications (Sk. nirguna). According to Caturvedi (1964:7), poets of the second group, i.e. Kabii and others, also came to be known as Sants.29 Bhakta mdla3Q of Nabhaji mentions

26 The first attempt to write Hindi literature, prior to Sukla, was made by Sivsinh Sehgar (1833-1878). His work "Sivsinh Saraj" contained mainly biographical notes on the poets. According to Sukla, it was published in 1883. Later, The Modern Vernacular Literature of Hindustan by Grierson (1889) was published based largely on Sengar's work. In 1913 a huge work in three volumes "Misra bandhu vinod" by Syamhihari Misra was published in Sukla (1967:1), See also MacGregor (1984:Appendix). However, MacGregor gives 1878, 1888, and 1909 as the dates of publication of the abov mentioned works. 27 It was first published in 1927 as an introduction to the "Hindi sabda sagat". Its later revised and enlarged version was published by the Nagaripracarini sabha, kasi under the title Hindi Sahitya ka itihas in 1929. 28 The Varkaris are devotees of the god Vitthoba, whose chief temple is in the town of Pandharpur in southern Maharashtra. They are called Varkaris or pilgrims panth because of their annual pilgrimage to Pandharpur that is their central focus. The Varkaris recognise a succession of 50 poet-saints over a period of 500 years. Of them the most important are JnanesvarNamdev (1270-1350 AD), Eknath (1548-1600 AD) and Tukaram (1598-1649 AD) in Schomer (1987:4, Vaudeville 1974:103-105). 29 Bharthwal (1978:IX) prefers to call these Sants nirguni. However, he makes it very clear that these Sants can be called nirguni only to distinguish their faith from the gross forms of saguna worship such as paying homage to idols and avataras. On the other hand, Caturvedi (1964:78) chooses to call these poets Sant. The word nirguna panth, according to Caturvedi, was used first to highlight the differences between the nirguna and the devotees of the saguna traditions. 3 0 Bhaktamala (The Garland of Devotees) was composed by Nabhaji, a Vaisnava poet who was active in

9 Ramanand and Jnandev (Jnanesvar) as the first gurus of the Northern and Maharashtrian Sant traditions (Vaudeville 1974:99). However, Kabir and Namdev respectively are recognised by both groups as their most outstanding ancestors.

Studies on Sants have led to a new understanding of nirguna Sant poets and the nirguna tradition of bhakti. The pioneering work in this regard is Barthwal's book 'The Nirguna School of Hindi Poetry' (1936) and later on Caturvedi's work (1951)31* . Barthwal's study establishes a close link between the Sants and the medieval Tantric sect of the Naths, also known as kanphata or Gorakhnathi yogis. Works by Vaudeville (1964, 1974, 1987) and Schomer and McLeod (1987) also reflect this point of view. A recent study by Vaudeville (1993) supplies more information about representatives of the nirguna tradition, i. e. Kabir, and his forerunners i.e. Ramanand and Namdev and his contemporary Ravidas.

2. 3. 3. The Supreme Reality in Sant Tradition

The Sants believe in a non-qualified (Sk. nirguna) aspect of Brahman, an all­ pervading, ineffable Reality conceived as formless (Sk. nirakara). It can only be spoken of in negative terms, yet it can be perceived and apprehended within the heart of the true seeker. Sants owe much to the Upanisadic concept of Brahman and to the advaita Vedanta tradition which urges man to recognise within himself his true divine nature.

The Sants are non-sectarians and monotheists, but the God whom they addressed and whom they sought union with was not understood in anthropomorphic terms. God's manifestation was through His immanence in His creation and, in particular, through His residence in the human soul, it was there that He, by grace, revealed Himself, and man's proper response was a love expressed through meditation of the divine Name. External authorities and ceremonies were useless for this purpose and religious texts, idol worship, rituals, practices, and pilgrimage were all rejected. The inward way to God was open to all who

c.1600 AD. A combination of hagiographies, non-sectarian in outlook, is a very valuable source of information in Vaudeville (1993:43), According to Farquhar (1920:317) Nabhaji was active between 1585 and 1623 AD. Sukla (1967:141) places him around 1657 AD and states that he was still alive long after the death of Tulsidas (1623 AD). 31 Uttari bharat ki sant parampara (The Sant Tradition of North India), Ilahabad, 2nd ed. 1964.

10 were prepared to accept the difficulties and the discipline which it would involve.

The Sants stress the necessity of devotion to the divine Guru (Sk. satgurii), remembrance of the divine Name (Sk. naim smarana) and the company of the Sants (Sk. satsahga). These are the three pillars of the Sant practice (Sk. sadhana). Great importance is attached to the guru, which might be understood, not as a person, but as the inner voice of God. The Sants cling to the sole Name of the Supreme Being. Prayer is advocated in the form of the internal remembrance (H. suirirana < Sk. smarana) of God through the Name. Remembrance may be achieved by the vocal repetiton (Sk. japa) of the Name 'with the tongue' or by ’un-uttered’ (Sk. ajapajapa) prayer. Being an internal condition, this needs neither tongue nor rosary. When this act becomes well-sustained, then the unstruck sound (Sk. anahata nada) is realised. Thus there are three stages of sumirana, the japa, which is an outward observation, ajapajapa, where one enters the internal life, and the anahata, where the recognition of the own self (Sk. atman) is realised (Barthwal 1978:126-128). The notion of nama-sumirana comes nearer to the Sufi concept of the remembrance of God (Ar. Zikr). The company of the Sants is held as a powerful means of purification and a way to salvation. Association with true Sants is seen as a pilgrimage.

Like the Muslim Sufis and unlike the Natha Yogis, the Sants accorded no value to celibacy or asceticism. Hindu and Muslim sectarian notions were regarded as radically wrong and ultimately futile. These Sants expressed their beliefs in a language closely related to that of the common people which is known as the holy men’s language, sadhukkari bhasa (Barthwal 1978:275).

2. 4. The philosophy and poetry of Kabir

Before the advent of Kabir the religious environment of North India was characterised by the predominance and popularity of three major factors. The first was the tradition of Vaisnava bhakti which had spread to Northern India from the south, and which in the north was associated with Ramanand.32 The second

32 The origin, and his place in the Northern Vaisnava tradition have been much debated by historians of Indian religion. He is generally said to have been a Ramanujiya ascetic before he established his own sect Ramavat or Ramanandi sampraday, with Rama and Sita as its double divinity. He did not condemn idolatrous practices but emphasised the equality of all men and preached against the caste system (Vaudeville 1974:110-117).

11 was the tradition of Tantric Yoga33 and. the third was the Islamic mysticism, which the Sufis had been spreadding in Northwest India since the 13th century34. These major factors form a background to a setting for the development of Kabir's religious thought.

Some aspects of Tantric yoga, especially the teaching and practices of the Nath- panthi, constituting an important element of Indian medieval culture, appear mostly in some kind of bhakti, either in its Saiva or Vaisnava form. From the 11th century the Nath yogis began to spread throughout Northern India. It was not until the time of Kabir that Nath concepts assumed a significant role35. Kabir, and the Sants after him, did not adhere to Gorakhnathi doctrines. Kabir rejected their practices, yet his sayings and the actual words in which he tried to express his own mystical experience can hardly be understood without reference to Tantric yoga. The close link between the Vaisnava Sants and the medieval Tantric sect of the Naths was established for the the first time by Barthwal (1978).

In the hands of Kabir the nirgima tradition also received something from Islamic sources. Vaudeville (1974:94) noted that 'Sufi preaching had already spread all over Northern India in Kabir's time, and Sufi mysticism had impregnated the religious sensibility of the elite as well as the whole composite culture of the time.' Vaudeville's assessment of the socio-religious environment during the 15th and 16th centuries implies the likelihood of indirect Sufi influences on the emergent Sant movement of Northern India, for instance in themes and vocabulary. The Sants use mainly Hindi or Sanskrit terms in their verses, while the Sufis rely on a Persio-Arabic vocabulary. Fate, for example, is described by Sant as karma and by Sufis as Qadr. Remembrance is called jap a or sumiran by Sants and zikr by Sufis. The major parallel found between Sants and Sufis is the love relationship (Lawrence 1987:369).

In Kabir's poetry and in the Sant tradition generally the notion of separation (Sk. virahd), a tormenting desire of the soul for the absent Beloved, bears a

33 A detailed account of Tantric Yoga is given by Vaudeville (1974:120-148, and 1993:95-107). 34 The records show that there were very few missionaries at the beginning of the 11th century at the time of Mahmud's invasions. One of the earliest missionaries of whom we have any record was Shaykh Isma*il, who came to Lahore about the year 1005 AD. However, in the 13th century, well-known names begin to appear, particularly that of Khwaiah Mu'in ud Din Chishti of Ajmer (Titus 1979:42). 35 It was in Ramanand that Nathism and Vaisnavism discernibly met (Barthwal 1978:XIV).

12 resemblance to the Sufi notion of love (Ar. ‘ishaq) (Vaudeville 1974:143). However, Sufi and Indian love symbolism have characteristic differences. For Sufis, with the Persian traditions, lovers are men in search of an unseen, unknown Beloved, while for Kabir, with his Indian traditions, lovers are women lamenting their departed husbands (Barthwal 1978:233).

In the earliest Sufi traditions Kabir is referred to as a muwahhid, i. e. the follower of the Unitarian (Ar. wahdat al-wi/jud.)36. The follower of the Unitarian, in Sufism, is he whose main concern is good action. All his actions are aimed at seeking divine grace. Water does not drown him and fire does not burn him. Absorbed in Unity (Ar. Tawhid), he is in a state of self-effacement. A Sufi or a lover belonging to this category is concerned with nothing. If he makes a quest for himself, he finds God; if he seeks God, he finds himself. When the lover is completely absorbed in the Beloved, the attributes of the lover and the Beloved become identical (Rizvi 1986:373). By the end of the 14th century, Unitarian theory had become firmly rooted in Northern India. As Rizvi (1986:375) states, 'it is not unlikely that Kabir exchanged ideas with eminent Sufis of Kara Manikpur and Rudauli, whose views on the Unitarian expressed in Hindi, impressed Kabir'.

Kabir's dates are uncertain, but he is likely to have been active in the first decades of the 15th century. The sayings of Kabir have been preserved in three collections in Northern India: the 'Eastern' or Bijak tradition, the 'Western' or Rajasthani tradition and the Guru Granth tradition.

The Eastern tradition consists of three different recensions: The standard Bijak, the Futuha version of the Bijak and the Bhagatahl version. The Western tradition consists of the songs of Kabir quoted in the Guru Granth (1604 AD) and in the Rajasthani manuscripts. There are two editions of Western tradition, one

3 63 The* * concept of the Wahdatal-Wujud, unity of Being, was expounded by a Spanish sufi, Ibn al-'Arabi (1165- 1240 AD). 'Arabi identified the Absolute with znt or essence and interpreted it as Absolute Being.He distinguishes between the hidden aspect of this Being, which can neither be known nor described and is the aspect of unity (ahadiyah), and the aspect of lordship (rububiyah), through which God enters into a relationship with the world and becomes an object of worship, as Lord and Creator. In the first aspect there is no plurality or opposition and no determination of any kind. Hence God is spoken of in this respect as the pure light, the pure good. In the second there is multiplicity and differentiation in so far as God is both the Creator and the multitude of created objects. God is multiplied only through His attributes. Considered in Himself, He is the Real (al-Haqq). Considered in relation to His attributes as manifested in the multiplicity of possible entities, He is the Creation (al-Khalq). However, the two, the one and the many, the first and the last, the eternal and the temporal, are essentially the same reality. Thus the One and the many are two aspects of "One" (Fakhry 1983:252).

13 by S. S. Das and the other by P. N. Tivarl. The S. S. Das edition, under the title of Kabir Granthavali, Banaras 1928, is a reprint of the manuscript from 1504 AD, with a few variants found in another manuscript, Das's edition is reprinted in Vaudeville's Kabir Van! (1982) as KG1, and consists of 811 sakhis, 403 pads and ramaini. A more critical edition of the Western manuscripts was prepared by P. N. Tivarl, also called Kabir -Granthavali, Allahabad 1961. Tivari's work is based on 11 kinds of sources. Out of 11, 4 are hand-written recensions. The earliest manuscript consulted by Tivarl is dated 1684 AD. The complete text of Tivarl is reprinted as KG2 in Vaudeville's Kabir Vara (1982). The KG2 text includes 744 sakhis (as against 811 in KG1), 200 padas (as against 403 in KG1) and ramainis. In the Guru Granth tradition we find 243 sakhis and 217 padas. These verses are called Sant Kabir and they are printed by R. K. Varma, in Allahabad 1947 (Callewawrt 1991:23-24).

Sayings of Kabir contain verses of three main types:

1. Couplets (dohas, Sk. dogdhakaox dodhaka), witnesses (sak/ii , Sk. sloka or salokd). 2. Verses for singing with refrain (sabad or sabd). 3. A stanza (Ramaim) consisting of a varying number of quatrain (H. caupai) lines followed by a couplet.

Kabir's verses are in a mixed dialect, a language that people understood, a kind of dialectal pot pourri (Vaudeville 1964:191). Some Indian scholars have stressed the heterogeneous character of Kabir's language. For Das, in Vaudeville (1993:120)> it is a 'hotch-potch' (H. pahcmel khicari, lit. a hotch-potch of five kinds), while according to Sukla (1967:82), Kabir's language includes 3 elements, i.e. Braj Bhasa, purbi bolii'1 and the so-called sadhukkari bhasa. Moreover, there is an intriguing category of Kabir's poem known as the 'upside-down language' (H. ulatbdsi)38* .

Kabir's devotion centres on the non-qualified Reality (Sk. nirguna). He usually gives the visnuite names, i. e. Hari, Ram, and Govinda, without sharing their belief in the Ramavatara. This type of Vaisnava Bhakti, which was directed

3 Puibi literally means eastern and is sometimes used for Avadhi and sometimes for Bhojpuri It may well be a suitable name for Eastern Hindi, to distinguish it from Western Hindi (Saksena 1971:1). Grierson remarks that "any dialect spoken east of the Braj Bhakha area is called "Eastern" in Northern India, and the Avadhi itself is often referred to as purbi, so that Kabir's language would be old purbi (Vaudeville 1974:63). 38 For explanation of the ulatbasi poems of Kabir, see Hess (1986:135-161) and Dvivedi (1964:80-94).

14 towards an invisible, all-pervading Reality yet can be apprehended 'within', and into which Kabir himself infused his own monistic and strictly non-idolatrous attitude, was a kind of novelty in Northern India. It contrasts sharply with the prevalent Vaisnava tradition which required a qualified, visible form of the Supreme Divinity as the object of devotion. Kabir is generally considered as a Vaisnava, though a liberal one. According to the Hindu tradition, Kabir is the disciple of Ramanand from whom he is said to have received the 'Name of Ram ’ by way of initiation39.

3. SUPREME REALITY IN ISLAM

3. 1. The Qur'an

'There is no god other than Allah' (Ar. lailahadlallahuY This is the essence of the Muslim profession of faith. The first mission which Prophet Muhammad (c. 570- 632 AD) was entrusted with was the preaching of the Word of Allah (Gardet 1960:406). It was said: 'Proclaim! In the name of thy Lord Who created man... Is most Bountiful. He Who taught... man that which he knew not' (Surah 96:1-5).

The term for Supreme Reality in Islam, Allah, is probably contracted from the Arabic word al-ilah, meaning 'the god' or 'the deity'. Inscriptions and pre-Islamic poetry show that the word al-ilah was in use in Arabia before Islam. It may have stood for 'the god' of a particular tribe, or for 'the supreme god', or for 'God' in the monotheistic sense (Bell and Watt 1977:152). Allah, in the Qur'an, is both universal and transcendental. In relation to His creation, a twofold aspect of the mystery of God is found in the Qur'an. On the one hand He is the Lord of the East and West (Surah 73:9) in His unquestioned omnipotence. He is at the same time ’the First (Ar. awwal) and the Last (Ar. akhar), the Evident (Ar. zahir) and the Immanent (Ar. batin')' (Surah 57:3). On the other hand, He is the Benefactor (Ar. rahman, Surah 73:37), the Merciful (Ar. rahim, Surah 52:28), the Forgiver (Ar. ghafur, Surah 76:20), and ever Forgiving (Ar. ghqffar, Surah 20:84). God’s omnipotence appears above all in His power to create. Allah is the Creator (Ar.

39 According to a legend prevailing among Ramanandis, Kabir became a Vaisnava by receiving the Ram mantra from Ramanand's lips when the latter, by mistake, fumbling in the dark, uttered: Ram Ram. However, there is evidence that the name "Ram" was also used in Yogis sects to designate the Supreme Reality. Moreover, in Kabir's time, Ram was already the most common way for Hindus to refer to the Supreme Divinity. This legend of Kabir somehow managing to snatch the Ram-mantra fromRamanand appeals to have been connected with a view to hinduising him (Vaudeville 1993:91).

15 khaliq) of everything - of the heaven and the earth and what is between them (Surah 13:16). He creates when He Intends (Ar. irada) by His Command (Ar. ami-), Be! (Ar. kun) and it is (Surah 40:68). He is the Protector (Ar. rabb, Surah 13:16), the wisest Judge (Ar. hakim, Surah 95:8) who punishes in all strictness and rewards in all fairness and forbearance. He is King (Ar. malik) of His Creation (Ar. khalaq).

The divine omniscience extends to the smallest action of the smallest created thing. Not a leaf doth fall, but with His knowledge...'(Surah 6:59), or 'No female conceives or lays down but with His knowledge...'(Surah 35:11). Thus the presence of God is recognised in every human deed, in every act of the human heart. He is close to man whom He has created. He knows what the soul of man suggests to him for 'He is nearer to him than (his) jugular vein' (Surah 50:16).

The particular attribute which Islam has its focus on is 'God the One'. The Quranic teaching does not limit itself to the affirmation of a strict monotheism. Purity (Ar. Ikhlas) is the most well-known verse concerning the Unity of Allah (Ar. tawhid). It says that Allah is One and Only (Ar. ahad), the Eternal, Absolute (Ar. samad). He begetteth not, Nor is He begotten; And there is none Like unto Him (Surah 112:1-4). He is beyond the bounds of human understanding, which cannot limit Him in anyway or compare Him to anything. God can be known only by His word, by the names, the attributes, which He Himself reveals. However, the attributes relate to God's outwardly directed knowledge and power. God in Himself remains the unexpressed mystery (Ar. ghayb).

There are some verses in the Qur'an which suggest the anthropomorphic nature of God. They are known as ambiguous verses (Ar. mutashabih). If taken literally, they would seem to ascribe attributes or acts to God. For instance, God is firmly established on the throne (Surah 20:5). He comes (Surah 89:22), the hand of God (Surah 48:10), His face (Surah 55:27), His eyes (Surah 11:37) etc. These ambigious verses later became the object of exegetical and theological dispute (Ar. kalarrft0). The first dispute arose from the battle of Siffin in 657 AD when the Islamic faith was challenged in connection with the problems of the validity of the imams and the 'status of believer' which the imam must possess, of the nature of the Qur'an, of the absolute unity of God, His divine attributes (Ar. sijat), their existence and *

40 49 y]le Arabic word kalam, literally means 'word' but it is also used for conversation, discussion and controversy (Gardet 1971:1141).

16 their connection with the divine essence (Ar. dhat) (Gardet 1971:1142). Thus kalam was the discussion of religious belief on the basis of rational criteria which developed as Islam. It became widespread and gave rise to several theological schools such as the Qadarites, the Murji'ites, the Jabarites etc.

The two well-known schools of theology were the Mu'tazili and the Ash'arl. The principle of unity was the central theme of Mu'tazili41. For them the unity of God was absolute. To describe God as in possession of any distinct attributes such as knowledge, power, speech etc. was to apply anthropomorphism (Ar. tashbiti) to God and to associate other eternal entities with God. The Mu'tazilis insisted that God knows or is powerful not by a special knowledge but by His simple essence. They affirmed that all attributes (Ar. sijat) are identical with God's essence (Ar. dhat) and have no real existence but were merged in the unity of God's being. For them God's transcendence was the negation in God of 'substantive attributes'.

However, for Ash'arl42 God's being is eternal and unconditioned. They held that the attributes of God are distinct from His essence such as knowledge, and it is by this attribute of knowledge that God knows (unlike Mu'tazilis who say that it is by his essence that God knows). Moreover, we can know neither the nature nor the manner of God's attributes. They have nothing in common with the corresponding human attributes. According to Ash'ari, the ambiguous verses are absolutely true, but the anthropomorphism of God must be accepted 'without asking how' (Ar. bi lakayf). Although God's being is beyond the grasp of human intelligence, but His most beautiful names (Ar. cd-asma al-husna) are known to be true and adequate.

3. 2. Historical and Religious background of the Isma'ili s

By 883 AD, before the Faiimid caliphate was established in North Africa (909-1171 AD), the Isma‘111 mission (Ar. da\va) was at work in many countries including the Indian subcontinent, especially in Sind. The following details are given by the

41 Abu'l-Hudhayl (d. 841 AD), the founder of the Mu'tazili school, gave the science of kalam a systematic form. The five principal bases upon which Mu'tazili problem was elaborated are 1) the unity of God, 2) Justice, 3) the promise and the warning, 4) the intermediate state between faith and lack of faith, 5) the enjoining of what is good and the forbidding of what is evil (Gimaret 1993:786). 42 Al-Ash'ari (d. 935 AD), a former Mu'tazili, is regarded as the founder of the Ash'ariyya school of kalam (Frank 1987:449).

17 famous Fatimid judge, al-Nu'man b. Muhammad (d. 974 AD), and he reports that al-Haytham converted many of the inhabitants of Sind. The mission was still active at the time of his writing (Maclean 1989:132). The Fatimid Caliph al-Mu'izz (953-975 AD) succeeded in establishing an Isma'ili foothold in Sind. In 958 AD a Fatimid vassal state was founded in Sind, with its seat at Multan serving as the abode of emigration (Ar. dar al-Mrjd) for the Isma'ilis of that state. This state survived until 1010 AD, when Mahmud of Ghazna invaded Multan and the Isma'ilis were ruthlessly massacred (Hollister 1979:345).

When the Ghaznavid rule degenerated, the Isma'ili leaders again seized power and quietly ruled Sind for more than a hundred years until the final conquest of the province by the Ghurid governor Nasiru’d-din-Qubacha in 1175 AD. This change was accompanied by a more thorough slaughter and destruction, and the Isma'ili movement had to go underground, living in the guise of Hindus. During two centuries occasional references to Isma'ilis are found in Indian history. They are referred to as heretics (Ar. malahida, from ilhad = heresy in religion) and sometimes Qaramatians (Hollister 1979:348). By the middle of the 13th century a wave of Isma'ili refugees from the Mongol invasion of Persia had reached Sind43. It is probable that their religious leaders, in the guise of darwishes, soon discovered and came into contact with the earlier community. By making use of their doctrine, they probably formed a transition between Isma'IlIsm, Sufism and Hinduism (Ivanow 1952:20).

4. SUPREME REALITY IN ISMAILISM

4.1. The Fatimid Isma'ilis

In Fatimid cosmology God is described as absolutely beyond comprehension, beyond any attribute or name, and completely unknowable. God could not be comprehended or described by reason.

Abu Ya'qub al-Sijistanl (d. post 996 AD), prominent and perhaps the most influential Isma'ili theologian-philosopher, is credited with formulating the Isma'ili Neoplatonic cosmology. Influenced by al-Nasafi,44 his predecessor, and by

43 It was when the 27th Nizari Imam Khurshah surrendered to the Mongols and was then murderd by them in 1257 AD. 44 Al-Nasafi (d.944 A.D.) was the first Ismaili philosopher who introduced Neoplatonism into Isma'ili

18 Neoplatonism, al-Sijistani developed al-Nasafi ideas. This development gave rise to a doctrine of 'double negation', through which Isma'iUs removed all attributes and names from God and described Him as transcending being and non-being. For al-Sijistani, God's absolute unity was of supreme importance, not because Neoplatonic theory demanded it, but because it was the most fundamental tenet of Islam. Without a proper understanding of 'absolute One' (Ar. tawhid), a Muslim perception of God would involve compromising God through association, (Ar. shirk) this being the most dreaded of all Islamic sins (Walker 1974:18).

The main purpose of al-Sijistani's doctrine of 'double negation' was to find the way of a correct appreciation of God's position and rank. Thus according to al- Sijistani, the complete process of verifying God's absolute transcendence, of coming to a correct cognizance of Him, and therefore of reaching the right form of worship, must include two steps. First, there should be a full and vigorous denial of all anthropomorphism (Ar. tashblh). One must specify that God is not a thing, not limited, not describable, not in a place, not in time, not a being. This should then be followed by a second denial: a negation of the first negation. Thus God is not not a thing, not not limited, not not describable, not not in a place, not not in time, not not a being. For al-Sijistani this method of two-fold negation was the only answer to the charge of having committed ta'til (denudation of the Divine Essence). It provided a formula by which nothing could be said about God - positive or negative (Walker 1974:18).

The opposition, al-Sijistani admits, might argue, for example, that the statements 'God is not describable' and 'God is not not describable' are mutually contradictory. If one is true, the other must be false since it is the negation of a true statement. However, according to al-Sijistani, these paired statements are not mutually contradictory because they are not species of the negative; and he adds, the first negation strips God of association with the physical (Ar. aljusmanl) and the second removes Him from any association with the spiritual (Ar. al-ruhanl) al- Sijistani. Thus al-Sijistani's God is not simply difficult to know, but rather is genuinely unknown (Walker 1974:17-18). Hence from the beginning of the 10th

thought.His major work "Book of the Yield" kitab al-mahsul, has unfortunately not survived, gives and exposition of new metaphysical and cosmological doctrines of Neoplatonic origins which laid the foundation for the system developed by the other two Persian Isma'fflmissionaries Abu Hatim al-Razi (d 934 AD) and al-Sijistani (Daftary 1992:235).

19 century onwards the early cosmology was replaced by the new Isma'lli Neoplaonic cosmology which became a prevalent doctrine of the Isma'lli communities of the Fatimid period.

4. 2. The Isma'lli missionaries in India

The early development of the Isma'lli mission in India has remained obscure, due to the absence of reliable sources. However, the traditional account of the mission is recorded in ginans containing tales of leading missionaries. Satgur Nur is reported to have been the earliest Pir to leave Persia for India. He is regarded as the founder of the True Path (Satpanth). He was mainly active in Patan in Gujarat. His shrine giving the date of 1094 AD, is located at Navsari near Surat. However, Ivanow (1948:10) casts doubt on Satgur Nur’s historical existence. PTr Shams seems to have flourished in the first half of the 14th century. He is said to have travelled as far as Badakshan and Bengal, but he was active mainly in Multan and Sind. He is credited with 115 ginans. His tomb is known locally as that of the Sufi saint called Shams-e-Tabrez. Pir Shams is said to have some association with the great Sufi shaikh of the Suhravardi order, Bahauddin Zakariya (d. 1266 AD) (Ivanow 1948:14).

Pir Sadruddin (d. 14167AD) played an important role in the propagation of the mission in India. He converted the Lohana caste and gave them the name of Khoja (< Pers. Khwaja), meaning master or Lord, corresponding to the Hindu term of thakur by which the Lohanas were addressed. The centre of Sadruddin’s activities remained in Uch, an important town south of Multan. Hr Sadruddin is credited with 236 ginans. Hasan Kabiruddin (d. 1470 AD), the eldest son of Pir Sadruddin, succeeded his father as Hr. He was the first Hr to have been born locally. Hasan Kabiruddin is credited with 86 ginans. He appears in the Sufi hagiography and his name is found in the list of the Shaykhs of the Suhravardi order. His tomb at Uch is revered as that of the Sufi saint ’Hasan Darya’ (Ivanow 1948:10). Hasan Kabiruddin was succeeded by his brother Tajuddin (d. by the end of 15th century AD ?). As a result of family rivalries Pir Tajuddin is said to have been accused of having embezzled the religious dues on return from a visit to Iran, which made him to commit suicide. Mustansir billah II, Imam at that time, reacted by sending a book of guidance {Pandiyat-e-Javantrardi) to Sind around the middle of the 16th century AD. Hr Tajuddin is the last name to appear in the

20 signatures of the ginans on the Khoja list of missionaries (Isma'Ilia Association for India, 1974:90-92), and is credited with only one ginan (Shackle and Moir 1992:7).

4. 3. The Isma'ill religious literature - the ginans

The study of religious hymns reveals similarities between the ginan and the bhakti literature of medieval India. Moreover, there are elements of a Sufi current of thought in them. In fact the bhakti and Suf) elements form the background for the development of the mystical ideas of the hymns. This gives rise to the following question. Was there a direct borrowing of bhakti and Sufi ideas in ginans, or were they just an emphasis on the interaction that was going on at various levels in Indo-Muslim society ?

The ginans have only been studied from an Islamic point of view. Besides a pioneering study in 1948 by Ivanow, Khakee (1980) and Nanji (1978) have studied the Isma'Ilis within the Islamic context. Recently Asani (1991) has discussd the interaction of the Sufi and the Isma'ill tradition, while Shackle and Moir (1992) deal with the background of the Isma'ill community in South Asia and the language and script of ginans. This latter work includes some selected ginans with a translation and an analysis of the texts. In spite of these analyses of hymns, Indian aspects, such as the relationship between ginans and North Indian Hindi bhakti literature, have been neglected. However, a comparison between ginans and Gujarati bhakti literature has been done by Mallison (1989),

The authorship of the ginans is attributed chiefly to various missionaries (Pers. Fir) whose activities in the Indian subcontinent began as early as the 13th century AD. These missionaries were sent by the Isma'ill Imams from Persia, the headquarters of the Isma'ill movement at that time, to propogate the Isma'ill mission in India. In 1256 AD, after the fall of Alamut, Isma'Ilis lived as a part of the Sufi tradition and were thus able to perpetuate the esoteric teaching of the community without being attacked by Sunni Muslims. In Persia there was a close relationship between Sufism and Isma'IIIsm because they both emphasised the esoteric and inward aspects of the faith, representing similar tendencies within the Islamic tradition, and this relationship was carried on to the Indian subcontinent.

21 The ginans are addressed by the pirs to the pious believers. Stress is repeatedly laid on the importance of following the Word (sabad < Sk. sabda), of the True path. The main duties which a believer has to perform are to lead a righteous life, to practice meditation through inward repetition of the Name in order to attain enlightenment (darasana < Sk. darsana) and to participate in the rituals of the congregation. The world (G. jug < Sk. loka) is depicted as an illusion (Sk. maya). The human mind (man < Sk. manasa) is blinded by delusion (bharam

In the ginans the Supreme Reality is a distant Invisible Being (alakh purakh) described in negative terms as lacking form (Sk. arupa), and qualities (naragun). At the same time God is regarded to be the Creator (Ar. khalaq) the Everlasting (Ar. kaerd) and Merciful One (G. dayal < Sk. daydlii). There are two great intermediary levels of authority between the believer and God, the Pir and the Imam, symbolised as the moon and the sun. However, immense importance is given to the status of the Imam since God has made Imam the true repository of His Light (Ar. nur). Imam is said to be the Lord of the three worlds (tribhovar). He is referred to as the Lord (Sk. nara), master (sami

According to ginans, the concept of the Isma‘ill Imam is integrated with Vaisnavite ideas regarding the descent of Visnu through the ages (Sk. yuga). The Nizari pirs introduced 'Ali b. Abi Talib as the tenth manifestation (avatara) of Visnu. 'Ali was to fulfil the eschatological expectations of the Hindu converts to NizarT Isma'ilism by fighting the forces of evil in the Kali Yuga (Mandani 1994:64). Furthermore, all the Imams succeeding 'Ali, who were recognised by the Nizaris, were held to be identical with him in their status and authority. Moreover, the Qur'an was represented as the last of the Vedas whose true interpretation (Ar. taW) was known to the pirs. Thus the ginans exalted the religious role of the pirs (or guru), who guided the believers to attain the knowledge (gz«an) of the Imam and the true religion (Satpanthd

22 5. SOURCE MATERIAL - SELECTED VERSES FROM GlNAN AND KABIR

Ginan (G) and Kabir (K)

G:1 The One who has neither colour nor form, nor name, nor place; That Hidden One became manifest, assuming a hundred thousand names.

K: 1. That which has neither face nor head, is neither beautiful nor ugly, more subtle than the fragrance of a flower, such is the incomparable Reality.

G:2. How can I extol the Divine bliss ? So great is its majesty that it cannot be described.

K: 2. How should I describe the Indescribable ? It cannot be described by me. Making efforts to describe the Indescribable I became tired !

G:3 The Hindu goes to the sixty-eight places of pilgrimage and the Muslim goes to the mosque, yet neither the Hindu nor the Muslim knows my Lord Who sits - nirifijan

K: 3 The Jogi says: 'Gorakh, Gorakh !' The Hindu utters the Name of Ram. The Muslim says: God is One !' The Lord of Kabir remains pervaded.

23 G:4 The True Guide says: the temple/body is filled with light, and heaven was created with light: From that Light, Light was manifested whose name is mowla 'Ali/Satgur.

K: 4 First Allah created the light: all are slaves of divine power - From one light, the whole world was created, Who is good ? Who is wicked ?

G:5 You are the truth, the Pure one and the King, you are beneficent also, O 'Ali, just you you are the Lord, you are the merciful one, O Ali, the first and the last, the judge, just you.

I<:5 Allah is the Purest of the pure, doubt Him not to be other than this - Kabir, he who has the mercy of All-merciful, he alone knows Him to be this (pure) !

G: 6. In the seven islands and the nine divisions, the Lord is manifested: Wherever I look there He is, He Himself is in every heart.

K: 6. O Brothers, do not be led astray I The Creator is in the creation, creation in the Creator: and the creator pervades in the body of all.

24 G: 7. My Lord sits plentiful in the body of all. Do not look for Him far away heedlessly.

K: 7. (As) The musk is held within its podz the musk-deer searches in the forest: Likewise Ram dwells in the bodies of all, the world sees not!

G:8 My Lord is constantly present for the true seeker as the pupil within the eye.

K: 8. As the pupil in the eye, so is the creator in the body, Foolish men are not aware and they go searching outside.

G: 9. My mind is my prayer mat, Allah is my qadi, my body is my mosque. Within I sit and say my prayers. How can the foolish know my way.

K: 9. Why does the Mullah climb the minaret ? Allah is not deaf ! To whom do you give the call (to prayer). He is in your heart.

25 G: 10. In the heart is the place of pilgrimage and in the heart is the door to religion Worship the Lord in the heart; In the heart is the vision of salvation.

K: 10. Know the mind to be Mathura, and heart Dvarka, and the body Kasi. In the tenth door of this body, identify the Light 1

G:ll. Whoever practices what I say and recites 'Thou, Thou' in one flow. Whoever meditates the Name of the Lord that devotee will attain the Lord Himself.

K: 11. Repeating 'Thou, Thou', I became Thou. In me remained no T. I devote myself to your Name; Wherever I look, there Thou art !

G: 12. The true Guide says: From him in whom faith is manifest, heedlessness is far removed. What may darkness do there, Where the light of the True Guide appears ?

K: 12. When I was, then Hari was not, now Hari is and I am not. All darkness was eliminated, when I saw the Light within.

26 G: 13. The true Guide says: Love cannot be produced in the garden, love cannot be bought in the market: Love is produced in the heart, which eats up the heart from within.

K: 13. Love is not grown in the garden, love is not sold in the market: King or people, he who longs, can take it by giving his head.

G: 14. Oh friend, my Lord cannot be described, Invisible, Unknown, He is only to be seen.

K: 14. Such is the view of splendour of the supreme Brahman describing it, is not auspicious seeing it is the proof.

G: 15. Lift the veil and come face to face, allow me to see (your) joyful face. Thirsty I desirous, is Hr Sams for your face Grant me your vision.

K: 15. Exhausted, by the door I stand (at dawn) for your audience but for You, who will remember me ? grant me your vision by opening the door.

27 G: 16. Say ! O brother, what kind, of Love is this ? I shall reveal the hidden secret for you. Overwhelmed, the ripple of Love arises In that state the sweetness from the mouth flows.

K: 16. The cage is lit by love, it became bright within, the mouth became fragrant with musk, perfuming the speech.

G: 17 In the Susumna the rain trickles, Where dwells the Nirafijan without a form. There is no trumpet, yet there is a melody there is no sun, yet it is bright. When the mind, entered the unmani stage, then the quarrel of life and death breaks (vanishes).

K: 17. Mind attached itself to unmana, and it goes towards the sky Where moonlight is without a moon, there is the invisible Nirafijan, King !

G: 18. When the true Guide - Paras touches the believer (munivar) - iron he too becomes the paras.

K: 18. The Name is like Paras and the world is like iron: By (touching) the Paras, it too becomes Paras, and it proved to be genuine !

28 G: 19. Out of this clay He created the whole world Who in this (world) is a Hindu and who is a Muslim ?

K: 19. One blood, one excrement and urine, one skin, and one anus (guda) From one drop the creation was created: who is Brahman ? Who is Shudra ?

G:20. All these idols are of stone, and they do not speak at all. Why do you let yourself be led astray in vain, when these are man-made objects ?

K: 20. Having made the idol of stone, they worship it as the Creator ! Those who put trust in these (idols) (they) drown in a black torrent.

G: 21. How will you be able to wash it (body) it will not be to dean. The nine doors constantly leak and are filled by excreta.

K: 21. Why do you walk with such contortions/deviousness ? Hell is contained in the nine doors and they are surrounded only by a foul stench.

29 G:22. Buried, it is eaten by worms- burnt, it turns into ashes, when left unattended It is eaten by animals.

K:22. If body is burnt it turns into ashes, if buried, it is eaten by worms and insects - Or it is food for pig, dog and crow: So what is the benefit ?

G:23. Stay away from the filthy body remove the calamity; As the skin of the snake, separates it from the body.

K:23. Kabir, do not pride on seeing the fairness of body - Today or tomorrow you will abandon it and go as the snake abandons its skin.

G:24. O fortunate one, over your body the grass will grow; and the cattle will eat the grass, fortunate one.

K: 24. Kabir, do not pride on seeing the height of a house Tomorrow or the day after you will return to the earth and grass will grow (collect) above it.

30 G: 25. Crying mine, mine so you lost your life you drowned the diamond like human birth.

K:25. Crying mine, mine the life is spent your (whole) life has gone but you did not call upon Hari!

G:26. The soul's kin and family sit together and no one keeps it company. Kinsfolk and family return after bidding the soul be on its way, While its sins and virtues keep it twin company.

K: 26. Up to the threshold will your wife be with you, a little further your good friend, Up to the place of cremation your family members will come - ahead the soul goes alone.

G:27. Oh my brother ! He who knows how to die before the death then he will never have to die again !

K: 27. Dying again and again the world dies, but no one knows how to die: The servant Kabir has died such a death, that he will never have to die again !

31 G: 28. Atma is the nirguna Brahman body is like the blade of grass: Nur Satgura had said, O believer, meditate on Atman.

K: 28. Kabir, the mind became cool, when I obtained brahmajhana: The fire that burns the world, that for me is like water 1

6. COMPARISON AND CONCLUSION

In G:l-2 and K:l-2, the Supreme Reality is depicted as formless, subtle, incomparable and indescribable. However, the Supreme Reality in G:1 was first hidden and nameless but when manifested, It assumed a hundred thousand names.

In G:3 and K:3 the message is for the people who search for the Lord in temple or mosque without realising that the Lord in fact resides within their hearts. The Lord of Ph is not known by anyone else other than his community or followers, while the Lord of Kabir is known by everyone.

In G:4-6 and K:4-6, the Supreme Reality is described as the Creator who is omnipresent in the creation as well as in every human being.

In G:7-10 and K:7-10, the foolish men's ignorance of not knowing the presence of Lord in their heart is illustrated by the analogies of musk in the deer and pupil in the eye. At the same time both Hr and Kabir are making fun of Muslims and Hindus for their religious practices. The mullah calls to prayer from the minaret and Hindus visit pilgrim places like Mathura and Kasi searching for the One which is also present in their hearts.

The verses G:ll-13 and K:ll-13 state that by meditation on the name of Lord, the ego or 'I-ness1 is destroyed and gives rise to faith and devotion, eliminating the

32 darkness (ignorance). This love (faith) of the Lord cannot be obtained anywhere except in the heart and the attainment of faith is a hard path to follow.

The verses G:14-18 and K:14-18 deal with the mystical experience where the One, who was formless in G:1 and K:l, is given a face which the authors are longing to see. When they open the door (of the heart) and are granted the vision they achieve a state which is described as sweetened or perfumed speech. A melody is heard without an instrument and light is seen without an object. This meeting is described through the senses of tasting, smelling, hearing and seeing. In G:18 it is only through the True Guide (imam) that a believer can become paras while in K:18 it is through the Name that the whole world can become paras.

The verses G:19-26 and K: 19-26 gives the message of the oneness of mankind. All human beings are created from the same source, either by clay as in G:19 or from a single drop in K:19, making everyone equal. There is neither Hindu nor Muslim nor people with high and low rank. Once man is created, he forgets the Creator and due to ignorance he makes idols which he worships as the Creator. The worthlessness of the body and the importance of the soul is stressed. No matter how much the body is cleaned, it constantly leaks from the nine doors. Once the soul leaves the body, it will be destroyed either by fire or eaten by worms. Irrespective of the status and quality of man, the human body has the same end. The analogy of a snake leaving its skin is used both by Hr and Kabir. Hr wants his followers to stay away from the filthy body and get rid of the evil as the snake gets rid of its skin. Kabir does not want people to think too much of their bodies as they will abandon them sooner or later. However, man posseses worldly things and becomes attached to his family and friends. This engrossment makes man ignorant of the Lord and makes him forget that when he departs from this world, nothing follows him except the soul and his own deeds.

Verses G:27 and K:27 specify two types of dying. One is physical death which comes to everyone. Pir and Kabir talk about another 'real death' which can be obtained in life by hard work, releasing the soul from its repeated return to this world.

The study of the of Supreme Reality and its development in Pirs and Kabir shows that it is similar to the notion of Brahman in Upanisads. Supreme Reality for Hr and Kabir is both transcendent and immanent. For them (G:l-6 and K:l-6)

33 Supreme Reality is the One (eka), the Pure (pak) having no form (rupa), no colour (rang), no name (nama) and no face (mukha). It is beyond all description (abarana). For them Supreme Reality whom they sometimes called Lord (svami), is all-pervading and the Creator (khaliq) of the whole universe. Wherever one looks, one finds Lord. Allah first created the Light (Ar. nur) and from the Light heaven and earth including mankind were created. Here the Islamic influence in both is very obvious as in Qur'an (Sura 24:35) ’Allah is the Light of the heavens and the earth 1 (Ali Yusuf 1975:907).

To express this mysterious Reality both PIr and Kabir uses different terms such as alakh, anami, and nirafijana. Some terms are Islamic, i.e. Allah, Khuda, Khaliq and Rab, and other terms are from the Vedanta tradition, i.e. Brahman-Atman. Moreover, the Supreme Reality is addressed by the Vaisnava names such as Hari, Govinda, Murari. Kabir calls it Ram without sharing the belief in the avatara concept of the Vaisnava tradition. However, in G:4 the concept of Imam is integrated with the Vaisnava ideas of avatara (Mandani 1994:64). ’Ali, the first Imam, was introduced as the tenth avatara of Visnu, who was to fulfil the eschatological expectations of Nizari Isma'ilis, the converts from Hinduism, by fighting the forces of evil in the Kali Yuga. The Imams who succeeded Ali were also recognised by the Nizaris as being identical with him in their status and authority.

According to G:8 and K:8, Hrs and Kabir, the all-pervading Reality lives in man like the pupil in the eye. The ignorant (Sk. murkha) look around and wander in search of the ’One’ who resides in their own selves, like the deer wanders in the forest and continues to look for musk which is present in his body (G:7 and K:7). Then there is no need to call for Allah on the minaret or visit the pilgrimage places such as Dvarka, Mathura or Kasi (G:9-10 and K:9-10). The Light or the Salvation can be recognised within the heart or, according to Kabir (K:10), within the shrine of the Tenth Door which is the abode of Paramasiva. Then the Upanisad stage of ’I am Brahman’ is achieved, wherever I look, ’Thou art’ and the devotee attains the Lord Himself. (G:ll-12 and K:ll-12).

In both Pir and Kabir (G:15 and K:15) the mystical experience is a meeting between the Lord and the soul. The love of the devotee is directed towards an Invisible (alakh) and Unknown (anami) Being. This love is a mystery which cannot be

34 describe; if it were described who would believe it ? 'It' can only be seen (G:14 and K:14).

According to G:19-28 and K:19-28, death is the essence of Pir's and Kabir's thought. Death is frequently emphasised by pessimistic description. The description is expressed by using images and symbols borrowed from daily life. Man forgets that the world is nothing but a dream. He is lost in his family ties and forgets that it is a 'four-day show'. When dead, the soul has to go alone leaving all which belonged to him and even his body which he was so proud of. The human body is regarded as fragile like an unbaked clay-pot or just bones in a bag of skin. It will be destroyed either by being buried or burnt. Pir and Kabir warn that life is precious and must not to be destroyed by craving for the material which is temporary. The aim of human birth is to seek the Supreme and to know how to die before death. Once the mind enters the unmani stage45 , then the fear of falling into the bond of samsara is abolished. Kabir borrowed the idea of 'Iberated though still alive' (jlvanmukta) from the Yogis and applied it to the mystic who is engaged in the Way of Love, and who has to sacrifice his earthly life. But 'being dead though alive' (jlvanmrta) is, in reality, the condition of the true 'life' in God (Vaudeville 1964:200).

To conclude, the period between the 13th and 17th centuries was the time when interaction between different movements was occurring in India. The bhakti movement came into contact with Islam and the Sant tradition, carrying elements derived mainly from the Vaisnava bhakti, Tantric Yoga and Islamic mysticism. This interaction gave rise to a wave of transcultural ideas which are seen in the works of Pirs and Kabir. It is difficult to establish whether the notion of Supreme Reality is closer to Brahman in Hinduism or to Allah in Islam. When Pirs came to India their main aim was to convert the local people. It is apparent that they use local religion, language and the concepts. The methods which Pirs adopted were based on two principles: One was their bold tactics in separating the meaning and spirit of Islam from its hard shell. The other was their effort to

45 According to Nath panthis, the unmani or unmana 'killing of the mind' stage results from Yogi's final victory over his enemy. By means Yogi attains the liberating trance, samadhi, which is conceived as 'the great bliss', mahasukha. Through this sadhana, Yogi himself obtains immortality (jivanmukta) and claims to overcome death. The unmani stage coincides with the Sahaja state. Sahaja, literally means 'easy, natural, freedom or spontaneity'. In the Sahaja stage a Yogi comes into the final trance in his body where all consciousness of 'duality' and 'fear' or falling into the bond of samsara is abolished. The Yogi is at one with the One, ultimate Reality which is not distinct from the supreme state of Sahaja (Vaudeville 1974:132-133).

35 explain the ideals of Islam in the familiar terms of Hinduism, thus striving to make them good believer rather than Muslim (Ivanow 1948:21).

The religious message and the mystical language of Firs and Kabir is almost identical. However, there is a slight difference in their symbolic expressions, but the final message, i.e. the goal of the Human being, remains the same. For Kabir Ram is nirguna Brahman, while for Pir the Imam is used as the tenth avatara for fulfilling his own message.

7. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AD Anno Domini Ar. Arabic AV. Atharvaveda G. Gujarati H. Hindi RV. Rgveda MS manuscript Pers. Persian Sk. Sanskrit Up. Upanisads < is derived from

36 8. APPENDIX

8. 1. The source material on ginans. 8.1.1. Original text from Ginans (G:l-28) in Gujatati. G:l. 3’1 V* 4W4 4P& €i apwi w QiSi, aix G:2. S454 4*41 4|’ q^iy, sgl <4 siteT;

G:3. 5^ 'A

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G:4. 3id?J3 5^4. H’ilR *>W. ’■'iiyxl'i;

43 Hi^n 4’ XoiJlau, «4 ^ew«Q § 41^ G: 5. Q’ HIS; g Oil «tal 4&1 g. 3=4 4‘ 3^Hld 4, iaal w.0.6 y.1,143 il$5 g’fcl

G:6. y« *4 ■H'ixi, *Wil 3M’4^ S.ll^, ■sr^i rtfti '4l

G:7. 34

37 G:8.

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G:9. 5^ Hd $VU Mt »W *W $T

G:10. rfltf SUH® H=H

G:11.• S *(l£5 >iy £&11 &H151, nl £’l; CZ M rtlH Sft a ^

G:12.

bfHL< W&U; tf£t 3i^d e/t *hVki sj’ j£7 mi ^<41 M G: 13. . ^u^-t 7 <

38 G: 15.

Hl^x, el

G:16.

G:17. oJtH^ *tciSl&l,-. 4l*Vi sz&U^i; dfe 0(1 ■^rfl §4^41 fcpft ^4H ^5P>

G:18. ^£2 \l\?A CU $kW4

G:19. xiil bf^‘ ^5 >isi

G:20. *1 ell

39 G:22. Xil ch £lil W 2U4; dXR Si dlX^, ch e/dltt ■'Wi-QilsTSU.

G: 23.

SIS) X'fl M’-ll “i'JIHl ^l, IsUl ’ii'vUdl X’.Xdl ii=-ld, Wil HlX-QUc!5l I.

G:24.

»l QUXl* clcl §\^ *Hl ^1,* otlai

G:25.

Sl^J Hl^‘ i^cti «/dH aiHl'H’ll, ^1’ai ®j^i Hw^i ^oii4$i.

G:26. »l£7 *011 ^'i'U V-Q olU, >ia 4 yil ate you ^i’y ^wu'ift 't'to, vix Hw. yiMa

G:27.

a?< qu-!=' x^ai £ x=h «4ej, §=, X’.eU chy Ixi.

G:28. Sla =Hl

40 8. 2.1. Reference to own translated verses from Ginans (G:l-28).

Ginan verse G: 1. Sadruddin, Bug niranjan: 2: (7), p. 250 G:2 Shams, Brahma prakas: 11, p. 284 G:3 Shams, ginan : 36:4-5, p. 40 G:4 Sadruddin, Saloko nano: 10, p. 238 G:5 Shams, ginan : 51:1-2, p. 59 G:6 Sadruddin, Buj niranjan: 10 (9), p. 258 G:7 Sadruddin, ginan : 40:1, p. 47 G: 8 Sadruddin, ginan : 40:2, p. 47-48 G:9 Shams, ginan : 36:6-7, p. 40 G: 10 Sadruddin, Saloko nano: 80, p. 243 G:ll Shams, Brahma prakas: 112,114, p. 294 G: 12 Sadruddin, Saloko nano: 9, p. 238 G: 13 Sadruddin, Saloko nano: 94, p. 244 G: 14 Sadruddin, ginan : 136:13, p. 141 G: 15 Shams, ginan : 24:2-3, p. 23 G: 16 Shams, Brahma prakas: 6-7, p, 281 G: 17 Shams, Brahma prakas: 70-71,88, p. 289-291 G: 18 Sadruddin, ginan : 40:13, p. 48 G: 19 Shams, ginan : 36:3, p. 40 G: 20 Shams, Garabi: 2: 8-9, p. 85 G: 21 Satgur Nur, ginan : 3:5, p. 128 G: 22 Satgur Nur, ginan : 3: 7, p. 128 G: 23 Satgur Nur, ginan : 3:14, p. 129 G:24 Shams, ginan : 23:7, p. 22 G:25 Shams, ginan : 57:3, p. 62 G:26 Sadruddin, ginan : 147:14-15, p. 155 G: 27 Sadruddin, ginan : 59:9, p. 66 G:28 Satgur Nur, ginan : 3:16, p. 129

41 8. 2. The source material on Kabir.

8. 2.1. The Hindi verses of Kabir are from Nirgun-Bhakti-Sagar. (Devotional Hindi Literature by Callewaert and Op de Beeck 1991).

K: 1. $3 nrm "ft cgrxr ■ did M !d4l cTfT ^M*3i II KG: sakhi: 7: 7, p. 286

K: 2. 3WFT ohf CRT snhv H I 3TSITT dTT dip'll opft cFft W 3W II KG: sakhi: 8:5, p. 286 K: 3. vfhft ntm rfrw cf^r tw =rw 11 ydcWH ^1? ndtl cFT « 1KT II KG: pad: 128:7-8, p. 324

K: 4. SToorfcT 3Tr^F 3TOT 'cgc{T cpf=r d'^' II KG: pad: 185:1, p. 334

K: 5. STc'vdp MlcbdicF TT37 ^TT (ft«f I opsftl of^ ^rf^T II KG: pad: 87:4, p. 317

K: 6. dl'H I sni^cF 5F53F EIHcF JT^ 'STliHcb W T^T WTlf II KG:pad: 185: refr, p.334

K: 7. ■aFFgrr ®rt fan aff^i nfe Erfe ifcr t HffrT ii KG: sakhi: 7:1, p. 286

K: 8. ^rh- ®r sRTft ent niPw after i cTht n di^n §>dH difc> ii KG: sakhi: 7: 2, p. 286

42 K: 9. gHT gaff crt aw w =r af^n W’ cpRpr g aiH a KT fW aicrfl W II KG: sakhi: 26:3, p. 298

K: 10. aa agar i^ar giPcbi

Kill. St i =^rar j qxtr g^r if

K: 12. KT W K^f 3Ta t t afft I w afWrnr wr a®r ^hw ^rr aW n KG: sakhi: 9:1, p. 287

K: 13. K Q^ ■Qw a' ("Hd fstcbl^' I tiwt Mt'SfT W ata et ar=> n KG: sakhi: 14:32, p. 290

K: 14. Ml<<&a cFST cf>7 ^HT ft’ I kmt -Tiff ^r tnoTFT n KG: sakhi: 9:2, p. 287

K: 15. c?iw

K: 16. cFrft iMr wiftwr graft aar aara i giW ciKrgtt a^afr afat ara ii KG: sakhi; 9:23, p. 287

K: 17. aar dhii daa-'-r rft

43 K: 18. qrnr mfr =rnr t tit w wnri rnrrnr t qmr am mdt w emmi u KG: sakhi: 9: 41, p. 288

K: 19. W T^TT W RF R7R w mt W Fm1 w ft t r^t t mta st^ft c^=r ftr n KG: pad: 181:1, p. 333

K; 20. RtT Mkill mff ft cr«il< I rkt mf i ii t art mmfr w ii KG: sakhi: 26:1, p. 298

K: 21. ^eici cfd ddM dtf I mf fma mrm mft ft cprifET tr m isfr n KG: pad: 69: ref, p. 314

K: 22. m mfr eft tt? wr eFT mt fWr mte mt fm<. ■Wli mni mt 1-liat-MH cfTt m^T II KG: pad: 69:1, p. 314

K:23. mill m rnlfi^' iit dw i 3trj aprf^t aft mgfi- mt^ft ymrr n KG: sakhi: 15: 22, p. 291

K: 24. mtrr wr a mtftst atn maiK i milcrp M ft ipf riled I

K: 25. int tfr mw amr mfr i sr-fTT wr qft a mtt n KG: pad: 83: ref, p. 316

K: 26. tt ®rfT mft i-H t srnh" ’ *1

44 K: 27. Midi HWI «TT goTT H dHf |

K: 28. W ^SfsT WTT fh3TFT I fW tw W Ht ift ufecF TTFFT II KG: sakhi: 17:1, p. 294

8. 2. 2. Reference to the Hindi verses of Kabir (K:l-28).

Kabir Callewaert, W. M. and Op de Beeck, B. vers 1991, Vol. 1. (Hindi text). K: 1. KG: sakhl: 7:7, p. 286 K: 2. KG: sakhi: 8:5, p. 286 K: 3. KG: pad: 128:7-8, p. 324 K: 4. KG: pad: 185:1, p. 334 K: 5. KG: pad: 87:4, p. 317 K: 6. KG: pad:185: refrain, p. 334 K: 7. KG: sakhi: 7: l,p. 286 K: 8. KG: sakhi: 7:2, p. 286 K: 9. KG: sakhi: 26:3, p. 298 K: 10. KG: sakhi: 26:11, p. 298 K: 11. KG: sakhi: 3: 6, p. 283 K: 12. KG: sakhi: 9:1, p. 287 K: 13. KG: sakhi: 14:32, p. 290 K: 14. KG: sakhi: 9:2, p. 287 K; 15. KG: pad: 45: refrain, p. 309 K: 16. KG: sakhi: 9:23, p. 287 K: 17. KG: sakhi: 9: 8, p. 287 K: 18. KG: sakhi: 9:41, p. 288 K: 19. KG: pad: 181:1, p. 333 K: 20. KG: sakhi: 26:1, p. 298 K: 21. KG: pad: 69: refrain, p. 314 K: 22. KG: pad: 69:1, p. 314 K: 23. KG: sakhi: 15:22, p. 291 K: 24. KG: sakhi: 15:23, p. 291

45 K: 25. KG: pad: 83: refrain, p. 316 K: 26. KG: pad: 68:3, p. 313 K: 27. KG: sakhi: 19:1, p. 294 K: 28. KG: sakhi: 17:1, p. 294

9. BIBLIOGRAPHY

9.1. Primary sources

Brahma prakasa by mahana pira samsudlna in pavitra ginano no sahgraha, published by Isma'TIIa Association for India, Bombay, second edition 1969, p. 28 -297.

Mahana ismaili santa pira sadardma racita ginano no sahgraha, Isma'illa Association for India, Bombay 2nd. ed. 1960, 217 ginans (229 pages).

Mahana ismaili santa pira samsa racita ginano no sahgraha, no place, no date, no name, no editior, 106 ginans (120 pages).

Pira satgura nura na ginano, in mahana ismaili santa pira Hasana Kabirudina ane bija salts dhari piro racita ginano no sahgraha, no place, no date, no name, no editior, 79+23 ginans (146 pages).

Sartha gujarati jodanlkosa. gujarata vidhyapltha, reprint, 1967.

9. 2. Secondary sources

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Front page illustration: An assembly of dervishes, with Sufi saints in the background and a group of Sants and Yogis seated in the foreground. Mughal, mid-seventeenth century (Victoria and Albert Museum, London, I. S. 94-1965), in Schomer, K. and McLeod, W. H. The Sants. Studies in a Devotional Tradition of India. Motilal Banarsidass. Dehli.

51 Mandani, Yasmin D. 1996. The Supreme Reality -A Comparative Perspective in the Nizarl Isma'Illginans and in the sayings of Kabir.

Errata and addendum

Page Line Typed Should be

1 32 Caturvedi Caturvedi * 2, 10 9, 12 Ramanand Ramanand 2 11 Sufism Sufism * 2 19 Satgur Nur Satgur Nur * 2 20 Sadruddin Sadruddin * 2 29 Brahmaprakasa Brahma prakasa * 2 ■29 Pir Hr 3 25 sp/rit spirit 4 28 Aoording According 4 29 atmant atman 5 26,28 Chadogya Chandogya 7 19 states stated 8 36 (puddhadvcdta) (Sk. suddhadvaita) 8 40 (pusti-marga) (Sk. pusti-mar^a') 9 22 Nabhaji Nabhaji 9 23 Sivsinh Sivsimh 9 24 Sivsinh Saraj SivsimhSaroj 9 26 Bengal’s Sehgar’s 9 26 "Misra bandhu vinod" Misra bandhu vinod’ 9 26 Syamhihari Misra Syambihari Misra 9 29 Hindi sabda sagar Hindi sabda sagar 9, 32 30,26 kasi Kasi 9 30 Hindi Sahitya ka itihas Hindi sahitya ka itihas 10 1 Jnanesvar Jnanesvar 10 32 Dahabad Hahabad 11 20 Natha Nath* 12 2 spreaddin g spreading •14 4 sakhis sakhis * 14 5 ramainl ramaini 14 31 Braj Bhakha Braj Bhakha 14 33 Dvivedi Dvivedi 16 23 mutashabih mutashabih 16 29 imam *imam 16 32 40 49 40 17 5 Mu'tazili Mu'tazill * 17 8 tashbih tashbih 18 7 Mahmud Mahmud 18 22 ISMaILISM ISMA'ILISM 18 32 Ismaili IsmaTH 19 29 al-Sijistanl omit 19 32 kitabal-mahsul kitabal-mahsul 19 33 and an 19 34 AbuHatimal-Razi AbuHatim al-Razi 20 16 Suhravardr SuhravardI 20 16 BahauddinZakariya Baha htd-dln Zakariy a

1 Page Line Typed Should be

20. 23 Hasan Kabiruddin Hasan Kabiruddin * 20 26 Hasan Darya Hasan Darya 20 27 Tajuddin *Tajuddin 22 2 sabda sabda 22, 34 20, 5 nur nur 22 22 sam sam. 32 25 mullah mullah 32 26 mathura mathura 33 9, 10 paras *paras 33 30 return to this world. Add. In G:28 and K:28: According to Hr in G:28 one should meditate on Atman for Atman is the nirguna Brahman. For Kabir it is the knowledge of Brahman which gives him peace of mind. 33 32 Upanisads Upanisads 34 15-20 ‘Ali, the ...... authority. . omit 34 22 murkha murkha 34 28 Tenth Door . Add footnote: In Nath tradition, the tenth door is the brahmarandhra (hole of the Brahma®). Brahmarandhra is a sort of inner conduct, with a minute aperture within the susumna which in its turn is situated within the spinal cord (mera-danda). This brahmarandhra is said to run straight up to the sahasrara (the thousand-petalled). But more generally the brahmarandhra is conceived as the hollow within the pericarp of the ’thousand petalled lotus', which is the true abode of Paramasiva (Vaudeville 1974:131-132). • 35 14 samsara samsara 35 30-36 45 According to Nath 45 According to Nath panthis, the unmani or ...... (Vaudeville unmana 'killing the mind' stage results from Yogf s 1974:132-133). final victory over his enemy. By this Yogl attains the liberating trance, samadhi, which is conceived as 'the great bliss', mahasukha. Through this sadhana, Yogl himself obtains immortality (jlvanmukta) and claims to overcome death. The unmani stage coincides with the Sahaja state. Sahaja, literally means 'easy, natural, freedom or spontaneity'. In the Sahaja stage a Yogi comes into the final trance in his body where all consciousness of 'duality' and Tear' (of falling into the bond of samsara) are for ever abolished. The Yogl is at one with the One, ultimate Reality which is not distinct from the supreme state of Sahaja (Vaudeville 1974:132-133).

49 20-23 Potter, K. H. (ed.) omit

* - Throughout the paper

2