Summer Evening, Prairie Night, Land of Golden Wheat The Outside World in Kazakh Literature

First Edition

EDITED BY Rafis Abazov

TRANSLATED BY Sergey Levchin Bassim Hamadeh, CEO and Publisher Michael Simpson, Vice President of Acquisitions Jamie Giganti, Senior Managing Editor Jess Busch, Senior Graphic Designer John Remington, Acquisitions Editor Brian Fahey, Licensing Specialist Sean Adams, Production Editor

Copyright © 2016 by Cognella, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information retrieval system without the written permission of Cognella, Inc.

First published in the United States of America in 2016 by Cognella, Inc.

Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

Cover image copyright© by Depositphotos / parfta.

Printed in the United States of America

ISBN: 978-1-63189-400-8 (pbk) / 978-1-63189-401-5 (br)

Contents

Acknowledgments xi Foreword xv By Kairat Umarov

Foreword: Nature and the Transformation of the Spirit xix By Ualikhan Kalizhanov Introduction 1

I. Poetry 14

Abay Kunanbayev (1845–1904)

Autumn 15

“A horseman with a berkut rides through the early snow” 16 Ybyray Altynsarin (1841–1889)

River 17

Spring 18 Zhambyl Zhabayev (1846–1945)

Alatau 20

Song of Summer 21 Shakarim Kudayberdiev (1858–1931)

“No more black clouds in the sky” 23

Comes Summer 24 Sultanmakhmut Toraygyrov (1893–1920)

Rain over Sary-Arka 25

Confusion in a Storm 26 Magzhan Zhumabayev (1893–1938)

Sasykkol, My Native Land 27

Winter Road 28 Saken Seyfullin (1894–1939)

Kokshetau (excerpt from an epic poem) 29

In Our Land 30 Ilyas Zhansugurov (1894–1937)

Steppe (excerpt from the poem “Dedication”) 32

Dawn 33 Abu Sarsenbayev (1905–1995)

“Calm and imperious flows the Ishim” 34

Nature Museum 35 Mariam Khakimzhanova (1906–1993)

Tobol, O My Tobol! 35

Zhaylau 37 Abilda Tazhibayev (1909–1998)

Syr Darya 38

In the Mountains 39 Kasym Amanzholov (1911–1955)

“Bluest of blue, my Aral” 41

I Laugh and I Cry 42 Zhumagali Sain (1912–1961)

Kokshetau 43

I Remember You, River Aydar 44 Khalimzhan Bekkhozhin (1913–1990)

A Legend of the Steppes 45

Wind 46 Zhuban Moldagaliev (1920–1988)

Recollections of My Native Land 47

Prairie Night 49 Tursynkhan Abdrakhmanova (1921–2003)

Summer Evening 51

It is Spring Again 51 Syrbay Maulenov (1922–1993)

My Land 52

Seven Rivers 53 Mukagali Makatayev (1931–1976)

Desert Mountain 54

“A mountain river seethes with spring waters” 55 Kadyr Myrzaliev (1935–2001)

A Walk through the Temple Called Steppe 56

“Never mind your graying hair” 57 Tumanbay Moldagaliev (1935–2001)

My Alatau 57

The Snows of Alatau 59 Zhumeken Nazhimedenov (1935–1983)

Red Hill 60

The Elm 60 Olzhas Suleymenov (b. 1936)

Song over the Sands 61

In the Grass 62 Marfuga Aytkhozhina (b. 1936)

One on One with Nature 63

Markakol 65 Fariza Ongarsynova (1939–2014)

“It is bitter cold in the snowless steppe” 66

Camelthorn 67 Mukhtar Shakhanov (b. 1942)

Rivers 67

Meditation beside the River Zhayyk 68 Akushtap Baktygereyeva (b. 1944)

I Like Poppies 69

My Auyl 69 Shomishbay Sariev (b. 1946)

Voices of the Seasons 70

Spring 70

Summer 71

Fall 72

Winter 73 Kulyash Akhmetova (b. 1946)

Inscription on the Mausoleum Aysha-Bibi 74

At the River’s Edge 76 Amantay Akhetov (b. 1947)

My Native Land 76

Heaven on Earth, Burabay 77 Bakhytzhan Kanapyanov (b. 1951)

“Riding up the river” 79

Mountain Road Lost in the Fog 79 Gafu Kairbekov (1928–1994)

Steppe 81

II. Prose 84

Mukhtar Auezov (1897–1961)

Grey-Fierce 85 Sabit Mukanov (1900–1973)

Land of Gold 103 Gabit Musrepov (1902–1985)

The Night of the Blizzard 115 Gabiden Mustafin (1902–1985)

After the Storm (fragment of a novel) 127 Taken Alimkulov (1918–1987)

The Blind 137 Takhaui Akhtanov (1923–1994)

Blizzard (fragment of a novel) 147 Anuar Alimzhanov (1930–1993)

The Bridge of Karasunkara (fragment of a novella) 153 Sayyn Muratbekov (1936–2007)

Kamen-Toghay 159 Sharbanu Kumarova (b. 1936)

Golden Wheat 165 Satimzhan Sanbayev (1939–2013)

White Aruana 173 Dulat Isabekov (b. 1942)

Kablan 183 Rymgali Nurgali (1940–2010)

Three-Legged Foal 191 Ualikhan Kalizhanov (b. 1948)

The Cradle 197 Ualikhan Kalizhanov (b. 1948)

Flop-Ears 203 Altynash Dzhaganova (b. 1943)

Amina, Wolves and the End of the World 207 Roza Mukanova (b. 1980)

Leyla’s Prayer 215

Glossary 220 Acknowledgments

his book is the third in a series of publications on “Kazakhstan: Literary Heritage T on the Great Silk Road.” For many years I have explored, studied and taught about various cultural aspects of development, public diplomacy and globalization. I have always recommended that in order to understand the modern developing world, and countries like Kazakhstan, it is important to read primary materials and have access to primary sources. Among such sources, the literature of a nation not only reflects its past culture, history and social changes, but also helps us to understand and explain the present and imagine the future. In the modern context, we often talk about the merging of boundaries between states and even continents. Yet, many scholars have recently started to argue that the foundation and essence of this rapidly globalizing world lies in the very diversity of its parts—different perceptions and reflections of global relations, global culture and the relations not only between people, but also between people and nature. Seen this way, the world is not one: its richness, diversity and plurality consists in the cultural heritage accumulated throughout the long history of every nation and every society. What better window into this diverse cultural wealth than the creative literature of a people? Over the past few years, I have had many discussions with intellectuals, journalists and scholars from Kazakhstan about how they see the world, and their perceptions on the chal- lenges we face in the 21st century. After much discourse we have arrived at a consensus that modern Kazakh culture, including its literature, reflects a quite different path in human history than is delivered through traditionally Eurocentric interpretations: the world as perceived and interpreted by the nomads of the great Eurasian Steppe. The second book in our series—The Stories from the Great Steppe—was especially designed to celebrate this path. After much deliberation about The Stories we arrived at a conception of the next step in the project: to bring forward the views of nomads on their very special relations with the

Acknowledgments | xi natural world they inhabit, and to examine how this stance is reflected in the Kazakh lit- erature of today. We set out therefore to publish a concise anthology of 20th century Kazakh literature, which would introduce the cultural perception of nature and at the same time would contribute to global discourse in search of a new paradigm of sustainable relations between people and the natural world around us for “The Future We Want.”1 This volume entitled Summer Evening, Prairie Night, Land of Golden Wheat: The Outside World in Kazakh Literature has thus emerged from several years of intensive consultations and research on cultural and social development in Kazakhstan; it also tracks Kazakhstan’s contribution to the global debate on sustainable development, including RIO+20 and other global discourses about climate change. Some initial materials were collected while I was working on The Green Desert (the first volume in the series) and The Stories of the Great Steppe. I have made a habit of asking my American colleagues and students what they want to learn about Kazakhstan; and I have also regularly asked my Kazakh colleagues what is the most concise way of presenting the essence of Kazakh culture and world views. Communicating with readers during a series of presentations on The Green Desert and The Stories of the Great Steppe, both in the USA and in Kazakhstan, has strengthened my be- lief that this third volume will also find its audience and its followers. I was delighted that the Cognella Publishing House (formerly University Readers Publishing House) and especially Melissa Barcomb and John Remington, Senior Field Acquisitions Editors, enthusiastically supported the project and provided all necessary support to make this publication happen. My deep gratitude also goes to Jamie Giganti, Managing Editor for Cognella, Inc. who has worked on this project with me from the beginning. Summer Evening, Prairie Night, Land of Golden Wheat: The Outside World in Kazakh Literature was prepared as an introduction to the 20th century literature of Kazakhstan for the American audience. All works—both prose and poetry—are brought together under a single thematic umbrella: a reflection of the relations between people and nature. We are excited about the contribution that this book makes to the growing body of literature about nature.2 During the last few years, several works of contemporary Kazakh writers have been translated into English and other European languages, and this is an immensely valuable thing. Still, I have felt it very important to prepare this overview of modern Kazakh literature along the theme “Kazakhs and nature.” Of course I am fully aware that the thirty works gathered here represent just the tip of the iceberg of the contemporary literature of Kazakhstan, and I hope that many more translations will continue to become available. The realization of this book has been made possible only through the invaluable con- tributions of those around me. My Kazakh colleagues from a variety of institutions and backgrounds discussed with me many aspects of Kazakh literary heritage, tracking the

1 “The Future We Want” is the title of the UN-led consultations about sustainable development in the 21st century, launched in 2013. 2 For example see Lawrence Buell, Writing for an Endangered World: Literature, Culture, and Environment in the U.S. and Beyond, Boston: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2003 xii | Summer Evening, Prairie Night, Land of Golden Wheat intellectual journeying of the most prominent figures and weighing their contributions to the intellectual and literary discourses in the country and in the Eurasian region as a whole. I especially appreciate the assistance I received from my colleagues from the UNESCO National Commission of the Republic of Kazakhstan from whom I learned about their fascinating projects on the material and non-material heritage of the Republic. I also appre- ciate the contribution made by my colleagues from the United Nations Academic Impact (UNAI) program who supported the idea of the book and encouraged me to write a short article about the nomadic view on social changes for The UN Chronicles newsletter.3 Several colleagues and friends agreed to read and discuss the manuscript and transla- tions during the preparatory stages of this work. Numerous conversations and debates with scholars, poets and critics at various academic and non-academic conventions enriched my knowledge about the particularities of cultural development in Kazakhstan and about modern Kazakh literature. My colleagues from Almaty city—Andrei Khazbulatov, Madina Sultanova, Zhanerke Shaigozova and many others—helped with the background research. Poet and essayist Bakhytzhan Kanapianov, writer Rollan Seisembayev, screenwriter Nurlan Sanjar, jour- nalist Zaituna Zhandosova and their colleagues kindly agreed to meet with me to discuss various aspects of contemporary Kazakh literature. I would also like to highlight all support and encouragement for studying the cultural and artistic aspects of contemporary Kazakh culture from Dr. Arystanbek Mukhamediuly, now the Minister of Culture of the Republic of Kazakhstan. President of Al Farabi Kazakh National University Prof. Galymkair Mutanov hosted me at the University, providing an intellectual environment for my work. The University’s first vice-rector Prof. Mukhametbetkali Burkitbayev and his team provided me all possible support and consultations while I was researching this book and traveling extensively around the country. Several faculty members, including Prof. Galiya Ibrayeva, Prof. Karlyga Misayeva and some others shared their research papers on topics related to this publication. Ms. Naomi Caffee of UCLA—who specializes in Russophone Central Asian literature and Olzhas Suleimenov’s literary heritage—kindly agreed to read early versions of the manu- script and contributed valuable comments and suggestions. My particular thanks go to Prof. Ualikhan Kalimzhanov, Director of Mukhtar Auezov Institute of Literature and Art, and his colleagues Svetlana Ananieva, Mukan Amangeldi and several other scholars who provided initial support for this project. Prof. Kalimzhanov was also instrumental in selecting the prose and poetry works for the anthology. I would like to thank Sergey Levchin for his tireless efforts and commitment to the project.

3 Abazov, Rafis ‘Globalization of Migration: What the Modern World Can Learn from Nomadic Cultures.’ UN Chronicles, No. 3, 2013. http://unchronicle.un.org/article/globalization-migration-what-modern-world-can-learn-nomadic- cultures/

Acknowledgments | xiii I would also like to express my special gratitude to Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of the Republic of Kazakhstan to the USA Mr. Kairat Umarov and all his colleagues for helping me to gain access to publications about the culture and literature of Kazakhstan and for assisting in arranging several meetings with prominent Kazakh cultural figures and intellectuals.

Rafis Abazov (PhD) Columbia University, USA

Visiting Professor Al Farabi Kazakh National University, Kazakhstan

xiv | Summer Evening, Prairie Night, Land of Golden Wheat Foreword

By Kairat Umarov Ambassador of the Republic of Kazakhstan to the United States

t is my great pleasure to introduce a new collection of prose and poetry from Kazakhstan I to the American audience. This collection is thematically organized around the topic of relations between people and nature, nomads and the land. This topic of our relations with the environment is at the center of many discussions around the world today. These samples of great 20th century Kazakh poetry and prose—the era which we call the Golden Age of Kazakh literature—have been carefully selected by the editor with help from lead- ing scholars in Kazakhstan. They focused on the unique perception of nature in the lives of the nomads of the great Kazakh Steppe and on how this perception was reflected by our poets and writers. I hope that this Anthology of Kazakh literature—which is a very small tip of the iceberg of the Kazakh literary tradition—will comprehensively represent our rich cultural heritage. The 20th century was a Golden Age for Kazakh literature, as many poets and writers ex- perimented with new formats and genres moving beyond traditional classic Kazakh motifs and themes. The 20th century saw the intertwining of major social changes, such as settle- ment of the semi-nomadic groups and industrialization of the country or the great leap forward of the Cultural Revolution, with artistic reflection on changes in everyday life of ordinary people. Two examples will serve to illustrate the changes in Kazakh society during that very long century: the building of two capital cities. First was the building of Almaty which became the capital of the country in 1927. Developed on the site of a very small and agricultural provincial town, Almaty was to become the industrial and political capital of the country, emerging as a bustling cultural, educational and artistic center of the broader

Foreword | xv region—often called the Paris of Central Asia. And the second was the building of Astana as the new capital of independent Kazakhstan. Astana was inaugurated as the nation’s capital in 1997, on the eve of the 21st century, when the government fulfilled its decision to move the capital of the Republic from Almaty to Astana. From the very beginning Astana was designed as the aspiration and quest of a young nation believing in the combined power of progress, technologies and human intellect. Today Astana manifests a very innovative technical and artistic solution to a new un- derstanding of landscape and human habitat. It was built not only to be a great artistic and architectural marvel reflecting the human perception of 21st century life, but also as a people-friendly comfortable and “green” city utilizing modern technologies and the concept of sustainable development. Therefore, it is no accident that Astana was selected to host the World Expo-2017 under the motto “Energy of the Future.” Kazakhstan has been experimenting with new energy-saving technologies and alternative energy for more than a decade and the government has shown leadership in utilizing this new vision of the future of humanity—where people live in harmony with nature—very much like the nomads did for so many centuries. This includes utilizing solar and wind energies and various innova- tive technologies which can improve the quality of living and reduce the human footprint on the environment. Our poets, writers and journalists have made a significant contribution to a better un- derstanding of the importance of living in harmony with nature and to discussions about changes in the relations between human society and our environment. These debates are important for all nations and especially important for Kazakh society, which during the 20th century moved from a pre-industrial way of living in harmony with the fragile never- ending steppe, to an industrial society where people exploit nature and natural resources, and then to the present understanding that we have to find a better balance in dealing with the environment and with the growing impact of climate change. I hope that World Expo-2017 will prove to be not only a technological, but also an intellectual platform for discussions about new approaches to sustainable development and green economy. And this book will show that behind all the technological innovations our society retains its millennium-long philosophy, literature and traditions. In this regard I strongly believe that Kazakh culture presents many examples of how to live in harmony with mother-nature, father-blue-sky and how to deal with a variety of environmental issues. This starts from the philosophical and artistic reflection of nature in our songs and poetry and continues in the literary reflection on ecological disasters such as the death of the Aral Sea and the desertification of the land or the man-made disaster of nuclear weapons testing in the Semipalatinsk Nuclear Polygon. The national literature of Kazakhstan is blossoming in the post-independence era by interacting with the emerging global arts community and by re-thinking our relations with the cultures of neighboring and far-away countries. Many visitors who come to Almaty and Astana are pleasantly surprised by the elaborative and lively literary life in the country,

xvi | Summer Evening, Prairie Night, Land of Golden Wheat represented by numerous literary clubs and circles, book cafes and family gatherings where new talents—bards, poets, writers and journalists—emerge to continue the traditions of previous generations in glorifying our warm and very unique place—where we strive to live in peace and harmony with the environment and the many nations who comprise our Kazakhstan. My experience in two cultures—the USA and Kazakhstan—let me to believe that the Kazakhs are very similar to the Americans in their spirit and love for discoveries and ex- periments. It has been the love for exploring new cultural horizons, which led the Kazakh poets and writers to open their hearts and minds to the western cultures and western ideas to learn, to broaden their worldviews and to enrich their own cultural and artistic heritage throughout the 20th century. It has been the curiosity and openness for experimenting with new economic reforms and new technologies, which put Kazakhstan and Kazakh government among the forerunners of the free-market oriented reforms and changes to become one of the most reformed and one of the most open countries in Eastern Europe and Central Asia regions. One of the manifestations of this openness and reforms is the World Expo 2017, which we hope would become a showcase of breaking through in human progress and the development of new technologies, especially alternative energy technolo- gies, to make my home country and homes of all of our guests a better place with safer environment. The Kazakhs have a very thoughtful proverb—“Til—keneldin kilti” (The tongue is a key to the soul of a human being). I hope that this book Summer Evening, Prairie Night, Land of Golden Wheat will contribute to better understanding of the modern Kazakh culture and literature and open doors for more cultural exchanges and people to people diplomacy.

Foreword | xvii Foreword

Nature and the Transformation of the Spirit

By Ualikhan Kalizhanov Director of Mukhtar Auezov Institute of Literature and Arts

he nomads of Kazakhstan and Eurasia have developed a very specific and unique T view of the relations between the human being and nature, and this view has been reflected in their art and culture. Offered to the American reader, the anthologySummer Evening, Prairie Night, Land of Golden Wheat: The Outside World in Kazakh Literature in- cludes the works of well-known Kazakh poets and writers revealing a nomadic perception of nature and the fragility of the environment reflected in poetry and prose. The thematic focus of the publication, which is far from accidental, illustrates to readers from elsewhere the particular charm of the rich flora and fauna of Kazakhstan as it has intervened in the life, customs and traditions of the Kazakh people. Kazakhstan’s greatness can be found in its mountain peaks, sparkling glaciers, quiet forests, in the twilight mystery of its deserts, in its vast rocky canyons, emerald lakes and fast running rivers, in the poetry of sunshine and the diversity of plant and animal life. The Great Steppe—the birthplace of the Kazakhs—stretches from ancient Altai to the Caspian, thus extending from sunrise to sunset. For almost one and a half months the spring continues in the valleys of the Syr Darya to the lower reaches of the Ishim birch lands. Few countries on earth combine in their territory a diversity to match the icy mountain peaks and desert dunes, sultry, mysterious canyons and relict trees, the hundreds of mirror lakes of Sary-Arka, and the rocky outcrops of Kazakh hills—a veritable feast for fantasy and imagination. Motifs of the native land and its people are beautifully reflected in the classics of Kazakh literature by such greats as Mukhtar Auezov, Sabit Mukanov, Gabit Musrepov, as well as

Nature and the Transformation of the Spirit | xix in contemporary prose. The works of poets from Abay Qunanbayuli, Ybyray Altynsarin, Zhambyl Zhabayev, Sultanmakhmut Toraygyrov, Magzhan Zhumabayev, Saken Seyfullin and Ilyas Zhansugurov to the modern masters of the poetic word, all convey the amazing soul of this people, inextricably linked with the expanses of steppe. A vibrant picture of interrelationship and interdependence of all life on planet Earth is indeed revealed through the talent of Kazakh writers and poets. The publication of this unique anthology Summer Evening, Prairie Night, Land of Golden Wheat: the Outside World in Kazakh Literature reveals and confirms an important step that is being taken in the science and culture of Kazakhstan. The president of the Republic of Kazakhstan Nursultan Nazarbayev believes that “Kazakh culture should be an integral part of the global cultural heritage. It should be clearly recognized in the perception of the cultural values of different nations of the world.” The relevance of this book increases in anticipation of the World Exhibition “EXPO-2017” under the motto “Energy of the Future” to be held in Kazakhstan’s capital city, Astana. Kazakh writers through their diverse work in different genres poeticize the native land and nature itself, warning against environmental catastrophe, appealing to man’s inner world, showing the internal feeling of Kazakh heroes and of Kazakh society. These masters of artistic expression reveal different facets of man’s relationship to nature, making a space to truly stand up for a cleaner environment, preservation of resources and the unique landscape of the country. These writers reveal to us that humanity is indeed aware of its responsibility for what becomes of the human conscience in face of its great debt to nature. This anthology presents the prose of Sabit Mukanov, Gabiden Mustafin, Mukhtar Auezov, Takhaui Akhtanov, Rymgali Nurgali, Anuar Alimzhanov, and other writers of the republic. It also presents the poetry of a number of authors from the late 19th-early 20th century Abay Qunanbayuli to contemporary Bakhytzhan Kanapyanov. In the works of these masters can be traced a humanistic understanding of nature and ecology, anticipating what is now termed the “green economy.” Kazakh literature is becoming increasingly recognized around the world thanks to translations into other languages. A harmony of spirit, holistic perception of poetry, musical and spiritual closeness bring together the prestigious names of the German Goethe, the Russian Lermontov and the Kazakh Abay. The great poet Abay, for instance, has only recently been translated into German, Polish, Korean and Belarusian. The Belarusian translation of the poetry of Abay was at once connected to music. Readers in the Republic of Korea had a unique opportunity to imagine the landscape of Kazakhstan in the philosophical Abay’s lyrics about love and sorrow in translation by Kim Byung-Haq. Abay’s twenty poems were translated by L. Kossuth, who for more than ten years received scientific support from the Institute Literature and Arts. L. Kossuth also received consultations on the translations from G. Belger, a well-known public figure in Kazakhstan, a writer, translator, and journalist. Abay’s poetry has an immediate relevance to the present: such is his greatness and immortality.

xx | Summer Evening, Prairie Night, Land of Golden Wheat Another example is the global perception of the creativity of the great writer Mukhtar Auezov, which has been enriched with new translations of his works of art into the languages of the world, and new books about his work and destiny. Such books reveal the hidden metaphysics of destiny in the story ”Grey-Fierce” and draw parallels between the prose of Auezov and the American writers Jack London and William Faulkner. (And indeed, the French thinker and writer Louis Aragon had earlier traced common characteristics between Auezov and the philosopher Proust.) Russian researcher Nikolay Anastasiev was deeply convinced that the nature of the artistic talent of Auezov as revealed in his epic novels allows us to compare his works with the prose of American author Ernest Hemingway. According to Anastasiev, Auezov has departed from the tradition of Jack London in reflecting man’s relationship with nature, to approach Faulkner in sensibility. Auezov proceeded to perfect his creative writing, reaching peaks of sustained narrative in the creation of the epic novel in the Kazakh language. The ultimate example of the theme of nature and humanity may be found in the works of Abdi Jamila Nurpeisov: contemporary creative Kazakh writer, founder and first President of Kazakhstan PEN Club, and the national writer of Kazakhstan. Nurpeisov’s masterpieces Blood and Sweat and The Final Respect—which in retrospect can be seen to have rethought the path of humanity in the twentieth century—have been translated into 35 languages and have acquired a wide following around the world. New editions of The Final Respect were recently published in the United States and Russia. In this, his major work, the author constantly returns to improve and add to the literary text. The book treats a regional ecological disaster, the result of ill-conceived and short-sighted policy of a totalitarian society: the tragedy of the Aral Sea which has gradually gained the status of world environmental catastrophe. Particles of Aral Sea salt from the bottom of the drying sea have made their way even to the ice of the Arctic Ocean. French researcher and historian Albert Fischler perceived Nurpeisov as “one of the most prominent artists of the steppe, a follower of great Auezov who “holds in his literary work and colorful image of steppe an almost sociological analysis of nature, society, and finally, historical story that runs through all his work.” Fischler termed the work a “big historical fresco” which acquaints new readers with the ancient and complex history of the Kazakh people. The books Blood and Sweat and The Final Respect were quite recently published in English for the first time, as noted byThe Washington Post and The New York Times. This anthology also reflects for the first time the role of women in Kazakh prose and poetry, acknowledging how Kulyash Akhmetova, Fariza Ongarsynova and many other female writers have contributed to the vivid poetic strain of the national poetry. This is an important step to represent and reflect the particular character of Kazakh female poets and writers, revealing the richness of their style. This anthology was designed to reflect the role of women in the Kazakh literature, reveal the style and manner of writing, and show different guises of Poetic Muse in reflecting the contradictions and challenges for women in the Kazakh society. Poetry, according to Fariza Ongarsynova should strike, as a diamond

Nature and the Transformation of the Spirit | xxi blade, and not just delight the ear. Having grown up in very different cultural environment, in westernized Western Kazakhstan (Ongarsynova) and very traditional and conservative Southern Kazakhstan (Akhmetova), these two artists illustrate the women’s views on the nomadic cultural universe poeticizing the native land: the steppe and the waves of the Caspian Sea and the never ending steppe. “I have the power of words which can destroy the metal”, said Akhmetova. The works of female poets and writers are diverse—from folk epics, praising the beauty of his native land and the exploits of its heroes, to different perspectives, symbolizing the connection of times and generations, past and present. In the context of important anniversaries—the 20th anniversary of Kazakhstan’s accession to the United Nations (2012) and also of its presence in the UN (2013)—new translations of Kazakh authors are bringing Kazakh literature to the global community, making its content more accessible to readers of the English-speaking area. We believe that the new translations of selected works into the English language will contribute to the better understanding of Kazakh literature in the United States, engendering more comprehensive studies and kindling interest in the history this literature. The current translation is an important step in introducing the works of Kazakhstan authors to the U.S. audience. The international scope of this project is particularly significant in the context of the first meeting of the Kazakhstan’s Joint Commission for Scientific and Technological Cooperation, held in Astana in 2013. The conference discussed sustainable development and environmental protection as priorities for joint activities to improve the health of the people around the world through the development of green economy. It also focused on the formation of an ecological culture of contemporary needs around the world. Our Institute of Literature believes that culture, literature and the arts have a special role to play in the contemporary world. This anthology will allow experts in the two countries to conduct comparisons of modern Kazakh and American literature, exploring typologies of authors, characters and plots. The literary text as a model of Kazakh culture, thanks to the new English translation, is made available to perceptions of literary scholarship in the United States. Unfortunately, it is simply impossible to include in this anthology all the works of celebrated Kazakh men and women of words. Yet, I hope and imagine that this can be an important step towards presenting to the American audience the views of the Kazakhs, the nomads, on our natural habitat and environment, views that have been formed over the many years of our rich experience and tradition of living in harmony with nature.

xxii | Summer Evening, Prairie Night, Land of Golden Wheat Introduction

By Rafis Abazov

A wolf cannot get enough of sheep and a man cannot get enough of thinking. A Kazakh Proverb

uch intellectual discourse since the beginning of the 21st century—around the M world in general and in Kazakhstan in particular—has centered around a single most important topic: the changing paradigm of the relations between human beings and the environment around them. I have been talking on the issue of relations between culture and the emerging understanding of sustainable development to different audiences. Very often the discussions have shifted towards the merging of these two fields into a culture of sustainable development—a culture where the human world is understood as a part of the natural habitat and where each person takes care of the small world around him or her, very much like the little prince does in the novel of the great French writer Antoine de Saint-Exupéry: “When you’ve finished washing and dressing each morning, you must tend your planet.” I have noticed that my students and colleagues around the USA tend to talk about this culture of living in harmony with nature in the future tense—within the context of the global discourse on “The Future We Want.” Many of my Kazakh colleagues, however, talk about this culture of balance between human and natural habitats in a different way—in the past tense and increasingly in the future tense—and strongly believe in the applicability

Introduction | 1 of the Kazak proverb “The past presents a good example for the future.” Kazakh culture— grounded in the great nomadic culture of the vast Eurasian Steppe—has always maintained a very special worldview on the relations between humans and nature. This was very impor- tant for the Kazakh people, who have for many centuries lived in a very fragile ecological environment. Both the classic and contemporary Kazakh literature reflect the conditions on the never-ending steppe and the beauty of the land where the Kazakhs assembled their homes—yurts, nomadic felt tents—enjoying the better life when mother-nature was kind to them and struggling to survive when changes in climate or natural disasters tested their ability to survive under different circumstances. Parallels might be drawn to the peoples of the Americas, who over time developed their own cultures attuned to a sustainable harmony with their surroundings, so the land and its beauties would be passed to the next generations. Kazakh literature is so very opulent and diverse that it is quite a challenge to generalize about it. This volume has been designed to continue introducing stellar examples of the Kazakh literary universe. The first book published in this series was a collection of poems by the great Kazakh journalist, writer, poet and thinker Olzhas Suleimenov, called by his contemporaries the ‘Ernest Hemingway of Kazakhstan’ for his contribution to intellectual discourse, his strong writing and his challenge to the establishment. The second volume was a collection of the modern Kazakh literature of the post-World War period reflecting the intellectual search of the Kazakh poets and writers for their place in the modern world. These works reflect the immense social changes experienced by Kazakh society throughout the 20th century; it was an era of unlimited belief in technological progress and the power of human intellect to modernize and rebuild—in the words of Olzhas Suleimenov, “to conquer”—this world, and to extend our reach to the stars and other planets. This third volume was envisioned to present a selection of 20th-century Kazakh literature under the theme of people and nature, as reflected in the writing of many men and women of letters who addressed these relations from different angles and with different approaches. Indeed, when we talk about the classic Kazakh literature of the 19th and 20th centuries, this particular theme—the special relations between humans and their natural surround- ings—clearly emerges in the works of many authors. These rhythms indeed show similarities with the European and Russian literary traditions of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, as during that era Kazakh intellectuals were discovering the literature of the world beyond the Eurasian steppe, and in particular exploring the Western cultural heritage. In the century that followed, Kazakh intellectuals began to perceive themselves as an element in the world culture, considering the literature they were producing as a part of the world literary heritage—not exactly Western, but not entirely oriental, and thus—Eurasian. In the Kazakh intellectual interpretation, the Eurasian approach does not mean rejection of what is Western , but its thoughtful interweaving into the Kazakh cultural universe. There are therefore many questions to be explored by readers and critics of modern Kazakh literature in order to apprehend the essence of the Kazakh literary heritage: to what

2 | Summer Evening, Prairie Night, Land of Golden Wheat degree is this literature linked to the literature of the West, and in what ways? How is the Kazakh written heritage similar and how is it different in reflecting the cultural universe that of which it is a product? And how have the poets and scholars of Kazakhstan used their own cultural symbols to talk about the universal themes, such as relations between humans and nature? This volume sets out not only to introduce modern Kazakh literature to readers in the USA and other English-speaking countries, but also to discuss the place of Kazakh literature in the world literary heritage. And at the same time it is a first-ever collection of the best examples of Kazakh literature brought together and explored under a single theme—human being and nature.1 This introductory article is divided into the three sections. The first section assesses the philosophical and cultural reflection of mother-nature in the traditional Kazakh worldview, folklore and literature. The second section examines a very popular theme in the Kazakh written world: what would happen if the very special bonds between people and nature were broken. The third section evaluates the most recent trends in Kazakh prose and poetry in writing about the environment and ecoculture. The concluding remarks summarize some thoughts about the place of modern Kazakh literature in the cultural constellation and its contribution to the global discourses on the changing paradigm in the relations between people and their environment.

1) Mother-Nature in Kazakh Literature: The Meaning of Harmony

Native land is a paradise for everybody. A Kazakh Proverb

The Kazakh literature of the 20th century is quite different from the literature of the pre- modern era especially in its genres and themes; yet, it continues to use many symbols and clandestine meanings and signs from the traditional folklore and literature. Therefore, it is very important to make an inquiry into Kazakh myth and folklore in order to understand the essence of Kazakh cultural dynamics and, further, the impact of Kazakh tradition and folklore on post-modernist interpretation of culture and national identity. The Kazakh liter- ary critic Zira Naurishbayeva suggests studying the traditional Kazakh folkloric archetypes to better discern how symbols, stories and heroes impact modern interpretation of the past and the formation of modern identities expressed not only in cultural policies of the newly independent state, but also in modern cultural symbols in literature and the creative arts.2 The spiritual and religious landscape of the Kazakhs was built around their cosmologi- cal interpretation of the universe around them, which was reflected in myth and folklore.3 Therefore, the literary heritage of the Kazakhs needs not only careful reading, but also care- ful interpretation and decoding of those symbols and signs.

Introduction | 3 A WALK THROUGH THE TEMPLE CALLED STEPPE

Come, walk through this temple called steppe— your verses will flow like unruly rivers, the skies will trill with nightingale’s song, and spring will greet you at the gates.

Even the desert blossoms in the spring, the world seems boundless, flowers suckle the life-giving sun like young camels their mother’s breast.

Every grove and dale is a promised land. The meadow throbs with the bee’s caress. A heavenly peace has settled on earth. Was this not once the earthly paradise?

Kadyr Myrzaliev

Drawing on a tradition of shamanism, animism, witchcraft, and blasphemy spanning thousands of years, Kazakh folklore is an interweaving of ancient and medieval supersti- tions, symbols and signs. Some of the religious systems and beliefs disappeared long ago, leaving few visible traces in the modern culture and customs of the people. Others still affect their lives, perceptions and behavior in significant ways. A closer look at the history of religions might help us better understand the specific way in which the role of the religion is perceived here today. The popular beliefs of the Kazakhs that have survived over the millennia have their ma- jor roots in the pre-Islamic religious practices of the Turkic-speaking nomadic people. This Turkic religious pantheon included the main god, who controlled the heavenly universe, and his rival, who controlled the underworld. Both were served by numerous lesser gods. These gods had some human characteristics and protected and patronized specific human activities, and sometimes they even came to earth to intervene in certain events. This system distantly resembles the Ancient Greek pantheon, for example, Tengri is a far-off equivalent of Zeus, Erglig is an equivalent of Hades, Su Iesi is an equivalent of Naiad, etc.4 Turkic gods also lived in the mountains—in Altai (southern Siberia) and in Khan Tengri (Tian Shan). The Turkic polytheistic belief system had strong elements of shamanism and incorporated many shamanistic rituals. Its mythology can be traced to the early Turkic traditions of Siberia around Orkhon and the upper basin of the Yenisey River. Some elements of these ancient beliefs were preserved throughout many centuries, although gradually noticeable

4 | Summer Evening, Prairie Night, Land of Golden Wheat differences emerged between various Turkic peoples due to exposure to proselytizing ac- tivities of missionaries and specific cultural influences of neighbors. The pantheon of the early Turkic belief system was multi-layered. In the center of this belief system was the god of blue sky, Tengri (Tenri).5 He was the most powerful and mighty of the gods, creator of the universe and master of the powerful forces of nature. He could protect or punish humans at will, but could be cajoled by certain sacrifices. Sometimes the nomads sacrificed to Tengri the most valuable possession they had—their horses—asking the almighty for favors. Even today in some extremely remote areas one can occasionally see the skull and skin of a sacrificed horse hanging on a tree or shrub. Next to Tengri there was a goddess who symbolized the earth and motherhood—Umai (Umay). She was a powerful sovereign of the fertility of the earth, animals and humans. People asked her to send good harvest, and fertility for domestic animals. Women also asked her to send them children; those who had difficulties conceiving tried to soften the goddess with gifts and magic rituals. Families also asked Umai to protect their children from the evil eye or bad luck. In some early reports Tengri and Umai were depicted as a couple that together ruled the Universe.6 There were other gods and goddesses in this pantheon. Some Turkic tribes, for example, believed in a god-commander of land and water called Zher-Suu (Yer-Su). This god was also depicted as a protector of the homeland of some specific tribes and as the creator of water and land—the mountains in particular. To this pantheon could be also added the god of the underworld, Erglig, who guarded the realm of the dead and traveled up to the earth’s surface to hunt for peoples’ souls. He also represented absolute evil. The Kazakhs like many Turkic tribes also believed in totems—sacred animals that gave rise to tribal ancestors or protected them from various disasters. For example, the wolf was widely regarded as a totem-protector of all Turkic tribes. According to the legend, after a terrible war and disastrous series of battles a whole tribe was massacred by foreign invaders, including women and children. Only one little boy survived and he was protected, fed and brought up by a wolf. When the boy grew up, this wolf gave birth to ten boys, who later founded ten powerful tribes. All of them remembered their protector and placed the image of the wolf on their banner. In some areas of Central Asia there are variations of this legend, as, for example, some Kyrgyzs believe that their ancestors were saved by a deer (buru), while some Kazakhs say it was a golden eagle (berkut).

A mystic murmur travels from the reeds over the slumbering, languid water. Lo, a swan bisects the still surface, Hark, a gull pierces the silence.

(Zhaylau, by Mariam Khakimzhanova [1906-1993])

Introduction | 5 In addition, people worshiped numerous local spirits, saints and patrons. For instance, the Kazakhs in the Chui Valley in southern Kazakhstan thought a number of saints were laid to rest in and around Turkestan city and in the mountains around Almaty city. The mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi has become one of the most sacred places not only in Kazakhstan but also in Central Asia. Those saints were thought to provide the best protec- tion in family and business matters to those who visited and prayed on the mountain. The Kazakhs believed in an array of patron saints each of whom could provide protection in their particular realm, such as a saint protector of cattle, a saint protector of sheep, a saint protector of families, and so on. There were special series of rituals that were developed to cajole the saints. These rituals were performed at certain locations believed to be related to specific saints-protectors. In the traditional Kazakh folklore—like in folklore of many other neighbouring coun- tries—some people had special powers to communicate with gods and spirits, and to help their communities gain protection from disasters, disease and bad luck. Many heroes and state leaders and even ordinary people consulted the spirits of the Sky and Earth. Although in the literature of the 20th century the protagonists rarely displayed such powers or used such skills, the practice did not disappear altogether. The symbols and signs of the tradi- tional folklore have been drawn on by various authors to convey meaning to actions, or importance to personalities. Very often it was nature which provided protection or help, and totemic animals indirectly guided the protagonists in their work and acts.

2) Nomads and Mother-Nature: Crime and Punishment

You can train a puppy and it will later bite you in the calf; you can train a blind man how to shoot a gun and he will later kill you. A Kazakh Proverb

One of the popular themes in the Kazakh literature of the 20th century was romanticizing past relations with nature and the environment, and using traditional signs and spiritual symbolism to describe the relations between people and mother-nature. Interestingly this was in sharp contrast to the Soviet realist portrayal of social relations in Kazakh communi- ties in past eras, which were very often described in a negative light as celebrating the cruel power of injustice and violence. What a contrast to the Kazakh literature in which “simple” people sought to escape from crises and the challenges of everyday life by reconnecting with nature or returning to the natural habitat. For the Kazakhs, as nomads, the romanti- cized ideal environment of opportunity has always been the never-ending wide steppe, the safe-house of the nomadic felt yurt, and the protection of the sheltering mountains. Nature was assigned many qualities including forgiveness, warmth, and the ability to heal and to provide security.

6 | Summer Evening, Prairie Night, Land of Golden Wheat MEDITATION BESIDE THE RIVER ZHAYYK

Great Zhayyk, many looked for you, many launched their bark upon your waters, and many more gave you their secret tears! You refused none, betrayed none… You flow through the sediment of ages, mingling centuries like dust with dust: what dark secrets, what daring exploits have sunk to your floor? If your might should ever slacken Naryn would turn into a graveyard… And what would become of the steppe if you gave up your solitary battle against the drought? What would become of ageless Caspian? What of the wanderer whose last hope is to quench his thirst with your life-giving draught? Many a man would carve his name into the tablets of history, but few are given the chance. Let me perish under the thick snows of oblivion if I cannot serve my people as you do!

Mukhtar Shakhanov

Probably as a link with the folklore of the past and a reflection of many centuries of tradition, relations with animals and birds were an important vehicle portraying idealistic and romanticized relations with nature: animals in Kazakh literature, and especially do- mesticated animals, could understand humans, help them, and provide a sense of security. These symbols have been a quite popular theme not only in short stories, but also carefully woven into longer novels, epics and poetry. Yet, in the second half of the 20th century, and especially after the 1980s, writers be- gun increasingly to explore a different type of genre—that of natural catastrophe—very much like their Western colleagues. In these writings when nature is harmed by human activities, when mother-nature is pushed to the limits, she does not simply stay idle, she replies in kind and punishes those who wound her severely. For example, one of the topics explored by several prominent writers and novelists has been the nuclear testing site in

Introduction | 7 Semipalatinsk province (now the Semei oblast). Probably one of the most recognized novels on the ecological catastrophe of the Semipalatinsk is Rolland Seisenbayev’s Kum kezgen olikter [Dead Wander in the Desert].7 The novel depicts the real story of the on-the-ground nuclear testing in the Semipalatinsk province of Kazakhstan in the 1950s from the point of view of ordinary villagers whose aul (town) happened to be not far away from the nuclear tests. One such nuclear test—very graphically described in the novel—literally shattered the earth and caused immense damage to nature. It not only destroyed the livelihood and environment of the people, but also brought huge misfortune to the populace as a punish- ment to humanity for its dangerous and irresponsible actions. These events not only led to ecological catastrophe, but also broke the fragile relations between people and nature. At the moment when people lost these links to mother-nature, they became clueless and disoriented in their lives and in their relations not only with their environment, but also among each other as human beings. Another depiction of the consequences of broken relations with nature is found in the description of the punishing mystical power of nature in the short story “Seryi-lutiy” [Grey-Fierce] by one of the founders of modern Kazakh literature, Mukhtar Auezov. This short story, about the relations between a young boy and a wolf against the backdrop of life in a small Kazakh aul, has inspired many interpretations, including a very popular movie “Shal” (Old Man) produced as recently as 2010. The motif of the mystical power of the nature—very much like the mystery-genre in contemporary US literature—has become quite popular in Kazakh circles. It is rooted in Kazakh folklore and the classical literature about special relations of nomads with the world around them, especially with animals and spirits. Although admittedly there are no works in modern Kazakh literature similar to the popular literary international hit “Twilight,” the motif of the ability of mother-nature to delegate punishing powers to certain animals and natural objects has been quite strong and can be traced in many Kazakh novels and stories throughout the 20th century. In this regard the Kazakh belief system and art echo the beliefs and philosophies of Native Americans and their perception of life circles, of relations with the Earth and spirits of objects, animals and souls of deceased people.8 Like Native American folklore, Kazakh traditional folklore celebrates harmony with nature and the spiritual universe. These motifs have found their way into the most recent artistic literary expressions of the emerging concept of sustainable development and the perception of the environment around us as an ecosystem where humans play a central role in keeping all in balance. The prevailing concept in modern Kazakh art, literature and popular philosophy is that any human being has been brought to this life as an integral part of nature. The individual must enrich the universe with many positive deeds, and will be rewarded or punished by the spirits of Earth and Sky accordingly.

8 | Summer Evening, Prairie Night, Land of Golden Wheat 3) Modern Trends in Writing about Environment and Ecoculture

At the beginning of the 21st century Kazakh literature and art have apparently begun to emerge from the shadow of the previous century’s literary traditions and the domination of a single literary school and approach: realism, Soviet realism and its variations. Many writers and poets have begun experimenting with different styles and genres, exploring new horizons and emerging realities of the post-Soviet era, in the changing landscape where the new capital of the country—Astana city—has come to represent a futuristic and mind- captivating symbol of the Kazakh nation’s attempt to leap forward. The drastic social changes which came about in the 1990s have impacted the very fabric of Kazakh society and relations not only within and among societal groups, but also the relations of people with the environment and ecosystem around them.

MOUNTAIN ROAD LOST IN THE FOG

The winding mountain road lost in the fog, teeming with phantoms, ghosts, draws me on with a mystic power, wherever I may roam.

Somewhere, at some hairpin turn, the chain of time swings backwards. And all the things I never understood are fundamentally altered.

Here, at this junction, the newsreel of my life cuts off abruptly. In a flash the lenses are reversed. Here my double takes over.

He has appropriated all of my dreams, assumed my errors. He has turned my light-hearted grin into a sneer.

Behind a wall of fog I can hardly make him out— my double, my invisible wound that tracks me always, day and night.

Bakhytzhan Kanapyanov

Introduction | 9 Suddenly it was not the state, which in the past had imposed and maintained the rules and norms of relations with the ecosystem, which bore this responsibility but individuals and all members of society. The concept of relations between people and nature has emerged with the 21st century along with sober understanding that the environment in Kazakhstan—like everywhere else on our planet—is very fragile. This understanding has largely replaced the paradigm of the 20th century, which was built on belief in the existence of almost unlimited natural resources which were to be accessed and consumed by humanity. The new understanding and approach in dealing with the natural habitat has found its reflection in literature, poetry and especially in journalism, and has led to the emergence of several new trends. First, Kazakh intellectuals—poets, writers, journalists, and scholars— have begun utilizing new (as well as traditional) media to express their views on the theme of people and nature. Short and expressive writing for new media—essays, short stories, poems, and blogs—had become an increasingly popular form of writing, communicating new ideas, and building relations and dialogues with the readers around the country. The second trend is a move among authors to express themselves through cinema and TV. Talk-show interviews with journalists, poets, and writers have become very popular since the early 2000s, on themes including that of rethinking relations with the natural world. Such debates echo a trend in programming in Europe, Canada and the USA discuss- ing the impact of global climate change and joint efforts of people around the world to save the planet and its inhabitants. In this context, Kazakh writers have also begun intensively exploring the opportunities provided by low budget cinema. A number of movies draw on folkloric traditions to mythicize the relations of ordinary individuals with nature, and their attempts to find a unique balance, a “golden age” of harmony and peaceful coexis- tence with the forces of nature. Two examples might serve to illustrate this trend: the films “Kelin” (Bride) and “Shal” (Old Man). “Kelin” (2009, director Ermek Tursunov) presents an idealistic picture of the traditional Kazakh aul with a very simple and natural, if not brutal way of life. Love blossoms between a young girl and a hunter. However, mother-nature and fortune are determined to teach humans a lesson for their betrayal, forcing them to cooperate with each other in order to survive disaster. The movie celebrates the majesty of nature, and humans as a part of it, in its simplicity and even cruelty. The movie “Shal” (2012, director Ermek Tursunov) is very symbolic in portraying people who disregard nature and destroy it for no purpose. In the film a group of people on a drinking binge set out to kill nature—symbolically represented by a pack of wolves. Equipped with all the powers of modern society—SUV cars, cell phones, GPS navigators, guns—they are the most powerful creatures on the planet. But all of their equipment is useless when nature strikes back and wolves take down the hunters one by one. The third trend is manifested in a series of novels and epics published in the Kazakh language since the 1990s. Many of them deal with historical events of the distant and not so distant past, but incorporate one important theme—idealized traditions of dealing with natural habitat of the steppe and mountains of Kazakhstan.

10 | Summer Evening, Prairie Night, Land of Golden Wheat Artistic interpretation of the history of the Kazakh tribes between the 15th and 19th centuries (Kazakh officials designated the year 2015 as the 550th anniversary of Kazakh statehood, tracing its origin to events in the mid-15th century) tends to see this as a criti- cal time for survival of the Kazakhs as a nation, involving fighting with several powerful neighbors. Thus, depiction of the life of the populace as one of constant preparation for conflict has found its way into a very popular modern genre: historical epics and novels. Yet, contemporary Kazakh authors often turn to mysticism in portraying the relations of people and nature. In these novels, it was the understanding of the steppe that gave Kazakh ancestors the power and strength to survive, to preserve their society and statehood.

Conclusion The Kazakh nation is both young and mature at the same time, and manifests its identity in many different ways. These range from constructing a brand-new ultra-modern landscape and hosting global events like World Expo in 2017 in the newly built capital city Astana, to experimenting with literary and journalistic reflections of change in the emerging new literature of the 21st century. And here again, the topics, works and ideas discussed in this introduction reflect only one angle of the very rich Kazakh literary heritage of the 20th and 21st centuries. The contemporary poets and writers of Kazakhstan adapt to their rapidly changing cultural environment. On the one hand they engage in continuing the rich traditions of folklore and pre-modern Kazakh and Turkic literature. On the other hand, they develop their literary heritage by experimenting with new genres and motifs and engaging in ex- changes with the rapidly globalizing world culture. Kazakh literature contributes to this process in many ways including its artistic reflection and discourses on the changing nature of relations between humanity and its natural habitat in the 21st century.

Notes

1. There is a growing body of work exploring relations between literature and environment. See for example: Timothy Clark, The Cambridge Introduction to Literature and the Environment (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011) and Elizabeth DeLoughrey, Renee Gosson and George Handley, Caribbean Literature and the Environment: Between Nature and Culture (Charlottesville and London: The University of Virginia Press, 20050. 2. Zira Nauryzbayeva, Vechnoie nebo Kazakhov (Almaty: Saga, 2013), pp. 10-12. For an interpretation of her views on the archetypes in Kazakh folklore and literature see: Rafis Abazov, “Vechnoe nebo Kazakhkhov,” in The Russian Review, Vol. 73, Issue 4, pp. 662-663.

Introduction | 11 3. This section is based on research conducted by the author for his book on the culture of Central Asia. See: Rafis Abazov, The Culture and Customs of the Central Asian Republics (Greenwood Press, 2007). 4. For a detailed description of gods in Turkic myths, see: Serikbol Kondybai, Kazakhskaya mifologia. Kratkii slovar [Kazakh Mythology. A Concise Dictionary] (Almaty: Nurly Alem, 2005). 5. M. S. Orynbekov, Genezis religioznosti v Kazakhstane [Genesis of Religiosity in Kazakhstan] (Almaty: Daik-Press, 2005), pp. 5-24. 6. For detailed description of Turkic pantheon, see: Kondybai, Kazakhskaya mifologia. 7. Seisenbayev Rollan. Olik Kezgen Kum Belder. Almaty: Zhazushy, 1986. 8. Ella E. Clark and Margot Edmonds, Voices of the Winds: Native American Legends (New York: Castle Books, 2009). Also: Robert Lake-Thom. Spirits of the Earth: A Guide to Native American Nature Symbols, Stories, and Ceremonies (New York: Plume, 1999); Zitkala-Sa and Cathy N. Davidson, American Indian Stories, Legends, and other Writings (Penguin Classics; New York: Penguin, 2003).

12 | Summer Evening, Prairie Night, Land of Golden Wheat