The Gay Games

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The Gay Games

The Gay Games is an important piece of new social history, examining one of the largest sporting, cultural and human rights events in the world. Since their inception in 1980, the Gay Games have developed into a multi-million dollar mega- event, engaging people from all continents, while the international Gay Games movement has become one of the largest and most significant international institutions for gay and lesbian people. Drawing on detailed archival research, oral history and participant observation techniques, and informed by critical feminist theory and queer theory, this book offers the first comprehensive history of the Gay Games from 1980 through to the Chicago games of 2006. It explores the significance of the Games in the context of broader currents of gay and lesbian history, and addresses a wide range of key contemporary themes within sports studies, including the cultural politics of sport, the politics of difference and identity, and the rise of sporting mega-events. The organisation’s controversial split, the emergence of the World Outgames, and the lively tension between the Games’ assimilative tendencies and its transformative promise also are critically examined. This book is important reading for any serious student of international sport or gender and sexuality studies.

Caroline Symons is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Sport and Exercise Science and the Institute of Sport, Exercise and Active Living at Victoria University, Australia. Her currently funded research projects are concerned with women in sport leadership positions, the sport and physical activity patterns of adolescent girls and the LGBT sport experience in Australia. In 2007 she was the recipient of two university teaching awards. She is a leader in sexuality diversity and inclusive curriculum in sports studies and challenging homophobia educational programs within sport in Australia. Routledge Critical Studies in Sport Series Editors Jennifer Hargreaves and Ian McDonald University of Brighton

The Routledge Critical Studies in Sport series aims to lead the way in developing the multi- disciplinary field of Sport Studies by producing books that are interrogative, intervention- ist and innovative. By providing theoretically sophisticated and empirically grounded texts, the series will make sense of the changes and challenges facing sport globally. The series aspires to maintain the commitment and promise of the critical paradigm by contributing to a more inclusive and less exploitative culture of sport. Also available in this series:

Understanding Lifestyle Sports Consumption, identity and difference Edited by Belinda Wheaton Why Sports Morally Matter William J. Morgan Fastest, Highest, Strongest A critique of high-performance sport Rob Beamish and Ian Ritchie Sport, Sexualities and Queer/Theory Edited by Jayne Caudwell Physical Culture, Power, and the Body Edited by Jennifer Hargreaves and Patricia Vertinsky British Asians and Football Culture, identity, exclusion Daniel Burdsey Culture, Politics and Sport Blowing the whistle, revisited Garry Whannel Olympic Media Inside the biggest show on television Andrew C. Billings Marxism, Cultural Studies and Sport Edited by Ben Carrington and Ian McDonald The Gay Games A history

Caroline Symons First published 2010 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2010. To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk. © 2010 Caroline Symons All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. The publisher has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this book, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Symons, Caroline. The gay games : a history / Caroline Symons. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Gay Games—History. 2. Gays and sports—History. I. Title. GV722.5.G36S96 2010 796.08664—dc22 2009046816

ISBN 0-203-89184-8 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN10: 0–415–47296–2 (hbk) ISBN10: 0–203–89184–8 (ebk) ISBN13: 978–0–415–47296–8 (hbk) ISBN13: 978–0–203–89184–1 (ebk) Contents

List of figures vi Preface vii Acknowledgements ix

1 Introduction 1

2 Dancing with Tom Waddell 13

3 Gay Games I 38

4 ‘Triumph in 1986’: Gay Games II 65

5 ‘Celebration ’90’: Gay Games III 100

6 ‘Unity ’94’: Gay Games IV 119

7 ‘Friendship through Culture and Sport’: Gay Games V 147

8 ‘Under New Skies’: Gay Games VI 174

9 Transexed conundrums 201

10 Gay Games VII and 1st World Outgames: Split asunder! 217

11 Conclusion 241

Appendix: Interview details 248 Summary Table of Gay Games 250 Glossary 257 Notes 264 Bibliography 273 Index 293 List of figures

2.1 Tom Waddell, Sara Lewinstein and their daughter Jessica as a toddler 16 3.1 Basketball players during Gay Games I 51 3.2 Team San Francisco marching in athletes parade during Gay Games I 53 3.3 Tom Waddell erasing the word Olympics from Gay ‘Olympic’ Games posters of Gay Games I 57 3.4 Weightlifter during Gay Games I 61 4.1 The Rainbow Roll for the End of AIDS – creator Brent Nicholson-Earle, Jessica Waddell Lewinstein and other Rainbow Rollers (Gay Games IV) 86 6.1 Charlotte Avery and Sabra Williams, from London, celebrate their gold medal in the pairs figure skating – Gay Games IV 122 7.1 Physique at Gay Games V 153 8.1 Pacific Islanders waiting to march in the parade of athletes during Gay Games VI 184 8.2 Team Band performing during Gay Games VI. 190 10.1 Greg Lougainis and Jessica Waddell Lewinstein present the Tom Waddell Award to recipient Lydia la Rivere-Zijdel of Amsterdam and male recipient Derek Liecty during opening ceremony of Gay Games VII 226 Preface

Caroline Symons’ book, The Gay Games: A history, is the most comprehensive book about the Gay Games to date. While others have referred to the Gay Games within the more general discourse of the relation between sport, sexuality, and sexual politics, she focuses more specifically on the history of the Gay Games since their inception in San Francisco in 1982. The first Games were a radical intervention, a reaction to the deep and divisive homophobia which many gay athletes had encountered in mainstream sport and which had driven them to look for an alternative outlet for their love of sport. The gay liberation movement had already created an opening for the rapid growth of gay cultural activities and the Gay Games was part of this development. But whilst the original aim of the Gay Games ‘to promote the spirit of inclusion and participation, as well as the pursuit of personal growth in a sporting event’ has been reiterated by each of the organizing committees, there have been significant changes from one Gay Games to the next in their rationale, organization, and financing, and there have been conflicts and schisms, as well as developments in response to national and global politics and events. The Gay Games: A history highlights and assesses these incidents and changes. Because Caroline participated in the Games herself and was the Melbourne representative on the Sydney 2002 bid team and got to know the Sydney organizers and also observed and was a committee member on the FGG during the late 1990s and got to know the Directors and Gay Games’ organizers, she was able to gain access to events and meetings and got to know and interviewed key figures in decision-making debates about how the Games should be run. As a result, her account provides an in-depth investigation of the specific features of each of the Games, and includes original and detailed material and analysis. Her history of the Games concludes with sensitive comment on the important schism between two factions in the Gay Games’ movement. The result was that in 2006 two competing events took place – Gay Games VII, held in Chicago, sanctioned as usual by the FGG, and the breakaway World Outgames, held in Montreal, which had an organizing and sanctioning body, newly created in 2004, namely, the Gay and Lesbian International Sport Association (GLISA). Not surprisingly, there was a lower standard of performance in both Montreal and Chicago than at previous Gay Games because many athletes could not, or did not want to, go to both. To avoid another clash, the second World Outgames was held in 2009 in Copenhagen, viii Preface Denmark and the third World Outgames will be held in Antwerp, Belgium, in 2013. Gay Games VIII will be held in Cologne, Germany, in 2010 and Gay Games IX will take place in Cleveland, USA in 2014. Caroline Symons’ history of the Gay Games fits ideally into the Routledge Critical Studies in Sport series. The Gay Games have been a significant reaction to homophobic oppression in sport which can still wreck the lives of some sportsmen and women, and have provided a haven for participants within all categories of gender and sexuality, including gay men, lesbians, bisexuals and transgender participants, transforming for them the way in which sport is experienced and under- stood. However, it remains difficult for gay sportsmen and women from outside the West, and in particular those from countries where homosexuality remains illegal and hidden, to be helped in their quest for open participation. The co-existence of the Gay Games and the World Outgames represents an important cultural and political uncertainty. Whereas from the start the Gay Games were celebrated as the largest cultural event on the Gay calendar which united people from the gay community, they have recently embodied controversy and conflicting discourses. The futures of both the Gay Games and the World Outgames are still in a state of flux, although discussions to resolve conflict between the two organizations have been taking place since July 2009, peaking at a meeting on 5 March 2010 between the Presidents of GLISA and FGG. Following the meeting, a co-operative statement was made, in response to feedback from the worldwide community, which included the following suggestions, contingent upon the approvals of the boards of both GLISA and FGG: ‘GLISA and FGG have agreed to organize one quadrennial event in 2018. This event will be comprised of three equally important components – Sports, Culture, and Human Rights. A new name will be proposed for this joint event.’ Students and researchers would benefit from reading Caroline Symons’ book in order to make sense of events leading to this situation and of the challenges ahead for gay sport. Her book also points to the importance of making links between empirically-grounded accounts and theoretical understanding. But the text would be interesting to a wider readership than just an academic one – to gay sportsmen and women themselves, to policy-makers, and to those concerned with equal rights, human rights, and the politics of sexuality.

Jennifer Hargreaves and Ian McDonald Co-editors Routledge Critical Studies in Sport Acknowledgements

A number of people have contributed to this book project and have enabled its completion in so many ways, and I am forever grateful. I have received invaluable feedback and support from my academic mentors, Dennis Hemphill, Katie Hughes, Donna Dening and Terry Roberts. Colleagues such as Bob Stewart, Rob Hess, Michael Burke, Greg Dingle, June Senyard and Graham Willet have also shared ideas and reviewed my work. It was a pleasure to work with the esteemed editors of the Routledge Critical Sport Studies series, especially Jennifer Hargreaves. Her extensive advice, encour- agement, academic insight and professionalism have been exceptional. The Routledge Sport and Leisure team of Brian Guerin and Simon Whitmore have also been most helpful. I am also indebted to all of the Gay Games’ family who assisted me with this history project, providing their stories of the Gay Games, vital feedback on chapter drafts and most importantly inspiration with their passion, courage and achievements in developing and shaping the Gay Games movement. Charlie Carson, Emy Ritt and Kate Rowe were especially helpful with their feedback.The Outgames’ leaders who shared their stories in this book have also been generous. This book would never have been completed without the loving support and assistance of my family. My father David Symons assisted with the extensive reference list and prepared the photographs. My partner Jenny Bonney acted as critical reader. My parents Jeanette and David helped Jenny and I with the joys and challenges of caring for a young family and our darling daughter Caitlin provided us with a constant reminder of what is important in life. I acknowledge the following for permission to use material that I have previously authored: Routledge, for excerpts from (1) ‘Challenging Homophobia and Heterosexism in Sport. The promise of the Gay Games’, published in 2007 in Atchison, C. (ed.) Gender, Sport and Identity: Masculinities, Femininities and Sexualities (140–59); and (2) ‘Transgendering Sex and Sport in the Gay Games’, published in 2006 in Caudwell, J. (ed.) Sport, Sexualities and Queer/Theory (109–29). My colleague Dennis Hemphill co-authored this chapter and has also given permission to reprint sections of it in this book. Walla Walla Press and Dennis Hemphill, co-editor of the book Gender, Sexuality and Sport: A Dangerous Mix (2002), have also x Acknowledgements given permission to use excerpts from my chapter in this book, titled ‘The Gay Games and Community’ (100–114). I am indebted to photographers Paul Finneseth, A. P. Meredith, Jay W. Photos and T. Bianchi, as well as the generosity of Sara Waddell Lewinstein and the Federation of Gay Games for the photographs in this book. 1 Introduction

Together we ran, jumped, played, loved and unalterably changed each other’s lives. (Forzley and Hughes 1990: 1)

The international Gay Games has become one of the largest sporting, cultural and human rights events in the world, as well as the largest international participatory lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer and intersex (LGBTIQ) event.1 Games have been held every four years since 1982. The first and second Games were in San Francisco, followed by Vancouver, New York City, Amsterdam, Sydney and Chicago. Over this period the Games have grown tenfold in participation and have developed from an essentially local Californian multi-sport event to a multi- million dollar, major, sporting extravaganza engaging people from all continents in diverse programmes of sports, culture, entertainment and human rights. The international Gay Games movement developed through the success of the individual Games and includes LGBTIQ sport, recreation and cultural clubs, organisations, events, competitions and festivals. According to Dennis Altman, a leading academic on the development of gay and lesbian communities worldwide, the Gay Games movement has become one of the largest international gay and lesbian institutions (2001: 100). This movement ensures ongoing community activities and development through sport and culture. The international governing body overseeing the continuity of the Gay Games – the Federation of Gay Games (FGG) was founded in Seattle in 1989. Inspired by the Olympics, but disillusioned by its apparent racism, sexism, nationalism, homophobia and elitism, the principal founder of the Gay Games, Tom Waddell, envisaged the Gay Games as a peoples’ games (Messner and Sabo 1994: 113–19). Hence, the main aims of the international Gay Games movement are the fostering of inclusion, participation and doing one’s personal best.2 The Gay Games were to be open to people of all sexual orientations, genders, races, nationalities, ages, abilities, religions and political perspectives – so long as participants adhered to this spirit of inclusion and respect for diversity. The early organisers also valued sport participation because it was thought to give a focus to people’s lives, to provide an opportunity to meet others and form friendships, as well as to provide an avenue for personal achievement and validation. It was also 2 Introduction believed that through an inclusive Games’ philosophy and the vehicle of participatory sport, segregation and prejudice within gay and lesbian communities could be broken down. The centrality of sport to the original Gay Games programme had other pur- poses, the principal one being to demonstrate to mainstream society that gay people were like everyone else – they played sport. Linked specifically to the role of gay men, this mainstreaming would supposedly help dispel myths about them being un-masculine. After all, sports, especially those involving the demonstra- tion of strength, power, speed and combativeness, were considered excellent social practices to affirm traditional masculinity. Specifically, these sports were developed as training grounds and celebratory public arenas for supremacist forms of heterosexual masculinity. Sport had become one of the most media covered, globalised, consumed and naturalising institutions for ‘defining preferred and disparaged forms of masculinity and femininity, instructing boys and men in the “art” of making certain kinds of men’ (Rowe and McKay 1998: 118). Homosexual men were definitely suspect in this macho sports world, women were rendered the naturally inferior ‘other’ and lesbians were portrayed as a dominant and cor- rupting force within women’s sport. Rigid, limiting and discriminatory binary oppositions of male/female, masculinity/femininity, heterosexuality/homosexuality, which have predominated in Western understandings of sex, gender and sexuality, have been naturalised, reinforced and at times resisted within the arena of sport. Whilst the Gay Games have had a mainstreaming emphasis, they have also been envisaged as a ‘radical’ alternative to conventional sporting events and practices. Representations and embodiment of sport, sex, gender, sexuality and community appear to be played out at the Gay Games in challenging as well as conventional ways. Their affirming sporting and cultural environment for LGBTIQ peoples and their potential resistance to the gender order make the Gay Games a significant event. The scale of the international Gay Games movement and the more particular impacts of individual Gay Games upon LGBTIQ communities globally, within host cities and local contexts, are also important areas for investigation. This book is unique in a number of ways. It provides the first social history of the Gay Games from their founding up until their hosting in Chicago in 2006. It is comprehensive in its scope, using extensive archival research as well as interviews with many of the key organisers and numerous participants of the eight documented Games. This history concentrates on the way each Gay Games was organised. It also examines the network of political, social, cultural and economic factors that influenced the organisation, policies, conduct and especially the lived experience of these Games. The internationalisation of the Gay Games movement during the 1990s, the significant split in the international LGBTIQ sport movement that occurred with the establishment of the 1st World Outgames in Montreal in 2006 and the founding of the Gay and Lesbian International Sport Association (GLISA) that oversees the Outgames, is also touched upon. Each Gay Games is located within the social context, including the gay and lesbian history of its host Introduction 3 city and country. Broad and important historical influences affecting LGBTIQ communities during the latter part of the twentieth century and the start of the new millennium have also contributed to the shaping and impact of the Gay Games. These include counter-cultural and civil rights developments of the 1960s and 1970s, gay and lesbian liberation, feminism, HIV and AIDS, the backlash of the right in many Western nations, the effects of consumer capitalism and the health and fitness movement, the rise of mass participatory mega-events, identity and difference politics, the global circulation of gay and lesbian identities and international LGBTIQ sport politics. There is significant diversity within LGBTIQ communities along the lines of sex, gender, sexuality, race, ethnicity, age, socio-economic class, ability/disability, HIV status, religion and political perspective. Modern social identities such as ‘lesbian’, ‘gay’, ‘bisexual’, ‘transgender’ and ‘queer’ in themselves carry no single political agenda (Epstein 1999: 30). Same-sex desire and systems of gender/sexuality worldwide are also diverse. As a distinctly recent Western major event that pro- fesses inclusion as a central principal, the Gay Games stand out as a test case for diversity sensitivity in policy and practice. The challenges of organising a major event, the particular opportunities and obstacles presented with this very large and public LGBTIQ event, and the complexities of inclusiveness, are all addressed in this social history of the Gay Games. Particular attention has been paid to the role and organisation of sport at the Gay Games, as issues of sex, gender and sexuality for LGBTIQ communities and mainstream society are most contentious and significant here. A substantial Cultural Festival was added to the Gay Games programme in Vancouver in 1990. Culture had essentially been left off or downplayed within the Games agenda by the early organisers because gays performing in theatre and dance only tended to confirm stereotypes. The Cultural Festival of the Games has historical significance in itself and its development, which has a strong gendered and sexual politics, is documented in this history. Likewise, the inclusion of a social issues and an international human rights programme during the Amsterdam and Sydney Gay Games will also be examined as an integral part of the growth, development and global reach of the Gay Games.

Methodology Historical research methods such as archival and document analysis, oral history interviewing, and the examination of secondary sources, are used in this book. Secondary sources include media commentary and short souvenir histories of a number of the Gay Games, their contextualisation within broader social histories of relevant mainstream communities and LGBTIQ communities, as well as within social theoretical understandings of gender and sexuality. Participant observation is also used to augment these research methods enhancing my understanding of the development, processes, personalities and politics of the Federation of Gay Games (FGG), Gay Games V, VI and VII and the 1st World Outgames. 4 Introduction Archival research Archival materials on the Gay Games were first ‘mined’ in December of 1995, when they were being organised by archivist and graduate student, Tina Miller, under the supervision of Terry Allison, the Collections Librarian at California State University (CSU), San Marcos.3 At this time the archive was housed at CSU, San Marcos (Miller 1995). More extensive research on the archive occurred during November of 1996. When the archives were integrated within the San Francisco Public Library collections, much of Miller’s organisational system was retained, and the citations within this book up until Gay Games VI are based on the original archives’ organisation. I re-visited the archives in San Francisco during October of 2007 to find that much of the written materials from the Gay Games post-Amsterdam are in electronic form and kept with the FGG. Official programmes, posters, organisational information, photographs, newsletters, official reports, Gay Games memorabilia and newspaper/magazine clippings were also obtained from a number of other sources. As an observer and active member of various FGG committees from 1996 to 2002 and 2007, the minutes of meetings, policy documents, programmes, reports and newsletters concerning the operations of the FGG as well as Gay Games IV, V and VI were made available. During a visit to Amsterdam in December of 1996 to interview the organisers of Gay Games V, information concerning the organisation of these Games was obtained. By participating in Gay Games V, VI and VII and the 1st World Outgames, further documentation in the form of programmes, memorabilia and newspapers were collected. Key organisers of Gay Games VI and VII have also provided me with reports on these Games. An in-depth analysis of the micro-politics and decision-making processes that occurred during the organisation of each Gay Games is only touched on in this book, although, due to a closer proximity to events and people I could give a richer picture of this with Sydney 2002. Generally speaking, the archival sources and interviews did not provide this detail. It was not until Gay Games IV that staff in Directorships overseeing the organisation of key aspects of the Gay Games wrote reports on their portfolio areas. I have used some of these reports within the book. They tend to emphasise positive outcomes although organisational difficulties are also alluded to. Political dissention and the final decision-making/conflict-resolu- tion process are not given in these documents. A more detailed political analysis of the Gay Games – at the micro policy and organisational level – could be the subject of future research into the Gay Games.

Oral history interviews Orally communicated history was used as the most appropriate research method for exploring the subjective experiences and meanings of these Games for the participants and organisers, and explaining key events of the Games. This method provided original source material and complemented the written record with first- hand accounts. A total of 61 oral history interviews were gathered and analysed in Introduction 5 the construction of this Gay Games history. Thirty-nine interviewees were ‘purpo- sively selected’ because of their roles as key players in the organisation of the seven Gay Games. They had direct involvement either as paid or unpaid managers or Directors on the management boards of these Gay Games. Many of these Gay Games managers also served as Directors on the Board of the FGG. These people discussed their memories of and involvement with the Gay Games. Two interviews from the 1st World Outgames and GLISA and Mark Tewksbury’s autobiography (2006) provide the first-hand accounts informing my understanding of the fallout between the FGG and Montreal organisers over the 2006 Gay Games and the establishment of the rival Outgames. The FGG perspective for this fallout is given by FGG Directors and Chicago Gay Games organisers, who had direct knowledge of this history, as well as by the lengthy written account given on the FGG website. The primary purpose of the FGG is to select the hosting city of a Gay Games, to ensure that the main principles of the Gay Games – inclusion, participation and achieving one’s personal best – are maintained, to monitor and advise on the overall running of the Games, to protect the image and trademarks of the FGG, and to promote the growth and well-being of the international Gay Games movement. The FGG also sets specific policy guidelines for the Gay Games, for instance, the organisation and conduct of the sports programme. Ten of the interviewees had been key players on the FGG without having been directly involved in the organisation of a Gay Games. They were selected because they had contributed signifi- cantly to the shaping of particular aspects of the FGG, and due to their knowledge of the Gay Games themselves. Within this sample Directors came from South Africa, Canada, Germany, France and the US. Many of the Gay Games and FGG organisers that were interviewed had been inspired to take on leadership roles with the Games through actual participation in the sports and cultural aspects, and many have continued their sports and cultural participation after the completion of their terms in office. Interviews were also conducted with ten Gay Games participants who had no direct management role. They will be identified as ‘participants’ in the methodology discussion that follows. Interviewees who had an organisational role with the Gay Games will be identified as ‘organisers’. ‘Participant’ interviews concentrated on personal experiences of the Gay Games, and the meaning and significance of individual participation. In this they provided background information during the research of the book. Interviewees came from South Africa, Ireland, England, Australia and the US. This interview sample does not purport to be representative of the diversity of participation at the Gay Games. Interviews took from one hour to four hours, using a semi-structured format. After discussing their personal histories and motivations, the interviewees elaborated on their Gay Games story including their participation in various Gay Games, their organisational contributions and their general experiences and Games highlights. Participant interviews were more open-ended and concentrated on the person’s background, mainstream and LGBTIQ sports and cultural experiences, and Gay Games experiences. Ethical approval was gained from the Victoria University Human Research Ethics Committee. 6 Introduction All Gay Games managers and FGG Directors wished for their real names to be used in the publication of this history. This was considered to be a political act for them, one of being public, visible and proud of who they were and their involvement and achievements with the Gay Games. All of these people hold leadership positions within their respective lesbian and gay communities as well as within the Gay Games organisations and the FGG. Participants were another matter and their names have been changed for reasons of confidentiality. Real names have been used for practically all key leaders within the Gay Games movement who appear in this history – including those not interviewed. These leaders have appeared in publicly accessible documents including Gay Games programmes. However, wherever there has been any doubt concerning the public identification of individuals, a pseudonym has been used. Unless already in the public arena, or discussed in a way that confidentiality is maintained, a person’s HIV status has also been kept strictly confidential. Gay Games organisers and participants discussed the meaning and significance of the Gay Games in personal terms. They highlighted what was important to them, used varying terminology, and had particular interests, political and personal agendas and perspectives. Minichiello notes that ‘stories’ during interviews may be exaggerated to maximise ‘listener impact’ (Minichiello et al. 1995: 119). I was interested in and tried to be aware of these human biases – including my own. Events, experiences and other phenomena often construed as ‘facts’ never just speak for themselves in history. These can be ambiguous and inconsistent, and the historian always has to decide which ones to ‘give the floor, and in what order or context’ (Carr 1964: 18). Hence, historians are always involved in interpretation, and a model or theory is required to achieve this. Furthermore, ‘every history is enculturated in the systems of values and interests out of which it comes’ by both the people telling the story and the storyteller (Dening 1988: 98). Historians need to acknowledge their own subject position and ideological assumptions in their interpretations. They also need to appreciate the systems of values, interests and established meanings from which the individuals, communities and identities that they are studying are constituted. This assumes that experience as an explanatory tool of history is never self-evident or self-explanatory. As observed by Joan Scott (1993: 143) ‘experience is at once always already an interpretation of something that needs to be interpreted’. As the researcher, I strove for critical awareness through acknowledgement of my own subject position as a white, Australian, middle-class, tertiary-educated, feminist-informed academic, same-sex partnered, mother in her 40s, with a background in elite swimming as a competitor and with a commitment to ‘sport for all’. This book is the product of my doctoral thesis, which I started at a time during which I was only just coming out myself. The research project became part of my journey of discovery within a surprisingly prejudiced mainstream society and a diverse and usually affirming LGBTIQ world. The supplementary research method of participant observation, which will be outlined in the next section of this methodology, provided an important context to observe and learn about this new Introduction 7 and diverse community and communities that spanned LGBTIQ life locally, globally and through particular sport and cultural organisations making up the international Gay Games movement. Research on the Sydney and Chicago Gay Games and the Outgames’ movement was completed after the PhD, during a time in which I had taken on more of a leadership role within my own LGBTIQ community, especially in the sport and human rights area. Triangulation through cross checking with the accounts of other interviewees and with the archival material was carried out wherever possible to substantiate evidence.

Participant observation To gain a deeper familiarity with the people, organisations, events, and social values and meanings involved with the Gay Games, the ethnographic method of participant observation was used. Ethnography essentially ‘places the researcher in the midst of whatever it is they study’ to examine ‘various phenomena as perceived by participants and represent these observations as accounts’ (Berg 2001: 121). Through watching, listening, asking questions, participating in social and formal activities, making notes on observations, formulating hypotheses, making blun- ders, etc., researchers are gradually immersed in the culture being observed and begin to understand people, structures and social processes (Hammersley and Atkinson 1993: 100–1). This research method was supplementary to the three main methods of archival research, oral history interviewing and the use of secondary materials and social theoretical understandings. The format of this research method consisted mainly of immersion within the field, observation and the keeping of reflective journal(s). I will describe, in chronological order, the extent of my immersion within gay and lesbian sport and the international Gay Games movement over the research period spanning the past 12 years. These experiences were also important in shaping my overall understanding of the Gay Games. My first foray into ‘the field’ of the Gay Games movement was as an official observer, at the annual meeting of the FGG held in Sydney in September of 1996. At this meeting a number of research outcomes were achieved including: meeting and getting to know many of the key Gay Games organisers and leaders, arranging and conducting interviews, observing all except the closed sessions of the annual meeting, observing the operations of the FGG Sports Committee and Outreach Committee, socialising with FGG Directors, gaining an initial understanding of the organisational workings, including the aims, values and politics of the FGG, and the relationship of the FGG to the Gay Games. The second immersion in the field occurred while doing voluntary work on the committee of Team Melbourne – the leading lesbian and gay sport and cultural organisation within Melbourne, Australia (at the time). I fulfilled the roles of Team Melbourne Vice President, Australia Gaymes 1998 organiser, annual gay and lesbian Swimming Carnival organiser and Team Melbourne representative to the 1997 annual FGG meeting held in Denver, US. This involvement provided valuable insights into the nature and demands of lesbian and gay sport at the local 8 Introduction and city levels. I also participated in and observed the FGG meeting as part of the successful Sydney 2002 bid team. The third period of observation and involvement occurred during the main period of travel to conduct and collect interviews. To build a rapport and in many cases friendships, I socialised with interviewees and attended competition and training sessions of a number of gay and lesbian sports. For instance, whilst in San Diego, I swam with the local gay swim team ‘Different Strokes’. In San Francisco, I attended a ten-pin bowling competition and a hockey game with one of the founding organisers of the Gay Games, Sara Lewinstein, as well as with her family and friends. In London, I met up with the gay and lesbian swim team ‘Out To Swim’, at the pool and then at the pub after training. In Amsterdam, I swam with the local gay swim team, attended the 50th anniversary celebrations of the Dutch Association for Integration of Homosexuals (COC), and observed the day-to-day operations of the Gay Games V office. I also travelled to Rotterdam to discuss gay and lesbian sports issues with the leaders of the European Gay and Lesbian Sport Federation (EGLSF). The fourth period of immersion was an intense experience. It involved participating and spectating at Gay Games V and attending the FGG meeting held just before the Gay Games. Events and activities observed and engaged in directly during this period (July–August 1998) were: assisting Team Melbourne with the preparation of Melbourne-based participants attending the Gay Games; socialising with FGG Directors and the president of Team United Kingdom in London just before the Games; participating in an academic conference called ‘Queer Games? Theories, Politics, Sports’ hosted by The Departments of Lesbian and Gay Studies of the Universities of Amsterdam, Nijmegen and Utrecht during the week before the Gay Games; participating in the Opening and Closing ceremonies of Gay Games V; competing in the swimming event at the Gay Games; and watching a variety of other sports and Games-related events and entertainment. Generally, I was well placed at various levels to get what could be considered a good sense of the spirit of the Games. A comprehensive ethnography of Gay Games V would be impossible with so many events, activities and aspects of the Gay Games happening all at once. I decided to get an overall feel for the Games by observing its key sites and events, as well as attending what interested me most. There was no attempt during any of these observation periods to exhaustively and meticulously observe and record. Seeing the Gay Games first hand placed the research materials in general and the Amsterdam Games in particular, in a more lively and colourful perspective. I also participated in the pre-Games Queer Studies Conference and attended the start of the Sydney 2002 Gay Games, to get a good feel of this major event. Due to a severe allergic reaction and the challenges that came with travelling with a very active two-year old, I did not see as much of the Sydney Games as I had planned. A rich picture of the organisation and outcomes of the Sydney Games was achieved by interviewing key organisers and conducting an extensive study of media and official reports on these Games. These documents provided direct Introduction 9 insight into the Sydney 2002 gender participation policy development, which is discussed in Chapter 9 of this book. The final immersion phase in the Gay Games movement occurred from 2006 to 2008. I attended the Chicago Gay Games to observe a variety of sporting events, the Games’ hub at the Hilton Hotel and the closing ceremony. I presented a conference paper at the largest ever LGBT Human Rights Conference held a week before the 1st World Outgames and followed this up with competing in swimming at the Outgames and observing many other events/happenings at these Games. I attended the 25th Anniversary Celebrations of the FGG, held in San Francisco in October of 2007, and co-convened the Rainbow Conversations – LGBT Asia Pacific Human Rights conference in Melbourne as part of the Melbourne 2008 Outgames. By being immersed within the Gay Games movement and at times taking on an advocacy and leadership role for gay and lesbian sport, I was essentially a ‘complete participant’ (Hammersley and Atkinson 1993: 103–7). Some commentators have suggested that this is ideal for researchers. ‘Total immersion’ in the culture under study rather than simply ‘passing’ as a member offers safety, the ability to gain insider knowledge readily and the avoidance of trouble accessing people and information (Hammersley and Atkinson 1993: 103–5). However, there are downsides to this approach including continuous maintenance of insider identity, the con- straints of rigorous involvement, the difficulties with maintaining critical distance and ethical issues such as the inability to gain informed consent from the people being researched. I managed these difficulties in a number of ways. From the time of my first FGG meeting in Sydney in 1996, FGG members, many of whom were past Gay Games organisers, knew that I was researching and writing a social history of the Gay Games. I provided a detailed description of this research project in an information sheet that was sent to the office bearers of the FGG and was given to all interviewees as part of the informed consent process. There were occasions during immersion when the researcher was ‘wearing a number of hats’ – for instance, observing the bidding process whilst assisting Sydney with its bid efforts, or researching FGG Transgender policy processes whilst being a part of them. My role as researcher essentially became an adjunct to the role of bid team member and informed policy advisor in these circumstances. Insider knowledge was gained during the process though it was not the primary motivation for my involvement. Respect for the integrity and well-being of the people and the organisations that were observed during this research has been a guiding principle at all times. The Outgames story that appears briefly in the final chapter is told in relation to the dramatic split that occurred in the international LGBTIQ sports movement from 2003 onwards. I have interviewed two key leaders involved with the 1st World Outgames. I have avoided direct involvement with GLISA and kept my Melbourne Outgames involvement specifically to the furthering of human rights through conference leadership. It has been a difficult task to maintain neutrality and seek only academic understanding in my involvement with the quite fierce rival organisations of the international LGBTIQ sport movement over these past few years. 10 Introduction Maintaining critical distance was another issue. This was challenging, especially during the first few years of the project when I was ‘coming out’ and learning about the existence of LGBTIQ and communities on a personal level. Entering a new, exciting and affirming world, experiencing homophobic prejudice and discrimination first hand, seeking personal affirmation and community affiliation are common experiences for recently arrived lesbian women and gay men. Critical distance was developed with increasing self awareness, academic and experiential knowledge of the LGBTIQ community, and through the vigilance of critical friends and academic supervisors of my PhD research. Critical distance, or what has been termed passionate objectivity, has constantly been a central research goal.4 This acknowledges my commitment to the Gay Games movement and the project that has been sustained by passion and interest.

Summary of chapters This book is organised thematically and chronologically. It starts with the broader historical context of Western gender/sexuality systems and their relationship to sport. This is achieved in Chapter 2, opened up through the life, struggles and achievements (the dance) of Tom Waddell, the principal visionary and founder of the Gay Games. Chapter 2 is entitled ‘Dancing with Tom Waddell’. Waddell wanted to be a dancer but excelled in the most masculine sports of American Football and the decathlon. The ambiguous dance of being gay and traditionally masculine in 1950s America was made easier through sport. It was accentuated through dancing and dance, along with the official cultural programme, was not significant within the Gay Games until 1990. The historical significance of sport to hegemonic masculinity and heterosexuality is explored in this chapter. This is the context for understanding the strongly gendered sports world, the role of sport in the gendering of Western society and the treatment of lesbian and gay sports- people up until the present day. As Waddell is the main visionary and founder of the Gay Games, his dance is significant for the foundation of the Gay Games as well. Due to the biographical nature of this chapter, the main characters discussed are usually referred to by their full names or their first names. In the rest of the book last names are used when citing particular people. Chapter 3 examines the historical and philosophical background of Gay Games I. It includes the influence of counter-cultural interpretations of leisure and sport in California, the flourishing of gay and lesbian life and the start of gay and lesbian sports organisations during the 1970s and early 1980s in San Francisco. The people, events and stories of Gay Games I have their foundation in this history. The first Gay Games were to be called the Gay Olympic Games until the United States Olympic Committee (USOC) exercised what they saw as their legal monopoly on the use of the term Olympics. Normalisation of gayness through playing sport and making Olympic connections was a strong theme of these Gay Games. Chapter 4 looks at the significant impact of HIV and AIDS on the Gay Games, especially at Gay Games II. These Games were held in one of the epicentres of the Introduction 11 HIV/AIDS crisis, at a time it was tragically affecting the gay male community of the US – San Francisco in 1986. A broad understanding of the health benefits of the Gay Games and their groundbreaking policies of inclusion for people living with HIV and AIDS is examined in this chapter. A brief account of the drug-testing policies at the Gay Games, and their implications for the inclusion of some HIV-positive athletes, is also given at the end of the chapter. The goals of legiti- mation through mainstream sports sanctioning can undermine the inclusive principles of the Gay Games. Chapter 5 examines the history and significance of Gay Games III, the first Games to move from their birthplace of San Francisco. These Games attracted four times as many participants as the first Games, with people coming from 30 countries to compete in 28 sports. This chapter documents the significant begin- nings of the internationalisation and commercialisation of the Gay Games movement, including the establishment of the FGG. Chapter 6 examines the history and significance of Gay Games IV. The main themes of these groundbreaking Games include: international media profile, commercialisation, sponsorship breakthrough, professionalisation, community diversity and global involvement. These Games were organised to be the biggest, glitziest, most visible, most professionally organised, most legitimising Games till then. Postmodern themes involved with commercialisation, celebrity and media influences and the centrality of the body are explored. An introduction to understandings of identity, diversity and difference politics and globalisation at these Gay Games is elaborated further within Chapter 7, as the Gay Games extends the internationalisation process within Europe. Chapter 7 provides a history of Gay Games V, held in 1998 in the most gay- tolerant cosmopolitan city in the World – Amsterdam, and billed as ‘the largest queer cultural and sport event this century’. Diversity in participation, inclusive policies and practices, and human rights issues were strong within all aspects of these Games. There was more fulsome recognition of the gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender communities that made up the LGBT coalition. The cultural programme received equal treatment for the first time and a social issues/human rights programme was an integral part of these Games. Furthermore, whilst all previous Gay Games had promoted women’s participation in sport and equality in organisational representation and leadership, Amsterdam made a concerted effort to go further and achieve gender parity in these areas. Diversity, difference and human rights are central themes of this chapter The story of Gay Games VI, held for the first time in the Southern Hemisphere and with an effective Outreach programme to the Asia Pacific region, is taken up in Chapter 8: ‘Under New Skies’. Organisational and financial difficulties and achievements feature in this chapter. There are parallels with previous Games, although in Sydney such difficulties really came to a head and set the scene for a major rethinking of the Gay Games format by the FGG, and the contract breakdown with the organisation set to host Gay Games VII in Montreal. Through effective outreach initiatives Sydney 2002 engaged a significant number of indigenous peoples from the Asia Pacific region, including non-Western transgenders. 12 Introduction Chapter 9, entitled ‘Transexed conundrums’ re-focuses on sex, gender, sexuality and sport at the Gay Games. The essentialised binaries of male/female, masculinity/femininity and heterosexual/homosexual so prominently displayed, reinforced and conserved in the mainstream sport world do not fit the communities engaged by the Gay Games. The inclusion of transgender and intersex peoples in the sports programme of the Games highlights this problematic. Chapter 9 explores this issue in-depth, bringing out the major ambiguities and tensions of staging a mass-participatory sport and cultural event that aims to mainstream the diverse LGBTIQ communities of the Games whilst at the same time seeking to be radically inclusive. The potential of a transformative sports model that would allow more play with the ambiguities and pluralities of sex, gender and sexuality is also explored. Finally, a comparative summary is given of the main ways that sex, gender and sexuality were manifest during each Gay Games. The gender policy of Sydney 2002 demonstrates the complexity of transgender inclusion by being more sensitive to non-Western ways of identifying as transgendered and/or same-sex attracted. Chapter 10 documents the dramatic split in the Gay Games movement that resulted from the breakdown in negotiations between the FGG and Montreal 2006 over the contract for Gay Games VII. Montreal had won the right to stage this Gay Games with an audacious plan involving 24,000 participants and extensive sport, culture and human rights programmes. Through the Sydney outcome the FGG had adopted a back-to-basics format in which sport became the central feature of the Gay Games, with very basic cultural components and no human rights programme. A major falling out with the Montreal 2006 organisers ensued and in early 2004 the FGG awarded Gay Games VII to Chicago. A rival international gay and lesbian sports association to the FGG – GLISA – evolved as a result of this split and the 1st World Outgames was held in Montreal two weeks after Gay Games VII. The story of the Chicago Gay Games and these tumultuous events within the international LGBTIQ sports movement feature in this final chapter. It is followed by a conclusion that examines the overall significance, developments and main themes and achievements of each Gay Games and of the international Gay Games movement as a whole. Bibliography

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King, David, MVA&AA, Celebration ’90 newsletter editor, (1989) Official Press Kit No.1, March, 1989. Revised: 31 October. Archived in SFPL: FGGA, Box 1, Series III, Gay Games III, folder 19. McDell, Barry, Director of MVA&AA and media liaison for Celebration ’90 (1988) Official Press Release of Gay Games III. Dated 15 October. Archived in SFPL: FGGA, Box 1, Series III, Gay Games III, folder 19. Male Entertainment Network (San Francisco) (1982) The Official Video of the Opening Ceremonies of Gay Games I, produced by MEN. Archived in SFPL: FGGA. —— (1986) Highlights Video, Gay Games II, produced by MEN. Archived in SFPL: FGGA. 274 Bibliography MVA&AA (1988a) Celebration ’90: Gay Games III & Cultural Festival information sheet. Dated 15 September. Archived in SFPL: FGGA, Box 1, Series III, Gay Games III folder 1. —— (1988b) Celebration ’90 Newsletter. Dated November –December. 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Archived in SFPL: FGGA, Box 1, Series 1, Gay Games 1, folder 1. Tully,, Karen (1990) ‘Letter to Gay Games Board’, 11 July, Archived in SFPL: FGGA, Box 1, Series III, Gay Games III, folder 1. Peterson, Richard and Grey, Peg, Co-Presidents, FGG (1989) Letter addressed to all Federation Board Members. Dated 17 August. Archived in SFPL: FGGA, Box 1, FGG folder. Sheehan, Larry (1988) Letter from Larry Sheehan, Secretary of SFAA, to the Board Members of MVA&AA, Dated 6 April. Archived in SFPL: FGGA, Box 1, Series III, Gay Games III, folder 1. Stichting (1998) Amsterdam Gay and Lesbian Foundation (AGLF) Bid Proposal for Gay Games V. Archived in SFPL: FGGA, Box 1, FGG folder. The City of New York (1996) Economic Impact Estimate For Gay Games IV and Cultural Festival, dated 29 May. Archived in SFPL: FGGA, Box 5, Series IV – Gay Games IV Operations, folder 32. Unity ’94 (1994a) Gay Games IV Athletics Registration Book. 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