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Jeff Atherton, Professor of Tropical Horticulture, University Of CROP PRODUCTION SCIENCE IN HORTICULTURE SERIES Series Editors: Jeff Atherton, Professor of Tropical Horticulture, University of the West Indies, Barbados, and Alun Rees (retired), former Head of Crop Science, Glasshouse Crops Research Institute, Horticultural Consultant and Editor of the Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology. This series examines economically important horticultural crops selected from the major production systems in temperate, subtropical and tropical climatic areas. Systems represented range from open field and plantation sites to protected plastic and glass houses, growing rooms and laboratories. Emphasis is placed on the scientific principles underlying crop production practices rather than on providing empirical recipes for uncritical acceptance. Scientific understanding provides the key to both reasoned choice of practice and the solution of future problems. Students and staff at universities and colleges throughout the world involved in courses in horticulture, as well as in agriculture, plant science, food science and applied biology at degree, diploma or certificate level, will welcome this series as a succinct and readable source of information. The books will also be invaluable to progressive growers, advisers and end-product users requiring an authoritative, but brief, scientific introduction to particular crops or systems. Keen gardeners wishing to understand the scientific basis of recommended practices will also find the series very useful. The authors are all internationally renowned experts with extensive experience of their subjects. Each volume follows a common format covering all aspects of production, from background physiology and breeding, to propagation and planting, through husbandry and crop protection, to harvesting, handling and storage. Selective references are included to direct the reader to further information on specific topics. Titles Available: 1. Ornamental Bulbs, Corms and Tubers A.R. Rees 2. Citrus F.S. Davies and L.G. Albrigo 3. Onions and Other Vegetable Alliums J.L. Brewster 4. Ornamental Bedding Plants A.M. Armitage 5. Bananas and Plantains J.C. Robinson 6. Cucurbits R.W. Robinson and D.S. Decker-Walters 7. Tropical Fruits H.Y. Nakasone and R.E. Paull 8. Coffee, Cocoa and Tea K.C. Willson 9. Lettuce, Endive and Chicory E.J. Ryder 10. Carrots and Related Vegetable Umbelliferae V.E. Rubatzky, C.F. Quiros and P.W. Simon 11. Strawberries J.F. Hancock 12. Peppers: Vegetable and Spice Capsicums P.W. Bosland and E.J. Votava 13. Tomatoes E. Heuvelink 14. Vegetable Brassicas and Related Crucifers G. Dixon 15. Onions and Other Vegetable Alliums, 2nd Edition J.L. Brewster 16. Grapes G.L. Creasy and L.L. Creasy 17. Tropical Root and Tuber Crops: Cassava, Sweet Potato, Yams and Aroids V. Lebot 18. Olives I. Therios This book is dedicated to the memory of Dr Robert M. Pool GRAPES G.L. Creasy Senior Lecturer in Viticulture Centre for Viticulture and Oenology Lincoln University Christchurch, New Zealand and L.L. Creasy Professor Emeritus Department of Horticulture Cornell University Ithaca, New York, USA CABI is a trading name of CAB International CABI Head Office CABI North American Office Nosworthy Way 875 Massachusetts Avenue Wallingford 7th Floor Oxfordshire OX10 8DE Cambridge, MA 02139 UK USA Tel: +44 (0)1491 832111 Tel: +1 617 395 4056 Fax: +44 (0)1491 833508 Fax: +1 617 354 6875 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] Website: www.cabi.org © G. L. Creasy and L. L. Creasy 2009. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronically, mechanically, by photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owners. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library, London, UK. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Creasy, G. L. (Glen L.) Grapes / G.L. Creasy and L.L. Creasy. p. cm. -- (Crop production science in horticulture series ; 16) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-84593-401-9 (alk. paper) 1. Grapes. 2. Grape industry. I. Creasy, Leroy L. II. Title. III. Series: Crop production science in horticulture ; 16. SB387.7.C74 2009 634.8--dc22 2008029279 ISBN-13: 978 1 84593 401 9 Typeset by Columns Design, Reading, UK. Printed and bound in the UK by the MPG Books Group. The paper used for the text pages in this book is FSC certified. The FSC (Forest Stewardship Council) is an international network to promise responsible management of the world’s forests. CONTENTS PREFACE xi 1 HISTORY, USES AND PRODUCTION 1 Geographical origins of grapevine species 1 Family, genus, species and related plants 2 Natural growth conditions 4 Historical cultivation 5 Uses 5 Fermented grape products 5 Table grapes 6 Raisins 7 Grape juice 7 Grape-producing countries 8 2 CULTIVARS, ANATOMY AND IMPROVEMENT 11 Main cultivars for various uses 11 Clones 14 Anatomy and physiology 15 Roots 15 Above the soil 18 Photosynthesis 21 Flower and berries 24 Ampelography 25 Breeding and genetics 26 Indicators of quality 27 v vi Contents 3 GRAPEVINE GROWTH AND FRUIT DEVELOPMENT 29 Phenology 29 Vine (vegetative) development 34 Patterns of root growth 34 Tendrils 35 Cane maturation 35 Leaf-fall and abscission 36 Dormancy 36 Flower initiation, fruit development and berry maturation 37 Where do tendrils and flower clusters come from? 37 Factors affecting branching 38 Plant growth regulators 39 Flower development and anthesis 40 Fruit set 40 Berry development and maturation 43 Environmental/climatic influences 59 Trying to quantify climate 60 The vine as a perennial plant (carbohydrate partitioning) 63 Balancing vegetative and reproductive growth 64 4 CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS 65 Cold hardiness 65 Growing vines in tropical areas 68 Frost tolerance 69 Heat and light 70 Water use 70 Soils 71 Terroir 71 Climate change 72 5 VINEYARD ESTABLISHMENT 75 Site selection 75 Climate 76 Soil 77 Slope and aspect of land 79 Other factors 79 Site planning 81 Preparing the site 82 Contents vii Shelter from wind 83 Vine planting density 85 Rootstocks 88 Rootstock choice 89 Propagation 91 Layering 91 Cuttings 91 Grafting 92 Other methods 93 Planting 94 Vine establishment 96 Vine shelters 98 Young vine care 99 Second season 100 6 SEASONAL MANAGEMENT 105 Pruning and training 105 Types of pruning 109 Pruning decisions 114 Matching pruning to vine capacity 115 Other considerations when pruning 118 Training and trellising 118 Self- or stake-supported 119 Single wire 121 Hedge-type 122 Divided canopies 124 Other trellising systems 126 End assemblies 128 Vineyard floor management 131 Frost management 135 Types of frost event 136 Passive control strategies 136 Active control strategies 136 Other methods 138 Canopy management 139 Goals and tools for canopy management 139 Shoot thinning 140 Shoot positioning 142 Shoot topping and hedging 143 Leaf removal 143 Other methods 145 Things to avoid 146 Quantifying change in the canopy 146 viii Contents Irrigation 148 Methods of monitoring soil moisture 151 Methods of monitoring plant water status 153 Scheduling water application 154 Other management practices 156 Girdling 156 Fruit thinning 156 Application of plant growth regulators 159 Harvest 159 7 NUTRITION 163 Nutrient analysis and correction strategies 164 Testing and nutrient addition 164 The nutrients 165 Macronutrients 166 Micronutrients 170 8 MECHANIZATION 175 Weed management 176 Canopy management 178 Crop management and harvesting 179 Pruning 181 Environmental monitoring 182 Fully mechanized systems 183 9 GRAPEVINE PESTS, DISEASES AND DISORDERS 185 Diseases 187 Fungal diseases 187 Bacterial diseases 201 Viral diseases 202 Control of grape diseases 203 Control of fungal diseases 204 Control of viral diseases 205 Other disorders 206 Insect pests 206 Phylloxera 206 Leafhoppers 208 Borer insects 209 Contents ix Mealybugs 209 The grape berry moth 209 Thrips 210 Beetles 210 Mites 210 Chemical control 210 Animal pests 212 Nematodes 212 Vine-grazing pests 213 Berry-eating pests 213 Weeds 216 Pesticide resistance 217 Pest and disease control in organic grape production 218 Pesticide application 219 Maximizing spraying efficiency 219 Pesticide application equipment 222 10 HARVEST AND POSTHARVEST PROCESSING 225 Table grapes 225 Quality parameters 226 Picking 226 Packing 226 Cooling at the packing house 229 Storage 229 Dried grapes 230 Cultivars 230 Harvest 231 Processing 232 Juice/preserves 233 Uses 234 Processing 234 Wine 235 Harvest 235 Processing 237 Other wine styles 239 REFERENCES 241 INDEX 281 The colour plate sections can be found following pages 52, 148 and 212. Sections supported by the California Table Grape Commission, John Coleman of Plasma Physics Corporation and the Corporate Research Sponsors of L. L. Creasy. ix This page intentionally left blank PREFACE This book targets advanced plant science students with specific interest in viticulture and those who are producing grapes for the first time. We think it will be of interest to enthusiasts of the vine and its products who want to learn a bit more about how grapes are grown and a lot about the whys behind the methods. There are answers to many questions in the following chapters but, as always seems to be the case, the more you learn the more you discover that there is always more to learn! Grapes have so many uses and are so unique that no fruit can challenge their superiority. The production of grapes continues to grow: China now produces more table grapes than the next nine major producing countries combined. It seems inevitable that China will also dominate wine grape production at some point, which makes life in the industry terribly interesting and exciting! In fact, methods of grape production and how the fruit is utilized are changing rapidly. For example, the advent of year-round supplies of table grapes, facilitated through economic means of shipping between the northern and southern hemispheres, has bolstered demand for the product, leading to more innovation and investment in the industry and improvement in our ability to grow and market them.
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