ISSN : 0975-3419
Journal of THE JOURNAL OF RASE A Peer Reviewed Journal of Studies in English
Rajasthan Association for Conference Papers presented at the XI Annual Conference of RASE hosted by J.N. Vyas University and Mahila P.G. Mahavidyalaya Studies in English Jodhpur, Rajasthan 01–02 November 2014
A Peer Reviewed Journal of Studies in English Guest Editor : Prof. Sudhi Rajiv Managing Editor : Prof. Hemendra Singh Chandalia
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ISSN : 0975-3419 VOLUME : 11 Year : 2015 western Rajasthan. The name of Vijay Dan Daitha is taken with great respect as a preserver and communicator of folklore across the country. Editorial His workVataan Ri Phulvari is almost a classic. It is satisfying that Dr. Sonika Gurjar's paper on his tales attempts to examine his contribution. Human beings are a category of living beings which rejoices in sharing. Many other papers chosen for publication refer to the work of this Unlike other species, human beings have a developed cognitive ability legendary author. Dr. Shefali Arora and Dr. Govind Saraswat in their which enables them to exchange their feelings, thoughts and papers talk about a film called“Paheli” based on one of the stories of experiences through verbal expressions. From time immemorial, the Daithaji. humanity has enjoyed such expression and recorded the experiences in Dr. Anant Dadhich's paper on the heroic personality of freedom fighter different forms. The tales of the past are lessons for future. In this sense Vijay Singh Pathik illustrates how an iconic figure finds reflection in whatever came to be expressed carried the wisdom of the people the renderings of the common people. Dr. Manoj Kumar's paper earned through ages of experience. This knowledge, handed down from analyses the ecological aspects of the Oral literature of Rajasthan. one generation to the other through the word of mouth formed what we Since the oral literature predominantly relates to the lives of the masses call today the folklore. Folklore is the voice of the masses and as such, in rural areas, a study of the ecological aspects is very relevant. The is vibrant with the life – force of the people. It is the basis of all first paper of this number written by Dr. Prakash Joshi based on literature and forms the foundation of many other art forms. Tibetan folklore opens up several theoretical questions relating to the This number of the Journal of Rajasthan Association for Studies in interpretation of folk literature. Haryana, a neighbor state, is also very English carries research articles presented in RASE conference rich in folklore. There are certain folk performances which are common organized by the Department of English, J.N. Vyas University, Jodhpur to both the states. “Sang” or “Swang” is performed in Haryana as well in association with Mahila PG Mahavidyalaya, Jodhpur and Rajasthan as Rajasthan. Dr. Naresh K. Vats, Dr. Karan Singh and Dr. Dalbir Singh Association for Studies in English. The conference titled “Learning have contributed their papers relating to the poetry and performances of from the Masses: Exploring the Folklore” was a grand success and Haryanvi folklore. brought to the fore various folk forms of literary and artistic Besides, the papers about the folk lore of Arunachal Pradesh by Tunge expression. The learned scholars presented their research papers Lollen and Taw Azu, folklore of Assam by Urmila Purohit, folklore of relating to folk literature in Rajasthan, Haryana, Gujarat, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh by Hema Paliwal, folklore of West Bengal by Dr. Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Assam, Andhra Pradesh and Arunachal Sunita Sadh and the paper about the treatment of the plays of Girish Pradesh. Some of the selected papers are published in this number after Karnad by Dr. Satish K. Harit provide a glimpse of the folklore across a careful scrutiny by the peer team members. the country, thereby giving a national character to this number of the The papers selected explore various aspects of folklore beginning with journal. Devendra Rankawat's paper on adaptation of the plays of the very nature and scope of the discipline to the digital transformation Shakespeare in the form of films adds lustre to the journal. Harprasad of folk literary forms into New Media which have become very popular Roy's paper on folklore and children, Rukhsana Saifee's paper on these days. Dr. Mehzbeen Sadriwala and Dr. Pankaj Vyas have tried to folklore and Islam, Dr. Vibha Bhoot's paper on oral tradition, Dr. examine the nature of the folklore as an academic discipline also Hitendra Goyal' paper on Sarojini Naidu, Dr. Sarita Chanwaria's paper dwelling upon folklore as a pedagogical tool. Prof. Mukta Sharma and Dr. Rekha Tiwari's paper on tribal dance- drama “Gavri” are focuses on folk art and the narrative traditions of Rajasthan picking up valuable additions to the journal as they talk about very important popular folk narratives in the eastern as well as western Rajasthan. aspects of folklore. Rajasthan is very rich in folklore. Folklore of the western part of I am sure this number of the journal will help in enhancing our Rajasthan has been explored by a good number of scholars in this understanding the significance of of folklore in literary research. issue. Dr. Sonu Shiva and Dr. Jamil Usta have written an interesting paper on the popular folk performance called “ Rammat”. Dr. Rashmi st Rajpal Singh has chosen to talk about the deities and their worship in 21 November, 2015 Prof. Sudhi Rajiv Guest Editor CONTENTS 16. An Analysis of Ecological Aspect in Oral Narratives of 121 Rajasthan – Dr. Manoj Kumar 17. 'Living Like A Pig': Understanding A Folk Tale of Andhra 131 Pradesh – Hema Paliwa 1. Theologizing Folklore: Patterns of Tibetan Buddhism in 1 18. Exploring the Folklore of Assam – Urmila Purohit 137 The Snow Lion's Turquois Mane – Dr. Prakash Joshi 19. Folklore and Hindi Cinema: ReadingPaheli as a Germane 143 2. Folklore and Adaptation:Hamlet and Haider 14 Cultural Adaptation – Dr. Shefali Arora – Dr. Devendra Rankawat 20. Bauls:The Mystic Minstrels of Bengali Folk Culture 148 3. Depiction oF Beauty in Pt Lakhmi Chand's Poetry 21 – Dr. Sunita Sadh – Dr. Naresh K. Vats 21. Proverbs as Cultural Symbols: An Analysis of Galo Proverbial 157 4. What Can Common Folk Teach Us: Cinematography of the 29 Symbols – Mr.Tunge Lollen and Ms. Taw Azu Folk Life of Rajasthan – Dr. Govind Sarswat 22. The cult of Haryanvi Raagni: Mapping the Contours of Culture 163 5. Folktales, Children and Modern Challenges – Haraprasad Ray 35 – Dr. Dalbir Singh Yadav 6. The Integrated Experience of Creativity and Culture : Tradition 39 23. Revitalizing Folk Tales of Rajasthan : Vijay Dan Detha 177 ofRammat in Bikaner – Dr. Sonu Shiva and Dr. Jamil Usta – Dr. Sonika Gurjar 7. Folklore as a Discipline – Dr. Mehzbeen Sadriwala and 44 24. Exploring the Tresses of Folk Traditions in the Poems of 181 Dr. Pankaj Vyas Sarojini Naidu – Hitendra Goyal 8. Gavri- The folk Drama of Bhils of Rajasthan – Dr. Rekha Tiwari 48 25. Folktales: Exploring the Past to Recreate the Present and 192 Reweave the Future – Sarita Chanwaria 9. Folklore and Islam – Rukhsana Saifee 55 26. Book Review : A Daughter's Graphic Tribute to her Mother 200 10. Closure and Erasure: Brahmanical Ideology and Folklore of 59 – G.K. Sukhwal Princess Niwal Dai – Dr. Karan Singh 27. Book Review:Black Womanhood: Analyzing the Discrimination 202 11. Cultic Worship of Deities in Western Rajasthan 75 Double – H.S. Chandalia – Dr Rashmi Rajpal Singh 12. Acclimatizing Folklore: An Analysis of Girish Karnad's 84 Hayavadanaand Naga-Mandala – Dr. Satish Kumar Harit 13. From the Mute to Muse: Oral Tradition in Their Eyes Were 94 Watching God – Dr. Vibha Bhoot 14. Restructuring the Image of Vijay Singh Pathik Through Folk 100 – Dr. Anant Dadhich 15. Folk Art and Narrative Traditions of Rajasthan 114 – Prof. Mukta Sharma Journal of Rajasthan Association for Studies in English11: 1-13 (2015) 2 Prakash Joshi
And so the age of the Promethean will to power – in which human beings rationally measure, calculate, predict, and Theologizing Folklore: Patterns of Tibetan control – turns into the age of Dionysiandiffusion, in which Buddhism in The Snow Lion's Turquois Mane desire is governed by the endless production and dissemination of floating signifiers (xv). Prakash Joshi The academic return to 'the theological' occasioned by the “implosion of the secular”signifies the cyclical and 'hermeneutically' In some curious ways, this desire to look beyond 'postmodernism' patterned nature of studies. In fact, this return had been due to has brought us back to some very 'centric' modes, beliefs and ways happen because man as a product and miracle of nature is neither of thinking. “Art is religion”, or “faith in science”, or “market is made for non stop resistances by continually creating sign-like God” are the recently sloganeered ideas that bring us back to substantial binaries, and nor calibrated to an ever expanding universe “something like faith or worship attached to art, science and of insubstantial significations.Therefore, by his psychological, economy”, and, in the process, give us back the structural 'binaries' emotional and spiritual character, man can neither inhabit the along with the 'center' that Derridian post-structuralism had banished territory of the modern forever, and nor of the postmodern.The from the discourses of human sciences some five decades ago modern, with its “promethean will to power”, exploded as it was (Cobb2). This mode of argument would lead us to some conceptual made up of resistances; and the postmodern, with its profusion of replacements for postmodernism, of which 'secular humanism' could proliferating “floating signifiers”, has imploded (or at least has be one. Secular Humanism would put the ideal or the center in the art reached an impasse) with its voraciousincorporation of all and of artist or in the science of scientist or in the allegedly beneficent sundry, creating thereby an unwieldy ideological 'vacuum' inside it. market of economist or in anything that it deems secularly humanist. Theology and its various combinations like 'theological humanism' However, these counter-countermodes, or counter 'ruptures' as the can be seen as one of the ways out of that impasse of the general Postmodern would have them labeled, “simply spatialize(s) postmodern; or, it can be seen as a thread of development from the time and map(s) us at the end of a promontory” (Ward xiv). Speaking wreckage of the said implosion. Theological humanism, arguably, furtherin the context of secular humanism, Graham Ward talks of the would be born out of the process of braiding and tempering a social “end of the promontory” that would lead us into a “hole” that he theory, current or obsolete, with theology -- a proper theology, not identifies as an “implosion of the secular” paving the way “for a new the “apologetic mediation” of “false humility…positioned by secular return to the theological” (xv).This “implosion” had long been in reason” that “idolatrously connects knowledge of God with some making, ever since modernism problematized the traditional particular immanent field of knowledge…”(Milbank xi& (romantic)'humanisms'/discourses by questioning their validity. 01).Contrary to the common conception, theology can be much more Secular humanism has attempted a system of “immanent values” incorporative than just a “science of things Divine” (Hooker 76). created out of resistance to theisms that had developed and had held Theology is the third generation emanation from folklore, the second sway for more than 2000 years before the gestation and birth of being mythology; and it was born when the thinking brain of man secularism around the middle of the second Christian millennium wondered at the ever unfolding, new revealing, nature around him (Ward xvi). It wouldn't be out of place to make a fuller reference to and made those dumb tales that later grew into 'oral tales'.Attempting Graham Ward in order to understand the making of that 'implosion', an indirect description of folklore in his book Holy Writ as Oral Lit: which also includes the fate of the postmodern: The Bible as Folklore, Alan Dundes speaks of it as a huge Theologizing Folklore: Patterns of Tibetan Buddhism in... 3 4 Prakash Joshi conglomerate of “several hundred genres” of which myth is a characteristically folk meant for the instruction of congregations and “sacred narrative explaining how the world and humankind came to the edification of lamas, delineate that power of faith and illustrate a be in their present form” (02).Given the fact that theology is a simple practice of basic Buddhist principles and ways of living. systematization and channelization of traditional mythology, Dunde Collected from Tibet, Nepal and North India, compiled and simplicitly confirms the symbiotic relationship between theology and translated at a Forest Retreat in Dordogne in France, and published folklore. So (thanks to Alan Dundes), as we attempt a critical by Harper Collins, The Snow Lion's Turquoise Mane: Wisdom Tales appraisal of the Buddhist Wisdom Folktales from Tibet in the from Tibet is a comprehensive compendium of lamaistic tales following paragraphs, we in fact do a theology of Buddhism, of presenting and exemplifying the key concepts of Tibetan Buddhism. Tibetan Buddhism to be precise. The collection, compilation and translation of the tales in English The historical accounts fix the 5th Century CE as the time of the serves a crucial academic purpose in the sense that it lends the arrival of Buddhism in Tibet; and 6th , 7 th and 8 th Centuries CE as the researchers, scholars and readers an authentic access to the Tibetan period of its foundation and spread largely due to the efforts of the lamaistic Buddhist practice. In original Tibetan, however, the tales three kings identified in Tibetan system as 'Dharma Kings'(Samuel would instruct and edify the mendicant and cloistered lamas xi). Buddhism in Tibet slowly converted almost the entire populace uninstructed and untrained in the classical language and the theories of Tibet from their ethnic pagan religions during these four centuries and philosophies of ancestral Buddhism. Lama Surya Das, the and in later times. The exotic uniqueness of Tibetan Buddhism owes compiler and translator, introduces the collection of more than 150 largely to all those ethnic and pagan features entering the mainstream folk stories, all of them in just around 250 pages, as a “piquant practice of Buddhism in Tibet. Either living a nomadic life with their cornucopia of tales…transmitted through the ancient oral tradition of herds or engaged in whatever agriculture could be possible in that Tibetan Mahayana Buddhism”, many of which “have never before high altitude terrain, the Tibetan society gave to their new religion been committed to writing” (xxi). imported from the then elite India a firm stamp of its exotic ethnic A reader can develop an approach to the stories in the collection ways thereby creating uniquely fascinating variety of Buddhism quite in accordance with the purpose of reading. A foreigner would including contributory strands from the three recognized streams of read these stories with the curious interest of a traveler to an exotic 'Hinayana', 'Mahayana' and 'Vajrayana' along with those from the land; a researcher would read them for comparison and contrast, or practices of the pre-Buddhist ethnic Tibetans. Confined to a few for comparative or critical analyses; and a lama or a lay practitioner central monasteries and with a few of the cloistered lamas, the elite of the faith would read them for instruction. There are tales in the and theoretical Buddhist philosophy doesn't have any perceptibly collection that narrate the actions, experiences, deeds and practical role to play in the lives of the monks and the congregations supernatural, heroic-in-their-own-ways, exploits of some yogi lamas attached to those various monasteries. Rather than being schools and like Patrul Rinpoche and a few others; there are tales that nicely academies for developing philosophical analyses, the monasteries of elucidate the Buddha's multiple conceptual incarnations like Tibetan Buddhism serve more as shelters for nomadic and mendicant Sakyamuni,Maitreya, Vipasyi, Amitabha, Avalokiteshwara and lamas and are places of a broadly meditative and a somewhat Manjusri; there are tales of Tara and other female Buddhas or ritualistic practice of Buddhist canon. Instead of a demonstration of Bodhisattvas, and tales of Dakinis and Yoginis; there are tales scholasticism, the mendicant and monastic lamas exemplify the explaining Bodhichitta, and tales illustrating yogic trance; there are (spiritual) power of faith through their religious practice. Many tales talking of Buddha fields and tales speaking of Consciousness hundreds of tales, now forgotten or still recounted as Transference to those Buddha fields; there are tales elucidating the Theologizing Folklore: Patterns of Tibetan Buddhism in... 5 6 Prakash Joshi
Buddhist principles of 'Emptiness' and non-dualism, and tales established as legendary figures and Bodhisattvas. Of those who rise illustrating the power of the mantra of the Compassionate-- 'Om thus, Monk Patrul Rinpoche reaches, perhaps, the peak. Cynical and Mani Padme Hung'; there are tales hailing the famous Buddhist irascible, Patrul Rinpoche demonstrates the highest merit of principle of the Middle Path—'Madhyamika', and tales hailing the detachment from worldliness and its pleasures and treasures. He Karmic merits to be earned by refuge in the 'Triple Gem' of the grows as a highly individualistic Yogi through the scores of tales that Buddha, the Dharma and the Sangha. he figures in. He venerates the mendicant lamas/yogis spreading the message of the Buddha among the simple folk; and his cynicism is There is a purpose attached to the stories, and that is, as Daniel particularly directed against the cloistered and academic pursuers of Golman's foreword explains, to “bypass the defenses of the logical intellect, bookish philosophies and learning. In a certain tale, he is an mind in order to make its point” of transmitting wisdom “through anecdotes and stories” (xx). The collector, compiler and translator of incognito mendicant and helps a recently widowed woman with three the tales, Lama Surya Das, confirms the motive in the preface by children in traveling safe to her destination in spite of the gossips stating that the collection discovers “truth delightfully disguised, chasing them (55-58); in another tale, he dresses like a beggar and embellished by both fact and fancy” (xxii). To quote the Lama, “a works unidentified in the kitchen of a lama, gets beaten up for wandering Jew from New York”, traveling“by way of Tibet, Nepal, wrongly colouring 'tormas', and then expounds the symbolic and India” (Goleman xix). significance of the colouring of 'tormas' red and white to convey the sense of the union of bliss and 'emptiness'; in yet another exotic tale, All these tantalizing stories share one thing in common: they are he lies flat on the narrow path of a high pass connecting two valleys teaching tales, meant to edify, instruct, admonish-and entertain. to stop an armed conflict between the inhabitants of the two valleys. They are for scholars and sages as well as neophytes, nomads, Harking back to Thomas Carlyle's views on 'Heroes and Hero shepherds, and farmers. As charming as fairy tales yet as Worship', DzaPatrul Rinpoche combines the traits of the 'Hero as pointed as biblical parables, these stories are replete with Divinity', of the 'Hero as Prophet' and of the 'Hero as Priest' (1-2, 41 Himalayan folklore, magic, ribaldry, and the exotic marvels of & 112-113). Carlyle makes references to several legendary Oriental culture, while they are also full of uncommon spiritual mythological figures, quite a few of them worshipped, while wisdom and common sense, providing myths to live by (xxi). explaining his notion of Hero as Divinity. Later, he makes exclusive The collection scarcely follows any perceptible patterns, intended or references to Mahomet the Prophet of Islam while talking of hero as superimposed. Though just 270 odd pages long, the book has epic prophet. DzaPatrul with his exercise of miraculous and supernatural proportions in terms of the canvass it covers- several lives of the powers, and having already been reborn a hundred times, ascends to Buddha, several 'rebirths' of some of the yogis revered as the status of reincarnating gods in Ancient Indian and classical Bodhisattvas and several 'paradises' enshrined in Tibetan Buddhism. Greco-Roman mythologies. Patrul's word and actions have canonical By the time one reaches the end of book, there begin to appear value in Tibetan Buddhism, making him a 'hero as prophet'; and, several inlaid patterns of intricate Buddhist theories accessibly being an iconoclastic lama, he is entitled to the title of 'hero as illustrated and simplified through the tales. Most of the tales in the priest'.Among a few other lama characters who stand apart are:Jetsun collection either narrate the miraculous or exemplary actions of Milarepa, a “yogi sage”...and a “beloved bard” (5); Drukpa Kunley, lamas or report anecdotal incidents involving them. As the collection another “outrageous yogi” (32); Doe Khyense Rinpoche, a gun progresses, some lamas begin to assume larger than life proportions; totting “enlightened crazy yogi” (20); and “the Manjusri Master and by the time the collection nears the end, these lamas are firmly Jamyang Khyentsewangpo (161, 213, 234). Theologizing Folklore: Patterns of Tibetan Buddhism in... 7 8 Prakash Joshi
Being a non-theistic faith disbelieving in the elemental Creator and who personifies innate gnosis” (122 &115). The gnosis symbolized looking down on gods as unliberated, Buddhism ideally wouldn't by Manjusri with“upraised right hand” brandishing“a flaming have deities. Yet, in the Tibetan format of Buddhism, there are wisdom sword…cuts through the veils of illusion and illumines all around two score odd Bodhisattvas worshipped like deities. Taras, forms of darkness” (160). Manjusri, Avalokiteshvara, Amitabha, Padmasambhava, Shantideva The tales in the Snow Lion's Turquoise Mane delineate some and Vasudhara are the major Bodhisattvas variously worshipped by interesting concepts of Paradise in Tibetan Buddhism. Dewachenis a lamas of different schools in accordance with their philosophical or paradise of the Western Buddha field and is the residence of spiritual inclinations. Investigating into the essence of the faith, Amitabha “Buddha of Infinite Light” (63). There is no condition for Buddhism is non-theistic to such an extent that even Siddhartha entry into this Buddha field of “Sublime Delight” (113) except an Gautama the founder of the faith, is an ordinary mortal, just a unconditional compassion. Illustrating the simple principle of questing prince till he attains Buddhahood. Moreover, he is said to unconditional compassion is the tale of a handsome and youthful have been preceded by twenty seven Buddhas born and having monk who gives up his monastic vows to save the girl wanting to attained Buddhahood before him, apart from some unborn and commit suicide if the monk did not marry her.This monk is celestial Buddhas. Interestingly, a visibly idolatrous character of welcomed into Dewachen for sacrificing his “chosen monastic life Buddhism emerges and seems to be propagated in some of the style in order to save a life” (64). This Buddha field, Dewachen, is a Wisdom Tales. A reference to two tales is in particular pertinent in paradise with a crucial difference – it is not the dull, lucrative and this context. In the tale 'Naked Tara', the bejeweled image of Tara titillating abode of pleasures of flesh and gaudiness. On the contrary, comes to life and gives away all her clothes and adornments to a Dewachen, is a place of “great Bliss” where “the faithful are reborn beggar woman on the prayers of Chandragomi, a master at the in order to progress more swiftly on the path to perfect ancient Nalanda (109); and in the tale 'Embracing Tara', a monk who enlightenment” (63).In Tibetan Buddhism, the faithfuls have choices reviled and derided the idolatrous practices of Mahayana is saved for paradises. Zangdok Palri, the “Copper-Colored Mountain…is the from drowning by a floating wooden statue of Tara when the monk south western Buddha field presided over by the Lotus Born Guru fervently prays to her to save him (89). Tara, a female Padma Sambhava” and is a paradise different from Dewachen(30). Buddha/Bodhisattva,“embodies the female principle of liberation” Though the tales do not so much clarify the eligibility of a faithful and “is the protectress of Tibet, venerated for her swift for Zangdok, there seems to emerge a theory through the stories that compassion”(126). Of many, three male Buddhas/Bodhisattvas -- a genuine meditation should lead one up to that Copper-Colored Avalokitesvara, Amitabha and Manjusri --get a lot of mention in the Mountain. Encapsulating this theory of meditation leading to tales about lamas practicing their different kinds of Buddhist course. Zangdok is the tale 'A Great Feast', in which Patrul explains to his A personification of “unconditional loving kindness and mate Lungtok that the sheep killed by the gun totting Yogis -- Doe compassion”, Avalokitesvara Buddha is accessible and attainable Khyentse and Dodrup Chen -- for meat would attain Zangdok through nothing more than a devout seeking (122). Again, a deity of Buddha field (226-227). The tales in the collection mention at least a “the Pure Land School” (217), Amitabha Buddha would deliver from couple of Dakini Paradises too, one reigned by the Dakini Queen the Karmic cycle of births anyone with a strong and simple faith, as Vajra Yogini and called 'Urgyen Khandro Ling', and the other called he answers the simple “Dewachen aspiration” of “an ordinary 'Dumatala' (157). householder” whose simple religiosity is contained in “prayer, morality and devotion” (218).Not far from Avalokitesvara and It might appear a form of superstition, but a strong faith in the Amitabha is Manjusri Buddha, a “meditational” and a “wisdom deity efficacy and effect of“relics, talismans, psychic powers, curses and Theologizing Folklore: Patterns of Tibetan Buddhism in... 9 10 Prakash Joshi cures” is quite a perceptible stream in Tibetan Buddhism (Das xxii). These characters are supposed to assume various forms, often Of course, it is easy to surmise that the stream flows from the largely decrepit and haggard, and are the practitioners of their own variants nomadic and pagan agricultural background of Tibetans. Of quite a of the esoteric 'tantra'. They are fearsome characters too because they few tales making a mention of holy relics, there is one which is can be quick to wrath and cursing, though they can be quicker to extraordinarily bizarre, apparently cannibalistic and yet true. The tale bless too. is the historical account located in 1959, the year of the arrival of For example, a tale shows a woman leper begging alms on the banks massive Chinese troops in Lhasa and the flight of the Dalai Lama of a river. She asks a couple of traveling lamas to help her cross the from there. Communist and therefore secular, the Chinese wanted to river. One of the lamas ignores her, while the other, moved by reform and secularize the Tibetans, who they felt were backward exemplary compassion, picks her up and carries her into the river. barbarian. While on this secularizing spree, the Chinese soldiers Midway, the current of the river catches the robes of the lama, and were about to raze down the “reliquary shrine” (225) of Padampa just when he is about to be swept away by the strong current, he is Sangyay, an Indian Yogi who had competed with the Tibetan Jetsun lifted right up into the “dakini paradise” by Vajra Yogini disguised as Milarepa and had displayed his miraculous powers. Just before the the old leper (09).The 'tantra' that the Dakinis are supposed to soldiers would scatter the relics, a devout monk at the reliquary takes practise can sound abominably inhuman sometimes, as is the case a piece of the embalmed body of the Yogi Padampa. Thinking that he with the “vajra feast” at the Dakini Paradise in a tale that shows the would use the part of the embalmed body for prohibited practice of brains of a leper's freshly chopped off head as the sacred offering black magic, the Chinese soldiers put him on trial. When asked what consecrated by the Vajra Yogini. The Brahmin who refuses to partake he would do with the dead body part, the monk replied that such of the consecrated offering is sent back unblessed by the Dakini “relics were believed to confer liberation simply by sight or touch” Queen (156-157). No talk of Yoginis and Dakinis in Tibetan (225). Intrigued, the soldiers ask him if he would eat the embalmed Buddhism would be over without making a mention of Yeshe body of the dead holiness. The monk says he would, and then eats Tsogyal, “Padma Sambhava's mystic consort and chief disciple” the “relics of flesh seven centuries old” while “the bemused Chinese (180). A one off tale tells of Yeshe traveling to Nepal, meeting there a only shook their heads” and “placed the old monk under arrest” young slave named Arya Sale, ransoming him by the money she (226). The “Chinese propaganda sheets” called him a corpse eating earned by reviving another dead young man, and then bringing that cannibal, while the Tibetans revered him a “walking shrine” young man to Tibet to make a “well matched pair” with and (226).The belief in holy relics is common to many faiths, but nothing practising “yoga and meditation for months in a mountain cave near can surpass this tale of an intensely crazy act of a bizarre the snow line, where blissful experiences and great awakening Communion. Though it might be out of place here to do so, but the eventually ensued” (222). tale does remind one of the Christian practice of Communion, of eating the symbolic flesh and drinking the symbolic blood of Jesus The Yogini tantra and Vajrayana rituals are unmistakable essentials the Christ. of Tibetan Buddhist practice; yet the oral tales in our collection seem to propagate and promote the simplicity of faith uncorrupted by the Tibetan Buddhism has a strong Vajrayana component of Yogini and complexity of the esoteric, which sometimes turns quite gruesome Dakini beliefs and practices too. There are some exclusive tales in too. Asserting simplicity in and of religious practice, there are quite a this collection by Lama Surya Das that foreground Dakini practices few stories in the anthology that underscore the miraculous liberating and Yogini characters, who are considered “awakened incarnations” powers of “the popular mantra of Buddha Avalokitesvara” of Great of the “deity Vajra Yogini” (247), the “queen of the dakinis” (07). Compassion”- 'Om Mani Padme Hung' (131). The liberation from Theologizing Folklore: Patterns of Tibetan Buddhism in... 11 12 Prakash Joshi the cycle of rebirths, Nirvana, being the goal of a faithful and theorization, one of the tales does mention the avoidable counter, the believing Buddhist, the mantra of the Compassionate is a minimalist binary, of 'three poisons' against the 'Triple Gem'. This mention and yet powerfully effective means to attain the ultimate liberation. comes in a tale that is the part of a minor pattern in the collection, a The very first tale in the anthology signifies the immense effect of pattern rejecting the greedy ritualistic ways and pride of Brahmins of the mantra that gives the 'Mani Man' the capacity to detachedly yore, and, in some cases, their reformation and conversion. A respond alike to all the strokes of fortune and misfortune in his life representative story is the tale of the dunderhead Brahmin Chunda, (03-05). The significance of the mantra vis-à-vis the simplicity of who, the Buddha tells him, was in his past birth a Brahmin with religious practice gets the best illustration in the tale of “an old “overweaning pride”, had “mercilessly reviled the doctrines of other codger, a servant and carver of Mani stones” (131), whose religiosity scholars”, and “had been miserly in sharing his own advantages” is only contained in carving the Mantra of the Compassionate on (46). Born a gull, a dumb head in his present birth, Chundaka stones with fullest spiritual concentration akin to meditation. On his ultimately earns freedom from the “three poisons of attachment, death, his body is kept un-cremated for one week on his request. anger and delusion” to become “one of the sixteen enlightened When the son arranges the cremation and takes off the shroud from arhats” in the course of time (48). the body on the sixth day, he finds “nothing inside except fingernails Constituting a couple of other patterns, there are tales in the and hair” (132). All along the six days, the body had kept on collection that talk of the principle of Emptiness (which seems akin shrinking miraculously. Introducing the story as an actual event, the to the principle of 'detachment' in the Gita), and the interpretation of story teller says at the outset that the “extraordinary event occurred this principle either in the context of Sage Nagarjuna's theory of in 1955” (131). Of other stories delineating the miracles of the 'Madhyamika' (Middle Path) or in the context of vajra and dakini mantra, there are at least a couple that make a reference to the 'Mani practices. wall' (a wall of Mani stones that Patrul Rinpoche started and finished over many of his rebirths).The stories suggest that the mantra of the Having spoken of the Mani Mantra of the Compassionate and the Compassionate couples with the Triple Gem/Jewels to create a refuge in the Triple Gem of the Buddha, the Dharma and the Sangha comprehensively wholesome Buddhist religious practice for lay as the mainstay of the simplistic religious practice for lamas and lay practitioners as well as lamas. The refuge in the Triple Gem of the congregation, this critical analysis of the tales in Snow Lion's Buddha, the Dharma and the Sangha is shown in its immense Turquoise Mane: Wisdom Tales from Tibet reaches the juncture of a capacity to transform even a delinquent. Such is a tale of a thief who natural conclusion. And, at this juncture, it is best to reiterate the tries to steal offerings from the altar at the house of a lama, who essential stream of the Oral and the Folk in the propagation and catches him and hits him on his head with a prayer book repeating spread of the Buddhist religious culture in Tibet. The patterns the mantra of the Triple Gem (67).The Gem, as it were, seem to enter discovered in these 'Wisdom Tales' are representative examples of the consciousness of the thief, and he repeats the mantra of refuge in the way Tibetan religious culture has disseminated, caught on and the Triple Gem while nursing his hurt later. He transforms the very has grown deeper to such an extent that it has continued to moment and becomes the disciple of the lama. The aura of the Triple unfailingly resist the secularization sought to be imposed by the Gem extends beyond the territory of the human to include the animal Chinese there. Outside the theory of theology and related humanisms world too, as it happens with a sheep, a goat and an ox who quietly discussed in the early part of the paper, the mission of the tales can take refuge in the Triple Gem and attain the Buddha field after being be summarized by a quote from the preface by lama Surya Das: slaughtered for food (120-123). Though it doesn't come up for much Theologizing Folklore: Patterns of Tibetan Buddhism in... 13 Journal of Rajasthan Association for Studies in English11: 14-20 (2015)
All these tantalizing stories share one thing in common: they are teaching tales, meant to edify, instruct, admonish-and entertain. They are for scholars and sages as well as neophytes, nomads, shepherds, and farmers. As charming as Folklore and Adaptation:Hamlet and Haider fairy tales yet as pointed as biblical parables, these stories are replete with Himalayan folklore, magic, ribaldry, and the exotic marvels of Oriental culture, while they are also full of Devendra Rankawat uncommon spiritual wisdom and common sense, providing myths to live by… (xxi). Folk narratives are creative lineaments of every human culture. There is hardly a culture without these oral traditions or what W. J. Works Cited Thomas in 1846 definitively called 'the folklore'. Recorded or not, Cobb, Kelton.The Blackwell Guide to Theology and Popular Culture . these narratives have come down from generation to generation and Das, Lama Surya. The Snow Lion's Turquoise Man: Wisdom Tales from still seem to form the bedrock upon which, in successive times, other Tibet. New York: Harper Collins, 1992. Print. forms of artistic creativity (literature being just one of them) have Dundes, Alan.Holy Writ as Oral Lit: The Bible as Folklore . Lanham accrued. Therefore, while folklores may appear to belong to the (Maryland): Rowman & Littlefield, 1999. Print. hoary past, their ubiquity across time and space is surely the most Goleman, Daniel. Foreword. The Snow Lion's Turquoise Mane: Wisdom interesting and unique feature of their constitution. After all, what is Tales from Tibet. By Lama Surya Das. New York: Harper Collins, 1992. xix-xx. Print. it that has helped them evade the 'scythe of time' and the obscuring Hooker, Richard.Eight Books of Ecclesiastical Policy . London: 1666. Print. shifts across space? Malden (Massachusetts): Blackwell, 2005. Print. Different schools of folkloristics have advanced different Malden (Massachusetts): Blackwell, 2006. Print. explanations for this phenomenon. While Benfeyian hypothesis Milbank, John.Theology and Social Theory: Beyond Secular Reason . sought to explain it by recourse to 'atomistic/ diffusionistic theory Samuel, Geoffrey.Introducing Tibetan Buddhism . Abingdon (oxford): that postulates that all oral tales have diffused or migrated among Routledge, 2012. Print. genetically related or unrelated people; the mythological theory of Ward, Graham, ed.The Blackwell Companion to Postmodern Theology . the Grimm brothers and Max Muller sought to account for this Malden (Massachusetts): Blackwell, 2005. Print. phenomenon through comparative philology or what is today known as diachronic linguistics. There are a few more besides. But all these theories seem to boil down to the fact that there is something about folklores that enables them to not only 'metamorphise' but be perpetually in gestation so as to adapt to the changed world, and yet remain essentially the same. Hence, their undying appeal to humans irrespective of medium, form, temporality, chronology, context etc. It is this quality of folklores, and adaptation as a means of this timeless viability of the folk-narratives that I seek to demonstrate by taking Vishal Bhardwaj's filmHaider as a case in point. Folklore and Adaptation: Hamlet and Haider 15 16 Devendra Rankawat
The paper is exclusively confined to the study of how Haider owes its organizing narrative structure to Shakespeare's adaptation becomes instrumental in 'metamorphoses' and unceasing Hamlet which, in turn, owed its fibula (the basic story-line in 'gestation' of the folk-narratives. In this case, I seek to show that contrast to sjuzet) to a series of sources from a Scandinavian folk Haider is not merely a 'cultural grafting' but rather a more mature romance to Saxo Grammaticus' Amleth: The prince of Denmark to version of the tale, of course, containing as it does the wisdom Thomas Kyd'sSpanish Tragedy . Besides, it had a prototype predecessor (genetic affiliation) inUr-Hamlet (primordial- Hamlet ). gleaned in the centuries since. These all sources point to the tale of a prince caught in thought and Echoes and influences of one art on another is no new thing. What resolved to revenge his father's death; eventually incurring havoc T.S. Eliot suggested when he said, “art never improves, but…the upon everyone. material of art is never quite the same”, seems to hold good for the Even a mid-plane analysis of Shakespeare'sHamlet would reveal that adaptation too. (T.S. Eliot, Tradition and Individual Talent). This is it is a masterfully rendered orchestration of several folk narratives originally due to the re-writing impulse- the desire to put a thing inlaid with folk motifs like- ghosts and other revenants, marriage/ differently, in different lights. And this leads on to adoption of newer seduction by deception, choice of road (to safety, to sorrow or of no- modes of representation, and re-locating of the action. Thus, inter- return), filial duty versus love interest and a host of others. To adapt generic trans-cultural adaptation of folk narratives comes about, and these common human experiences to a different genre, a different cinematic adaptation happens to be its most recent form. The locale, a different era may not seem worth the effort. But, this is cinematic adaptation has many advantages. For one, it offers the rare where the distinctive character of folk-narratives lies; it is their blend of the feeling of live performance with the scope for commonness that makes them different. Their presence is often taken correction. For another, it has the widest possible reach, given for granted as if they were just there like the sun, the moon and the today's technological aid. But for this, any cross-cultural transposal stars. In any case, Vishal Bhardwaj ventures to re-produce and it of artistic productions would never have been possible.At least not so turns out to be a feat of his strength as a director. convincingly or at this pace. It is cinema that Vishal Bhardwaj has Now let us turn to the source and the product of adaptation. Hamlet used to 're-interpret' or 're-write' Shakespeare in a different cultural andHaider run parallel in so far as Haider is shown as a son and political context i.e. India. returning to find his father already gone missing: his mother already In Indian film-scape, while masala movies tend to sway the viewers, consorting with his uncle, who seems suspiciously poised: his home Vishal Bhardwaj has etched a name for his typical cinematic re- already in ruin; his beloved trying hard to keep him sane; then, his lapse into feigned madness; his discovery of his uncle's guilt; his tellings of Shakespeare. It is common knowledge that Vishal having to ruthlessly murder his two friends and eventually the scene Bhardwaj'sHaider is a loose cinematic adaptation of Shakespeare's of indiscriminate killing. Hamletthe last in the trilogy with Maqbool (Macbeth) and Omkara (Othello). Brought out at intervals, these adaptations get across Nevertheless,Haider is not merely a direct grafting of a 16th century Bhardwaj's understanding of the English maestro of dramaturgy. In European tale onto the 21st century India but a narrative up-dating of doing so, he never seems to have lost sight of the cultural structures Hamlet in a number of ways. Of all the points of unlikeness, the most he is himself embedded in. As discussion ofMaqbool and Omkara striking one seems to be the character of Gazala, the 21st century lies beyond the scope of this paper, let us turn toHaider , a re- avatar of Gertrude. Whereas Gertrude in Hamlet is a passive sufferer working ofHamlet . at the hands of patriarchs, Gazala is her more empowered version, Folklore and Adaptation: Hamlet and Haider 17 18 Devendra Rankawat thanks to the feminist radicalism which was definitely not there in instrumental in Bhardwaj's taking a dig at the army. Indeed, he had Denmark of by-gone times. Though Gertrude too as a mother had been a companion of Haider's father while they suffered together the deep influence on her son, Gazala is far weightier in comparison. It cruelties inflicted upon the 'disappeared people'. And his fortuitous is she who first dug in her heels for sending Haider out of Kashmir escape is artistically devised for an expose of the inhuman tortures for studies, knowing as she did that the whirlpool of sectarian inflicted by unnamed people at unnamed places. The Indian Army is politics will some day suck him in. And, at last, none but she rescues thus satirized by being depicted as devilish in exercise of AFSPA Haider by blasting herself off along with Khurram and his consorts. (Armed Forces Special Powers Act). Bhardwaj in an interview did On other occasions too, she articulates the pain of being a 'half- admit to have enjoyed this advantage when he said, “I like to fire the widow' (a mode of address for the women in J&K whose husbands shots from Shakespeare's shoulders. That gives me a lot of license.” have gone missing). Her entanglements with Khurram too seem, at (International New York Times 28th October, 2014) times, to be her strategic use of womanly charms for the safety of her son. Her long-repressed self comes into full view when the mother Adaptation of the grave-diggers scene, soliloquies, and the play-in- and the son stroll down the leaves-strewn boulevard. She lays bare the-play merits special mention as therein appears the creative force heart to her unbelieving son, who dismisses her reasoning as mere at its greatest. While the philosophical core of the scene (that humans rationalization of a lust-blinded woman. Her helplessness finds rise from dust and turn into dust) is kept intact, the grave-digger expression in phrases like- Intezaar, intezaar hi to hamari kismat me scene is structurally woven into the locale of Kashmir where even (Wait! wait is what I am fated to do); and, chahe kuchh bhi kar loon graveyards are shown to be no safe places. These may also serve as villain to me hi rahne wali hoon (for everyone, I alone will be the havens for terrorists and storehouses of ammunition. The soliloquies villain, no matter what I do to prove the contrary). Unlike Gertrude, that Haider utters are not only translated with semantic accuracy but whose culpability is not much strongly and explicitly resisted, the very curves and undulations of the 'source sounds' are retained. Gazala is given space enough to make her case. During the For example, 'to be or not to be' is put into 'main hoonki, main nahin, melodramatic ending, she asks Haider to surrender or else he would main rahoon, ki nahin'. Haider's dilemma is projected to have surely be killed off. To convince Haider to surrender and live to fight become the dilemma of every dweller of Kashmir. Each word he another day, her reasoning is- mujhe dubara bewa hote nahin dekhna utters also articulates the general pain of being torn between two (don't you wish to see me widowed once more, if you do, surrender worlds. And, the manner in which, the degree to which, syntactical, and live to make that happen). The statement, and the earnestness phonological, and semantic parallels are achieved seem to proclaim with which it is made, appear strong enough to exonerate her of her the genuineness of able adaptation as a means of artistic supposed complicity with Khurram. On the whole, the character of universalization. The play-in-the-play is also turned into a Gazala evinces a clear attempt at rehabilitation of Gertrude by being celebratory dance-performance. But, the frantic measures and given a voice and a chance to get heard. orchestration are so designed as to externalize the aggression and indignation felt at heart. The Bulbul (Gazala) is warned of the Another point of departure is Roohdaar, who turns out to be a more duplicitousness of the Gul (Khurram). And eventually, the veiled realistic and convincing (given today's scientific temper) counterpart accusations made by Haider are openly admitted by Khurram in the of the ghost of Hamlet, the senior. However, like the ghost in the confidence that he would soon dispose Haider off, either by getting play, Roohdaar beckons Haider (of course, physical beckoning is him trapped under AFSPA or by making him perish in the lunatic replaced by dropping of contact number) to tell him the secret of his asylum. Thus, the structural function is retained at no expense of father's murder. But unlike the play, inHaider this character becomes creative 'circumstanstiation'. Folklore and Adaptation: Hamlet and Haider 19 20 Devendra Rankawat
Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are replaced by a pair of jokers. Their These points of likeness and unlikeness betweenHamlet and Haider self-ridiculing activities like putting on Salman-like mannerism, seem to establish the postulation that adaptation of tales from one ceaseless posing, funny dance steps etc. serve twin purposes- one, genre, culture, and era to another is no mere imitation, nor any form evocation of humor to make up for their structural redundancy, two, of artistic dalliance; rather, it serves to widen the art's reach across an excuse for commenting on complicity of local politicians in the time and space. It becomes a means for art to achieve timeless misuse of AFSPA. These two characters often serve as links between viability. Haider and his manipulative uncle Khurram. In this respect they parallel the prototype treacherous friends of Hamlet, but they also Works Cited afford a chance to satirize the weak foundation of democracy in the Caro, Frank D. The Folklore Muse . Utah: Utah State UP, 2008. Print. seething Kashmir of 1990s. Dorson, Richard M. “Current Folklore Theories.”Current Anthropology 4.1 (1963): 93-112. Print. And democracy is the next thing in respect of which Haider is found Garry Jane, and Hasan El- Shammy, eds. Archetypes and Motifs in Folklore to acclimatize well. Successful weaving of a tale of monarchy into and Literature. New York: M.E. Sharp, 2005. Print. democratic fabric is another point to the credit of adaptation that not Haider. Dir. Vishal Bhardwaj. Perf. Shahid Kapoor, Tabu, Shraddha Kapoor, only transposes the action in spatio-temporal terms but also ensures a and Kay Kay Menon. UTV Motion Pictures, 2014.Film. seamless stitching of the action into socio-political grid of the Maqbool. Dir. Vishal Bhardwaj. Perf. Irfan Khan, Tabu, Pankaj Kapoor, Om receiving structure. Puri, and Naseeruddin Shah. Kaleidoscope Entertainment, 2003. Film. And the most significant departure from Shakespeare's version of the Omkara. Dir. Vishal Bhardwaj. Perf. Ajay Devgan, Saif Ali Khan, Vivek lore comes when Bhardwaj'sHaider , unlike Hamlet , is shown to Oberoi, Kareena Kapoor, Konkona Sen Sharma, BhipashaBasu, heed to the wise counsel of life's experience accrued over centuries Naseeruddin Shah. Eros Entertainment, 2006. Film. since. If Shakespeare'sHamlet does only suggest the severity of ruin Shakespeare, William.Hamlet. New Delhi: Rama Brothers, 2009. Print. incurred by the desire for revenge, Vishal Bhardwaj'sHaider goes a Warshaver, Gerald E. “On Postmodern Folklore.”Western Folklore 50.3 step further by explicitly pointing a way out: Intekam se sirf intekam (1991): 219-29. JSTOR.Web. 8 Oct. 2014. paida hota he, azadi nahin. Jab tak hum humare intekam se azad nahin ho jate koi azadi humein azad nahin kar sakti (Revenge begets revenge. Unless we think beyond revenge, no freedom is true freedom). Haider too, much like Hamlet, has lost his father, mother, and beloved in the whirlpool of politics. Yet unlike Hamlet he acts sensibly and thoughtfully enough to resist the temptation of revenge. He foregoes revenge in full consciousness of the fact that he might, if he so wished, easily crush his fallen enemy himself begging to be killed off. But he chooses to rise above this and just walks away in sheer disgust of the bloodshed such an act would inescapably entail. His psyche is shown echoing with two voices:, one of his father demanding to be avenged for, and that of his mother counseling him to eschew the pleasure of revenge. While it might gratify momentarily, its curse will never cease to blight the future. An eye for an eye will only make the whole world blind. Journal of Rajasthan Association for Studies in English11: 21-28 (2015) 22 Naresh K. Vats
Lakhmi Chand presents many facets of beauty in his poetry. We can see three aspects of beauty in Panditji's work: Natural, Human, and Social. Notwithstanding the other two aspects, it is human (woman, to be precise) beauty, that appears quite prominently in his poetic Depiction of Beauty in Pt Lakhmi Chand's Poetry renditions which have been exhilarating the Haryanvi folk even in this 21st century globalised Haryana where performance of traditional Naresh K. Vats 3 form of Saang (A folk theatrical form in Haryana) has become a Beauty is a feeling that soothes our senses; its source can be living or rarity. non living. Anything (the term 'thing' is all inclusive) that fills us Raagini is an important part of swang which is a with joy, that force-attracts our gaze, that fills our taste buds with combination of song and story as per the situation. It is the richness, which excites us to the core when touched, that makes us famous Haryanvi style of singing and generally of four forget everything else when heard, and makes us experience that stanzas. There are different forms ofraaginis like AHA moment which psychologists recognize as feeling of Kathopakathan, Doha, Kafiya, Sawaiya which evolved out fulfillment, is beautiful. In fact, beauty is so simple a feeling as it of the contributions of famous old Haryanvi poets. does not require any conscious effort to experience it. Also it is too Kathopakathan (question and answering) through raagini comprehensive to define in words for the lack of a generally was introduced by Pt Lakhmi Chand. Later, other poets accepted trait or a set of properties – physical properties may not followed this trend. (Haryana Review: 16-17) agree with the inner traits or vice versa. However, artists and philosophers have been making efforts to express the idea of beauty Talking about 'Folk theatre in Himachal Pradesh' R L Sharma in his in language1 – Verbal as well as Non-verbal. article 'Media Invasion of Folk Conscious' mentionsSaang (swang) performances in Himachal Pradesh: In all literary traditions of the world, poets have tried to express the idea of beauty according to their cognitive-frame – Kalidas, Jayasi, “Karyala, a popular folk theatrical form of districts namely Keats, Meer, Gaalib are a few to name here. When we think of the Shimla, Solan and Sirmour in Himachal Pradesh, presents an folk literatures of Northern India, the list is very long. Hence, interesting blend of music, dance and drama in a series of mentioning some of them means leaving the others out as all have short skits (known asswang ) woven together for all night made remarkable contribution to the folk literary tradition. However performances. The dialogue is spiced with pun, satire, wit, Haryanvi2 folk theatre will remain indebted to the geniuses like humour and practical wisdom. … Chandravali Nritya Kishan lal Bhat, Deep Chand, Lakhmi Chand, Baje Bhagat, Mange (female dance) … is played by a male performer and so are Ram, Sultan Singh, Dhanpat Singh, Ram Kishan Vyas, Chanderlal/ other female roles in most ofswaangs (theatrical Chanderbadi, Tuleram, Ratiram, Jhamman Lal, Kheemchand, Jai sequences/performances that may be equated with skits) that Narayan, Shyonath Tyagi, Tejram. For the purpose of this paper, I'd follow such as Jhoolana, Bairagi-sanyasi ka swang, Mem- like to focus on Pt Lakhmi Chand who sang his heart out for about saab ka swang, Jogi-Jogan ka swang, Bangale ka swang, twenty years and established himself as the literary giant in Haryanvi Gaddi-Gaddan ka swang, Jangam ka swang, Gangi-Sundar folk tradition. He is the poet-singer whose literature grew out of the ka swang, Barada-Baradi ka swang, Rajput ka swang, folk-consciousness- Or the folk conscious was considerably Chooranwale ka swang, Hathi ka swang, Daag-Daoon ka informed by his poetry is equally veritable. swang, Nawab ka swang, etc. that represent the Depiction of Beauty in Pt Lakhmi Chand's Poetry 23 24 Naresh K. Vats
kaleidoscopic view of various cross-sections of society, and Gora gaat aura ankh kateeli, syahi beech bhari thi entertain the rural audience.” (Sharma, R L 2012: 63-64) Dhunge pe choti latke janu naag lahrave kaala All folk theatrical forms in India are facing the same crisis. In this Lakhmi Chand describes both internal and external, now entering the context Roshan Lal Sharma further says: persona to word-paint the emotions, now observing from outside and … the media of communication today has the least to offer portraying the scene and action. In fact, everything happens through that could encourage/enrich community life. What it does the consciousness of the poet who communicates his narrative to the instead is providing exposure of an exotic (alien) culture audience rooting himself firmly in the socio cultural setting of along with inoculating a false value system into the young, Haryana. He creates images which communicate external beauty as impressionable minds resulting in cultural as well as well as it invokes emotions. Lakhmi Chand's metaphors very psychological uprootedness. Since in the present era of efficiently cater to the taste of his audience which is crude and globalization and privatization, media is regulated by the uncorrupted by any highbrow literary canon. (By Highbrow literature politics of capital, market and hence profit, its irresistible I mean literatures in Hindi, Urdu, English etc. which have well influence remains unstoppable as it has swallowed the entire developed traditions behind them) folk cultural space. Given the variety and sophistication of For example, in araagni from Saang ' Chandrakiran ' Lakhmi Chand programmes that television (recently introduced DTH, Dish describes the beauty of Chandrakiran (the female protagonist of the and satellite television in particular) offers in the hyper- narrative) by evoking various metaphors and senses. competitive business environment of today, folk art forms Teri jhaanki ke meh goola maarun baant gopiya san ka such as theatre, music and dance have received a severe jolt vis a vis their popularity, survival and growth. (Sharma, R L Ek nishaana chookan dyun na main chhaliya baalakpan ka/ 2012: 62) Laambe-laambe kesh hoor ke janu chha ri ghataa patere pe It is largely through 'woman' that Lakhami Chand has depicted Dhoonge upar choti kaali janu latkain naag mundere pe 'beauty'. Practically speaking, internal beauty is generally ignored for Bahut der main nazar gait ere chanderma se chehre pe the lack of external beauty. Also, external beauty usually leads to the Gaya bhool paachali baatan ne ib saang karoonga tere pe positive assumptions of internal brilliance. Panditji has described his Pinjre main ruk rya se janu sher bhagera ban ka/ heroines cap-a-pie in vivid details. His style is quite perspicuous. Saari duniya main ghoom liya mili isi lugai konya Using very efficient and exact metaphors he depicts his heroine's Tere kesi shan shakl ki di beer dikhai konya beauty describing lucidly her various body parts and ornaments – hair, hairdo, forehead, eyes, eyebrows, teeth, arms, breasts, belly, Kunwarapan tera deekh rahya tu ib tak byahi konya belly button, waist, buttocks, thighs, gait, legs and whatnot. Dekh liya mane tere bhi gaat samaai konya InSaang 'Chaap Singh' the male protagonist dreams of his beautiful Haali bina khet samara na tera khet padya se ran ka/ sweetheart: Bina baalam tere joban ki reh-reh-maati ho jyagi Gori-gori baiyyan, narm kalai, choodi laal hari thi Izzat ho barbaad teri nyun tabiyat khaati ho jyagi Chanderma se mastak upper bindi theek kari thi Kise kisam ki sochegi tere gaat uchati ho jyagi Julf chhanta ri, itr rama ri, inder kesi pari thi Meri gail chaal ke dekh ke raazi janti ho jyagi Depiction of Beauty in Pt Lakhmi Chand's Poetry 25 26 Naresh K. Vats
Nai jagah pe nyun lagegi janu babbar sher se ban ka/ Kesho Ram Sharma in his article 'Saang: Udbhav Aur Vikas' Chhaati khinchma pet sukadma aankh mirage ki dhal pari (Saang/Folk Theatre: Origin and Development) published in Hindi Naak sua sa munh batua sa honth paan te bhi laal pari journalSahitya Arpita, Issue 3, 1995, says: Lakhmi Chand tha nyun sochegi karke duniya khyal pari In the times around First World War, Pt Deep Chand's Lerhi roop gazab ka gola tu kise maanas ka kaal pari Saangs had a great sway in and around Haryana. Then British government requested Pt Deep Chand to motivate Mera gaam se sirsaa janti main chella Maan Singh bahman the youth of the area to join army. Panditji wrote and ka/ composed a raagini. A part/ kali of the song : Ek nishana …….. Bharti hole re tere bahar khare rangroot/ We come across similar descriptions in Nazir Akbarabadi (An 18th Ade milen tane toote litter ude milen full boot century poet, also known as poet of the masses. He was contemporary of Mir, and senior of well known poet Mirza Ghalib.) Ade milen tane fate puraane ude milenge soot Ade milen tane sooke tikkad ude milen biskoot Jo aisa husn ka darya ho, kis tour na laharon main bahiye Ade milen tane dhakk-mukki ude milen salute Gar mehr-e-muhabbat ho behtar, aur jor-o-japha ho to sahiye Bharti hole re tere bahar khare rangroot/ Dil lot gaya hai gash kha kar, bas aur toh aage kya kahiye This song had a tremendous effect that thousands of young Mil jae 'Nazir' aisi jo pari, chhati se lipat kar so rahiye boys from the area got motivated to join army. After the end of the war, then government honoured Pt Deep Chand with Boson ki chipak, baglon ki lipat seenon ki milawal waisi hai the title Rai Bahadur. He was an accomplished artist in his Khoonrez karishma, naaz sitam, gamzon ki jhukawat waisi genre (Greatest of his contemporaries). Hissaang ' Beeja hai Sorath' was a super-duper hit. Kutubi, the artist who played Various art forms, including literature, evolve and grow drawing the role ofSorath, was weighed with silver by the people of sustenance from two centers: Society and Rulers. Folk literatures village Cholka (Rohtak). (Sharma, K R 1995) have always survived among the commoners of its linguistic group What R L Sharma says about folk theatre of Himachal Pradesh, holds by depicting its life through different narratives. Folk literature good for Haryanvi Folk theatre tradition also. It subverts mainstream connects with its audience by mirroring their common ways of theatrical conventions related to stage, dialogue and written script. living, their passions, their inspirations, their tastes, and the popular The stage is a make-shift arrangement and the narrative is rooted in imagination. Roshan Lal Sharma in his above mentioned article says: typical socio-cultural milieu – at places exaggerated, adapted and “Besides providing recreation, folk theatrical forms improvised satirizing, mocking and lampooning people as well as also creat public awareness regarding contemporary power. People, often, pass remarks and join the fun by intervening the socio-cultural, political and economic issues performance. Performers, in order to induce humour or to create the therteby offering corrective discourse by employing desired effect, even subvert the language by mispronouncing words, techniques such as wit, humour, satire, farce, distort the accepted meaning and usage. Thesaangi or head burlesque , caricature etc.” (Sharma, R L2012) performer or director of the play makes all efforts to entertain as well as enlighten the audience about contemporary social, political and Depiction of Beauty in Pt Lakhmi Chand's Poetry 27 28 Naresh K. Vats economic issues. Folk theatre also tries to cater to the basic and crude Cultural Haryana includes the political Haryana and all the adjoining taste of its audience by alluding to sexual innuendoes that are used areas which have similar language as well as world view. 4 volitionally in a disguised and ambiguous idiom . (2012: 64-65) 3 Saang or Swang means to mime or to impersonate. It's a form of As a dance-drama form, 'Swang' also incorporates suitable theatre that mixes poetry and prose. However, poetry is the dominant theatrics and'nakal' (mimicry) accompanied by song and element of the performance. Prose is in the form of dialogue as well dialogue. As is the case with any folk performing art of as discussion. Poetry comprises raagini, doha (couplet), kafiya India, 'Swang', too, is dialogue-oriented rather than (triplet), savaiya (quartet) etc. Raagini has no limitation of number movement oriented. And judging from the raucous laughter of lines.Raagini generally has four parts, and each part is called kali. it evokes, the uninhibited and loud dialogue is much Themes are drawn from morality, folk tales lives of inspiring appreciated. (Haryana Review: 29) personalities, mythology etc. In addition, it also presents possibilities of future. Lakhmi Chand's 4I've watched such suggestiveness in almost all open/public saang literature does the same by drawing natural images without any performances. Abusive and loaded words are used for whatever artificiality. His poetry is simple and lucid. Apart from idea of reasons. One reason being the fact that there is hardly a female beauty, it is pertinent to mention here that he is a poet of the common audience present today; or it is other way round, that it is not people (Awaami shaayar ) who spoke not 'about' them but 'for' them. safe/sensible for women to be the part of such environment. It seems that common people of his time spoke through him. His Works Cited writings remind one of Nazir Akbaraabadi who wrote about day today business of the masses by talking about their daily concerns. Chand, Puran Sharma,ed. Pt. Lakhamichand Granthawali. Panchkula: Haryana Sahitya Academy, 2010. Print. Though his plots were taken from the popular narratives like Heer- ranja, Mahabharat, Krishn-Sudama and many more, but the Dev, Indra.Folk Cultue and Peasant Society in India, Jaipur: Rawat, 1989. treatment to the main plots always travelled beyond the obvious by Haryana Review 24.9, Sep. 2010. Chandigarh: Govt. of Haryana. Web. locating the characters and action in local culture. He was brilliant in 29/10/2014.
suggesting that work is worship. Next is Self-respect. This I learnt from an old man of eighty years or so, who used to collect plastic What Can Common Folk Teach Us: made materials from roadsides. In tattered cloths, wearing spectacles almost broken, and slowly heading his way he was no less in his Cinematography of the Folk Life of Rajasthan struggle for life to 'Santiago' of Hemingway's “Old Man and the Sea.” He was so old that he could get anything free of cost, but he Govind Sarswat chose to earn his living. Other one is helping others. Once I lost my way to 'Mehraangarh' in the old city of Jodhpur. A stranger Learning is a continuous process. Those who are curious to learn, life accompanied me up to the right way saying “these streets are very is open to them within and without a classroom for this. There is an confusing.” He could have suggested me, but he showed me what open classroom outside the formal academic institutions where there help really is. Last but not the least is to never cheat those who are no qualified and specialist teachers, but the common folk under believe you. A renowned sweet vendor in my village use to taste his the blue sky. Many of them are illiterate, yet well acquainted with the sweets before selling. And once he closed his shop after tasting philosophy of life. They did not read this philosophy in any of the because he found the quality somewhat lacking. He preferred to bear books. And the knowledge they have is only in oral tradition. This the loss to cheat the people who believed in the name of his philosophy goes on with their life. Indeed it is a way of their life forefathers and him for that special sweet. Apart from these examples which is at the centre of the rich cultural heritage of any of the there are many 'mute inglorious' common folk whose life is ordinary, regions. The need is to explore, sustain, and hand it over to the next but collectively they are the maker of a special culture. generation lest it should lose its value with the passage of time. V.S. Naipaul once suggested that Indians don't know about Rajasthan is one such region where the philosophy of life flows themselves, and so is the case with Rajasthan. The old people know through the living of common folk. These rustic people, knowingly about the folk tales, songs, and dance, but the young generation is or unknowingly, teach us many practical things without having any miles away from this rich cultural heritage. The main reason being it academic degree. Life has been their teacher throughout, and so they is mostly in oral tradition. So the message contained in them is shape the standards of living accordingly. Thinking of them reminds limited. The folklore of Rajasthan has many gems but they lie me of Thomas Gray's “Elegy,” because it was he, who understood neglected in some unknown 'Dhani' or village. But unknown does the worth of those unwritten, unsung, and unknown life stories of not mean non-existent. Folk writers like Vijaydaan Detha have such common folk living everywhere. True it is that: penned down some of the finest tales which have attracted the Full many a gem of purest ray serene attention of Indian cinema. In this connection the two movies under The dark unfathomed caves of ocean bear: analysis here are Amol Palekar's “Paheli” and Nagesh Kukunoor's Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, “Dor.” And waste its sweetness on the desert air. (Elegy, 8) “Paheli” (2005) is inspired by a folk tale written by Vijaydaan Detha. The whole movie is colored with the tradition of Rajasthan. The Before proceeding, here I want to acknowledge what I have learnt frame narrative has two puppets commenting upon the happenings of from them. Many a time while going to college on my way I used to its meta-narrative wherein we have young Lachchi who is to be watch people in 'Sabji-Mandi' in the early hours. Even a laborer or a married to a merchant son, Kishan, and a lover “Bhoot.” Rajasthan is 'Thele-Wala' bows and prays before setting out for day’s work a desert area, and here are sown the seeds of this story. Lack of What Can Common Folk Teach Us: Cinematography... 31 32 Govind Sarswat business possibilities in Rajasthan led many people to go to help to them which they laugh away on the grounds of his illiteracy. “Dishavar” for earning. And such is the case with the obeying son But he proves that an illiterate person has that knowledge to solve Kishan who is to depart on the next day of his marriage. The young the 'Paheli' which we literate do not have. He is a symbol of wife remains behind alone and helpless. The story takes a new turn simplicity, help and humility. He knows something about the love with the entry of a “Bhoot” in the guise of Kishan in 'Haveli.' In the and nature of a 'Bhoot.' How do we know since it is not written in climax real Kishan returns and the riddle (Paheli) of reality is any book? Indeed it is this common person whom we are searching. enhanced. Amid the warp and woof of this love triangle is scattered The 'Bhoot', above all, shows inclination to the true values which we the fragrance of Rajasthani Folklore. The characters hail from a living beings often fail to do. He is dead long ago and thus is a small village during an old time. representative of ancient time. He has magic and can do anything. He Kishan plays what a son should be: obedient and respectful to the uses magic in acquiring the looks of real Kishan, and in providing parents. He fulfills the promise made to his father sacrificing his magical, perhaps illusiory, gold coins to Kishan's father, Bhawarlal. personal happiness without any complaint. He shows that family is But in order to get his true love, Lachchi, he never uses magic. He bigger than a member of it. He is a too idealistic character to be could have, since he is capable. Instead he discloses his real identity followed, because all this goes into failure of his duty towards his to Lachchi for a long lasting relationship. She is riddled with this wife. His only trouble is that he fails to balance his responsibilities 'Paheli,' but succumbs to truth and love at last. The ghost fills the between social and personal life. lack in Lachchi's life. The crisis starts with the arrival of real Kishan. Lachchi, an enthusiastic young bride, delineates the dreams of about On the way to king's palace, the shepherd inquires the matter. He to be married girls and the manners of a bride as well as a 'Bahu.' understood and solves the riddle with his practical knowledge. He There is a contrast between her duty and love. She is shy but not challenges that whoever truly loves Lachchi must enter his water submissive. She breaks the chains of patriarchy long before (may be) bottle. The ghost knows that it is a trap; even then he decides to enter the feminist theory came into existence. She is a loyal wife and the bottle saying: “Aaj mahari preet ri pariksha hai.” The ghost obedient 'Bahu', but when her dreams are shattered she is compelled willingly let himself be imprisoned to prove his love. How beautiful to accept what is lacking in her life: that is love. At the end when all and pure this bond is where the lover is ready to be trapped forever the people return, along with her real husband, postulating that they than to be known as a false lover. We learn such type of commitment have trapped the ghost, Lachchi is completely broken. Her husband from this unearthly figure. forgives her saying that the ghost might have used black magic so as “Dor” (2006) is written and directed by Nagesh Kukunoor. The story to win her love. But she tells him the truth that the ghost did nothing centers around two women: Meera from Rajasthan; and Zeenat from like this. She wants him to know that everything was natural and in Himachal Pradesh. Meera becomes a widow shortly after her that condition she accepted him. Here the story reaches at its heights marriage and is trapped by tradition. Zeenat sets out for a journey to because love conquered. The ghost has entered the body of her Rajasthan to save the life of her husband without knowing whether husband and is proud to know that he was not wrong in loving she will find out Meera or not. A 'Bahroopiya' helps Zeenat in her Lachchi. search. The end of story results in redemption for both the women. The shepherd has a short but effective role. When village people take Meera and that 'Bahroopiya' are the two characters who represent the both Kishans to the king in order to find out the real one, they meet common folk. This story is about woman emancipation and Meera this 'Gadariya' on their way. Despite being a stranger, he offers his emerged as a victor in this battle. What Can Common Folk Teach Us: Cinematography... 33 34 Govind Sarswat
Meera, a young and vibrant girl, is married to Shankar in a typical The 'Bahroopiya' attracts our heart with his silly mistakes and light Rajasthani family. Here again the husband has to leave for Saudi humor. But similarly he is sincere and honest. A common Arabia to support his family. The lovers are separated as per the unemployed and uneducated man like him proves to be the epitome custom. A newly married girl accepts the ordeal and remains behind of unselfish support. He exemplifies what we mean by “Athithi Devo within the walls of a big 'Haveli.' She clings to the 'Dor' of hope that Bhav.” Zeenat could meet Meera only because of him. one day her husband will return. Fate wills otherwise and the news All these characters show us how life should be lived. If we succeed comes that Shankar is supposed to be murdered by his roommate in living so, we will certainly be called the sublime creation of god. Aamir, Zeenat's husband. The family members blame Meera for Amid the whirlpool of this world we need to keep the basic instincts bringing bad-luck to their home. All her dreams are put behind a alive. These common folk are “far from the madding crowd's ignoble black veil leaving her emotionally blank. Aamir is about to be strife” keeping “the noiseless tenor of their day” (Elegy 9). It is in executed for murder, but the Saudi Arabia law permits release of a their blood. They teach us, through their behavior, what we will not criminal if the wife of the deceased forgives the gilt. Armed only find in books. with a photograph of Shankar and Aamir, Zeenat comes to Rajasthan to get the 'Maafinaama' signed by Meera. Works Cited Dor. Dir. Nagesh Kukunoor. Perf. Elache Hiptoola. Sahara One Motion What we learn from Meera is that being human needs a great deal of Picture, 2006. Film. patience, sacrifice and courage. She can be selfish and leave Aamir Gray, Thomas. “Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard.” Strings of Gold: on his bleak fate. In fact she does so and breaks up with her new An Anthology of Poems. Ed. Jasbir Jain. New Delhi: Macmillan, 1994. friend Zeenat throwing away the 'Maafinaama' when the later Print. discloses her real identity. Zeenat is about to leave empty-handed and Hemingway, Ernest.The Old Man and the Sea . London: Vintage, 1994. hopeless. She feels herself guilty that she could not save her Print. husband. On the other hand, Meera struggles with her thoughts and Naipaul. V. S.An Area of Darkness . London: Andre Deutsch, 1964. Print. questions as to why she is confronted with the situation to act like Paheli. Dir. Amol Palekar. Perf. Gauri Khan. Red Chillies Entertainment, God or to become like God. Here comes the answer that even God 2005. Film. has to be incarnated into the form of a human being so as to perform such great deeds. It is not in the fate of Gods, but in the fate of human beings. She resolves the dilemma and harries towards the temple where they used to meet. She finds the thrown 'Maafinaam' and a friendly apology letter from Zeenat. And here begins her race with the train in which Zeenat will depart. At the end the 'Dor' of hope is sustained as she gives the signed statement of forgiveness to Zeenat and in turn Zeenat extends her hand from the train to take Meera back into life. Meera grabs the opportunity and as the train speeds up into the distance, we are relieved about the fate of innocent Meera. She becomes the symbol of women emancipation, and an inspiration for those who unwillingly surrender in front of dead traditional values. Journal of Rajasthan Association for Studies in English11: 35-38 (2015) 36 Haraprasad Ray
In the Indian context, the fanciful bed-time stories narrated by the Folktales, Children and Modern Challenges nannies are hymns of cordial bonding between them and their grandchildren. They are also in the printed form and have been maintaining their original grandeur of oral form since the beginning Haraprasad Ray of nineteenth century in India. Though the changes have occurred with the change of narrator and narrating style the maintaining ….this is an old story. When I was a little girl my grandmother told it humane touch has remained the core concern whether they were in to me. When she was a little girl she heard it from her grandfather oral or in written form. However, gone are the days when children and when he was a little boy in Bohemia his mother told it to him. were moving into soothing slumber in the joint family's common Where she heard it from, I do not know, but you can say, it is an old, open spaces drowsily looking towards silvery moon and finding the old story. grand old lady spinning thread under the grand old banyan tree in the moon-land, or children wrapping faces with the cloth-end of their – Wanda Gag nannies in fearful blinks in the starry darkness in thrill and fright Folktales, the narratives of the masses, have been the most popular looking for the prince and the princess on the back of the mythical shared experience in the societies over the civilizations entertaining flying horse towards their lost kingdom through the limitless sky. and educating people about their cultural legacy. May Hill Arbuthnot With the advent of modern nano-technology the centuries old joint says, “Usually the Folktales have clearcut, robust themes which are families started breaking seemingly finding a new found resort into capable of supporting good plots. They even involve the element of nuclear ones. The single-child concept (sometimes a single pair of contrast-sometimes there is uneven conflict which always makes a children) has been a popular family phenomenon as an obvious story exciting”(226). These inherent qualities have remained the core corollary to that technological belief in letter and spirit. The digital competence of the folktales for reigning over the centuries almost 'imperialism' has stealthily crept into the drawing rooms of the universally. The fact which has been fascinating people about the families paving the ways for nannies to the old-age homes since the folktales over the centuries is that they have magical effects new age digital childrenlores in their modern renditions appear more especially on the minds of children. History suggests that the thrilling and appealing than the nannies' age-old tales from the folktales are one of the known companions of children, and they are folklore repertoire. The folk tales, which were soothing minds, also guides and philosophers to them. Even “Long before John depicting problems of life through vibrant storyline and allegories Newbery established the first press devoted to children's books, and offering solutions through reasoning and intellectual stories were told and written for the young, and the books originally brainstorming, started turning towards offering simmering thrill offered to matured readers were carefully recast or excerpted for triggering unbound enthusiasm of tender minds even in the youthful audience”(1) says Seth Lerer. However, in spite of their beginning of the third quarter of the last century, just before a few printed forms the oral tradition of the storytelling has always decades ago are struggling now for breath air in the atmosphere created by the popular technological gadgets. This paper looks remained the universal courier of the ever enchanting plots of the towards them as research problems and seeks to explore them to folktales and thus earned the repute of a genre in their long journey underline various challenges in tackling those problems and finding and remained evergreen. These stories from the masses or folktales some viable solutions. have always been considered and cared as the possessed treasure and the movers of the cultural and traditional values from generation to History shows that the myth and belief have been the core potential generation over the globe. and inseparable associates in the folk tales and the basic tenor of the Folktales, Children and Modern Challenges 37 38 Haraprasad Ray folktales is to illustrate the fundamentals of good and evil for Fighting and killing the evil forces are not new in the folk tales. But fighting evil. In the modern age folk tales those elements are still the true essence of human instinct of wining over bad forces has present but they are being projected in the different orientations. been reduced to violence, hatred, torture, and glorification of They are in new incarnations as they used as the state-of-art tools by unfathomed brutality of human primitive instinct. This shift from the profit hunting techno-savvy market players. In the ultra- power of human intellect to the cataclysm of violence is the major competitive social structure life has been an ever changing challenge before today's children and the ramification of that is truly mechanism of busy and expensive expositions. Spouses of the unpredictable nuclear family framework have no escape but to earn for maintaining the social viability. Taking the advantage of the coercing situation the Works Cited market economy has paved the way for the market players to intrude Arbuthnot, May Hills.Children and Books. Scott Foresman, 1947. Print. into the drawing rooms of the common households with their digital Lerer, Seth. Children Literature: A Readers History from Aesop to Harry gadgets of readymade pleasure. Speed thrill and profligacy being the Potter. U of Chicago P, 2008. Print. key words of the modern age. The electronic gadgets like television, Papashvily, George, and Hellen Papashvily. Yes and No Stories: A Book of video game mobile phone have successfully overwhelmed the tender Georgian Folk Tales. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1946. Print. minds of the children. Mandrake, Superman and Spiderman and numerous others are the tactical speed heroes and the magical power of them substitute the heroes like Jeannie ofArabian Nights and Hanuman of epicRamayana . Pokémon and alien creatures create new fancy world distancing human pleasure and pathos plunging the young minds into hedonic charismas. Almost all the folk tales are animated and they are available in vibrant colours and almost in all the modern languages of the world. There is no doubt that the new-age-technology has made the stories easily available but at the same time, with their dazzling presence, they have been silently annihilating the imaginative faculty of the pent-up children in the lonely nuclear households. “Antique Children literature goes beyond the list of texts that children read or an account of fables, excerpts, and the instruction we may gather from them. It centered on the making of the child as citizen”, says Seth Lerer (18). However, unfortunately we remain nonchalant and sometimes obsessed in haunting happiness in profligacy. Books have been almost removed from the new technological re-orchestrated scene and the scope of reasoning and thinking associated with reading has suffered the consequence. The electronic gadgets have taken over the whole gamut of oral and written literature of the genre with visual cinematography which has made the children passive watchers shedding their active roles as thoughtful readers. Journal of Rajasthan Association for Studies in English11: 39-43 (2015) 40 Sonu Shiva & Jamil Usta
perspective dimension also serves to bring awareness among people. It is that theatrical art which is ever evolving and continuously The Integrated Experience of Creativity and experimenting with new themes and manner of expressions. It has Culture : Tradition of Rammat in Bikaner never compromised with the expectation of the audience. This has always brought to fore front all kinds of contemporary issues related to gender discrimination, religious prejudices etc, therefore it finds Sonu Shiva & Jamil Usta its base in social identity. TheseRammat s are not just the memories handed down by an old lady to the grand kids of neighbours. They Folk is an ocean of life that comprises of past, present and future. It are powerful theatrical performances that make us applaud, laugh or is no where limited to one village but its presence can be felt across at times simply offer our silence. It is the staging of abstractions and cities and villages. The foundation of folk does not lie in any book. other relevant realities around.Rammat s have dived deep into the Its presence is in its practicality, orality, simplicity and naturalistic heart of people of Bikaner by creating and presenting situations true expression. It is widely known that philosophy of life in its intensity to life and by using the medium of words it communicates culture can be best represented through folk lore. Each place has its own and tradition to the society. The songs and poetry sung inRammat s history and this history is communicated through symbols from a are written locally by poets on religious or historical folk heroes and common background. It is the sense of unity gathered from shared legends. There are various instances related to staging oframmat . ways of myths, folktales and songs. All this gives the idea of One is about famous writer and poet oframmat Tej Jaisalmeri ; who oneness. The essence of folk is not just in its stability being led the revolutionary theatres. In 1943 he composed Swatantra historically established, rather its current moves in multiple Bavnish and gifted it to Mahatma Gandhi. His revolutionary ideas directions with the mixing of new expressions. It goes beyond made British Govt. issue arrest warrants for him. When he heard the religious beliefs and encompasses the entire body of social tradition news of his arrest warrant he went to police commissioner's house usually transmitted orally. and said in his strong voice : Rammatis one such folk cultural form of Bikaner. Rammat is a word ,&dfe'uj [kksy njoktk derived from Rajasthani word 'Ramana ' which means 'to play'. It is gesa Hkh tsy tkuk gS the term used for staging traditional narrative and its history goes fgUn rsjk gS uk rsjs cki dk back to 150 years. This staging has always appealed to grass root audience. The stage used forrammat s is extremely simple made of gekjh ekr`Hkwfe ij yxk;k cUnh[kkuk gSA wooden planks called 'Patas '. There are no prior arrangements. The Commissioner open the door audience and performers gather of their own will and organize it. we also want to go to jail There are only male performers who also enact female roles. Women neither enact nor are present as audience. It is performed during eight Hind is neither yours nor your father's days of Holi festival commonly known as 'Holashtak ' and is a rich Prison is imposed on our homeland source of music and art. (Translated) There are two types ofRammat . Firstly the ones that have a plot and This shows thatrammat players are not just entertainers but are fully secondly the ones based on free representation of contemporary aware of revolutions happening in society. There are certain notable issues through folk songs andswangs . Rammat with its multi- features oframmat . Before rammat starts all the actors come on The Integrated Experience of Creativity and Culture... 41 42 Sonu Shiva & Jamil Usta stage so that the audience can see their costumes and make up. The SongMeri Ki Rammat : In thisrammat actors are free to enact any dialogues are sung by the group of singers sitting on stage and the contemporary issue or famous personality. It can also comprise of actors also sing dialogues as they dance and enact on stage. The main abstractions like corruption. Closely related toRammat is the musical instruments used areNagada and Dholak . The stage is a presentation of famous Rajasthani folk play 'Swang '. The tradition of small open raised platform with no stage setting. The sand is spread swangis as old as of rammats. In swang the actor imposes a all around the stage; as after therammat people carry fist full of it to character on oneself and then presents it. Swang, if seen through the home considering it auspicious. The songs sung on the staging of angle of Role related theories in social psychology, is a way of Rammat are: claiming image. Marvin and Shaw write: 1. Hyms for local deity Ramdevji. This is sung before the To claim to a particular image is said to occur when people try beginning of rammat. to associate themselves with that image. When a claim is made 2. Chaumasa : This song is related to rainy season. there exists a requirement that the claim be legitimate i.e. the 3. Laavni : These are the hyms related to Gods and Goddess. person should have those characteristics involved in the claim. 4. Ganesh Vandana : In this people worship lord Ganesha. That the person is able to perform as claimed. (331) The literary aspect oframmat is noteworthy. Even the players of In aswang , for example, one can easily find swang of politician Lalu musical instruments in theserammats are source of great Prasad and Rabri Devi sitting on stage and people worshipping them entertainment as well as they gain lot of respect in the society. It is through poetry. It the midst of laughter one can hear : most informal art form where no attention is paid on the purity of pkjkS Hkk;ks ftRrks [kk;ks accent in dialogue delivery and is performed by actors and directors iNS jkcM+h ys vk;ks with no wish of fame or money. It has neither sponsors nor rewards. The staging oframmat in Bikaner is as natural process as the flowers Hkj Hkj lÙkk jk lcM+dk come on trees. As the festival of Holi nears, the footsteps of rammat ykyw tcjkS uke dek;ks ( Tiwari,44) can be heard nearing. The famousRammats of Bikaner are – In these lines pun is intended as Rabri is also a Bikaneri cusine 1. Amar Singh Rathore'sRammat : A Rajpoot warrior who singly cooked by putting flour in butter milk. It proposes Lalu enjoying challenged Mugals and sacrificed his life. power even after leaving CM post through Rabri Devi his wife. 2. Hadau Meri's Rammat :Hadau is the one who is well versed in Rammats are also named after castes as well as place. There are testing the breed of horses andMeri is commonly used for two families traditionally associated with the performance of rammat wives that this businessman has. The plot is about the hero who every year. In a very informal manner this lineage is handed down wants to leave for foreign land for business purpose and Meri through generations. Mikko Leakboner in his article “The Erosion his wives enact shringar to stop him. of Local Identities of Cities” writes : 3. Bhakt Pooranmal Rammat : It deals with Pooranmal's denial of In urban contemporary societies the identities of people are love for his step mother where he sacrifices life. This rammat closely inter twined with the local identity of the cities they live has references fromVed, Puraan etc. in. The local identity of a city is shaped by its citizens and their 4. Shahjadi NautankiRammat : In this the hero fulfills his promise identities are formed by the local identity of the city, which is of marrying a princess. framework of their everyday life.... The quintessential The Integrated Experience of Creativity and Culture... 43 Journal of Rajasthan Association for Studies in English11: 44-47 (2015)
environment of modernity, the modern cities is changing rapidly under intense economic, technological and cultural pressures. The social fabric of a city and the built environment itself may dissolve or mutate entirely. The identities of cities change changing conditions in which people have to shape their Folklore as a Discipline own cultural identity (234). Mehzbeen Sadriwala & Pankaj Vyas Looking at the above challenge the people of Bikaner are unaware of their important contribution in protecting this folk art form. It is not “If you take myth and folklore, and these things that speak in always thatrammat has sacred or religious content in it. It also deals symbols, they can be interpreted in so many ways that although the with psychological patterns and instincts of mind woven in figurative actual image is clear enough, the interpretation is infinitely blurred, a narrative. They are important source of morality and entertainment. sort of enormous rainbow of every possible colour you could Works Cited imagine.” Laaksonen, Mikko. “The Erosion of local Identities in Cities in There is no need to argue whether discipline has a role in society. Pestmodernity: A Study of Two Novels.” Cultural Identity in The types, severity, and appropriateness are debatable, but it surely Transition. Ed. Jari Kupiainen et al. New Delhi: Atlantic, 2004. Print. serves a purpose. This applies on a global scale, with groups such as Mohammed, Sadiq. Rajasthani Lok Sahitya Evam Bharat Gathae: Ek NATO and the UN, all the way down to individual households. The Adhyayan. Jodhpur: Moomal, 2007. Print. family unit acts as a training camp for upcoming members of a Shaw, E. Marvin, and Philip R. Costanzo. Theories of Social Psychology. Tokyo: Mc Graw Hill, 1982. Print community by teaching children what is expected of them through example and discipline. Though the methodology varies from Tiwari, Mool Chand. “Bikaner Kuch Rang Baras.”Nagar Vaibhav. Bikaner, Surya Prakashan. nd. household-to-household, culture-to-culture, place-to-place; we all have had to answer to authority at some point or another. The methods and lessons passed from generation to generation are preserved in the retelling of our own experiences to one another. These stories can also serve as a badge of honor; proof that we have survived the storm and are worthy members of society. The relationship between discipline and folklore may seem vague at first. The key to bridging the gap lies in the way the correlation is set up. Instead of finding similarities between the two, it is necessary to view discipline as a form of folklore, thus affording discipline of all the rules and stipulations of its assumed parent. Corporal Punishment as a Means of Discipline for Children- There is also a mass amount of agreement that discipline and the upbringing of children should be carried out by caregiver's that have a warm and nurturing relationship with the child. Many agree that Folklore as a Discipline 45 46 Mehzbeen Sadriwala & Pankaj Vyas discipline, such as corporal punishment, is important groundwork in our society. They must also learn to respect the rights and property during the development of a child's competency structure and self of others. direction. When corporal punishment is effectively administered it Children brought up without discipline may become selfish, greedy, can be a configuration that promotes a child's positive dishonest, unpopular, uncooperative and insecure. Indisciplined accommodation to the world. children constantly demand attention. They may be inconsiderate or Discipline Among Children disrespectful to others. Some are destructive, aggressive, and Children in today's society seems to be more “out of control” than accident prone. A child allowed to disobey without punishment is prior generations. Is this due to lack of discipline? For generations unlikely to develop much respect for law as he grows older. people were spanked, had their mouths smacked when back talking, By telling their story, people reveal themselves. Their personality is or other various forms of discipline that today would be viewed more highlighted by the kind of story they tell and the way they tell it. as abuse. With today's generation, when spanking, if a mark is left on Explanations for an individual's behavior may become evident in a that child for longer than 24 hours, it is considered abuse. How did functionalist sense: 'Why I am the way I am' is explored through an society, who once thought spanking was okay, go to not Seeing Eye expression of feelings and bottled up emotions through references of to eye? Through many years of research, psychologist are beginning the past. This directly relates to Phenomenology and Znamiecki's to see that spanking or being aggressive with children has long term discussion of knowledge of self. Some responses reflect a change in effects on those children. consciousness such as: "I was caught. I realize that my dad was Spank or not to Spank pretty slick and if I was going to do going to do something I wasn't Have you ever been out in public and a parent and child is having a supposed to, I had to be more careful and look at all the possibilities fighting match because the child wants something that the parent of getting caught." Another important aspect of the telling of the want buy or the child just runs off while the parent is busy looking story is in reinforcing the immediate community. By jokingly sharing for something. What about the child that is lying on the floor kicking our humility, we have the opportunity to strengthen our familiarity and screaming in an attempt to get there way. These particular and bond with each other as Swarthmore students. scenarios happen all the time and parents are then put in a position to The relationship between discipline and folklore may seem vague at either disciple their child right on the spot by spanking their bottom first. The key to bridging the gap lies in the way the correlation is set or just speaking to the child in a harsh manner. Whatever manner you up. Instead of finding similarities between the two, it is necessary to use to disciple your child is totally up to the parents. Disciple can view discipline as a form of folklore, thus affording discipline all of and have caused families to disagree on the method that will be use the rules and stipulations of its assumed parent. The story that the to raise a child. interviewees tell is a clear example of a personal narrative. The Discipline in Childhood characteristics of folklore regarding the hero pattern, as it concerns a Children require freedom to grow and to learn, but they will not persecuted youth who survives the wrath of the "evil witch “are thrive on unlimited freedom. The aim of discipline is to set satisfied in most accounts. Display the evil stepmother. The reasonable limits which protect children from harm and teach them similarity between the two implies the manifestation of real life what is safe and what is not. If children are to grow up into situations in the mythical tales. Discipline mimics the kiss that turns responsible, conscientious, and dependable adults, they must learn the frog into a prince. The authenticity of this kiss comes from lips the social, moral, and ethical standards that are considered acceptable that kissed, or in plain English, these are not a product of technology Folklore as a Discipline 47 Journal of Rajasthan Association for Studies in English11: 48-54 (2015) or translation by a foreign tongue. It is a direct reflection of a culture's values as taught to those who will become the meat of the aforementioned culture. When asked about the motives of their disciplinarians, the Gavri - The folk Drama of Bhils of Rajasthan interviewees generally agreed that discipline, like folklore, is a method used to teach. This follows Piaget's studies that suggest that Rekha Tiwari there are basic steps in a child's development that are universal regardless of the society they come from. The similarity across The origin of folk drama is quite ancient in India. Natyashastra by cultures would lend to a monogenesis of humanity. Discipline, as Bharat Muni dates back to almost 500 B.C. Natyashastra laid the folklore, instructs us how to be civilized and well mannered. It is the classical rules for performing plays. The development of drama is essential part of developing into a respectable member of the human like the growth of any language. First the language comes into race. existence and then the rules of grammer are formed. Similarly plays, “The world's literature and folklore are full of stories that point out initially were performed on a very private basis and the domain of how futile it can be to seek happiness. Rather, happiness is a blessing performance was confined to the patrons, who promoted the artists that comes to you as you go along; a treasure that you incidentally and dramas for their personal entertainment. As these performances find.” matured and language literature and education also grew then the Works Cited classical rules to perform the plays were formed giving them a class of their own. Folk dramas established in the same way. The same Folklore as a Discipline.
Rasleelaand Nautanki in Uttar Pradesh, Gavri and Khayal in beliefs say the story of demonBhasmasur who worshipped Lord Rajasthan,Ramleela in Delhi, Lalit and Lavani in Maharashtra, Shiva who pleased with Bhasmasur's devotion granted him a strong Ottam Thullalin Malabar, Therikorothu in Tamilnadu, Veethi in wish that whenever he keeps his hand on anyone's head that person Andhra Pradesh. will die burning in fire. There after Bhasmasur started misusing the grant by killing innocent people on earth. Lord Vishnu to resolve the Gavri is a form of dance drama prevelant in Udaipur, Dungarpur and problem transformed himself into a beautiful woman named Mohini- Banswara and is popular amongBhils .Vibrant, vigorous and graceful the dancer and went to Bhasmasur. Bhasmasur fascinated by her folk dance of Rajasthan peformed gracefully by the colourful crowd which punctuates Rajasthan's barrenness, turning even the deserts beauty started imitating her dance and kept his hand on his head to into fertile basin of limitless colours and variations of the amazing copy Mohini, thereby got burnt and died. folks living here.Gavri which is a distinct art form found in the Bhasmasur's soul asked forgiveness from Lord Shiva and appealed cultural heritage of theBhils who express their devotion and faith to lord to keep him alive in minds of people in return of his great Lord Shiva and his wife Parvati through folk dance, Music and short devotion. Lord Shiva thereafter declared that, for paying homage to a narratives. It also symbolizes human love for forests, animals and great devotee like Bhasmasur,Gavri will be celebrated every year. nature. It is quite unique and impressive. The story of Shiva and Since then this fest is organized in the region of Mewar by the Bhil Bhasmasur is supposed to be the main story behind the origin of Gavri. community. Rajasthan encompasses numerous tribes having distinct identities in There is one more belief and it says that Lord Shiva had been the term of costumes, dialects, beliefs and arts. People have nurtured a ruler of Mewar ever since times unknown.Eklingji a place about 17 splendid tradition of folk songs and folk dances of whichGavri is Km. away fromUdaipur , was believed to be his holy abode. Once, unique in itself which is performed byBhils . The bhils are the Goddess Parvati, his spouse, had gone to visit her father's home for a original inhabitants and tribal of Mewar-Vagad area of southern long period of a month and a quarter deeply in love with his wife, the Rajasthan which was gradually conquered and inhabited by Rajput long separation ranShiva into deep melancholic mood. To amuse rd th kings and other northern settlers around 3 to 4 Century B.C. him, the devotees,Ganas (who were Bhils ) devised an entertainment The presentation ofGavri is done by Bhils only after the monsoons, program madeup of dancing, singing and theatrical activities. The in the months of September and October and the forty days festival event eventually became ritualistic and took form ofGavri , which is Gavriis celebrated by Bhil tribe in Udaipur, Rajsamand and Chittor now an integral part of socio-cultural and religious life of theBhils . districts of Rajasthan. Whole male folk, even children participate in There are four kinds of characters in this folk drama.They are dev, this dance-drama symbolizing a healthy environment and it intends to ensure the well being of the community and the village. While humans, demons and animals. The Rai and Budiya are the two main onlybhils perform them, other castes attends the performances and mythologial characters to form theGavri , Bhil ritual performance. In offer donations. During this period people do not eat any green Gavri dance-drama group, there are two Rai's in form of Parvati vegetables, stay away from alcohol and avoid being non-vegetarian. (Gorja) and Mohini goddesses in female costumes why always They sleep on grounds and avoid taking bath (except on Dev-Jhulani stands or sits in the centre of the performing circle. TheBudiya as Ekadashi). Bhasmasur- keeps a wooden mask of black surrounding bull tail hair Bhils are the devotees ofShiva and Shiva has been considered to be on his face and carrying a wooden stick orChhari , always walks in a the main god ofBhils and thus Bhils adopted Gavri as the most direction opposite to other performers. The other priests as Bhairon important story of Shiva.There is no definite origin ofGavri . Some and goddess Mata, stays withRai as a guard to her. Gavri- The folk Drama of Bhils of Rajasthan 51 52 Rekha Tiwari
According to the muhurtGavri starts from the next day of entertainment. When the rain gods are generous then happiness Rakhee.Gavri is performed during the day time in the village where prevails in the tribal region and theBhils begin Gavri , a dance drama they enact different mythological and social episodes with the on the next day after Rakshabandhan. A big number of Forty to one accompaniment of musical instruments likeMadal and Thali .People hundred persons is there to participate in the dance. All kinds of go from village to village, especially to the villages where their arrangements and especially the food and stay arrangements for all daughters and sisters reside after getting married. those persons are made by the villagers where the programme is Collectively such performances are arranged in any open space and presented. The gifts are also given to the dancers in the form of that serves as a stage. For five to six hours each day, the troupe dresses, ornaments, cereals and animals individually as well as performs a series of episodes. On two occasions the festivity lasts all jointly. There is a tradition of giving gifts and gifts are given by night. Like many Indian rituals, these scenes bind secular, folk and Samdhi who lives in that village to thesamdhi participating in the Hindu epic characters with references to local daily life. Despite dance asgavri is performed in the villages in which their sisters and some comic scenes, theGavri ritual is generally solemn, ending with daughters reside after marriage. the appearance of gods and goddess, and often including trance Leaving aside their work of farming during these days, Bhils remain among both performers and audience. engaged in this play from morning to evening. The players are called On the last day ofGavri performance, the Bhil players also dance Khelye (characters) and they live a very austere life and take food and perform in the night. These are the night awakening rituals. only once in a day. Along with other performances they also perform the ritual of Gavri is played for a period of one month and nowhere, except Hiraniya Bhoot or ghost performance in which two artists play the Mewar such a play can be seen which goes on for such a long period role of ghost in which they cover the body with the grass and and with such a big group of players performing in so many villages perform the role of ghost. in such an organized manner. The form of shiva presented in the Gavri has a very important place in the list of folk plays played in dance-drama is unique in itself. The five main characters are Raiee Mewar and it is played so skillfully by these tribal people that it Budia (representing Shiva and Bhasmasur) the raiees representing produces the impact of an eye catching scene, the magical effect of Mohiniand Parvati , Kutkadia and Pat bhopa , all other players are which makes the viewers stop and stay on to watch it and get calledKhelye . engaged until the episode reaches its end.Gavri , not only holds it Great importance is given toKutkadia who is the sutradhar of this audience spellbound for whole day long, but also refreshes and play and he relates briefly the story of each play before it begins, energizes performers as well. thus the audience comes to known in advance what is going to Gavri is a form of entertainment for the Bhils and this form of dance happen. drama helps them to enjoylife fully.The art of enjoying life fully and The musical instruments used for its performance areDhol , Thali at the same time striving hard against heavy odds to survive under andMandal and the artistically prepared costumes are used for the unfavourable conditions is a valuable lesson to be learnt from tribal performers and settings of the actors add to the effect of the play. people likebhils of Mewar. There costumes are decorated with religious and auspicious pictures When nature is in her full bloom During monsoons, theBhils are also like sun, moon, stars, peacock, 'papiha' etc. Faces of the human filled with great gusto and enthusiasm. They are in highly joyous actors are painted with gaudy colours or the masks are used. The mood. Their religious celebrations combine worship with colours used for this are mainly Black, yellow and red. Dark blue Gavri- The folk Drama of Bhils of Rajasthan 53 54 Rekha Tiwari colour is used for those players in the roles of demons, black for ornaments by their relatives,choorma is distributed as prasad. The thieves red for goddesses and yellow for jogi sadhus. Since Gavri use of new crop is made after this. There is a strong religious purpose dance-drama ofBhils has its origin in the story of Shiva and behind this playing ofGavri for the Bhils . During Gavri they satify Bhasmasur, Bhairavnath is the form of Shiva and Devi Ambav Bhairavnath (Shiva) to grant the village prosperity, to protect their symbolisesGauri . Importance is given to the character of Devi community against diseases, sorrows, trouble, poverty and famines. Ambav and it is played in a very special manner. The main themes in Bhilsobserve jagran at Bhairava's devra every night. This is how the this play are Bhanwara-danav, Kanh-Gujari, Badlya hindva, Kanjar- Bhils have kept alive the fascinating tradition of this unique folk Kanjari, nauratan, Hariya-Ambav, Khetudi, kalu Keer, Dharion bhil, dance-drama all these years and have made a great contribution in Kalbeliya, Rai Mochchla, Soor-Soordi, Kalka-devi, banjara, meena this field.Gavri is thus a valuable cultural inheritance bestowed by andnahar-sinhi and nahar . These themes entertain the rural folk to a the tribal from one generation to the other and from one century to great extent. the following one. The community of Bhils is very well organized. In this folk play there are four kinds of characters and they are dev, They all follow the directions of theirMukhiya . humans, demons and animals. The dev characters are completely free To preserve such ancient dance forms, Rajasthan government is from all kinds of vices and are the symbols of ideals. They can move making efforts to gain recognition for this form of folk-theatre with to all the three lokas. Shiva, parvati, Kelka and Devi Ambav fall in the continuous financial assistance and government and non- this category. Human charaters include Budia, Raiee, Kutkadia, government support and a lot of research work is going on to revive Kanjar-Kanjari, Bania, Jogi, Meena, Nata, Khetudi, Shankariya, and develop this unique folk-theatre form of Mewar region and to Garda, Kalbelia, Kalu Keer, Banjare, Bhopa, Fatta-Fatti, Devar give it the status it deserves. Lots of work has been done in this field Bhabhi etc. and much needs to be done if we have to save this unique form of The danav characters areBhanwara, Khaddala Bhoot, Hathia and folk-theatre. Bhiavan. The main animal characters are Soor, Richdi and sinha . Works Cited Gavriends on Ashvin Krishna Chaturthi and the two days Lindsay, Harlan. Religion and Rajput Women: The Ethic of Protection in preceeding the end ofGavri are known as Ghadavan (the first day) Contemporary Narratives. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1992. andValavan (the second day). Everyone goes to the village of the Print. Kumhar from where an artistically made sand elephant is taken in a Mathur, Ashok. “Gavri- The Incredible Play of Bhils” . Udaipur Times 21 procession to their own village. This elephant is coloured in several September 2011. Print. colours and on it sitsGorjiya . Devia Bhils believe that on this day all Rustom, Bharucha. Rajasthan, an Oral History, Conversations with Komal the gods are with them.Valavan ritual is performed on the next day. Kothari. New Delhi: Penguin, 2003. Print. The whole dayGavri is played with great energy and excitement and in the evening the elephant made of sand is immersed in the waters of any nearby lake or river. Before this immersion, the elephant is worshipped and it is offered sugarcane, fresh maize, cucumber, fruits and vegetables. When this ritual is over everyone goes toKheda Devi Gorjaya temple where all the players are given gifts like clothes and Journal of Rajasthan Association for Studies in English11: 55-58 (2015) 56 Rukhsana Saifee
defined as "the totality of all those views and practices of religion that exist among the people apart from and alongside the strictly theological and liturgical forms of the official religion.” Folklore and Islam Folk Islam is an umbrella term used to collectively describe forms of Islam that incorporate native folk beliefs and practices. Folk Islam Rukhsana Saifee has been described as the Islam of the "urban poor, country people, and tribes" in contrast to orthodox or "High" Islam. Sufism and Sufi Folklore is the body of expressive culture, including tales, music, concepts are often amalgamated in Folk Islam. Folk Islam is found to dance, legends, oral history, proverbs, superstitions, and so forth, mix animistic practices with orthodox Islam. The formal Islam common to a particular population, that comprise the traditions of followed by Orthodox Muslims of Saudi Arabia, Iran, etc, that culture, subculture, or group. contradicts folk Islam. Folk Islam is practiced because formal Islam does not answer the questions of everyday life, but only deals with The term "folklore" was coined in 1846 by the Englishman William ultimate issues of life, i.e., origins, heaven, hell, purpose. It is Thoms, who wanted to use an Anglo-Saxon term for what was then cognitive, legalistic, and institutional. But folk Islam gives an answer called "popular antiquities." to everyday concerns of health, guidance, and success. It is "Folk" can refer to "any group of people whatsoever who share at emotional, mystical, and inspirational. least one common factor. It does not matter what the linking factor is-it could be a common occupation, language, or religion-but what The student of Islam can understand the common people only if he is important is that a group...have some traditions that it calls its knows the reason for their curious beliefs and practices. We need own" (Dundes, 1965: 2). According to Alan Dundes, the notion of accurate knowledge to have sympathy and avoid showing contempt “folk" should not just be automatically identified with peasant or for those caught in the undertow of superstition; nor must we rural groups, or with people from the past, Contemporary urban denounce what to them may have real sacramental value. Not only people also have folklore. Alan suggests that rather than dying out, does superstition prevail among the vast majority of Muslims, with folklore is constantly being created and recreated to suit new literature on magic, the universal sale of amulets, charms, talismans, situations (Dundes, 1965: 2). magic squares and the practice of geomancy, but in the very source- books of Islam, the Quran and the Traditions, where these practices In the study of folklore, the folk process is the way folk material like nearly always find their origin or their justification. stories, music, and other art, is transformed and re-adapted in the process of its passing on from one generation to the next. The folk Where in the Qur'an does it teach you to protect your baby boy from process defines the "folk community" through which folklore is evil spirits by placing a knife next to him in the crib? Or how about transmitted. While there is a place for professional and trained soaking a prayer from the Qur'an in water and using that water to performers in a folk community, it is the act of refinement and protect your house from evil spirits? And did you know that the creative and positive change by community members within the folk reason that man has a physical disability is because he talked while tradition that defines the folk process. in the bathroom? This is 'folk' or 'popular Islam'; a world where if Folk religion, sometimes also termed as a popular belief, consists of you comment on how well a baby is growing her grandmother will ethnic or regional religious customs under the umbrella of a religion, quickly utter a blessing and you'll be told in no uncertain terms “such but outside of official doctrine and practices. Folk religion has been things aren't said.” Folklore and Islam 57 58 Rukhsana Saifee
Such practices have the strongest hold on those to whom the official Pre-Islamic Arab and Persian traditions, which were essentially teachings of Islam are least available and have the least to offer. With pagan, developed a wonderful body of myth and folklore. Jinns, limited access to the mosque and little instruction in the Qur'an it efrits, demigods, saintly men and women, and great heroes played isn't hard to understand why many women don't realise how far they their part in sparkling collections of folkloric tales and fables. It is are wandering from its teachings in their search for protection from only natural that people, throughout history, would borrow these evil spirits. entertaining beings and attach them their own heroes, and Islamic literature, therefore, is rich in such material. Folklore in the Islamic lands encompasses a rich and varied body of oral and written literature. In the Quran, several terms are used to As the world is increasingly globalized, preservation of traditional denote the narrative accounts of prophets and other didactic tales: folklore and the on-going development of new materials are qassa, haka, haddatha, khabara, and naba-a. These words indicate the important ways in which unique cultural expressions can be relating of news or passing on of information, often with specific maintained and their wisdom transmitted to future generations. reference to the sayings and doings of exemplary figures. It seems Works Cited clear that there were active storytelling traditions extant in the Hijaz Abu al-Futū Rāzī, Tafsīr-e raw al-jenān va rū al-janān IX-XVII (pub. so (the western region of the Arabian Peninsula) from before the time of far), Tehran, 1988. Print Muhammad (d. 632) that may have accompanied the rich tradition of Abū Bakr Moahhar Jamālī Yazdī, Farrokh-nāma, ed. Ī. Afshār, Tehran, pre-Islamic poetry. In addition to early Arabian traditions, Islamic 1967. Print folklore has been profoundly influenced by the storytelling traditions Georges, Robert A. and Michael Owens Jones. Folkloristics: An in other parts of the world, particularly those linked to the region via Introduction. Indiana University Press, 1995. Print the Silk Road. Indian, Chinese, Turkish, and Persian stories have "Genie". The Oxford English Dictionary. London: OUP Second edition, greatly enriched Arabic folklore. 1989. Print Among the classificatory categories, hikaya is perhaps the most Ruthven, Malise.Islam: A Very Short Introduction . London: Oxford common term used to denote the range of fictional narratives, University Press, 2000. encompassing didactic tales with ethical and moral functions, heroic http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folk_process ballads and legends, and fanciful stories of the supernatural. The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folk_religion] Gulistan of Saadi is perhaps the greatest example of Persian hikaya www.prayingforindonesia.com › Religion in Indonesia] literature. The sira denotes a biographical account that may range [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folk_religion] from the life of Muhammad to the Sirat Bani Hillal, a long oral epic www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Folklore] poem describing tribal wars and genealogical heroes of BEDOUINS that remains one of the most popular tales in Egypt and the Middle East. The qissa came through Persian and Turkish literature to signify love stories such as Layla wa Majnun and Shirin-Farhad. The most famous collection of Arabic folklore is, of course, Alf Layla wa Layla (The Thousand and One Nights, or Arabian Nights), a tremendous gathering of tales with Asian, Middle Eastern, and European origins. Journal of Rajasthan Association for Studies in English11: 59-74 (2015) 60 Karan Singh
been seen as incarnation of evil in the form of serpent and thus summarily rejected by Brahmanism as sub-human. The humanising Closure and Erasure: Brahmanical Ideology impulse in the folklore acts against the embeddings of Brahmanical and Folklore of Princess Niwal Dai influences which are also visible in it. The complexity and multi- layered structure of this folklore owes to the multivocality and imposition of clashing ideologies which the lore has passed through Karan Singh in its oral form.
Folklores are subversive of the hegemonic patterns of every kind of I hierarchies and provide an alternative escape route to subaltern strata Terry Eagleton inIdeology: An Introduction speaks of a poem by of any society from the existing power structures which tend to Thorn Gunn in which a German soldier saves many Jews from their become monolithic and essentializing with time. Thus folk tales and impending death in prison camps earning an applause from the poet folk songs are seen as alternative readings which supplement the for escaping from ideological straitjacketing: kaleidoscopic truths and question the historicity of absolute truth claims. One of the chief functions of folk lore is to use collective I know he had unusual eyes, memory in its rebellion against the truth of the conqueror which Whose power no orders could determine, often happens in case of Hagiographic historical and mythical Not to mistake the men he saw, writings. As others did, for gods or vermin. The present paper studies the folk memory of the story of conflict For Terry Eagleton predominance of 'idea' over real human beings, between Nagas and by Parikshit who were later exterminated by Janmejaya, son of Parikshit, the great grandson of Pandavas. The classifying them into “gods or vermin” (Eagleton 3) is ideology. It is story occurs in the Adi Parva of the Mahabharata and is also referred a reductive gaze of a consciousness which prioritises sublime in Bhagavata Purana wherein Parikshit is killed by Takshak. The 'notions' over complexity and unpredictability of human lives and story is dealt in folk legends of Haryana and Punjab through the tale society. Though mostly ideology is referred to as hegemonic and of Princess Niwal Dai who precipitated quarrel between Pandvas, the singular, 'the ideology' of a particular society; there may be Aryans and Nagas, the autochthonous people of Punjab. The princess simultaneously existing many ideologies running co-currently: was abducted by Parikshit and the revenge by Niwal Dai's father If Gunn's conscript escaped the ideological conditioning of his Basak (Vasuki), the king of Nagas, resulted in the killing of Parikshit fellows, how did he come to do so? Did he act as he did in the name by Takshak. of an alternative, more clement ideology, or just because he had a My paper taking recourse to theory of ideology discussed in Marxian realistic view of the nature of things? Did his unusual eyes appreciate dialectics investigates how this folklore subverts brahmanical men and women for what they were, or were his perceptions in some readings of the legend by giving anthropomorphic attributes to the sense as much biased as those of his comrades, but in a way we Nagas who faced persecution in the hands of powerful Pandvas. The happen to approve rather than condemn? Was the soldier acting lust and mindless destruction let loose by scions of Pandvas towards against his own interests, or in the name of some deeper interest? Is Nagas evokes sentiments of pity and fear for the people who have ideology just a 'mistake', or has it a more complex, elusive character? (Eagleton 3). Closure and Erasure: Brahmanical Ideology and Folklore... 61 62 Karan Singh
Ideological trappings can lead to a stunted vision, a refusal to follow Ideology as a representative of false conception of human and social the flow of life in its entirety. W.B. Yeats in 'Easter 1916' rightly situation was first asserted by Napoleon Bonaparte who condemned pointed out that intellectual closing is the worst sin as it paves way its practitioners with misleading people of France: “It is to the for a stone like vision of life: doctrine of the ideologues - to this diffuse metaphysics, which in a Hearts with one purpose alone contrived manner seeks to find the primary causes and on this Through summer and winter seem foundation would erect the legislation of peoples, instead of adapting the laws to a knowledge of the human heart and of the lessons of Enchanted to a stone history” (Williams 154). For Marx, ideology was a dream and To trouble the living stream. represented 'false consciousness' of bourgeoisie. The difference The horse that comes from the road, between ideology and real human life and concerns, is found by him The rider, the birds that range as constituted by an inverse process under which in contrast to From cloud to tumbling cloud, German ideologue who “descends from heaven to earth, here we Minute by minute they change; ascend from earth to heaven.” (Marx 656). It means that it is A shadow of cloud on the stream imperative to not to “set out from what men say, imagine, conceive, Changes minute by minute; nor from men as narrated, thought of, imagined, conceived, in order to arrive at men in flesh” (Marx 656), but rather to “set out from real, There are six different ways in which ideology can perpetuate its active men, and on the basis of their real life process [to) domination, as suggested by Terry Eagleton: demonstrate the development of the ideological reflexes and echoes “A dominant power may legitimate itself by promoting beliefs and of this life process” (Marx 656). Althusser identifies Repressive State values congenial to it; naturalizing and universalizing such beliefs so Apparatuses with the Government, Administration, Army, Courts, as to render them self-evident and apparently inevitable; denigrating Prisons etc. while Ideological State Apparatuses are—religion, ideas which might challenge it; excluding rival forms of thought, school, family, political parties, press, literature etc. He asserts the perhaps by some unspoken but systematic logic; and obscuring social importance of ISA by commenting that “no class can hold State reality in ways convenient to itself. Such 'mystification', as it is power over a long period without at the same time exercising its commonly known frequently takes the form of masking or hegemony over and in the State Ideological Apparatuses” (Althusser suppressing social conflicts, from which arises the conception of 1343). Antonio Gramsci identifies two concurrent levels of social ideology as an imaginary resolution of real contradictions.” (Eagleton 5-6). domination through hegemony. The first level comprises intellectuals who are “the dominant group's deputies” (Gramsci 1007) while the Though there can be multiple, conflicting ideologies within a society second level operates through the use of coercive power by the State: of a given time, the dominant ideology would retain its potential to hegemonise over other peripheral ideologies. The connection 1. The 'spontaneous' consent given by the great masses of the between power and ideology is an intrinsic one and is instrumental in population to the general direction imposed on social life by the creating conformism. John B. Thompson correctly notes in this dominant fundamental group; this consent is 'historically' connection: “To study ideology [...] is to study the ways in which caused by the prestige (and consequent confidence) which meaning (or signification) serves to sustain relations of domination” thedominant group enjoys because of its position and function (Thompson 4). in the world of production. Closure and Erasure: Brahmanical Ideology and Folklore... 63 64 Karan Singh
2. The apparatus of state coercive power which 'legally' enforces It just won't do to assert that Brahmanism in all its blindness to caste discipline on those groups who do not 'consent' either actively and aboriginals arose out of conscious conspiracy of some thinkers or passively. This apparatus is, however, constituted for the in the past. Ideological frameworks may arise out of the ignorance of whole of society in anticipation of moments of crisis of its believers about the effect and manipulated facts in maintaining the command and direction when spontaneous consent has failed. existing system of power. Raymond Geuss explains three kinds of (Gramsci 1007). ideological falsities-epistemic, functional and genetic. While epistemic falsehood stands for divergence between what is said and Though ideology is invariably seen as an illusion, a movement away its intended purpose, functional falsehood means “not that a body of from complexities of existence and myopic view, for its effectiveness ideas is actually untrue, but that these ideas are functional for the it must appeal to idealistic impulses inherent in the consciousness of maintenance of n oppressive power, and that those who hold them humanity. For an ideology to be successful, it must be related, to are ignorant of this fact” (Eagleton 24-25). Genetic falsity advocates certain extent, to the life and experiences of people: that “a belief may not be false in itself, but may spring from some They must be 'real' enough to provide the basis on which discreditable ulterior motive of which those who hold it are individuals can fashion a coherent identity, must furnish some unaware” (Eagleton 25). solid motivations for effective action. and must make at least Theorisation can prove to be a stumbling block in our appreciation of some feeble attempt to explain away their own more flagrant the contingency of existence and happenings. Ideological wrappings contradictions and incoherencies. In short, successful ideologies are easier to appreciate as they present a distilled vision of life and must be more than imposed illusions, and for all their people wherein the sagacious mind finds a meaning and pattern in inconsistencies must communicate to their subjects a version of itself and for the society he is convinced to be working for its social reality which is real and recognizable enough not to be benefit. Ideology, at the same time, can be self-sustaining and the simply rejected out of hand. They may, for example, be true vision self-perpetuating. It leads the actors and the audience forget enough in what they assert but false in what they deny. alternative realities and works closely to erase them. Ideology makes (Eagleton 15). for a closed vision, a crystalline object of art which poses a contrast From where do ideologies derive their power, keeping in view that with the loose, unshapely works of arts with no recognizable the world view they present is intrinsically false? Perhaps the answer boundaries. Here everything is explained, with a strong lies in the fact that most ideologies appear true to their followers correspondence between cause and effect. Whatever does not fit is through factual statements and appeal to rational as well as idealistic either glossed over or delegated to margins as insignificant or erratic. impulses. How do ideologies Further ideologies can be empirically II true but false in deeper sense. Emile Durkheim rightly defines ideological method as “the use of notions to govern the collation of The story of the destruction of Nagas by Parikshit has been dealt in facts rather than deriving notions from them” (Durkheim 86). the 'Astika parva' of Mahabharta. The story is narrated by sage Sauti Ideology subordinates factity to ideas through a particular attribute of before Saunaka and is a part of 'Adi parva.' The sage traces the birth literary language wherein “constative' language [...] is harnessed to of Nagas in the union of Sage Kashyapa with Kadru, daughter of 'performative' ends; empirical truths are organised as components of Prajapati who desired to have thousand sons of matchless splendour. an overall rhetoric. If that rhetoric seems to demand it, a particular Kadru curses her sons when they refuse to help her in deceiving empirical truth may be bent into falsehood” (Eagleton 22). Vinata, another wife of kashyapa, that “during the snake sacrifice of Closure and Erasure: Brahmanical Ideology and Folklore... 65 66 Karan Singh the wise king Janamejaya of the Pandava race, Agni shall consume his victory over death, he comes out of the fruit and bites him on the you all.” (Sec. XX). The Gods led by Brahman support the neck. Janmejaya comes to know about the fate of his father from his apparently cruel curse on the assumption that since they had became councillors and decides to take revenge on Takshaka whom he holds numerous and as they were cruel and spread fear among people, the responsible for the death of his father as he made Kasyapa go back curse was a divinely ordained. by giving him money. The sacrifice of snakes in all its violence is vividly depicted: To Save Nagas from complete annihilation, Vasuki calls a meeting in which it is decided to bestow Vasuki's sister Jaratkaru to her And the snakes thereupon began to fall into the blazing fire, namesake Yayavara Rishi whose son named Astika will be able to benumbed and piteously calling upon one another. And swollen save them from the agni of Jammejaya's yajna. Jaratkaru who sees a and breathing hard, and twining each other with their heads and vision of his ancestors hanging heads down in a hole due to his tails, they came in large numbers and fell into the fire. The sonless state. Jaratkaru is advised by these pitras to marry and beget white, the black, the blue, the old and the young-all fell alike a son. When he is offered sister of Vasuki he accepts her only on the into the fire, uttering various cries. condition that he would not maintain her and that if she ever goes "When the Ritwiks in that snake-sacrifice began to pour clarified against his wishes he would leave her. Jaratkaru leaves his bride one butter into the fire, terrible snakes, striking fear into every creature, morning when she wakes him up for he was getting late for his began to fall into it. And the fat and the marrow of the snakes thus morning ablutions. Out of their union Astika is born who saves a few falling into the fire began to flow in rivers. And the atmosphere was Nagas by asking a boon from Janmejaya on the last day of his filled with an insufferable stench owing to the incessant burning of sacrifice and whom the king could not refuse for his being a the snakes. And incessant also were the cries of the snakes fallen into Brahmin. The death of Parikshit occurs when he puts a dead snake in the fire and those in the air about to fall into it.” (Section LII) the neck of a meditating sage Samika and is in turn cursed by the Sringin, the son of the sage: Takshaka who gets sanctuary with Purandara has to come near the sacrificial fire but is saved by timely intervention of Astika who asks And Sringin said, 'That sinful wretch of a monarch who hath a boon from the king and thus saves the snakes from complete placed a dead snake on the shoulders of my lean and old parent, annihilation. that insulter of Brahmanas and tarnisher of the fame of the Kurus, shall be taken within seven nights hence to the regions The folklore of Princess Niwal Dai marks the conflict between the of Yama (Death) by the snake Takshaka, the powerful king of powerful Pandava king Parag and Naga King Bask as a territorial serpents, stimulated thereto by the strength of my words! dispute wherein King Basak is captured by Parikshit while playing (Section XLI) shikar in his sikargah. On being caught by Parikshit, Basak is freed only on the condition that he will give his daughter to him in On being informed of his impending death, Parikshit builds a palace marriage. Basak protests that he has got no daughter, but Parikshit upon a single column and puts a heavy guard over himself. Kasyapa has heard the news regarding birth of daughter to the naga king. encounters Takshaka in way to the palace and returns when he Basak promises as desired by Parag and goes back to his kingdom receives enough money from Takshak who tells him that it would be where in his meeting with his relative he decides to renegate his futile to revive the king who had insulted a Brahmin and whose life promise and as suggested by his councillors puts his infant daughter had run out. Takshaka hides himself in the form of an insect in the in underground cell under secrecy. Later on King Basak suffers from fruits offered by ascetics to the king and when Parikshit boasts about leprosy due to his sin of killing a cow of a Brahmin and is exiled Closure and Erasure: Brahmanical Ideology and Folklore... 67 68 Karan Singh from his palace to the boundary of the village wherein he has to live fellow mates, Janmeji interrogates his mother about his father and with a status of untouchable. When Niwal Dai, his daughter comes to decides to take revenge from Nagas. The send emissary to his know about the condition of her father, she chides her mother for maternal grandfather Basak, inviting him to Safidon city. Once throwing out her father due to his disease. She takes charge of the Nagas reach there, Janmeji orders to throw them into a cauldron of situation and calls her brothers and astrologer, she finds the remedy boiling oil. Many Nagas are killed with only 'dhai kuli' two and half which was to get the Amrit from the well belonging to Pandavas. families saved from this destruction. Tatig Nag runs to many Aryan When all the relatives refuse to take risk as there was an enmity sages and deities such as Gorakh Nath, Sibhji,Sri Thakurji (Indra) to between Nagas and Pandavasdue to refusal of King Basak to marry save himself from the wrath of janmeji but is refused sanctuary, Niwal Dai with Parikshit, Niwal dai decides to go herself to fetch the though ultimately he is persuaded to let him go with the symbolic nectar from the well. She refuses to heed to the advice given by her punishment of putting his tail into the cauldron. father that there a great risk of abduction by the Pandava king if her III identity becomes known to them. On reaching the golden well, she is able to remove the heavy stone on it but when she doesn't glance at The brahmanic enclosures are apparent in the mythic structure of the the water, it recedes and come back only when she reveals her face. story which revolves around the curse of Kadru and its acceptance by The falcon guarding the well informs king Parag who comes swiftly Brahmanic patriarch. The rejection of Nagas as a serpent which is on his horse. When Niwal Dai hears the approaching king, she hides evil incarnate is one such racist symbolism wherein Aryan herself in the platform of the well. The king threatens her to come superiority is maintained through branding of them as despicable out otherwise he would drag her out. Frightened, Niwal Dai decides people. R.C. Temple who collected and published his monumental to come out and when the king gives her an oath that he would let work The Legends of the Panjab talks about using the word Nag in her go, she comes out. But when she comes out, Parag refuses to preference to Samp because of the essential humanity of these people honour his promise on the argument that her father did not honour as revealed in the this tale: his word. He wants to take her to his palace but Niwal Dai requests Throughout the legend, [...] the Naga people are confounded the king that her father needs water from the well to cure his leprosy. with the Nag, or poisonous snake, which was perhaps their Parag refuses to give her water saying that he has no faith in her race. totem, and in this respect the tradition of to-day varies but little She is allowed to leave only when she gives her word to come back. from that of the Sanskrit classical times. But so strongly, does Niwal Dai keeps her word and on the pretext of bringing more water, the humanity-so as to speak-of the Nagas of the story in all its come back. She insists on marriage before entering the palaces and forms come out that, wherever the word Nag, and sometimes Parag marries her in the forest itself before a burning bush. On where the word Samp (snake), has occurred, I have translated learning it, Basak feels humiliated and sends his emissaries to kill by the vague word Nag in preference to snake or serpent, Pandava king. (Temple 533). All first three Naga warriors viz. Chhimba, Sutak and Patak and The designation of snake to nagas is not simply a matter of using Jiwan failed in their attempts because of Niwal Bai who saves king their totem as their nomenclature, rather it is through their constant Parag from death.Ultimately Tatig is able to kill the king when he identification with evil and sub-human species which led to their kills Bhanwanter, the Leech who could only save the king with his total rejection and revulsion in the mind of Aryans descendants. magical and medicinal power. After six months of the death of Parag, Eagleton explains this stance by a process through which ideology Janmeji was born who ascended throne. On being insulted by his works. According to him most of the time ideological injustices are Closure and Erasure: Brahmanical Ideology and Folklore... 69 70 Karan Singh perpetuated not out of intended malice but because their perpetrators forces from which they derive. [...] The only rational and believe in the greater good: “Either, then, they must believe that objective explanation of events consists in discovering in what these injustices are en route to being amended, or that they are way they really came about, and not the account of their genesis counterbalanced by greater benefits, or that they are inevitable, or conceived by men who have been their instruments. (Durkheim that they are not really injustices at all. It is part of the function of a 168). In the folk tale the apparent cause of quarrel between dominant ideology to inculcate such beliefs. It can do this either by Nagas and Pandvas lies more human concerns of Parag's falsifying social reality, suppressing and excluding certain demand of infant daughter of Basak in marriage which is seen unwelcome features of it, or suggesting that these features cannot be as an ultimate humiliation and an attempt to subordinate the avoided.” (Eagleton 27). infractious Nagas who asserted their independence and thus disregarded the authority of Pandvas based upon ritual authority A comparison of Sanskrit story as given in Mahabharata and other of Brahamanism and Aryan superiority. That both the Aryans Brahmanical texts with the folktale reveals many interesting features. and Nagas lived in close proximity is borne out by the fact that While the Sanskrit tale through the use of evolutionary symbolism the relatives of both the kings whom they call live in the same demonises Nagas, the folktale restores their humanity through area Srinagal. Bask's attempt to save his daughter from assigning them human motives and impulses. The impersonal, marrying Aryan king by hiding her in an underground cell motiveless assassination of Parikshit in Sanskrit tale by Takshak as where she could be raised reads against almost mechanical, an instrument of death impelled by the curse, become a reason for frantic attempts by Vasuki to search for the Sage over whom he the destruction of Nagas who are seen en-block as a diabolical force. bestows his daughter despite the almost inhuman conditions put In the Sanskrit story there is no attempt at their individuation and by the Sage Jaratkaru wherein the daughter of Vasuki is used their annihilation is justified on the presumption that they are evil nothing more than a vessel. For Vasuki, seen through the incarnate. The division between good and evil seems absolute and Brahmanical ideological glance wherein the learned Brahmins eternal here and living beings as counters in the play of chess. The are nothing less than demi-Gods despite all their cruelty and veneration of priestly class is maintained through giving them a masochistic renunciation of women, his daughter is simply a direct line of descent from the supreme deity and the only way open womb, a function of nature in conspiracy with fate. As against for Nagas to save themselves from their imminent destruction lies in the passionless image of Vasuki in Sanskrit tale, king Basak in begetting a Brahmin heir to their clan who would be able to save the folktale retains his emotional nature who unabashedly them through Brahminic privilege of getting a boon from the king. weeps at his fallen status before his daughter. Durkheim, while analysing the disjunction between the ideology and The folklore humanises the story and characters and gives them real facts suggests that the reading of events from a particular recognizable traits according to its temporal and spatial location. The position leads to their misunderstanding. Even the author of the bounds of ideology which are quite tight in the Sanskritic tale are historical events fails to comprehend the true import of happenings loose and allow the entry of multiple perspectives. The folklore around him: questions and subverts the dominant ideology surreptitiously. By If we wish to understand the real way in which facts are linked putting the cause of quarrel among Nagas and Pandvas to the later's together, we must give up this ideological method. We must abduction of Naga Princess it comes close to kingly indulgence and strip away that surface of ideas in order to penetrate to the deep thus avoids the path of metaphysical speculations and exaggeration things that they express more or less unreliably, the underlying so common in epic tale. Niwal Dia's attempt to save her father Closure and Erasure: Brahmanical Ideology and Folklore... 71 72 Karan Singh despite so heavy odds stacked against her shows her love for her Jo tin bachan likh die ji father. Though her father had been instrumental in putting her into a Boli 'Jaisa main kahun waisa karo ji cell, she never shows her resentment and rather criticises her mother Nana apne ko na maro ji for throwing her father out of the palace into solitary confinement Dhai kuli un ki rahi ji outside boundary of village when afflicted with the disease. Un ka nam na mitao ji (Temple 652-53) The folklore celebrates organic connection between all human and non-human life. There is no attempt to subordinate the importance of All the markings of human relationships seems to be obliterated from every life to human concerns. Animals and birds exist by a right of the Sanskrit tale wherein janmejaya has no such connection with the their own and are not sacrificed to human concerns. Niwal dai saves Nagas. a deer who comes to gaze at her beauty and is killed by it by cutting While the Sanskrit tale dangles between ideological veneration and her finger as it would be a great sin on part to harm a creature utter contempt towards women who are glorified in their abstractions without its fault. Further when her husband is killed with a buck and while erasing them from social life, the folktale celebrates the love a falcon who became unintentional victims of the struggle between and courage of Niwal dai who undertakes to bring water from golden Chhimba Nag and Parag, Niwal dai gives life to all three of them well despite all the dangers awaiting her in the alien territory. The without discriminating between friend or foe, human and non- conversation between father and daughter show the fears of the human. It can be rightly contrasted with the rejection of a whole race former one along with the fearlessness and persistence of the of people through their presentation as non-humans within the daughter to find the remedy: Sanskritic tale. Boli Rani Niwal dai, Babal meri araz suno, ji Niwal Dai subverts the patriarchal Aryan notions wherein a woman Aise aise Nagan ki main beti poti, ji was supposed to be a part of her husband only. Niwal Dai never Aisa main to rup sidharon, ji forgets her Naga origin and during her numerous attempts to save her Bhari si Nagin ban jaungi, ji husband from the attacks of Nagas, she never harms them and gives them life again and again. Even when she describes the story of his Dharke phunkara aisa marun, ji birth before her son Janmeji, her words betray the compulsion her Ban banasti kop phunk dungi, ji which she marries Parag: Sathi Raja Parag ko phunk dungi, ji “Jab main pani bharne ai, ji Bole Raja Basak, Beti, woh to Dhanhantar Baid ka chela, ji Tere pita ne mujhe gher liya ji Tere Tukra banake, gaddon men ladke, mahilon men dakhil kare, ji Main sahansar Nagan ki beti ji Sunke bat pita ki Niwal dai ghussa kara, ji Main bahot hata rahi ji Main sar ki sui banke rete men ghus jaun ji Us ne mujh se Thakur ke tin bachan lie ji” (Temple 646) Bole Raja, 'Beti, mat na jae, ji Niwal Dai further saves her clansmen from destruction when she Woh rete ki chhalani men chhanwake sui kamar men lagae, ji takes an oath from her son when he seeks to kill all Nagas: (Temple 565) Boli Mata Niwal dai ji Niwal Dai's beauty attracts all the lascivious gaze of many Aryan Apne bachan samalo ji deities who come to have a glimpse of her. She is able to avoid their Closure and Erasure: Brahmanical Ideology and Folklore... 73 74 Karan Singh lustful gaze through her intelligent reasoning, tracing her descent of different ideologies and cultures imposed over one another. They from the mixed heritage of Aryan and Naga myths. She tells Indra seek to capture the lost voices and can be used to retrieve life lived that he is her foster father and thus he should respect that relation: on fringes of ideological enclosures. This polyphony within the Rani kahe 'main Raja Basak ki beti ji structure of folktales give them multiplicity and a universal appeal which transcends the limitations of time and space. Tu to Raja Inder mera lage dharma ka pita, ji Putri ka parda fahish ne kariyo, ji Works Cited Althusser, Louis. “Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses.” The Norton When Sun and Moon come to see her legendary beauty, she reminds Anthology of Theory of Criticism. Vol. 2. Ed. Vincent B. Leitch. New them that being sons of Sage Kashyap, they are related to her father York: W.W. Norton, 2010. Print. Vasuki and hence they have no right to disrobe her. The threat of Durkheim, Emile.The Rules of Sociological Method . Trans. W.D. Halls. Parag to Niwal Dai reveals the forced abduction of her by the London: The Free P, 1982. Print. powerful Pandva king. Eagleton, Terry.Ideology: An Introduction . London: Verso, 1991. Print. Rani, to jo bhala chahe, bahir a ja ji Gramsci, Antonio. “The Formation of the Intellectuals.” The Norton Nahin to bichhu ka rup sidharun ji Anthology of Theory of Criticism. Vol.2. Ed. Vincent B. Leitch. New York: W.W. Norton, 2010. Print. Toh-tohke tujh ko bahir nikalu ji Marx, Karl, and Friedrich Engels. “The German Ideology.” The Norton To to sahansar Nagan ki beti poti Anthology of Theory of Criticism. Vol. 2. Ed. Vincent B. Leitch. New Tain ne aisa rup sidhara ji York: W.W. Norton, 2010. Print Kuen men barke to baith gai ji Temple, R.C.The Legends of the Punjab . Vol. 1-3. New Delhi: Rupa, 2002. Print. Main to Dhanthar Baid ka chela ji Thompson, John B.Studies in the Theory of Ideology . Berkeley: U of Aisa rup bichhu ka sidharun ji California P, 1984. Print. Toh-tohke tujh ko bahir laun ji Vyasa, Krishna-Dwaipayana.The Mahabharata . Trans. Kisari Mohan Unlike her father Niwal dai is true of her word and she comes back Ganguli. < http:// www.sacredtexts.com/hin/m01/index.htm>. to keep her word to Parag but she refuses to enter into the palace of Williams, Raymond.Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society . Rev. the king before he marries her. Her fears about the custom of Ed. Oxford: Oxford U P, 1985. Print. Pandava kings regarding concubines come true when her son is accused of being the bastard child of the king. Folklores exist through their multiple levels of significations. Unlike simple ideological tales such as the present Sanskrit one which obliterate and erase the contradictory and multiple levels of meanings, the folktales such as that of Niwal Dai present a composite structure wherein different voices are superimposed over each other, representing spatial and temporal overgrowths. The story in folktale is constant contemporised through local references and contemporary concerns. It is a multi-layered structure with sediments Journal of Rajasthan Association for Studies in English11: 75-83 (2015) 76 Rashmi Rajpal Singh
Rather than viewing the cults of Goga, Pabu, Ramdev and Teja as part of Hindu religion and religious reform movement within it, the paper lays stress on identifying the non-Brahmanical sources of the Cultic Worship of Deities in Western Rajasthan worship of these deities. It seeks to explore those numerous non- Brahmanical religious traditions that shaped, and were, in turn, shaped by the popular cults of folk-deities. With the exception of Rashmi Rajpal Singh few, most of the modern scholars, particularly modern Rajasthani historians and experts on religious traditions, have studied the cults Abke-abke raakkhlijyo laaj mhara babaji of folk-deities either as part of Hindu religion (as "little traditions" of Abke abke raakkhlijyo laaj mharaTejaji Hinduism) or as a theme of Hindu-Muslim religious interaction Baagan jasyaan phoolla asyaan thaanke charan chadhaasyaan ('syncretic' cults) or as part of religious reform movement. Hardly has any scholar addressed the issue of the difference, even Ghar – gharh uw pooja thari, ganv-ganv jas gaveji opposition, between the religious traditions associated with the cults of the folk deities and the basic features of the Brahmanical religion. jo koi lev naam peer ro manchaya phal paveji, mahimaaparamparthari, medi The explorations of the theme of the folk-deities as actually living redhoklagawamanaderaphoolchadawa, historical personalities are discussed here. Although sources in this Oo runichra dhaniya, ajmalji ra kanwara regard are unreliable and replete with legends and later interpolations, attempt has been made to retrieve certain original Mata mena de ra lal, rani netal ra bhartar, 'facts' about the lives and times of Goga, Pabu, Ramdev and Teja. All Mharo helo sunoji rama peer ji… four of them probably belonged to the period between 13th and 15th centuries. The paper then seeks to stress their association with lower Gugoji aayaa mhari kaankad me and lowest sections of the society. This association along with their Koi chimki chaarkoont determination to fight for protecting the lives, cattle wealth and other Jii gugoji kimadaiyachaanano resources of the peasants and pastoralists have been discussed in this Dhur madaiya me chaanano paper. Gugoji aayaa bag me The paper examines how the actions of these historical figures made them objects of glorification and ultimate deification. The processes These beautiful lines and endless songs are the part of religious of glorification and deification have been dealt with in the case of rituals in the households of Rajasthan. They are sung with the each one of them. The factors responsible for deification have been accompaniment of local musical instruments, melodious and foot examined in detail. tapping. Goga, Pabu, Ramdev and Tejaji are worshipped and revered in the all areas of Rajasthan. The four widely worshiped folk-deities of Rajasthan- Goga, Pabu, Teja and Ramdev, have been regarded as historical personalities in Rather than viewing the cults of Goga, Pabu, Ramdev and Teja as the sources. They are believed to have ruled small states within part of Hindu religion and religious reform movement within it, the Rajputana. With the exception of Teja, who was a Jat, these divine thesis lays stress on ... or as a theme of Hindu-Muslim religious figures were Raj puts by caste. Most of the Rajasthan historians interaction. Cultic Worship of Deities in Western Rajasthan 77 78 Rashmi Rajpal Singh depict them as historical figures who lived at one point of time or shrines dedicated to Teja are called devera or thaan and his followers another during the medieval period and who were posthumously claim their existence in almost every village. His powers to heal the deified by their followers due to their great deeds of valour and snakebites is considered enormous and it is believed that snakebite sacrifice. Such formulations accept the existence of Goga, Pabu, Teja can be cured by merely remembering and uttering his name or tying and Ramdev as historical personalities. Some followers believe that a sacred thread called des or /anti to the victim. they were human incarnations of God. Modern historiography and Teja is believed to have been born in Kharnaliya village in Pargana other writings on these deities nowhere suggest that these folk-deities Nagaur-about two hundred kilometers northeast of Jodhpur. were mere mythical figures and religious symbols. Their lives and careers are discussed by historians against the context of various According to the most popular version of the life story of Teja, he developments during the medieval period. To understand how these married a girl from a village called Paner, which was located over deities acquired the present status in the popular imagination and hundred kilometers east of Nagaur and about thirty kilometers from memory, it is imperative to explain how they originated as, or Kishangarh. His followers view him as a historical person who transformed into deities over a period of time. posthumously attained the characteristics of a local god. However, there are few accounts dealing with historicity of Teja. Apart from Goga, widely worshipped as a snake god, is also known as jafarpir or the general acceptance among people of the belief that Teja was born jaharpir. His cult is popular not only in Rajasthan but also in in village Kharnaliya and was a Jat, different sources assign Teja to adjoining regions. If popular songs and verses composed in his praise different time-periods. The life period of Teja is placed in different are to be believed, Goga belonged to the dynasty of the Chauhan centuries-ranging from tenth century to eighteenth century depending rulers of north India. The dynastic trees, (Vanshvalis) tracing the upon the nature of source. In Tarikh-Ajmer, a detailed history of lineage of the Chauhan rulers, as given in different bardic sources, Ajmer Pargana, the date of Teja's birth is recorded as V. S. 1072/ consider Goga as a member of the Chauhan dynasty. 1015 A. D. Scholars like as Ramesh Chandra Gunarthi and Shiv An inscription belonging to 1213 A.D also testified to the existence Singh Choyal have suggested 1751 A.D. as Teja's year of birth and of Goga as a Chauhan ruler. The inscription refers to nine l777A.D.as the year of his death. 16 Rajputana District Gazetteer, generations that flourished after Goga. If an approximate twenty based its account of Teja on popular myths, mentions that Teja was years are assigned to one generation, the period of Goga roughly born 890 years ago. Since the Gazetteer was written in the year 1904 falls in the early eleventh century. Another legend of Goga mentions A. D., Teja might have lived in the eleventh century. Pabu is another a battle between him and his cousin brothers who sought help of important deity venerated in western Rajasthan. It is believed that Prithavi Raj Chauhan, the ruler of Delhi. This legend depicts Goga Pabu was a Rathore chieftain who sacrificed his life protecting the contemporary of Prithavi Raj Chauhan who ruled Delhi in the late cows. Scholars who have worked on the deities of western Rajasthan twelfth century. The fight which ensued between Goga and the army have suggested that there are strong grounds for concluding that of Prthivi Raj Chauhan, indicates no dynastic relationship between Pabu was a historical figure. Such a conclusion is based on the the two as has been brought out by the genealogical constructs of analysis of the family tree of the Rathore rulers in the region of Kyam Khan Raso and Muhanta Nainsi. Marwar and on the study of traditions associated with Pabu. Another popular deity, Teja is venerated in both the western as well The actual lives of Goga, Pabu, Ramdev and Teja are shrouded in as eastern parts-in the Jaipur region and as far as Chittorgarh in south mystery. However, the foregoing analysis of the ecological, social in Rajasthan. He is worshiped for his ability to cure snakebites. The and political conditions prevailing in western Rajasthan in the early Cultic Worship of Deities in Western Rajasthan 79 80 Rashmi Rajpal Singh medieval period does help us in contextualizing the lives and deeds give him the same position and privileges as he accorded to his other of these heroic figures. They acquired fame among the common sons whose mothers belonged to more respectable families. people as the saviours of the subordinated and marginalized social Throughout the narrative, Pabu is shown as a close ally and patron of groups at a time when conflict for territory and power among the the lowest caste 'thories'. He was frequently taunted by his Raj put newly emerging Rajput warrior-bands threatened local autonomy and relatives for keeping the company of the thoris and was considered the hold of the peasants and the pastoralists over their community fit to be a peasant and not a mounted Rajput warrior. His image is resources. The process of Raj put state formation was characterized that of a social bandit who stole the she-camels of the powerful by the efforts of the chiefs and their followers to incorporate the Rajput chiefs and is shown as a saviour of the seven thori brothers. peasants and tribals into their rigid and hierarchically defined socio- The narrative goes on to describing how Pabu and his thori followers political order. This must have caused widespread dislocation and sacrificed their lives for protecting the cattle wealth of the local consternation in the local society. It is no wonder then that the Charans. Although the bardic tale as recorded by Nainsi shows oppressed and helpless people looked upto the local warrior-figures important signs of the process of 'Rajputization' of the personality of such as Goga and Pabu to defend their lives, freedom, and resources. Pabu, it still retains the above mentioned original ingredients that might have gone into the making of Pabu as a popular and lower Goga, the earliest among the four heroic figures, is believed to have caste .hero. The original image of Pabu, therefore, was that of a been a Chauhan Rajput. By the time James Tod wrote his Annals and warrior-hero (and also a bandit hero) who identified himself more Antiquities of Rajasthan in the third decade of 191h century, the with the lower caste thoris than with the high-caste Rajputs. Chauhan Rajput identity of Goga had come to be treated as a well- Similarly, although the bardic tales emphasize the Tanwar Raj put established fact. Perhaps the first mention of Goga's Chauhan lineage lineage of Ramdev (who most likely lived in the 14th -15th occurs in a seventeenth century text, KyamkhanRasau by Jan Kavi centuries) and trace his ancestry to the 12th century Tomar rulers of and then in Nainsi's celebrated Khyat. Following the testimony of Delhi, in the beginning his popularity seems to have remained Kyamkhan Rasau, Nainsi's Khyat and other bardic accounts, modern confined to the lower castes and even outcastes. Rajasthan scholars have tended to take the Chauhan lineage of Goga for granted. James Tod calls him 'Guga of Bhatinda' who with his Colonization of Pokharan region and triumph over those hostile forty sons 'drank the stream of sword' in fighting against Mahmud of groups/persons who did not allow peasants to settle there served as Ghazni.William Crooke refers to the belief that 'Gugaji' or 'Guggaji' the basis of Ramdev's glorification by the common people. was killed in a battle against Firuz Shah who ruled Delhi at the end Teja is different from the other three figures in that he was a Jat by of the thirteenth century. caste and unlike them, his identity as a Jat hero was so well established that a Rajput lineage could not have been assigned to him Another celebrity, Pabu is believed to have belonged to the Rathore by the bards and their patrons. In fact, it is difficult to find a pre- lineage of Rajputs. Most likely, he lived in western Rajasthan in the eighteenth century bardic narrative about Teja. There is no mention 13th-14th centuries. One of the earliest bardic accounts of Pabu-as of Teja in Nainsi's Khyat. He belonged to the Godara sub caste of recorded in Nainsi's seventeenth century Khyat informs us that he Jats and is believed to have lived in Nagour region around the 11th belonged to a minor branch of Rathore Raj put lineage. (50) The century. He was the leader of the local Jat settlers and lost his life in social origin of his mother remains obscure- a fact that the bardic saving their cattle from falling into the hands of the enemies. This act account tries to conceal by giving her the status of apsara (nymph). of his perhaps became the basis of the emergence of Teja as the Pabu's father never brought up the child at his residence and did not warrior -hero of the local peasants and pastoralists. Cultic Worship of Deities in Western Rajasthan 81 82 Rashmi Rajpal Singh
There are twenty-four bhajans (Vani), which are believed to have characterized by the overpowering presence of the Thar desert. been composed by Ramdev himself. In the Vanis attributed to him, Struggle for survival in these conditions was manifested in religious Ramdev, like the monotheistic saintsKabir and Nanak, has domain in the form of widespread faith in cults, deities and saints. emphasized the importance of Guru. Kabir regards Guru as amedium Open and violent forms of protest against the oppressive powers of to achieve communion with God, Ramdev on the other hand regards the state were not always an easy and feasible option. God and Guru as one. Ramdev, like Kabir and Nanak, addresses Brahma as 'formless' (Nirgun). He is believed to have attempted a The cults of folk-deities and other forms of popular religion should synthesis between Islamic and orthodox Hindu religious system with not be treated as 'superstitious' beliefs. When the peasants and multiple gods and goddesses. He explains the bodily existence pastoral communities practised these cults, they, at the same time, (Sagun) of gods and goddesses as a wish of Formless Brahma. 117 In evolved their own understanding of the world around them of the his verses, he has emphasized simplicity and true devotion. ways in which this could be transformed. Popular belief in these cults clearly reflected the images of heroes and villians that were The popularity of Goga, Pabu and other such figures did not, prevalent in the society. The cults of the folk-deities were integral however, remain confined to the lower sections of the society. The part of the ideological apparatus of the common people. In the political and ideological needs of the new Rajput states, particularly the urge to incorporate the local groups into their framework and hierarchically organized socio-political order in which the penetrate deep into the local society, compelled them and their inequalities of caste and class were the defining features and the ideologues to celebrate the memory of their heroes. The Charan oppressive power of the state an inescapable reality, the oppressed poets on behest of their Rajput patrons undertook the task of groups adopted various forms of material resistance to the state propagating the legends and myths. The Charans were both the authorities. In the late 17th century, there were many independent ideologues and conscience-keepers of the Rajput ethical and socio- peasant uprisings in northern India against the Mughal state and the political order. The bards, in turn, received patronage from the Rajput chiefs who acted as its pillars. Rajput rulers. Maldeo, the Rathore king of Jodhpur between 1532 Although, evidence of the acts of open resistance by peasants, and 1561 granted villages to Vithu Meha, the Charan poet who shepherds, and marginal groups during the late medieval period is composed the narratives of Goga and Pabu. lacking, it is clear that these groups may have adopted different To answer the question as to why the subordinate social groups, and forms of material resistance, if not an open rebellion, to oppose the particularly the lower castes, deified these warrior-figures and began inroads of the centralized state. More important, however, were the worshiping them as lok devta, it is imperative to have a glimpse into ideological forms of resistance, one dimension of which was the the nature of social hierarchies and power relationships in the popular belief in the cults of folk-deities. To the oppressed groups, western Rajasthan society of pre-modern times. The emergence of Goga, Pabu, Ramdev, Teja and other such historical figures were the centralized and oppressive Rajput state system coupled with the their heroes and the Rajput rulers were seen as oppressors. In most of domination of Brahmanical ideology effectively strengthened a the stories of these heroes, the Rajput chiefs have been portrayed as socio-political system in which the peasants, pastoralist groups, tyrants and oppressors. social tribes and other marginal sections had to constantly face the The Process of valorisation and deification of local Rajputs and other brunt of state power and burden of taxes. These man-made factors chiefs reflects the changing popular perception of them in Rajasthan aggravated the harshness of life in a natural environment society. The changing perception and concerns are reflected in the Cultic Worship of Deities in Western Rajasthan 83 Journal of Rajasthan Association for Studies in English11: 84-93 (2015) different genre of literature composed by different generations of bards and other narrators. As has been discussed above, earliest representations of these celebrities stress their role as warrior figures Acclimatizing Folklore: An Analysis of that waged wars in defence of the interests of the local communities Girish Karnad'sHayavadana and Naga-Mandala and its resources against the outsiders and invaders. Very soon, however, these folk-heroes became the objects of deification among Satish Kumar Harit the common people. Much before the end of the seventeenth century, figures such as Goga, Pabu, Teja and Ramdev came to acquire the Folklore is the embodiment of the cultural ethos that represent the status of folk-deities in popular consciousness. They were believed to underlying principles, beliefs and values, the shared experiences, have been supernatural and charismatic personalities who could codes, and rules of a particular community, race or society. Though perform miracles for the material welfare of the local pastoral and most of its formsare transmitted orally from one generation to peasant communities. They acquired larger than life images and the another, they are unquestioningly accepted as the divine truth. original events of their lives became the basis for the growth of Folklore is never obsolete and outdated as its thematic complexes various mythical and legendary narratives. and narratives get moulded and modified in the creative smithy of an Works Cited observant and dexterous contemporary writer who transmutes them Ahuja, D.R.Folklore of Rajasthan. Delhi: National Book Trust, 1980. Print. to reinstate the immaculate home-spun wisdom of the saga Joshi, Varshaed.Cultural Communities and Change . Delhi: Rawat, 2002. incorporated. A contemporary writer takes his inspiration from the Print. rich tradition of his culture, weaves it through the web of his Rajasthani Language and Literature: Bikaner. Rajasthani Bhasa, Sahitya imagination, and transforms it into a tale of his own to highlight the Evam Sanskriti Academy. Print. contemporary social and psychological problems.Thus, the folklore Singh, Rashmi Rajpal, ed.Folklore: A Feminist Expression, 2010. Print. and myths acquire new dimensions in the creative hands of Karnad, and his plays unfold rich strands of meaning. Indian political environment of nineteen sixties and seventies, when Karnad began his dramatic career, was full of foreign invasions, upheavals and internal political disturbances. Personal and human freedom was a far cry to the Indian masses even after achieving political freedom. However, the freedom fighters and Indian leaders had made elaborate plans of national development, poverty eradication and amelioration of the deprived and marginalized sections but their unscrupulous followers devised and executed subversive counter-plans. Consequently, noble ideals of liberty, equality, fraternity, justice and and patriotism were completely swept away under the carpet and opportunism, nepotism and corruption were reigning supreme. Acclimatizing Folklore: An Analysis of Girish Karnad's... 85 86 Satish Kumar Harit
As an incisively insightful contemporary playwright, Karnad is But Zimmer's version of it, as found inThe King and the Corpse , is profoundly concerned to demystify the dominant social, cultural and the tale of two lifelong friends and a girl. The girl married one of the religious beliefs and practices to highlight the wretched plight of the two friends but the marriage was not particularly happy. Shortly oppressed, downtrodden and marginalized through the tragic, following the wedding, the couple, together with their bachelor pathetic, comic and ludicrous characters and situations. The friend set forth on a visit to the parents of the bride. thoroughgoing interrogative spirit of the humanist does not leave any Karnad does not take folklore or myths in their entirety. He makes belief or practice unchallenged. Karnad also, through his plays, certain changes in the original myth by picking up only that part questions all kinds of superstitious and supernatural practices and which suits to his artistic design and then supplements the same with beliefs. However, the problems faced by the author in harmonizing his creative imagination. For example, he changes the names of the the past and the present are conspicuous from his comments: “We characters as Devadutta, Kapila and Padmini. His Devadatta is keep acrobating between the traditional and the modern, perhaps we intellectual. Karnad's Padmini and Kapila are not exactly the could not hit upon a form which balances both”. (1989: 25) characters narrated in the folklore or in Kathasaritsagar. They are the contemporary characters struggling for their existence and identity in Girish Karnad strikes a significant note by exploring the dramatic the contemporary society. Karnad's Kapila is not the simple potential of ancient Indian myths, legends and folk tradition. Karnad marginalized outcast, the fatalist who internalized the concept of as a cultural administrator, through the presentation of the realistic determinism. He has been maneuvering for his proper space in the characters in his plays, has flouted the traditional hierarchies contemporary society. Karnad's Padmini is a modern woman who prevalent in Indian society to give voice to the silenced majority. His does not take transposing the heads of Kapila and Devadatta as a plays abound with voices of the marginalized, especially women and frightening situational experience but rather exploits it to fulfil her lower caste people subjected since timesimmemorial to various long cherished dream of getting the best of the men—Devadatta's forms of injustice, cruelty and inhuman practices. His humanism has clever head and Kapila's muscular body. not only exposed their marginality but has also fused them with Hayavadana is Karnad's brave attempt to present evolution of a vigour so that they can speak for themselves and shift their position woman who flouts the conventional morality, shifts her position from from “margin” to “center”. Drawing a comparison between Karnad's marginal to center, and uses the patriarchs for her fulfilment. Thus, use of the past and the same by Adya Rangachary, Prof. G. S. Amur Karnad projects Padmini in very different manner. She is attractive, opines “If Adya's attempt is to discover the usable past to make sense clever, energetic, and more dominant than male character in the play. of the challenging present, Karnad's attempt is to give new meanings Through her, Karnad presents image of modern woman who is to the past from the vantage point of the present.”(1971: 22) caught between two ideas-her quest for completeness and her search for individual rights in male-dominated society. On Meenakshi Karnad takes the theme ofHayavadana from Kathasaritsagar , Rayakr's asking about his intention in changing the names, Karnard but incorporating with it many vaguely familiar legends, moulds the says, “I wanted them to be generic terms because the characters are theme according to his artistic needs. In Somadeva's Kathasaritsagara types. In Sanskrit any person whose name you do not know is the story of the transposed heads depicts the romantic love and addressed as 'Devadatta' and Kapila means dark and therefore earthly consequent marriage of a washer man named Dhavala with a young and Padmini is the name of the one class of women in Vatsyayanas girl named Madana Sundari. After the marriage, the couple Kamasutra. (1982: 41). The subplot of Hayavadana's complete accompanied by Sundari's brother sets out to attend a festival in a liberation-giving up human accent and beginning to neighing-is city. Thus, begins the story. Karnad's addition to reaffirm the theme of completeness and identity. Acclimatizing Folklore: An Analysis of Girish Karnad's... 87 88 Satish Kumar Harit
Existentialism is 'a unilateral philosophical movement that views the extraordinary prowess to cope with the challenges of the individual, the self, the individual's experience, and the uniqueness contemporary world and search for their identity and space of honour therein as the reality'. An existentialist is one who prefers in a patriarchal society. His female protagonists are not the subjectivity, and views general existence as arcane, that he is an prototypes of the ideal and sacrificing women created and preserved isolated entity in an indifferent and often ambiguous universe. by the age old social constrictions; rather, they are the products of the Karnad's introduction to existential issues like identity crisis, split postcolonial, postmodern world. They have armed themselves to personality, ideological break-ups and dichotomy of life in his plays revolt against the patriarchy and male dominance in order to makes contemporary audience/readers think upon the issues of demolish the edifice of age-old tradition and culture. They have traditional values put forward without any rational explanation. The begun to achieve what they have been lacking-equality, recognition, ideal and the real are juxtaposed in almost all of his plays. Myths and space and honour. They plan, maneuver and struggle to achieve their folklore in his plays are often side by side. Karnad also desired goals. Some of them commit suicide also when they fail in acknowledges the fact: achieving their goals but they certainly succeed in opening the eyes of the people around them and make them realize their responsibility. The energy of folk theatre comes from the fact that although it Their voice from all corners is bringing transformation in the outlook seems to uphold traditional values, it also has the means of of the male dominated society. questioning these values, of making them literally stand on their end. The various conventions, the chorus, the mask, the InHayavadan also Padmini and Kapila defy their subalternity. seemingly unrelated comic episodes, the mixing of human and Padmini represents a modern woman who wants the best of non-human worlds-permit the simultaneous presentation of everything for her fulfillment. She belongs to an upper caste alternative point of view, of alternative attitudes to the central merchant family. She marries Devadatta, an intelligent Brahmin poet problem (1995: 14). but the muscular body of Kapila, the low caste, often tempts her. Kapila is not unaware of her spirit for life and warns Devadatta, “She The problem and pain of incompleteness and absurdity of existence is not for the likes of you. What she needs is a man of steel” (CP, I: are faced by Hayavadana also in this play. He ran from pillar to post, 126). To Padmini also he says: “I know what you want, Padmini. visited many temple, masques and dargahs but all the deities together Devadatta's clever head and Kapil's strong body”(CP, I: 148). Social also couldn't solve his problem of identity and existence. Ironical norms restrict her and she has to simply suppress her sexual desire enough, his wretched condition is changed by not making him a and hunger for Kapila. Transposing the heads of Kapila and complete man but by making him a complete horse. As M. K. Naik Devadatta is a frightening and situational experience for her but it says, “Hayavadana presents the typical existential anguish, but does proves a boon in disguise for her as it fulfills her long cherished not stop at the existential despair, going beyond it, the play suggests a strategy for the achievement of integration in a world inevitably dream of getting the best of the men: “My Devadatta comes like a cursed with absurdity and irrationality”. (1984: 197) bridegroom with the ornament of a new body... It's my duty to go with Devadatta. But, remember I'm going with your [Kapil's] Versatile dramatic genius of Girish Karnad is evident from his body”(CP, I: 151-52). Even Doll I and Doll II comment on her creation of vibrant female protagonists-an exquisite synthesis of nymphomaniac ecstasy and lust for sexual gratification. Since head tradition and modernity. To choose radical women for his plays, his commands the body, eventually, Kapila's body becomes weak and microscopic eyes minutely observe ancient Indian culture, Devdatta's grows stronger. Unable to resist herself, Padmini goes to mythologies, myths, folklore and literature and pick up women as the forest with her son and enjoys extramarital sexual relation with presented in the then prevalent culture but enthuses them with Kapila. Acclimatizing Folklore: An Analysis of Girish Karnad's... 89 90 Satish Kumar Harit
The realization of the situation of their relations makes Devadatta identity as to what caste or class they belong now. Thus the play and Kapila exchange forgiveness and kill each other in a duel. This depicts the shifting of subalterns to the central position. The passing unexpected development leaves Padmini perplexed and alienated. reference of Hayavadana's mother and Hayavadana's anxiety Prompted by the desire of glory for her son and compelled by her enlarges the subaltern world.P. Dhanavel also expresses: “In inability to live without Devadatta and Kapila, Padmini commits Hayavadana the Indian varna system is polarized between head and 'sati'. Karnad uses the device of female chorus to justify Padmini's body. Devadatta, the scholar-poet, represents the head and Kapila, misdemeanor: “Why should love stick to the sap of a single body? the ironsmith, symbolizes the body. Despite the social distance When the stem is drunk with the thick yearning of the many-petalled, between them, they are presented as bosom friends” (2009:117). many-flowered lantana, why should it be tied down to the relation of In the postcolonial phase, the Indian society and culture have also a single flower?…. I have neither regret nor shame” (CP, I: 177-78). emerged as a transposed structure in which the Indian tradition and In Mahabharat, Draupadi also wanted those qualities in her husband culture are fitted with the Western modernization. The playwright which were impossible in one person. She accepted five husbands dexterously uses the transposition of heads as an experimental device and nobody ever doubted her chastity. She is believed to be one of to study the modern Indian scenario. Amalgamation of tradition and the mythical 'Satis'. Kumud Agarwal writes: “If polygamy is right, modernity in us is compelling us to interpret and locate our space in how polyandry is abhorrent. Draupadi wanted a more evolved man, this newly created social structure. In the appendix to the first so did Padmini. The desire for further evolution is deeply ingrained. volume of his Collected Plays Karnad writes: Padmini's was an obsession. She became Sati for her dream of a man of universal intellectual and physical prowess, of perfection of man” My generation was the first to come of age after India became (2008: 88). Thus it is Karnad's brave attempt to present evolution of independent of British rule. It therefore had to face a situation in a woman who flouts the conventional morality, shifts her position which tensions, implicit until then, had come out in the open and from margin to center and uses the patriarchs for her fulfillment. demanded to be resolved without apologia or self-justification: tensions between the cultural past of the country and its colonial Kapila, the son of an iron-smith, is dark complexioned and plainly past, between the attractions of Western modes of thought and featured but in physical prowess, daring deeds and manual skills he our own traditions and finally between the various visions of the has no equals. On the other hand, Devadatta, the son of a Brahmin future that opened up once the common cause of political possesses comely appearance, fair colour and unmatched intelligence freedom was achieved. This is the historical context that gave and poetic skill. Devadatta and Kapila represent two opposite rise to my plays and those of my contemporaries. (301). extremes-one soul another body; One mind, another heart. Despite their exceptional friendship, they are caste conscious. Devadatta's Naga-Mandala is dexterously woven from two Kannada stories that remarks “What do you know of poetry and literature? Go back to Karnad had heard from A.K. Ramanujan in Chicago. The introductory story of the Man hiding in the temple and the Flames is your smithy-that's where you belong,” (CP, I: 119) are sufficient to only the outer frame for the main story of Rani. The story of Rani, demarcate the marginality of Kapila. However, later on, with the female protagonist,presents her hopes, desires, despair and transposed heads they have the problems in locating their identity in happiness and at last her union with her husband. It is a sociological a caste and class conscious society and also in their relation to study of the journey of a modern Indian woman from enslavement to Padmini who is originally Devadatta's wife. This transposition of the empowerment and from frigidity to sensuality. The play exposes the heads leads to the intersection and overlapping of their individual ugliness of the society which conditions women to internalize the spaces of existence and therefore compels them to redefine their reigning ideology of patriarchy to the extent that they derogate their Acclimatizing Folklore: An Analysis of Girish Karnad's... 91 92 Satish Kumar Harit own sex and become instrumental in their own subordination. Male married woman to exercise her sexual freedom and still remaining hegemony shatters their confidence and they begin to doubt their chaste. While talking about Rani P.D. Nimsarkar says, “The journey own productive and creative potential. The play effectively of Rani's life, from complete innocence to liberated self-assertion, dramatizes the ideological conflicts, power relations, and the struggle indicates the history of the treatment meted out to women in the for identity. Hindu society and culture. She has broken the cells of misconception Appna, Rani's husband, treats her in a slavish manner. He locks her and blind faith by asserting her identity” (2009:127). in the house like a caged bird and doesn't allow her to talk to any Regarding the tales which are often narrated by grandmothers in outsider or any outsider to her. He spends his nights with his Hindu culture to internalize patriarchy, Karnad writes in the concubines and visits his wife only to demand services. None in the appendix: whole society is able to see Rani's laceration at the hands of her They thus express a distinctly woman's understanding of the infidel husband except only the blind Kurudavva alone who can see reality around her, a lived counter point to the patriarchal the truth. structure of classical texts and institutions. The position of Rani Kurudavva makes Rani realize her womanhood and her biological in the story of Naga-Mandala, for instance, can be seen as a and emotional needs. Husband's neglect and suppressed sexuality metaphor for the situation of a young girl in the bosom of a joint create another persona in Rani which is ready to combat with the family where she sees her husband only in two unconnected restrictive norms of the patriarchy and search for her real self. roles-as a stranger during the day and as lover at night. Kurudavva's gift of the root as a potential device to attract her Inevitably, the pattern of relationships she is forced to weave husband to her is suggestive of the Rani's search of her lover. The from these disjointed encounters must be something of a fiction. Naga personifies the lover she has been craving for. His love cures The empty house Rani is locked in could be the family she is her frigidity and she starts enjoying erotic pleasures. His intense and married into. (CP, I: 314) sincere love matches the sexual rhythm of her body and she feels utterly fulfilled in his embrace. Her womanhood gets a meaning and Krishnamayi also attempted to redefine the insurgent female psyche recognization in this relation. Rani's acceptance of Naga as her lover in a male dominated society and concluded: “Gender equality still and partner in sex is a curt reply to the question of extra-marital remains a myth…the discussion of the relationship between man and relations which impose the yardstick of morality upon women only woman have been prescribed by man not by woman. Man who is and allows males to go freely even after their marriage. ruled by the mastery motive has imposed her limits on her. She accepts it because of biosocial reasons” (2003-4: 64-65). Rani's pregnancy is an explicit evidence to prove that Naga is not an illusion but reality. Appanna's denial ever to have had any physical Works Cited relation with her questions her chastity. In Indian tradition it is Agarwal, Kumud. “Evolving the Man: A Note on Girish Karnad's always the woman who has to face the fire-ordeal, be it Sita of Hayavadana as Drama of Evolutionary Impulse in Man”. Thunder on 'TretaYug' or Rani of 'Kali Yug'. Rani is ready to face the ordeal of Stage: A Study of Girish Karnad's Plays. Ed. C.L. Khatri and Sudhir proving her chastity. Adopting the device suggested by the Naga, she Kumar Arora. Jaipur: Book Enclave, 2008. Print. confesses swearing by the king Cobra that she has never touched any Amur, G.S. “Modern Kannada Drama”,Indian Writing Today 5.1 (1971): one of the male sex except her husband and this snake. Rani's Print. confidence with which she faces the challenge to her chastity Dhanavel, P. The Indian Imagination of Girish Karnad: Essays on indicates to the hidden intention in the heart of a socially subjugated Hayavadana. New Delhi: Prestige, 2009. Print. 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Karnad, Girish. “Acrobating between the Traditional and Modem”. Indian Literature 32.3 (1989): Print. ---.Collected Plays. Vol.1. New Delhi: Oxford UP, 2009. Print. From the Mute to Muse: Krishanamayi. “Redefinig the Insurgent Female Psyche in an Andrcentric Oral Tradition in Their Eyes Were Watching God Milieu.”The Indian Journal of English Studies. 51 (2003-04). Print. Naik, M.K.Dimensions of Indian Literature. New Delhi: Sterling, 1984. Print. Vibha Bhoot Nimsarkar, P.D.Women in Girish Karnad's Plays: A Critical Perspective . New Delhi: Creative, 2009. Print. Numerous efforts have been made by writers to pen down the Rayakr, Meenakshi. “An Interview with Girish Karnad.”New Quest 36 predicament of women from various angles. The values that belong (1982). Print. to a particular society imperceptibly enter the subconscious level of the characters and control their behavior. Their psychological growth is regulated by this factor to a large extent. They grapple with the conflicts of their psychological origins. Sometimes their traumas become extremely intense. Submission to the repression by the society is the only option sometimes. Some struggle and move from neurosis to psychosis. There are some who exemplify and demonstrate immense strength and establish their individuality. The distinct oral tradition in Zora Neale Hurston's fiction Their Eyes Were Watching God emphasis her spontaneity in her connecting people with the tradition of storytelling and social exchanges. The typical woman, Janie Crawford's quest for self-definition and self discovery has been described in a “love story”. If we leave aside this artistry of projecting a woman in the cultural set up of Eatonville, Zora's use of the technique of orality exemplifies the spiritual of Harlem Renaissance and it's an honest experience of Afro-American tradition. Oral tradition reflects the community spirit strongly. Hurston's art is replete with the spirit of preserving the cultural artifact and folkways. It is a joyous journey of the roles that women play in the society is portrayed through Janie Crawford. Her dream of spiritual fulfillment makes her a common woman as her dream is a universalized one. She becomes an artist, a creator by her articulations into the role of a “story teller”. A devoted friend of Janie, Phoeby is projected as a big supporter of Janie. Phoeby is savvy and has the power to negotiate. Janie bonds with her after following the tradition of storytelling. According to From the Mute to Muse: Oral Tradition in Their Eyes... 95 96 Vibha Bhoot
Lorrain Bethel, American women have always withstood and resisted when Janie is telling about the moments of struggle with Tea Cake. the dominant male society by bonding together, employing oral Phoeby knows that when her reaction can be taken otherwise. By literature as a means of emotional support and survival information. emphasizing the gaps of silences, Hurston asserts that Janie is a The novel begins with the cohesiveness in the structure. The black woman who is resistant to male oppression. She is the one who dichotomy in the viewing of life is explicit. (Bethel, 179) loves hard but would not die because of love. Her love for herself is more that her love for Tea Cake. The aggressive threat that lies “Ships at a distance have every man's wish on board. For some they before her in the form of her lover is ignored by her as her personal come in with the tide. For others they sail forever on the horizon, safety is her priority. There are a few who disagree with the fact that never out of sight, never landing until the watcher turns his eyes Janie has attained her voice. Robert Stepto was amongst the first who away in resignation, his dreams mocked to death by Time. That is the expressed his dissatisfaction with the narrative structure and its third life of men. person narrator; for him the use of the narrator implies that “Janie Now, women forget all those things they don't want to remember, has not really won her voice and self after all” (Stepto, 166). “More and remember everything they don't want to forget. The dream is the recently, Michael Awkward has pointed out that Janie is not truth. Then they act and do things accordingly” (Hurston, 9) interested in telling her story to the community upon her return. The female belief that dreams always represent truth is highlighted in Mary Helen Washington argues that Janie is silenced upon the crucial the above lines. Women desire bonding that comes from sharing. spots in the narrative. What is arguable here is that–whether, Phoeby's “eager to feel and do through Janie” and Janie is compelled Phoeby's 'hungry listenin'' compels her to tell her story or the into a role of story teller – “that oldest human longing self willingness exists to emerge as a winner? According to Carla Kaplan revelation.” (Hurston,18) Phoeby demonstrates her awareness about Janie's voice becomes a kind of double-edged sword, so can vision – the choice of audience that Janie must have and her astuteness is particularly shared between friends–both specularize and affirm.” exhibited in directing Janie. She stops Janie to tell her story to an (Deborah, 148) unsympathetic audience who would possibly not understand her On returning to Eatonville, Janie notices that all the eyes are upon (Hurston 127, 143,173). Speech is a balm to soothe aching souls. her. Her body serves sexed for males and gendered for females. The Janie and Phoeby sit in the darkness of the porch and Janie tells her men notice her “firm buttocks like she had grape fruits in hip story to her “bosom friend”. The character of Phoeby becomes pockets; the great rope of black hair swinging to her waist and significant thus Janie's comment is totally felt by her when she says, unraveling in the wind like a plume; then her pugnacious breasts “You can tell 'em what, Ah say if you wants to. Dats just de same as trying to bore holes in her shirt.” The women focus on the “faded me 'cause mah tongue is in mah friend's mouf (Hurston,17). shirt and muddy overalls.”In the both the perceptions, Janie vanishes. Phoeby is a good listener and has power within the community too. Men are all about the body parts the women deny femininity. The When she enters Janie's house, she makes everything (the gossip by potential of the novel lies in the display of time Janie through the the people) look natural and an accident. Her behavior is ambiguous exchanges with Phoeby. Phoeby tells Janie, “Gal you sho looks and the requirement of the narrative. Words are a tool and a device to good.... Even wid dem overhalls on, you shows yo' womanhood”. connect Phoeby's “hungry listening” (Hurston,23) which encourages (Hurston, 4) Janie and the omniscient third person narrative. They determine up The objectivity of Janie's body has dominated throughout the book. Janie's growth and development as a story teller and as a person too. Her first husband Logan Killicks wants her to be a “mule” in the The one strategy that Hurston employs is Phoeby's use of silence fields so her body is a man power and her vision of “pear tree” is From the Mute to Muse: Oral Tradition in Their Eyes... 97 98 Vibha Bhoot desecrated by Nanny's pressure on her to get married. Joe Starks, her She kills him. This was a necessity and not a choice. She wanted him second husband is attracted to her beauty; “He stopped and looked to live for her but destiny had decided something else. There is an hard, and then he asked her for a cool drink of water.” (Hurston,26) inherent Black woman–identification in Their Eyes Were Watching Janie accepted that she was unable to look into the Starks personality God. Hurston has given very sophisticated analysis of human as she over rules the dominating aspect in his personality. Joe does relationships where the Black woman is an integral part and is “not represent sun-up and pollen and blooming trees, but he spoke respected. In her works, simply Black identification is not enough. for far horizon. He spoke for change and chance.” (Hurston,28) Janie She celebrates Black womanhood and their bonding on many levels forgets her dream of pear tree and walks off with a man who fails to like psychic, intellectual, physical and emotional with other women come up to her expectations. Eventually, she forgets her own dream. is of importance. His pressure on her to wear the head rag and Janie's exclusion from The power politics is thus formed in the patriarchal society and in its the “mule talk” which she enjoys too much–show her oppressed state final state promises “an obsession with control as a core value after getting married to Joe Starks. The gesture that is involved when around which social life is organized. As with any system of she removes her head rag after Jody's death also shows that she had privilege that elevates one group by oppressing another” (Johnson, been tired of him and she wanted to liberate herself. Her vision of 14). Zora doesn't create a Barbie image–sexually appealing Black “pear tree” had totally disappeared and now she meets Tea Cake. Her woman but at the same time the Black women's sexuality is never affirmation of self and the desire to display her beauty is apparent in negated Janie. Zora's analysis of self was complex. Their Eyes Were Watching God is perceived by critics as a journey toward self- her throwing of the head rag. She was ready for a new relationship identity through which a black female achieves growth and “'Ah wuz lookin' off when you went and stuck yo' men right up next development against the history and the oppression of race and sex. tuh mine. No fair!'” Tea Cake answers, “ 'You ain't supposed, tuh “Janie rejects her grandmother's misguided vision of black women's look off, Mis Starks. Its de biggest part uh de game tuh watch out!'” lives in favor of the journey to the horizon in search of the (Hurston,92) Listening to this Janie realizes that he can be a “pear independent self” (McKay,62). Her relationship with Tea Cake (her tree”. “He was a glance from God.” (Hurston,102) She wanted again third husband) helps her to find her identity, but his death helps her to believe in love. She contrasted her past and then came to a to stand for herself and to speak in her own voice without being decision of moving ahead. She wanted to come out of the denial of dependent on men any more. Her psychological, physical and the beauty that Joe had for her. She starts wearing the favorite color spiritual suffering affected her decision in coming to terms with life. of Tea Cake – blue. At the day of the storm she tells Tea Cake – “ 'If Her documents are a presentation of a development of an ego. you kin see de light at daybreak, you don't keer if you die at dusk' ” (151) She has a vision that is not solely visual but emotional too. Her The battle for self is an ongoing process. Leaving behind a number development and the regaining of her sense of self on “the Muck” of empowering legacies her documents are a record of individual tells more about her ability to listen too. Tea Cake survives the achievement and merit. She plays fair. Her characters accept a hurricane but falls a victim to a dog bite and gets infected with challenge too. Rudolph Arnheim believes that “all thinking occurs in rabies. His deteriorating health worried Janie but she still gives him a visual medium” (Arnheim, 4). Hurston's novel embodies the philosophy of visual thinking as the narrator says-There is a basin in chances before shooting him. “He had to die to get rid of the dog. the mind where words float around on thought and thought on sound But she hadn't wanted to kill him. A man is up against a hard game and sight. Then there is a depth of thought untouched by words, and when he must die to beat it. She made them see how she couldn't deeper still a gulf of formless feelings untouched by thought. ever want to be rid of him”. (Hurston,278) (Arnheim, 23) From the Mute to Muse: Oral Tradition in Their Eyes... 99 Journal of Rajasthan Association for Studies in English11: 100-113 (2015)
The violence that Janie tolerates, both domestic and verbal, teach us a lot about a Black woman's experience. The experience that Janie had with the Janie's soul renewal in the end is under the eye. Life as Restructuring the Image of is a portrayed as having holistic view. It is revolutionary. She puts every word in mouth of Janie which fascinates the anthropologists as Vijay Singh Pathik Through Folk well. She had been a toy in the hands of people when the story began but in the end she comes to terms with life. She learns and makes the Anant Dadhich people learn through Phoeby. She has words and confidence to speak those words. Peasant movements hold an important place in the history of social and political life in India though they differ from each other in terms Works Cited of aims and objectives. From the beginning of the 20th century Arnheim, Rudolph. In Search of Janie: Tracking Character Development Rajasthan has been a centre of resistance against imperialism and and Literary Elements in Their Eyes Were Watching God. Ed. Judi feudalism both by many political activists, social reformers and Berridge and San Antonio. Texas. Web. 2Feb2015.
;fn bPNk gS rks ;g gS victorious is not one who has been a winner but he who dies Tkx esa LosPNkpkj neu u jgsA unyielded holding tight his vow of truth and self esteem.) ()Pathik Vinod 30 Pathik as a thinker and reformer is concerned with the problem of wars in the world. He explains that crises are projected as an integral (Rejecting all honour, majesty and comforts and even life the feature of civilizations and they provoke ruling classes to poet says that he seeks to weed out the tyranny and legitimatize subordination and oppression. This political ideology suppression in the world.) generates wars in the world. Prahalad-Vijai, drama in verse, has been a published work by Pathik ;q) ugh dqN /keZ dk;Z gS] fgalk ugh izxfr gS] based on the mythology of Hirayankashyap who attacks on the abode of gods i.e.Devlok . The invasion of demons on Devlok under the Lokra=;kfJr lqj{kkFkZ gh cl mldh vuqefr gSA leadership of Hiranyakashyap, their turbulence and turmoil, terrible (Prahalad-Vijai 14 ) war between gods and demons and finally the victory of gods, escape of defeated Hiranyakashyap fromDevlok , co-incidentally the (War can never be treated as an act of Dharma, violence can pregnant wife of Hiranyakashyap falls into the hands of god's army, never be the path of progress. These can be allowed only for the preaching of Indra to the queen and as a holy consequence the freedom and liberty if taken in the broad perspective.) birth of great devotee Prahalad- all such epical events and incidents At the end of the poem the poet dreams of that world which will be have been narrated in this work by Pathik in a very fabulous manner. devoid of all brutal and evil tendencies. Throughout the epic there The selection of the theme of the epic has been significant to relate runs the theme of virtue and vision, hope and expectation. Pathik was the past with the present. The plot narrates the imperialistic forces of a revolutionary poet. He was dissatisfied with the existing order of the world under the influence of undue ambition and intemperance, things. He hated political tyranny, the wickedness, the evil and the their brutal society, plight of women, the sense of truth, love and wars which made the life of mankind unhappy and miserable. He non- violence on the part of gods and the efforts to construct a wanted to liberate mankind from the chains of political and religious society based on equality and fraternity. This epic has made the poet slavery. This attitude gets reflected in the concluding part of the a prophet who could see into the future for the nourishment of those poem. ideals which are required for a better world. At the very outset of the fQj bl }s'k nX/k tx esa lq[k dk leqnz ygjk,] poem the poet sings about his ethics rejecting wars, revenge, and bloodshed. fQj txr ij cU/kq Hkko dh foey pfUnzdk Nk,] ugha ohjrk gS] fooq/kksA oSjh dk o/k djus esaaA fQj e:LFky dwftr dqtsa] fLer iq'iksa ls Hkj tk;s] gS ohjRo lR; ij fuHkZ; MVs gq, ejus esaA fQj dksfdy] olq/kSo dqVqEcde~ dh jkfxuh lquk;sA lPpk fot; gS u og] t;h gksdj tks vkrk gS] fQj cy dh iwtk mBdj gks lR; U;k; dh ppkZ] izR;qr og] tks fcuk >qds fut iz.k ij feV tkrk gSaA fQj ?kj&?kj esa LokFkZ NksM gks O;fDr&HkfDr dh ppkZA (Prahalad-Vijai 15) (Prahalad-Vijai 12 ) (The poet, who trying to come out from the pain ,loneliness (Bravery does not lie in slaying the foes rather it resides in and anguish , yearns for the waving sea of rest and devoting life to the ideals of truth and heroism. The contentment, looks for the flourishing moonlight of Restructuring the Image of Vijay Singh Pathik Through Folk 111 112 Anant Dadhich
brotherhood, longs for the desert of life to be full of flowers, Rajneeti Ke Tattva, Rajasthan Ki Mul Sanskriti, Vedo Me Vishwa waiting for the birds to sing the songs of kinship that all the Itihas, and Swaraj.He also translated Teachers and Parents by world is one family, aspiring for such a society where Tolstoy andConquest of the Bread by Prince Cropatkin under the discourse of truth and justice take place despite all dissents, titleGaribo Ka Swaraj . He was also the editor of some of the and craves for such a social set up where there is no room contemporary newspapers. They include Rajasthan Kesari, Naveen for greed and hatred.) Rajasthan, and Rajasthan Sandesh. Pathik also wrote two novels,Bikra Bhai and Ajaymeru . It is Pathik's dedication and devotion to the land of Bijoliyan for Unfortunately both these novels could not get published. In Bikra which he worked till his death that he is still acknowledged and Bhai he depicts the class conflict of Indian society. The novel is esteemed as a figure of freedom and dignity in the local folk songs of known for its socialist theme. In this novel through the protagonist the region. People salute him for his contribution in terms of Bikra Bhai Pathik delineates the displacement of the poor and awakening them to resist the feudal set-up. Bijoliyan kisan Andolan peasants from their lands. It all happens in the name of development. elevated his status to such an extent that he became as prominent as The novel revolves around the simple and rustic life of Bikra Bhai Gandhiji. In the folk songs he is appraised as the precursor of who owns nothing except some land and a small hut in the village. renaissance and reformation. How does he become a prey to the capitalist setup losing everything is the theme of the novel. Similarly inAjaymeru Pathik underlines Lkc jktLFkkuh lksrs Fks] the exploitation of the workers and farmers. In his famous story Abla Tkxok fn;s ifFkd iqtkjh us Ka Bal he describes the attempts of men to marginalize women in a lg d"V vusdks jksrs Fks] conventional and traditional society. How does the heroine of the story, with her sense of self assertion for the equal rights, protests galok fn;s ifFkd iqtkjh us A against her husband and his brutal treatment has been described in (Folk Song) the story. (It was Pathik who awakened all dormant people of Unfortunately many of his works remained unpublished due to Rajasthan . It was he who made them laugh who were by negligence, strict jail laws, and the suppression of the British that time wailing because of many discomforts.) government. His life, which was full of consistent travel and hectic These folk songs depict the role of Gandhi who could alarm the schedule, was also responsible for this state. At the same time there British government whereas Pathik is acknowledged as that was a scarcity of means and facilities. When he was in exile he used revolutionary figure who could demolish the feudal set up which was to write under the pseudonym ofANGARH and SINGH. Later on he the root cause of the misery of peasants over the centuries. started writing by the name of Pathik. His published works include What are Indian States(1928), The Historical Assertion delivered in xka/kh xkSjesUV thrs Fks A Jail(1928), Chunav Paddatiya aur Jansatta (1939), Pathik Pramod- fot;flag jtokfM;k ls a collection of stories (1957),Pathik Vinod - a collection of poems lRrk /keZ dh lHkk cukbZ (1958),Prahalad Vijai (1961), and Sukhiya-Suresh- a drama (1979). There has been a long list of his unpublished works. They include iki ewy us ikfM;k jsA Ajaymeru-a historic novel, Alochana, Ganrajya Paddhati, Nari Jati (Folk Song) Ka Itihas, Jail Ke Patra, Bikrabhai- a political novel, Bhartiya Restructuring the Image of Vijay Singh Pathik Through Folk 113 Journal of Rajasthan Association for Studies in English11: 114-120 (2015)
(It was Gandhi who conquered the British imperialism but it was Pathik who subdued feudalism which brought out real freedom for peasants and workers in Rajasthan. This joint venture of power and Dharma devastated the flux of British Folk Art and Narrative Traditions of Rajasthan and feudal.) In the folk songs people invoke gods to send some heroic figure like Mukta Sharma Pathik who could save them from the tyranny and cruelty of landlords and estate holders: “There are countless forms of narratives in the world' wrote French ge nhu ghu fdlkuks dk] literary theorist Rolland Barthes in An Introduction to the Structural Hkxoku dksbZ j{kd Hksft;s Analysis of Narrative. Among the vehicles of narrative are articulated languages...pictures still or moving, gestures and an d`".k tSlk j.k jaxh dksbZ ordered mixture of all these substances; narrative is present in myth, ifFkd iqtkjh Hksft;s legend, fable, tales, short stories, epics, history, tragedy,...comedy, (Folk Song) pantomime, paintings,...stained – glass windows, movies, local news, conversation. Moreover in this infinite variety of forms, it is present (Imploring God people of Rajasthan say to send a figure like at all times, in all places, in all societies; indeed narrative starts with Pathik who could be the savior of low ,humble and poor the very history of mankind; there is not, there has never been peasants. People also pray to send a hero like Pathik anywhere, any people without narrative....” resembling nothing but the divine Krishan who could rescue them from all trauma and predicament.) The Illustrated Dictionary of Art Terms defines “Narrative art” as:”Art which illustrates or tells a story. It usually describes self- Works Cited explanatory events from a text, well-known folk-tale or myth.” Beteilie, Andre.Marxism and Class Analysis. New Delhi: Oxford UP, 2007.Print. In the prologue to his book, Tales from the Easel: American narrative paintings from South Eastern Museums, circa 1800-1950, Pangariya, B.L.Rajasthan me Svatantrata Sangram. Jaipur: Raj. Hindi Granth Academi, 1985. Print. Dr Charles Eldredge states: “Some of the stories told in paint are rather straight-forward, easily read by most viewers: simple pictures. Saxena, Shankar Sahay. “Patrakar aur Sahityakar.” Rajasthan Ke Krantikari Shri Vijai Singh Pathik Smiriti Granth. Ed.Vishnu Pankaj, and Ramesh Others convey content through more obscure symbols, using details Kumar Jain. Jodhpur: Rajasthan Sahitya Sansthan, 2003. Print. freighted with personal, often cryptic meaning-- complex images that Shamsi, Nayyar.Encyclopaedia of Modern Political Theory . New Delhi: perhaps reflect the complex circumstances of their creation. But all Anmol, 2005.Print. suggest a basic and enduring fascination with a story well told, with Sharma, Ramvilash.Swadhinatha Sangram: Badalte Pariprekshya . New a tale well painted. Delhi: Delhi UP, 1992. Print. Some of the earliest evidence of human art suggests that people told Vyas, Ramprasad.Adhunik Rajasthan Ka Vrihat Itihas . Jaipur: Raj. Hindi stories with pictures. However, without some knowledge of the story Granth Academi, 2010. Print. being told it is very hard to read ancient pictures because they are not organized in a systematic way like words on a page, but rather can unfold in many different directions at once. Folk Art and Narrative Traditions of Rajasthan 115 116 Mukta Sharma
Indian culture is deeply indebted to its oral traditions and the vast form and technique depending on local ethos, patronage and socio- narratives of folk art forms. The role of folklore in passing on values, economic conditions. Rajasthan is known for its pabuji ki phad, beliefs and moral teachings is tremendous. Folk art encompasses art Devnarayan katha as also stories from the legend of Tejaji, Dhola produced from an indigenous culture or by peasants or other and Maru. Goa evolved the Dasavathara, as Maharashtra did Pinguli labouring trades-people. In contrast to fine art, folk art is primarily and the Chitra Katha tradition called the Prasasti Patra. Orissa and utilitarian and decorative rather than purely aesthetic. Folk art is Bengal are famous for their Patachi traditions. Cheriyal paintings are characterized by a native style, in which traditional rules of a distinctly local invention, peculiar to Telangana region, drawing proportion and perspective are not employed. As a phenomenon that mainly on local traditions. can chronicle a move towards civilization yet rapidly diminish with Phad is an audio-visual performance of folk narratives in Rajasthan. modernity, industrialisation, or outside influence, the nature of folk Phad or scrolls are printed narratives. It is a large cloth scroll on art is specific to its native culture. which on which the legends of folk heroes like Pabuji, Devnarayan Although in the past the majority of Indian people might have been etc. are painted. The performance signifies phad Bachans or illiterate they were not uneducated. They were taught the principles “narration of the legend”. These folk paintings on cloth are a part of ruling their religions and social life through the recitation of stories rich cultural legacy of India. These paintings have the mammoth task drawn from epics, the Puranas and other religious texts. In the past, of representing a complex and full-blown folk epic, which it achieves the retelling of these stories provided the education of the unlettered, through a very specific style of representation filled with figures of and the discourses were accompanied by the visual aids: scrolls, pictorial incidents. Every available inch of the canvas is crowded painted cloth hangings, sets of paintings, and wooden boxes with with figures. While the figures are harmoniously distributed all over folding concertina-like door painted with scenes from the 'career of a the area, the scale of figure depends on the social status of the deity.' The Kaavad story telling traditions of Rajasthan also uses character they represent and the roles they play in the story. The paintings on a wooden box that unfolds to reveal more painting. The figures in the painting do not face the audience; rather they face each Kaavad a portable wooden temple shrine that has visual narratives other. These paintings are very wide to accommodate the numerous painted on it. These boxes assist wandering story tellers as they go episodes of the complex stories. With the help of the painting from home to home. exposition and explanation of the painting to the audience is done through the songs, dances and instrumental music. There is In earlier times the scrolls were a colourful backdrop to the equally incredible diversity and imaginative creativity found in folk interesting oral tradition of the common people. The scrolls set out paintings especially in the folk paintings from Rajasthan. These phad the adventures and the exploits of local folk heroes who performed paintings depict the heroic deeds of a heroic figure, the daily life of on the fringes of the epics, Puranas etc. of the Hindu 'Greater painters and peasants, rural life, animals and birds, flora and fauna. Traditions.' Each community had its favourite heroes and heroines as th also selection of stories from mythologies. Scroll paintings have a There are paintings of Ramdev Pir who was a ruler of the 14 cent. It rich history and play an important role in the Asian artistic tradition. is believed that he had miraculous powers and he devoted his life for In China, scroll paintings were a part of the sophisticated traditions the upliftment of the downtrodden and poor people pf the society. of the nobility and the courts. In India however, the scroll painting Another warrior hero of the region is Gogaji. He is also known as was the prerogative of the itinerant bard and the village artist, in Johar Veer.He worshipped as a folk deity and venerated as a saint essence a folk tradition of the villages. In India, each region and and a snake a God. Phad painting is traditionally done on a long village developed its own traditions marked by characteristic content, piece of cloth, known as the Phad. The narratives of the folk deities Folk Art and Narrative Traditions of Rajasthan 117 118 Mukta Sharma of which Pabuji and Devnarayan are more popular are depicted on with a rare ethnicity of Rajasthan style, also represented themes other the phads. The Bhopas, the priest-singers as the tradition is, carry the than Pabuji and Devnarayan, especially the aspects of Krishnalila. painted phads along with them and use these as mobile temples of While the phads related to Devnarayana portray some aspects of the phad deities. The phads of pabuji are normally about 15 feet in Devanarayan's stately authority, those related to Pabuji often length, while the phads of Devnarayan are normally 30 feet long. represent some aspects of an act of his great sacrifice; however Traditionally the phads are painted with vegetable colours. ,sometimes a phad devoted to Pabuji also portrays him as seated in his court with his four cousins. In such phads Pabuji's favourite black The epical narratives of the folk deities are told by the Bhopas during mare posted outside, determines the portrayed figure's identity. The the Jagrans. The purpose of the Jagrans is to evoke the Prakas Black mare is believed to be Pabuji's mother, a nymph he was (presence) of the folk deities. The Bhopas begin the narrative which mythically born of,in her new birth. As the tradition goes, Pabuji was consists of verse sections, known as gavas and followed by prose born of a celestial nymph who had foretold that she would be reborn sections known as arthavs. The Bhopa points out each scene on the after twelve years as a black mare and would always be with her son phad with a stick and narrates the episode. and protect him. Pabuji Ki Phad, the religious scroll painting which is used for As the story goes Pabuji, a semi-historical figure, a legend for musical rendition, is the only surviving ancient traditional folk art masses immersed in great divinity, appears to have been born form in the world, of the epic of Pabuji. Pabuji the Rathod Rajput th th th sometimes in 14 or 15 century. He was born as one of the four chief who lived in the 14 cent is extolled as an incarnation of hindu children of Dhadal Rathod of the village Kolu. The three others were God and is worshipped by the Rabari tribals of Rajasthan. The story one brother and two sisters. During his early days he fought many of Pabuji has been analysed by historians with respect to the other battles mainly against khichis and evicted them of the Rathod land, epic stories of Ramayana and Mahabharata and the conclusion drawn and another against Mirza Khan Pathan and protected the honour of is that the Pabuji tradition is one multilayered and collective womenfolk and the lives of cows, Mirza Khan was bent upon narrative construction of different Rajasthani performers, transmitted destroying. The marriage of his loved niece kelam put his real in oral and written forms. On this phad canvas which is usually prowess at trial. While other guests gave her various gifts, Pabuji 15ftX05ft long sheet on which miniature scenes depicting the life of promised her to give a herd of a rare breed of camels from Lanka. Pabuji and his adventures are painted or sewen. Soon after her marriage he set out to obtain them and faced many The phad represents in its painting the court of Pabuji, his palace and trials, though finally succeeding in bringing a huge herd of camels his divine character as an incarnation of Lakshmana the brother of for his niece. On his way he also fell in love with the princess of Rama, the fort in which he lived as well as the sanctum of his Sindh and married her. Goddess Deval. The backdrop of such narration is invariably in the When one reads the phad, the central part of the phad represents a desert villages of Rajasthan.The images in the painting are arranged groom riding a black horse, perhaps Pabuji himself when marrying logically, also showing revengeful exploits of his nephew on his the princess of Sindh. The depiction relates to 'Toran' ceremony- a enemy Jindrav Khichi. very important rite in the marriage ceremony of Rajasthan. The Pabuji a Rathod chieftain, and Devnarayan, a Gurjar warrior horse-rider bridegroom leaps to the 'Toran' and strikes it with his comprise the themes of most of the initial phads. They are the two sword. There are guests on horses comprising marriage procession great folk heroes of Rajasthan masses and the theme of a number of and umbrella and chowri bearers on foot. In upper balconies are oral epics and folk- lore. In later phase phads, used as a folk art mode drummers and trumpeters, and in the lower, ladies with pots on heads Folk Art and Narrative Traditions of Rajasthan 119 120 Mukta Sharma and lamps in hands. Some royal ladies with attendants house the assistant, the Diyala.When the Patavi Bhopa sings a particular upper pavilions on the inner side, and royal personages with a chowri episode of the epic, his junior partner, the Diyala Bhopa holds an oil bearer, those on the lower side. Proper marriage rites, the groom lamp to illuminate the particular part of the phad, where the holding the bride's hand under a specially raised 'Mandapa' and a particular episode which is being sung is depicted. The red colour 'Purna Ghata' placed on the ritual wooden pole, a priest reciting holy dominates this phad. The reading of the phad begins from the central hymns, a Devi 'form' with a trident attending the ceremony are figure of Shri Devnarayana. For the purpose of reading, the phad can painted in the pavilion on the bottom on the extreme right. On the be divided in three parts. Part 'A' extends from the left to the central left to the centre is seated, in an arched pavilion, Pabuji with a flower figure of lord Devnarayana. Part 'B' begins with the figure of in hand and his four trusted warriors facing him. Devnarayana and ends with the fourth largest figure of In all such traditional phads Pabuji and Dfvnarayan are often Devnarayana's cousin Bhauj ji. The rest is Part 'C'. The figure of portrayed as enshrining deities and some aspects of Rajasthani life Devnarayana is the largest in the phad. The central and the largest are knitted around them. figure of Devnarayana is shown seated on Basag Nag (king of snakes) and the side view of Devnarayana has a sharp nose and Devnarayan who is another folk hero of Rajasthan is a historical promonant golden ornament. From the ear hangs a large golden th figure of 9 century. He is worshipped as an incarnation of Lord ornament which most of the Gurjars still wear in Rajasthan. In one Vishnu. This legendry epic written earlier to that of the epic of Pabuji hand there is a flower, while in the other is a khanda or a sword. is also popular and is painted on phad. According to the tradition this Gurjar warrior was born to Sri Savai Bhoj and Sadu Mata Gurjari on Phads also depict the lives of other local heroes such as Veer Tejaji, the seventh day of the Shukla Saptami in the month of Magh of the Gogaji, Ramdev Peer etc. While strongly attached to religion and Hindu Calander in Vikram Samvat 968 (911 AD). The epic of supplication, the phad art's main purpose is a mastery over aesthetic Devnarayana is one of the longest and most popular religious oral senses and has always been so. A riot of colours rolled out on narratives of Rajasthan. It has been classified under the category of cloth–vibrant wedding; blood red battles; prismatic romances; and martial epics. The scroll or phad of Devnarayan consists of an image exciting adventures-the phad tradition is perfect for exploring of Devnarayana in the attire of a king seated on his “python” throne different themes and subjects across time. in his court faced by the serpent Basak and his four cousins at the Works Cited centre.The whole phad is painted with various scenes related to the Exotic Rajasthani Art. 20 February 2004.
twenty nine principles, this community was named ' Bisnoi' means twenty niners .e. twenty means 'bis' in Hindi and nine means 'nau' so An Analysis of Ecological Aspect in it became 'Bisnoi'. Saint Jambhoji has emphasized the importance of conserving and protecting the black buck and theKhejri tree Oral Narratives of Rajasthan (Prosopis cineraria). Some of the principles of Jambhoji related to environment are as follows:- 1. Have pity on living beings and love Manoj Kumar them. 2. Don't cut the green trees, save them. 3. Don't eat meat, remain always pure vegetarian etc. Since the inception of human civilization, it is said that nature and This paper focuses on the eco-consciousness reflected in folklore of human being have been very close to each other. In the global era, Rajasthan in its various forms. The main components of environment people are losing their connectivity with nature. Nature is treated as are flora and fauna. Folklore of Rajasthan is so rich that many books commodity but earlier nature was treated as mother. Folklore has have been written on it and still research is on. It is quite clear that always been protective towards nature. It is rightly said about the the awareness towards environment is deeply rooted in the oral nature by Wordsworth, 'Nature never did betray, the heart that loved literature of Rajasthan. her'. As Glotfelty states that “What then is eco -criticism? Simply put, Now-a-days, environment is degrading day by day in our country. eco-criticism is the study of relationship between literature and Though, there are several programs for eco-consciousness run by physical environment. Just as feminist criticism examines language government and non- government institutes but, folklore plays a and literature from a gender conscious perspective, and Marxist great role in making people aware about the eco- consciousness. criticism brings an awareness of modes of production and economic Some scholars believe that the main problem related to environment class to its reading of texts, eco-criticism takes an earth-centered is because of our ethical system which is not functioning properly. approach to literary studies. (1996: XIX) (Anand Mahanand) Folklore Environment plays a vital role in rural people's life. Trees, animals have a great impact on people. In Rajasthan, it is believed that forest Folklore of Rajasthan is vibrant and rich. It consists of many forms is the abode of god, goddess and other deities. There are many trees such as songs, tales, ballads, tongue-twisters, riddles, fairy tales, which are considered sacred such as 'Tulsi', 'Ashok', 'Banana' and myths, proverbs, riddles, tall tales, fables and many more. It has been many more. C.K. Janu states in her narrative that, “The forest is transferred from generation to generation by word of mouth. Every mother to us. More than a mother who never abandon us.” No one genre of folklore is replete with the sense of eco-consciousness. It is can forget the sacrifice of Amrita Devi who along with 363 Bishnois true that oral narratives helped to bridge the gap between nature and (a community in Rajasthan) sacrificed her life to saveKhejri tree by human beings. The simple reason behind this is people can be made hugging it which was considered sacred by the community. Amrita more aware on emotional ground. Devi uttered some words: “Sar santéy rukh rahe to bhi sasto jan .” (If a tree is saved even at the cost of one's head, it's worth it). Folklore has given equal importance to trees, animals and human beings. Many trees and animals are considered sacred. According to Saint Jambohji, guru of Bisnoi community, always insisted on Hindu beliefs, to maintain balance and harmony in universe, there protecting plants and animals. Guru Jambheswar gave twenty nine has to be balance among five elements such as earth, fire, sky, water commandments and out of them, eight commandments are related to and air. Animals, trees and human being equally contribute to biodiversity and good animal husbandry. (Wiki) Because of these maintain the balance of Panchbutava. An Analysis of Ecological Aspect in Oral Narratives of Rajasthan 123 124 Manoj Kumar
As every part of nature is considered to be holy and divine because Myths God exists in them be it river, mountain, soil, animals, trees etc. Folklore teaches us how to respect and revere nature. There are many There are many songs and sayings popular among people in praise of stories, myths, ballads where rivers, trees, birds, mountains are ṇṛṭ soil such as “ Minakapa ā rau mulaka mā, taka ī mā ī tōla ,Namana revered. People of Rajasthan regards shammi tree as Kalipvriksha ṭ karai rikha dēva nara, mā ī chai anamōla ”(Laxmandan Kavia:263) (wish granting tree) because at the time of drought when no grass or means in the country of human being, soil is important and fodder is found anywhere, the animals are able to survive by eating everybody loves it. its green leaves. Khejari is worshipped on the day of Vijaydashmi. It Nandita Mishra says, “Many Indian tribes believe that eating a is considered to be a conqueror of the world. It pacifies enemy. portion of a flesh or wearing a part of the animal's body (like claw or (Rekha Rastogi, 53) As Laxman Dan writes about it teeth of a tiger) will transfer the qualities of that animal to the “Jhati bojhi khejari, sami nanva sanketa person. ….. A tribal shaman may go into a trance and enter soul of an Taru kalapa marudhara tana, khejara ubha kheta animal, in which state he can see things denied to a human being, thus giving the animal omniscient quality.” (2) Ayau khejara uparam, dharma grantha rau dhyana Lichami dhiga vasau lahai, bhala visanu bhagavana.” There is a popular story in folklore of Rajasthan named “Chaval ke Kahani' (Story of Rice) about place named Ghotiya Amba in south (Khejri tree is known by many names such as Jhanti, Bojhi, Sami Rajasthan where Pandavs are said to have visited this place during and many more. It is also called wish granting tree. According to their exile and from the seeds of their mango fruits they were gifted religious scriptures, this tree is an abode of Goddess Laxmi and Lord by Indra, grew mango trees in temple area. According to a folktale, Vishnu) 88000 saints were invited here for a special treat with mango pulp in Lord Rama planted some trees at Panchavati during his exile. These the presence of Krishna. Banana leaves were used as plates for that trees were Bel, Ashoka, Banyan, Amla. Each tree has its own special party and those trees in the area currently do not grow fruits. importance. Vat or Banyan tree is a symbol of immortality. It is said It is believed that rice plants grew from the grains that fell off from that Savitri left the body of her husband, Satyvan, under this three the food served in that party. On the Krishna Amavasya of Hindu and went after Yamraj (God of death), and was eventfully successful month of Caitra, there is large fair held here in which Bhils from in getting back her husband's life. (Rekha Rastogi 52) Rice is Rajasthan, Gujrat and Malwa assemble. Pilgrims collect the upper considered to be 'a fertility symbol' that's why it is used during many portions of the rice plants and store them in granaries back home. It rites and rituals like marriage. is believed that such house never felt drought. ( Pankaj Jain 90) Folk Beliefs In villages, a child is well brought up in the natural environment. During childhood, child learns many things from his surrounding There are many old beliefs existing in folklore which focus on the environment. He develops his minds or consciousness through importance of eco-consciousness. Some of them are as follows: It is experiences based on nature. His sentiments and wishes are aroused believed that if basils fruits are put on the head of a person at the or thrived with nature. He uses many ecological resources since his time of death, he goes to heaven. (Ashwini Kumar) It is advised not birth be it making sand castles, playing paper boat in water, to pluck fruits or leaves in the evening. These beliefs may have been worshipping Ganguar (a famous festival of Rajasthan) and offering there to protect trees. According to Wikipedia. the other beliefs flowers to deities etc. prevalent in Folklore of Rajasthan are as follows:- An Analysis of Ecological Aspect in Oral Narratives of Rajasthan 125 126 Manoj Kumar
A person goes to heaven if he grows Tulsi tree in his house. Stories And if one properly grows bilva, which pleases Lord Siva, in his When women of Rajasthan talk to each other about any topic, they family, the goddess of riches resides permanently passes on to the utter “'Ka ā vāta kaṭṇṇhai su ī? Ka ā vāta āmbā rī ḍ āla ara saravara rī sons and grandsons. pāḷṇṇa su ī .'' (a friend asks to another that where have you heard this He who plants even a single asvattha, wherever it may be, as per story? Another answers,I have heard it nearby mango tree or the bank of pond.) the prescribed mode, goes to the abode of Hari. He who has planted dhatri has performed several sacrifices. He Many girls and ladies keep fast on many occasions and listens to has donated the earth. He would be considered a celebate forever. stories. These stories also make people aware about environment. Some girls worship vatikas (a small garden) such bari of Dasha mata He who plant a couple of banyan trees as per the prescribed (deity), Pathwari mata, Sheetla mata, Tulsa mata, Suraj bhagwan, mode would go to the abode of Siva and many heavenly nymphs will Gajanandji and many more. When they ask for wishes, most of the attend upon him. wishes are related to environment such as “O God! If I see front, After planting neem trees a person well-versed in dharma attains may my house be full of wealth. If I see back, may ocean be filled the abode of Sun. Indeed! He resides there for a long period. with water. The ocean may never get dried. Whoever worship Peepal, By planting four plaksa trees a person doubtlessly obtains the may they get whatever they wish! I will worship every branch and fruits of Rajasuya sacrifice. leave. (Dr. Shrikrishna Jugnu). How stories help to make us aware He who plants five or six mango trees attains the abode of about eco-system? About Anthony Nanson states, “Stories extend Garuda and lives happily forever like gods. your imagination to see the world from the perspectives other than your own. When you hear someone's own story, your sympathy is One should plant seven palasa trees or even one. One attains the engaged and you recognize that other person as a conscious being abode of Brahma and enjoys the company of gods by doing so. capable of suffering and joy.” (34) He who himself plants eight udumbara trees or even prompts someone to plant them, rejoices in the lunar world Trees He who has planted madhuka has propitiated Parvati, has Trees play a pivotal role in life of people of Rajasthan. There may not be any fair and festival where trees remain unmentioned. Earlier become free from diseases, and has worshipped all deities. it was believed that every tree is an abode of some deities so harming If one plants ksirini, dadimi, rambha, priyala, and panasa, one any tree in any form was not allowed. The ancient law of Hindu experiences no affliction for seven births. religion states that cutting down any tree is an unholy act and should He who has knowingly or unknowingly planted ambu is be punished. People worship many trees which are considered respected as a recluse even while staying in the house. abodes of deities such as Peepal is an abode of Lord Krishna, Tulsi By planting all kinds of other trees, useful for fruits and flowers, (Basil) of Tulsiji or Laxmi Mata, Banana of Lord Vishnu, the Bela of a person gets a reward of thousand cows adorned with jewels. Lord Shiva, Amalaki of Lord Buddha, Neem of Ganahara etc. As it is popular about trees, “Āṅṇga ā rī kyārī sū ṁ lē'ra gāma rī guvā ṛ ī rē By planting one asvattha, one picumanda, one nyagrodha, ten cōvaṭṁṭ ā tā ī, ābarā jyū ṁuga tā, parēma sū ṁ sīncatā-Badhatā,̄ jīva rī tamarind trees, the group of three, viz., kapittha, bilva, and amalaka, jaṛṇ ī ba a jindagānī l'hārai guntha gyā ī ṁṅ rūkhaṛ ā. ” (Trees or plants and five mangotrees, one never visits hell. are found everywhere in the villages from house to outside. They are (Vrukshayurveda, authored by Surapala, translated by Nalini grown up like kids and watered with love and affection. These trees Sadhale, Wikipedia) have become part and parcel of human life.) An Analysis of Ecological Aspect in Oral Narratives of Rajasthan 127 128 Manoj Kumar
People of Rajasthan are very conscious about environment. Harman one. It is considered an abode of Lord Krishna. Women in Rajathan Chauhan has written an essay on a tree “Pipli”, ''Pōḷṁ a mē kē guvā ṛ ī listen to the vrat (fast) stories under peepal tree during Holi festival. mānya, kē cōvaṭṭ hā mānya aēka̔ pīpala rō rūṅ kha avasa hu'ā karatau It is said about worship of this tree that hō. Kākōsā jhūlaṇṇṇṁ ē lagāya diyā karatā hā ara mhai u a jhūla ā mē “Pīpala pūjūṁṣṭṭ pāna-pāna, ki ana miliyā hāma- hāma.” siyāḷḷ ō vhō ka unā ō, hamēsa jhūlatā raivatā hā. Ākhī guvā ṛ ī rī bēna- bū'āsā ara kākiyāṁṁ -bhābhiyā nai dādiyā ṁṇḍ takāta hī au khavātī hī. (If peepal tree is worshipped then s/he would definitely meet Jada vhai sāvaṇṇḍṇṭ a rā gīta hī ā māthai gāvatī hī, ua aima īnyā lāgatō Lord Krishna.) ḷ hōkai uṇṅṭ ārai sāgai ākhō pīpa a rō rū kha nāca riyō vhē. Mhē ābara Some communities believe that the spirits of the dead do not get jada kadai'ī pīpaḷṛ a rīḍḷ ā ī tō a lēvatā tō dādīsā rō mijāja dēkhatā hī water in the next world. The Pipal is considered a pathway. So water baṇṇ atō hō. Sāva a rā gīta jada gāyā jātā tō vāyarā rē sāgai pīpaḷ a rā is poured on its roots on three days of the dark half of Kartik (mid- pānaṛṇ ā bhī nāca a lāgatā. Chōrā-chōrī saga ḷ ā nācatā ara mhā ṅ kī bainā October to mid-November) and Shravana (mid-July to mid-August) gāvā lāgatī-“ (There was a Peepal tree in chopal of village or a and on the 14th day of the bright half of Chaitra (March-end). Peepal tree can be found in every chopal of a village. My uncle used to fix swing attached to that Peepal tree. We used to enjoy swinging Besides, women worship Vat or Bargad (Banyan) tree to get their in every season be it winter or summer. Every woman of my family wish fulfilled. Banyan tree is considered as a symbol of fertility. and neighborhood including my grandmother used to swing. When Women in want of children specially water Vat tree and worship for they sang songs of savaan (Hindu month in rainy season), it always some days. Sacred Basil or Tulsi is found in almost every house. seemed that Peepal is also singing with them. It was intolerable for Women celebrate Tulsi's festival in Kartik month. They keep fast for my grandmother when any child broke the twig or branch of Peepal three days and sing songs. “Dhana bā'ī tulachām,̐ dhana dhana thārō tree. It shows that consciousness of people towards trees. They never nāma, dhana bā'ī, tulachām̐ uttama kāma”. (Tulsi tree is considered wanted to harm. Whenever anybody sang songs of saavan, the every to be an abode of goddess Laxmi who is a deity of wealth.)There is a leaf of peepal tree seems to bounce around with happiness.) When common belief in folklore to keep a Tulsi plant in home which sisters sing song for their brothers's successful and long life they ensures happiness. It is believed that if Tulsa leaves are kept on dead compared with peepal and neem tree. body's head then the soul of the dead will attain a permanent place in 'Badhajyau rē bīrā baṛḷ a-pīpa a jyūṁ Vishnu's heaven. Phaḷṛajyau rē bīrā ka avā nīma jyūṁ Animals Vīrā phūlajyau rai phaḷḷḷ ajyō pīpa a rīḍṁ ā a jyū ” Animals are also important components of environment. In folklore, it is believed that animals have sentiments like human beings. In (O! brother, may you grow like peepal tree. May you flourish Ramayana, lord Rama got a great help by these animals like like bitter neem tree!) monkeys, bear, and birds. They easily understood human's emotions If baby is born in the village, women sing songs in praise of the boy and could talk to them. Why animals are revered? Nandita Krishna and relate it to Peepal tree. says that, “The elephant was recognized as the remover of obstacles. 'Hē mhānai ghaṇ ī aai̔ suhāvai jaccā pīpaḷ ī The langur was a fellow primate. The tiger was the most feared. The fish was an ecological indicator. The boar was an indicator of rain Hē mhārē uttara-dakhana rī aē̔ jaccā pīpaḷ ī' and ploughed the soil, helping the farmer. The cow was essential for In folklore of Rajasthan, Peepal tree is considered to be a sacred milk. The bull was a draught animal. The blackbuck was an essential An Analysis of Ecological Aspect in Oral Narratives of Rajasthan 129 130 Manoj Kumar animal for the survival for Khejari plant which was the mainstay of the gap between nature and human beings. People can be made more the desert. And many others, all of whom had an ecological or social conscious towards nature on emotional ground. Oral narratives role”. (4) helped people to connect with nature and think about it which are almost disappeared in contemporary society. Songs of children also There are many songs devoted to these birds or animals like Kurjan, make us aware about eco-consciousness. One child is inviting his Suvtia, koyal and many more. A lady is craving to meet her husband friend at his farm to eat maize, cucumber and many fruits but he is who is in abroad. She requests Kurja to send her message to her husband and ready to pay her anything. warning him not to harm environment otherwise lion may come. He says, Mahare khete aavela, makki kakadi kahavela, nahar babo Sacred Groves aavelo, thane wo darpavalo. So the eco-consciousness is reflected in Sacred groves are traditionally protected and conserved by villagers various form of folklore of Rajasthan. on religious faith. These groves are one way of expressing gratitude It is true that folk belief systems traditionally served the purpose of of man towards the vegetation which sustained and supported life resource conservation in direct or indirect ways. under respective agro-ecological condition. These groves are dedicated to various deities and on this basis they are survived. They Works cited are known by various names in Rajasthan such as oran, bani or dev Guru Jhambheswar.
About Andhra Pradesh The Andhras are also known as Telugu. Their traditional home is the 'Living Like A Pig': land between the Godavari and Kistna (Krishna) rivers in south- eastern India. Andhras are the dominant group in the state of Andhra Understanding A Folk Tale of Andhra Pradesh Pradesh. Hema Paliwal In the first century B.C. the earliest Andhra dynasties emerged when Europeans arrived in India (1498), the northern areas of Andhra country were in the Muslim state of Golkonda, while southern areas Folk is understood as the common people of a society or region lay in Hindu VijayNagra. The British administrated the Andhra considered as the representatives of a traditional way of life and region as part of their Madras Presidency. North Western areas specially as the originators or carriers of the customs, beliefs and arts remained under the Muslim Princely state of Hyderabad. that make up their distinctive culture : a leader who come from the folk. Folk literature also called folklore is a part of oral tradition, the The Nizam of Hyderabad ruler of the largest Muslim princely state in lore (traditional knowledge and beliefs) of cultures having no written India refused to join India when it become an independent nation in language. It is transmitted by word of mouth and consists, as does 1947. The Indian army invaded Hyderabad and integrated it into the written literature, of both prose and verse narratives, poems and Indian Republic in 1949. Andhra pressure for a Telugu speaking state songs, myths, dramas, rituals, proverbs, riddles, and the like. Nearly resulted in the creation of Andhra Pradesh in 1956. all known people, now or in the past, have produced it. Folk lore is a Location reservoir of traditional wisdom this is available in the form of tales, songs, plays, proverbs, sayings, anecdotes and various performative Andhra Pradesh has three Geographic regions : arts. India is rich in folklore as we have a diverse multicultural a. The Coastal Plains pluralistic society with more than one thousand five hundred b. Mountains and languages of these twenty two are recognized by the constitution of c. Interior Plateaus. India. This paper attempts to analyze a folk tale of Andhra Pradesh. The coastal areas run for about 800km. along the Bay of Bengal and I include the area formed by the deltas of Godavari and Kistna rivers. Folk tales of Andhra Pradesh This area receives a great deal of rainfall during the summer Monsoon and is farmed heavily. The mountain region is formed by Telugu folk tales fall into three categories hills known as the Eastern Ghats. These mark the edge of the Deccan a. those which have celestials as their characters Plateau. They reach an elevation of (1000 metres) in the south and of b. those which have animals, birds and reptiles as their characters (1680 metres) in the north. Numerous rivers break up the Eastern and Ghats cast to the ocean. The interior Plateaus lie west of the Ghats. c. those which deal with human beings. Language These are some stories where in we find a conglomeration of Gods, Telugu the official language of Andhra Pradesh is a Dravidian human beings and animals also. These folk tales through fantasy and language. Regional Telugu dialects Andhra (spoken in delta), make believe satisfy the rustic's curiosity about the inexplicable Telingana (the dialect of the north western region) and Rayalasima phenomena of man in nature. (spoken in southern areas). Literary Telugu is quiet distinct from 'Living Like A Pig': Understanding A Folk Tale of Andhra Pradesh 133 134 Hema Paliwa spoken forms of the language. Telugu is one of the regional II languages recognized by the Indian constitution. Tale : Living Like a Pig Folk Lore One day, a guru foresaw in a flash of vision what he would be in his Hero worship is important in Andhra culture. Andhra warriors who next life. So he called his favorite disciple and asked him what he died on the battle field or who sacrificed their lives for great or pious would do for his guru in return for all he had received. the disciple causes were worshiped as Gods. Stone pillars called Viragallulu said he would do whatever his guru asked him to do. honor their bravery and are found all over Andhra country. The Having received his promise, the guru said, "Than this is what I'd Kathmaraju kathala one of the oldest ballads in Telugu, celebrates the like you to do for me. I have just learned what when I die, which will Twelfth-Century warrior Katamaraju. be very soon, I'm going to be reborn as a pig. Do you see that sow Religion eating garbage there in the yard? I'm going to be reborn as the fourth Andhra are mostly Hindus. The Brahman caste (Priests and scholars) piglet of its next litter. You'll recognize me by a mark on my brow. have the highest social status and Brahmans serve as priests in When that sow has littered, find the fourth piglet with a mark on its temples. Andhras worship Shiva, Vishnu, Hanuman and other Hindu brow and, with one stroke of your knife, slaughter it. I'll then be Gods. Andhras also worship Ammas or village goddesses. released from a pig's life. Will you do this for me?." Durgamma presides over the welfare of the village, Maisamma The disciple was sad to hear all this, but he agreed to do as he had protects the village boundaries and Balamma is a Goddess of promised. Soon after this conversation, the guru did die. And the sow fertility. These deities are all forms of the Mother Goddess and play a did have a litter of four little pigs. One day, the disciple sharpened big role in daily life. These deities often have priests drawn from the his knife and picked out the fourth little pig, which did indeed have a lower castes and low caste may use their own priests rather than mark on its brow. Just as he was about to bring down his knife to slit Bahamians. its throat, the little pig suddenly spoke. "Stop! Don't kill me!" it Cultural Heritage screamed. The Andhra people have made major contributions to art, Before the disciple could recover from the shock of hearing the little architecture, literature, music and dance. The early Andhra rulers pig speak in a human voice, it said, "Dont kill me. I want to live on were great builders and patrons of religion and the arts. The greatest as a pig. When I asked you to dispatch me, I didn't know what a pig's Buddhist monuments of central India, the Stupa (a monument build life would be like. It's great. Just let me go." to hold a relic of Buddha) at Sanchi is one of these. Some paintings Analysis of the Tale in the famous Buddhist caves at Ajanta are ascribed to Andhra artists. The Andhra perform Kuchipudi a dance drama. The Andhra people By this tale we come to know that everybody has the love for life. also have contributed greatly to south Indian classical music. Tabla, Nobody wants to die. Being a human guru compares life of animals the predecessor of the timapni or kettle drum a small drum. The and human and of course different kinds of creatures on the earth. drummer sits on the floor with a ring shaped cloth pillow on the floor Human has power of mind so guru compared life as a human being. in front of him the Tabla resets on the pillow and is drummed with When he takes birth as a piglet then he enjoys life as a pig. He found the fingers and palms. South Indian Compositions are mostly written himself comfortable as a pig and the life of a pig surrounded by dirt in Telugu because of the smooth, rich sound of the language. Telugu and garbage. We humans think that it is good or it is bad. But literature dates to the eleventh century A.D. animals do this in their own way. Every creature has its own 'Living Like A Pig': Understanding A Folk Tale of Andhra Pradesh 135 136 Hema Paliwa importance of life and also importance of work of these different Language types of lives. Every work is important. No one or not a single work The language of the tale is very simple and easy to understand Since is superior or inferior. the study is based on English version of the story, it would not be Theme possible to elaborate on the language used in the original story. However the translated version suggests the richness of language and Theme of this tale is that everything, every creature has its own style of the author. importance of life and work. World is balanced by such different creatures and their importance of work in nature. Human beings have Moral power of mind. Animals, birds, insects, fishes, crocodiles etc. have No one is superior. Everyone and every creature on this earth has its their own importance of life and work. Main thing in life is own importance. important. Everyone has love for his life. Nobody wants to die before It is important to live a life. Life is important. Everyone loves his or time. Everyone wants to live long life as they are, it hardly matters if her life. Humans have their own life style and work while other they are having a life of a pig. creatures have their own. Importance of life is same for both. Characters Conclusion This tale has four main characters : Thus we may conclude that the folk tales talk about the reality of life a. Guru and depict various shades of its meaning in their simple style. The b. Disciple most dominant feature of folk tales is robust common sense which is sufficiently visible in the lives and actions of a common man. This c. Sow tale give a very common sensitive message 'To Live and Let Live' in d. Four piglets. very common way. The love and the importance of life as a human Guru : Guru is the main character of this tale. In his flash of his Guru rejected as pig's life because it is not good or prestigious life in vision guru saw that he will be reborn as a pig. The guru compares his eyes. But when he become a pig, he loves his life and work. So the life of human and animal so he does not want to live the pig's the real conclusion made out is value of the life and the work both life. are important. Every creature has its own value of work and life in this world. To love and respect everyone's stage and life or value it, Disciple : One of the Favorite disciples of guru. Guru take a promise is the main thing of the tale which tells in a simple way to understand from him to be released from a pig's life. When he will take birth as a for common people. fourth piglet of sow there in the yard, he will kill him as the Guru Works Cited didn't want to live a pig's life surrounded by dirt and garbage. Rama, B Raju.Folk Lore of Andhra Pradesh . New Delhi: National Book Sow : Sow is there in the yard and is going to littered piglets very Trust, 1978. Print. soon. Ramanujan, A. K.Folk Tales from India. New Delhi: Viking, 1993. Print. Four Piglets : Sow gives birth to four little piglets. The fourth one Thompson, Stith.Folk Literature . Bloomington: Indian University, 1953- 55. Print. has a mark on its brow and that was Guru's soul which had taken rebirth as a piglet according to his flash of vision. Journal of Rajasthan Association for Studies in English11: 137-142 (2015) 138 Urmila Purohit
Folk literature, regardless of its place of Origin, seems clearly to have arisen to meet a variety of human needs: I. The need to explain the mysteries of the natural world. Exploring the Folklore of Assam II. The need to articulate our fears and dreams. III. The need to impose order on the apparent random, even chotic, Urmila Purohit nature of life. IV. The need to entertain ourselves and each other. The study of Folklore is called folkloristics and people who study Assam - The land and the language folklore are referred to as folklorists. Folklore consists of Legends, The present province of Assam is situated on the north east frontier music, oral history, proverbs, jokes, popular beliefs, fairy tales, of India. It is surrounded by mountain ranges on the three sides: On stories, tall tales and customs included in the traditions of a culture, the north are the Himalayas shutting it off from the tablelands of subculture, or group. It also includes the set of practices through Bhutan and Tibet; on the north-east is a range of hills which forms a which those expressive genres are shared. A Folktale is a poetic text barrier between the upper Brahmaputra Valley and China; On the that carries some of its cultural context with in it; it is also a traveling east and on the south lie the hills forming the western boundary of metaphor that finds a new meaning with each new telling. Burma and the state of Tipperah and the West lies the province of The word 'Folklore' was introduced by the English antiquarian Bengal. The ancient capital of the country was Pragjyotishpur near William Thom in a letter published in the London Journal the modern Gauhati. Athenaeum in 1846. Folklore consists of legends music oral history, The modern word Assamese is an Anglicized formation. The proverbs, culture and subculture or group. It also pervades language of the province is called Asamiya from the name of the childhood's families and communities as the symbolic language of Province Assam. Assameseis a full-fledged modern Indo-Aryan the non literate parts of the people and the culture. language both in respect of grammatical structure and a large Folklore can be divided into four areas of study: percentage of vocables. (i) Artifacts Folk-Songs and Nursery Rhymes (ii) Describable and transmissible entity The beginning of distinctive Assamese literature seems to be marked (iii) Culture by the composition of folk-songs commonly known as Bihugits and pastoral ballads, marriage songs and nursery rhymes. (iv) Rituals Bihu songs are connected with the Bihu festivals the National Folk literature, also called folklore or oral tradition, the lore of festivals of Assam observed in the beginning of the autumn and cultures having no written language. Folk literature includes all the spring reasons. The word Bihu is supposed to be a corruption of the Myths, legends, epics, tales and folk tales passed down by word of Sanskrit word visuvat. mouth through the generations. The authors of traditional literature are unknown or unidentifiable. Folk literature can help children to Folk Song on Love begin and develop a sense of morality. It helps children to know and "God first created the Universe with millions of teeming beings. differentiate good and evil in the world and to identify with the good. He himself is love Incarnate Exploring the Folklore of Assam 139 140 Urmila Purohit
And kindless the free within Animal Tales How can we then escape the flame? Animal Tales are among the most ancient narratives. They occur in Love is indestructible, imperishable and unchangeable. the Buddist Jatapas and in the Pancatantra. These tales are greatly Once women, the magic fabric of love enjoyed by children, enter their stock repertories through. Primers entwines us more and more. and express their powerlessness regarding adults they are usually Stay, Stay, Let us play! about small animals like themselves who outwit their oppressors. Come, let us love and sing The most striking characteristic of these didactic fables is their Lest life should take wing!" persistent political nature. The nature of power, the qualities of leadership, mother wit and cunning as the weapons of the weak. Features of Assam Assam is located at the gateway of Northeast, India. Assam is Story : The Kite and Daughter divided into 23 districts. The official language of the state is The Story describes the intense bond between the kite & her Assamese which is used by almost all sections of people in Assam daughter. A baby girl was abandoned by her mother because she was other language also like Bodo, Karbi, English & Hindi are spoken by warned by her husband that the will sell her if she gives birth to a girl people. Assam literature is the entire corpus of Peetry of Peetry, child again. So, Gender discrimination is an issued basined in this Nouels short stories documents and other writing in the Assamese story. How a woman behaves just opposite, if a son is born the language. Assam has an overall literacy rate of 64.28%. The largest mother earth goes up & the down if the newly born child is a girl. city Guhawati is a Major destination for education the people of The mother is unable to give birth to a son and Assam which is entire north eastern stages. considered to be a state where discrimination does not exit but the Assamese literature can largely be classified into three periods story reveals some historical reality & this discrimination towards a including: Early Assamese Period (VI to XV Century A.D.) Middle girl child. A kite pounced and took away this baby girl and brought Assamese Period (XVII to XVIV A.D.) and Modern Assamese (Late up the girl. The kite feels great love for the child and nurtures her till of 19th Century on words) Assam is one of the enriched state in she is of marriageable age. The element of fantasy is also woven in India. The population growth in Assam is recorded at 16.93% Assam this story like: has a unique landscape with Spraculina tea gardens and unending (i) How a bird which is carnivorus shower all her love to human stretches of paddy fields interspersed with groves of coconut area beings? nuts and banana tree. Fish is a major delicacy in Assam. (ii) How a girl lived on a tree? There is a special loveliness about bunches of the green coconuts Interesting thing is that a woman who is a mother left her daughter hanging from bicycles. The Assamese thali is a real treat with its without any feelings and on the other side a kite which is a forest chutneys made from Pudina and Mustard seed open. Any standard bird plays the role of a mother and gives all comfort to her. One more history of Assamese literature and you will Bihu songs while thing is that, how a kite is able to talk to human beings? How a Bird discussing eral literature then goes to marriage song's followed by gives all comfort to a girl? But the fact is that both talk to each other. lullaby and nursery rhymes. They both know each other and love too. Because of this love they When a baby is born the mothers, aunts and grannies with sing do not need any language to communicate. So the central idea is that lullabies to him. Rangoli or Bohag is the main festival of Assam. the whole universe is very intensely connected. Exploring the Folklore of Assam 141 142 Urmila Purohit
Kite married her daughter to a rich man and sent off with him but The story analyses the socio-cultural, economic, and relation continued to respond to her daughter's call for help. between human & animal. It also suggests that innocence and virtue "O wind always win while deceit and conspiracy fail. That Shapes the leaves Works Cited Of this banyan tree Barua, K Birinchi.Assamese Literature. Bombay : The International Book House, 1941. Print. Bring me my mother Das, Jogesh.Folklore of Assam . New Delhi: National Book Trust, 1972. Bring me my mother" (105) Print. Every time the kite came and helped her daughter when she was in trouble. The Co-wives created difficulties for her. The girl was set to weave a cloth and cook rice. Then she called her kite mother who appeared and performed everything magically. The Co-wives of the girl later on killed the kite mother and sold the daughter to a tradesman. She was found waiting on a riverbank by her husband singing a song: "My Mother sang a song: She-let me drift along the river My mother was a kite who brought me up A merchant prince was my husband then, And my seven Co-wives sold me to a fisherman. Here, I sit; a guardian now of drying fish"(107) Then, the merchant recognized his wife's voice and commanded a thread to be stretched across a pit and made his wives cross the pit by walking on the thread. Six of them fell in while one escaped because she was not in the plot to sell the kite's daughter. Conclusion To conclude this Assamese folk tale puts before us the essential integral relationship between the human and the animal world. This story embraces a deep understanding of human behaviour as depicted by the authors. The kite is depicted as a metaphor in this story. The kite role of mother is central to this story. Journal of Rajasthan Association for Studies in English11: 143-147 (2015) 144 Shefali Arora
truly he has no social substance, for though he wanders the length and breadth of the land, he is never in any one place long enough for Folklore and Hindi Cinema: Reading Paheli him to become part of village society. So all the tales about the Raika characterize him as an oafish lout who does not know the rules of as a Germane Cultural Adaptation correct behaviour, someone without social experience or understanding. So this forms another type of narrative-stories that Shefali Arora characterize and fix the members of folk society as archetypes. (32) Such tales become the medium of entertainment for the masses but Hindi cinema, since its early stage, has been closely associated with they also work as a medium to spread moral lessons, values and Folklore. Folklore has been a recurrent symbol in the major ethics related to a particular caste or in general. Most of the times Bollywood productions. Stories, plots and themes from the Indian folklore have been regularly employed in the films. This paper deals these tales also work as mean to promote a particular religion. When with a popular Bollywood productionPaheli by Amol Palekar almost the entire village gathers; the exchange of ideas, views and starring Shahrukh Khan and Rani Mukherjee, as a relevant knowledge is certain. They gather, exchange and teach each other adaptation of Vijaydan Detha's short-story “Duvidha” which is itself various lessons about life. The elders of the village gather and based on a Rajasthani folktale. A Major number of Detha's works are through a tale or an account try to spread awareness about a rooted in Rajasthan and he himself is popularly known as a noted particular cause or an issue. It is interesting to note that this tale of a writer from the state. Detha's short-story “Duvidha” is originally ghost and his beloved (a woman) rooted somewhere in the rural written in Rajasthani language.Paheli , so to say, is a triple rajasthan has put at the centre two figures who have remained on adaptation of the original folktale of a ghost and his beloved adapted periphery in human history. into a short story by Vijaydan Detha or its translation into English by Such is the folktale which Detha has adapted into a short story of a Christi Merril “The Dilemma”. If we look at both the versions of the ghost living under a tree in the forest, who falls in love with a bride story, both in original Rajasthani and its English translation, Paheli and then takes the shape of her husband after her real husband goes will be counted as the quadruple translation. However, this paper will for a business trip. However, unable to deceive his beloved he only look at the 'intersemiotic' translation i.e. from the story to the narrates the entire truth about his real identity to her. The bride, who film. finds herself in between a great dilemma, unable to react or take a To begin, it becomes imperative to briefly take into consideration the decision at first, finally accepts the ghost for the love and respect she role oral tradition has played in Indian culture and society. Looking has been desolate of all her life. The story raises the pertinent issues at a tale, originating from the rich Rajashani oral culture of folktales, of the tangential place of a ghost in the society. One is supposed to folk music and folk theatre, takes us deep into the popular myths and be afraid of ghosts who are supposed to have no human feelings or stereotypes still subsisting in the rural Rajasthan. Komal Kothari in a emotions. However, this story presents a ghost who does not harm talk with Pradip Krishen speaks of the popular tales existing in the anyone instead is himself a symbol of love, unity and integration in villages in Rajasthan. the society as opposed to the human being who chooses his There are a lot of stories about the Raika, for example. The Raika is a materialistic dreams and passions over his lovely wife. We find the nomadic shepherd who, in Rajasthan, lives on the periphery of the ghost more sensitive towards the real values of life than a human village and is cut off from village life. He is nicknamed bhoot being. A ghost, who loves and respects his beloved more than her (ghost), a man who flits without substance from place to place. And real husband could do. This leads us to shed some light on another Folklore and Hindi Cinema: Reading Paheli as a... 145 146 Shefali Arora significant issue of a woman's place, her role and rights in the invention, trying to survive the oral traditions through his movie. society. It is remarkable to note that a young woman who remains Puppets in that sense become the symbolic storytellers in the film deserted of love and respect in her real family and later with her who are at par with those village raconteurs. They not only narrate husband finds the same love and respect with a ghost. the story but also highlight upon various issues reflected in the story for the moral and ethical purposes. The film very well captures the Amol Palekar adapts this story into the filmPaheli . Paheli as a film stance of villagers narrated in Detha's story. The villagers find a brilliantly deals with Detha's short-story. Through the use of various chance for amusement in their landlord's dilemma. “Rarely does one tropes and metaphors, the film is able to capture the quintessence of get a chance to humiliate the rich!” says the narrator in the story. both the short-story and the original folktale forming a new text. The HencePaheli is a film among many that very directly tries to capture film tries to incarcerate the real picture of the Rajasthani culture and the essence of Rajasthani culture on screen. The director raises very society through the tropes and metaphors of music, attires, vibrant pertinent questions related to human life, society, culture and women colors, marriage ceremony, food, language and the desert where predicament and presents a realistic version out of a folktale. many scenes in the film are shot. It is important to note that a film is Therefore, we find an equivalence of meanings maintained between a collaborative medium, largely a commercial production and meant three different genres. for a larger urban population. However, with the speedy process of urbanization and growth in technology, television has reached the Palekar uses these tropes to create an environment deeply rooted in rural spaces in India. It has become possible to spread pertinent Rajasthani culture. However, the language in the film is not typical messages and awareness about an assortment of issues in a larger Rajasthani used in the villages but a mixture of Rajasthani and Hindi audience through television. The current television programme carrying the aspects of Rajasthani culture and at the same time Satyamev Jayate is such an example. Today, watching television has attempting to target a larger urban audience. The film in a way become as common and admired among masses in rural India as has promotes those messages, moral values, lessons and myths in such been the oral tradition or reading stories. In the last century, Cinema folktales that have become archetypes in the rural spaces. These in India has been blamed for taking over our age old oral traditions archetypes, nevertheless, carry a universal appeal that appears also in of storytelling. Cinema now is seen as the new storyteller. But there the urban milieu, in the towns and cities. Ghost stories whether in are no exact marks of distinction that can present a clear view of the villages or in towns are similar everywhere and carry with them the shift from the folklore to Cinema. Cinema, no doubt, has emerged as same archetypal elements. The status of women in towns is no the major source of entertainment and information in recent years. It different from those in villages, only the attitude alters. Thus, the role has reached masses not only in the towns and cities but deep in the of the film as a storyteller is as relevant as that of a folktale narrated rural India. orally among masses. Films likePaheli entirely focus on the rural milieu. The film holds As mentioned above, cinema at large has been largely influenced by the real spirit of folklore apparent in Detha's short-story and portrays the folklore and has been recurrently reflecting many folktales, folk it on screen through multiple tropes of art, music, dance, attires, music and folk drama on screen. A film likeBhul Bhuliya revolves colors, food and language. The most remarkable part of the film is around a story of ghosts and spirits in village that have turned into where the puppets introduce the ghost in the story. Puppets in the popular myths and stereotypes. However, it finds a solution to such a voice of Naseeruddin Shah and his wife Ratna Pathak Shah becomes dilemma through modern scientific approach. Thus, we see a move the narrators of the story of the ghost and his beloved named as from the rural to the urban, where the film director tries to present a 'Lachi'. The introduction of the puppets in the movie is Palekar's own contemporary scenario of the villages and finds a solution that is Folklore and Hindi Cinema: Reading Paheli as a... 147 Journal of Rajasthan Association for Studies in English11: 148-156 (2015) modern yet based in the village's institution. It takes a story already prevalent in the society and provides an alternative to it which then begins to persist in society. It is, thus, a give and take process Bauls:The Mystic Minstrels of between films and the tales of the society. Such intertextual connections between folklore and cinema have been maintained Bengali Folk Culture since the advent of cinema in India. However, a few movies have directly adapted the folklore to screen.Paheli , thus, is one among Sunita Sadh those, a film that accurately portrays why cinema is an efficient storyteller. Folklore may have witnessed a decline in its popular oral Like other folk literatures of the world in general and India in conventions, a culture that has been rooted in rural India but in a way particular, Bengali folk literature is oral and constitutes a films likePaheli have remained quite successful in subsisting these considerable portion of Bengali literature. It was created by illiterate traditions among masses that consist of both rural and urban. communities and passed down orally from one generation to another, became a collective product holding in itself the traditions, emotions, Works Cited thoughts and values of the community. As folk literature is oral, it Andrew, Dudley.Concepts in Film Theory . Oxford: Oxford UP, 1984. tends to rely on some mnemonic devices and patterns of language Questia. Web. 29 Apr. 2015. and style. Bengali folk literature includes different types of epic, Barchers, Suzanne I., ed. Wise Women: Folk and Fairy Tales from around poetry and drama, folktales, ballads, proverbs etc. and till now the World. Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited, 1997. Questia . Web. existing in community and inspiring the mainstream Bengali 29 Apr. 2015. literature to a great extent. Folk music and songs are an important Detha, Vijay Dan. “The Dilemma.” Manushi: A Journal about Women and part of every regional literature as it holds in itself the traditions, Society. Trans. Ruth Vanita. New Delhi: Manushi, 1997. 32-43. Print. emotions, thoughts and values of the community. The Baul tradition Eisenstein, Sergei. "3: Sergei Eisenstein." The Major Film Theories: An is a unique heritage of Bengali folk music and is accompanied by the Introduction. Ed. J. Dudley Andrew. London: Oxford UP, 1976. 42-75. ektara, an instrument with only one string. Bauls are a group of Questia. Web. 29 Apr. 2015. mystic singers from rural Bengal who sing in accompaniment of Kothari, Komal. “Myths, Tales and Folklore: Exploring the Substratum of ektara, the songs of divinity. Bauls are both a religious sect and a Cinema.”Indian Popular Cinema: Myth, Meaning and Metaphor 8.1 musical tradition. They are a heterogeneous group with many sects, (1981): 32. Print. but their members are mainly Vaishnava Hindus and Sufi Muslims. McFarlane, Brian. Novel to Film: An Introduction to the Theory of But they neither identify themselves as Hindus nor as Muslims. Adaptation. Oxford: Clarendon, 1996. Questia . Web. 29 Apr. 2015. Though Baul comprise a very small fraction of the population of Paheli. Dir. Amol Palekar. Perf. Shah Rukh Khan, Rani Mukerji, Amitabh West Bengal, their influence on the culture of Bengal is considerable. Bachchan, Juhi Chawla. Gauri Khan, 2005. Film. It is to be noted that in 2005, the Baul tradition is included in the list Sherman, Sharon R., and Mikel J. Koven, eds. Folklore / Cinema: Popular of “Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity” Film as Vernacular Culture. Logan, UT: Utah State UP, 2007. Questia . by UNESCO. Web. 29 Apr. 2015. The word 'Baul' has its etymological origin in the Sanskrit word Vatula i.e. “mad”, from vayu- “air”, and is used for someone who is possessed or lost his sanity. Other meanings of the word have been such as 'enlightened, lashed by the wind to the point of losing one's Bauls:The Mystic Minstrels of Bengali Folk Culture 149 150 Sunita Sadh sanity, god's madcap, detached from this world, and seeker of truth'. and ceremony. It is for this reason that the Bauls call their path ' ulta' The popular notion about the Bauls is that they are inspired people (the reverse path) and think of the process of their spiritual with an ecstatic eagerness for a spiritual life, where a person can advancement as the process of proceeding against the current. realise his union with the eternal beloved-theMoner Manush (the Rabindranath Tagore, a great admirer of the Baul cult, has mentioned man of the heart). The beginning of the Baul movement was in his book,The Religion of Man (1958), that the Bauls use a process attributed to Birbhadra, the son of the Vaihnava saint Nityananda, or called 'Urdha-Srota'( the elevation of the current) in order to convert alternatively to the 8th century Persian minstrels called Ba'al. Bauls the currents of jiva (animal life) into the current of Shiva (God life) are a part of the culture of rural Bengal. Baul thought has mixed and bring about a realisation of the Supreme within a person. elements of Tantric sect, Sufi Islam, Vaishnavism and Buddhism. Gobinda Das, a Baul songwriter, believes that it is foolish that some Like the Persian Ba'al who rejects family life and all ties and roams people pray, make pilgrimage, or fast in order to find God. He feels the desert, singing in search of his beloved, the Baul too wanders God exists on its own, extremely infinite and having many shapes. about searching for his maner manush (the ideal being). The madness of the Baul may be compared to the frenzy or intoxication of the Sufi As the Baul cult rejects the scriptural authority, it places great diwana. Like the Sufi, the baul searches for the divine beloved and importance on Guru or murshid (guide) who leads and directs his finds him housed in the human body. disciples to follow the teaching and practices of the Baul tradition. The guru is the only person that can bring about knowledge in the Monks, ascetics, homeless, and married men compose the society of disciple and guide him toward the realisation of God, thus the guru the Bauls. Caste, idols, temples, religious symbols and images, and demands as much devotion as the Supreme would. This dedication sacred places have no place in Baul ideology. They believe the toward the guru results in the disciple coming closer to the guru's temple where the Supreme resides is in their own body. They view perfected state and the grace of God. Even though the Guru is highly the body as a microcosm for the Universe, and in that way praised and esteemed, the disciple has no responsibility toward the everything in the universe is also contained in man. As such, the master and is also free of commitments. The omniscient guru does 'Moner Manush' is given the utmost respect by the Bauls, who feel not make the disciple renunciate the pleasure of the world, but that Bhagavan ( the supreme being; the ultimate; absolute truth) can instead stresses the development of a new higher self. Even the only be reached through the human form. It is the only medium for mystic Baul songs, describing the glory and benevolence of the gaining liberation and conquering death. If one wants to gain the Supreme, have been composed by the enlightened gurus. The gurus knowledge and realisation of the Supreme then one should focus on tell the disciple about the power of their realisation of the presence of his inner being. The Bauls follow the ideology that the physical body the Supreme, the absolute. must be kept very pure as it is the temple where the Supreme exists. Some fortunate Bauls who have been blessed with the enlightenment Baul philosophy is not developed on any sacred writings or of the presence of the divine power, act as 'madmen' or 'kheypas' scriptures and the Bauls do not depend on any tradition. They are because they have witnessed the divinity and thus are in elevated strongly opposed to the study of the Vedas and the Puranas, which state. To the non-Baul, such Bauls are viewed as illogical and according to them only make men confused. Like the Sufi possessed. The Bauls defend this allegation by explaining that it is mystics,they believe that the ultimate truth cannot be grasped the Bauls' disinterest with the world and also his extreme emotional through intellectual knowledge or reasoning but can only be realised states, which make them appear as mad. For the Baul, madness within oneself using the power of love. They avoid all religion in shows devotion to the Supreme at a spur-of –the-moment the kind of which the natural goodness of the soul is overshadowed by ritualism love that goes against established social rules. The madman does not Bauls:The Mystic Minstrels of Bengali Folk Culture 151 152 Sunita Sadh hallucinate, but rather sees the truth. The experience of the Supreme power and the body is a temple, music being the path to connect to or 'darshana' can often make Baul appear bewildered and make them that power. to roam from one place to another. This is because to have 'darshan' Bauls use a variety of indigenous musical instruments to embellish of the Divine the Baul must do the opposite of what normal society their compositions. The most common is theektara , a one string follows. instrument, carved from the epicarp of a gourd, and made of bamboo Music as the main expression of Baul philosophy shows itself in a and goatskin. Others include thedotara , a long-necked fretless lute myriad of ways. On one hand music is a form of spiritual practice. It made of the wood of a jackfruit or neem tree andkhamak. Drums is the way in which one reaches nirvana. In Baul philosophy, of like theduggi , a small hand-held earthen drum, and dhol and khol ; music, it is said that from the tune (swara) originates music small cymbals calledkhartal and manjira , and the bamboo flute are (sangeet), from music arises Samadhi (concentrated meditation) and also used.Ghunguru and nupur are anklets with bells that ring while after Samadhi emerges nirvana (salvation). So 'nirvana-samadhi' the person wearing them dances. The Baul costumes consists of a rises from the path of music, of music performed with love for the short waist-cloth and a brightly coloured 'alkhalla' ( robes with a Divine. Baul music played before the masses engages them in a kind patchwork of coloured fabrics). They never cut their hair and coil of spiritual practice through their joy and listening experience of the them atop the head in a round way. Baul music. They are liberal in their interpretation of celestial love Originally, the district of Bhirbhum in West Bengal was the centre of and that is the reason that Baul devotional music transcends religion all Baul activity. Later the Baul domain extended to Tripura, and some of the most famous Baul composers, such as Lalon Fakhir, Bangladesh, parts of Bihar and Orissa. In Bangladesh, the district of criticized the superficiality of religious divisions: Chittagong, Sylhet, Mymensingh and Tangyl are famous for Bauls. Everyone asks: “Lalon, what's your religion in this world?” The songs of the Bauls and their lifestyle influenced a large swath of Lalon replies: “How does religion look ?” I have never laid eyes on Bengali culture. But it has left its imprint more powerfully on the it. Some wear malas [Hindu rosaries] around their necks, some tasbis works of Rabindranath Tagore, who talked of Bauls in a number of [Muslim rosaries], and so people say they've got different religions. speeches in Europe in the 1930s, compiled in his book The Religion But do you wear the sign of your religion when you come or when of Man (1958). Tagore is considered by some to be a Baul and is you go?” credited with bringing Baul songs to the attention of middle-class The music of the Bauls,Baul sangeet , is a particular type of folk Bengali society. It was mostly Tagore and his associate Kistimohan song. Its lyrics carry influences of the Hindu Bhakti movement and Sen, who elevated the Bauls to the status of a cultural symbol. For thesuphi , a form of Sufi song exemplified by the songs of Kabir. Tagore they are similar to the Buddhists in their belief in a fulfilment Their music represents a long heritage of preaching mysticism which is reached by love's emancipating us from the dominance of through songs in Bengal, as in theSahebdhoni or Bolahadi sects. self. Tagore comments that the most distinguished people of the Their lyrics interwine a deep sense of mysticism, a longing for world do not know that these beggers-deprived of education, honour oneness with the divine. An important part of their philosophy is and wealth-can, in the pride of their souls, look down upon them as deha tatta, a spirituality related to the body rather than the mind. the unfortunate ones who are left on the shore for their worldly uses They seek the divinity in human beings. Metaphysical topics are but whose life ever misses the touch of the Lover's arms. The Nobel dwelt upon in a humble manner and in simple words. They Laureate had numerous araeas of inspiration and passion throughout emphasise remaining unattached and unconsumed by the pleasures his life, however his discovery and focus on the Bauls reshaped his of life even while enjoying them. To them we are a gift of divine work and the world's attitude towards them. The Bauls' abstract Bauls:The Mystic Minstrels of Bengali Folk Culture 153 154 Sunita Sadh lyrics and the philosophies within them inspired Tagore and greatly Bauls sing from their heart and pour out their feelings and emotions influenced his poetic technique. Tagore's own compositions were in their songs. But they never bother to write down their songs. powerfully influenced by Baul ideology. His music, i.e. Rabindra Theirs is essentially an oral tradition, and it is said of Lalon Fakhir, Sangeet, also bears the stamp of many Baul tunes: the greatest of all Bauls, that he continued to compose and sing songs Where shall I meet him, the man of my heart? He is lost to me for decades without ever stopping to correct them or put them on and seek him wandering from land to land. paper. It was only after his death that people thought of collecting The above is a translation of the famous Baul song by Gagan and compilling his rich repertoire. Harkara:Ami kothai pabo tare, amar moner manush je re . Tagore's The Baul culture is a very significant part of the cultural heritage of another famous Rabindra sangeet song is also heavily influenced by th th Baul theme: West Bengal. Though it was at its peak in the 19 and early 20 centuries, the Bauls culture still holds a respectable place in Bengali Amar praner manush achhe prane, hearts. Every year, in the month of Falgun (Feb. To March), 'Lalon Tai heri taye sakol khane Smaran Utshab' (Lalon Memorial festival) is held in the shrine of Achhe she nayontaray, alok-dharay, tai na haraye- Lalon in Kushtia, Bangladesh, where bauls and devotees of Lalon Ogo tai dekhi taye jethay sethay from Bangladesh and overseas come to perform and highlight the Taka-i ami je dik-pane mystics of Lalon Fakhir. In the village of Jaydev Kenduli, a mela The above lines in Bengali script mean (fair) is organized in memory of the poet Jaydev on the occasion of The man of my heart dwells inside me. Makar Sankranti in the , month of Poush. So many Bauls assemble Everywhere I look, it is he. for the mela that it is also referred as 'Baul Fair'. In the village of Shantiniketan during Poush Mela, a large number of Bauls also come In my every sight, in the sparkle of the night together to enthral people with their music. For the last few years a Oh, I can never lose him- unique show has been organized in Kolkata, called “Baul Fakhir Here, there and everywhere, Utsav”. Bauls from several districts of Bengal as well as Bangladesh Wherever I turn, he is right there! come to perform. The Utsav is a continuous 48 hour musical All Bauls share one belief in common that God is hidden within the experience. There are also the Western Bauls in America and Europe heart of man and neither priest, prophet, nor the ritual of any under the spiritual direction of Lee Lozowick, a student of Yogi organised religion will help one to find Him there. They feel that Ramsuratkumar. Their music is quite different (rock/gospel/blues) both temple and mosque block the path to truth; the search for God but the essence of the spiritual practices of the East is well must be carried out individually and independently. The mystic maintained. nature of Tagore's lyricsn is also a product of his affinity to these From Shri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu to American poet Allen Ginsberg, wanderings bards. Edward Dimock Jr. in his The Place of the Hidden the Beatles, the Rolling Stones, Bob Dylan, Mahalia Jackson, Moon (1996) writes that Rabindranath Tagore put the Bauls on a higher-than-respectable level by his praise of the beauty of their Mahatma Gandhi, Nehru, Indira Gandhi, Osho, Anandamayi Ma, songs and spirit, and by his frank and proud acknowledgement of his Shri Ramkrishna Paramhansa, Mother Tereasa and many other souls own poetic debt to them. Other Bengali poets, such as Kazi Nazrul have been inspired and touched by the mystic philosophy of the Islam, have also been influenced by Baul music and its message of Bauls. Allen Ginsberg's famous lines attest the extensiveness of the non-sectarian devotion through love. Baul mysticism which knows no boundaries of nation, culture, Bauls:The Mystic Minstrels of Bengali Folk Culture 155 156 Sunita Sadh language: “Baul of Bengal, I sing for all, Blue Danube is Jamuna, Bhattacharya, Deben.Songs of the Bards of Bengal. New York: Grove P, Hudson my Vrindavan, see me in Kolkata, Toronto, London, Hear 1969. Print. my call Baul of Bengal, Same man many names, same player, many Datta, Rajeshwari. “The Religious Aspect of the Baul Songs of Bengal.” games, Love is magic to win at life... Hear my call O Baul of Journal of Asian Studies 37.3 (1978): 445-55. Print. Bengal”. Dimock, Edward Jr. The Place of the Hidden Moon: Erotic Mysticism in the Vasisnava-Sadhajiya Cult of Bengal. Chicago and London: Chicago UP, Referred to as the Baul Samrat, Purna das Baul, introduced Baul 1989. Print. songs to the West during an eight-month tour of the U.S. in 1965 Gupta, Samir Das.Songs of Lalon. Dhaka: Sahitya Prakash, 2000. Print. with stars like Bob Dylan, Joan Baez, Paul Robeson, Mick Jagger, Tagore, Rabindranath.The Religion of Man . London: George Allen and Tina Turner, et al. Dubbed “India's Bob Dylan” by the New York Unwin , 1958.Print. Times in 1984, Purna Das Baul has played with Bob Marley, Gordon Lightfoot and Mahalia Jackson and the likes. In 2002 alongwith his sons, Purna Das Baul formed a fusion band named 'Khyapa' meaning 'wild' to unveil their Baul fusion at the US folk-rock-jazz-reggae fest. Many bauls have organised tours in US and Japan with New Jersey, New York and Los Angeles. The global appreciation for Baul gaan could be understood with the example of the French theatre de la ville invited the global Baul band 'Baul Bishwa' group at its Musiques de Monde (the World Music) meet in Paris. Led by Bapi das Baul, an eighteenth generation baul artist, the group has performed at several places across the globe. The Rolling Stones also produced an album called 'Jai Bangla'. Allen Ginsberg, an American poet, was a firm believer in Babu's grandfather and calling him the 'eighth wonder'. Ginsberg composed a few songs with Bob Dylan and the band in 1985 went on a tour showcasing the Baul family along with other bands. It is so proud to know that Paban Das Baul's music has been used by Microsoft to represent the music of Bengal in its World CD-ROM Atlas. However, such efforts to globalise Baul music are being vehemently criticised by the followers of Purna Das Baul for allegedly corrupting and deracinating the Baul heritage. But we need to remember that this is a natural course in the evolution of Baul music-a step that needs to keep the tradition alive and vibrant. Works cited Bandyopadhyay, Pranab.Bauls of Bengal. Calcutta: Firma KLM,1989. Print. Journal of Rajasthan Association for Studies in English11: 157-162 (2015) 158 Mr.Tunge Lollen and Ms. Taw Azu
of symbolism in Galo proverbs is also instrumental in reflecting the Galo culture. It serves both as the window for the Galo to look at the Proverbs as Cultural Symbols: world and for the world to look at the Galo; for, in the symbolic An Analysis of Galo Proverbial Symbols expression of proverbs is hidden the vast storehouse of the Galo worldview. Therefore, a proper analysis of symbolic expression in Mr.Tunge Lollen and Ms. Taw Azu Galo proverbs can build up the structure of Galo culture. It is this cultural identification that the present paper looks to. By scrutinizing Introduction three popular proverbs, the paper tries to establish the cultural identity of the Galo. “Symbolization is a universal human process,”[page no?] says Raymond Firth in his book Symbols Public and Private. The essence In order to establish that proverbial sayings unconsciously signify of symbolism lies in the recognition of one thing as standing for cultural symbols, the classification of proverbs has been kept aside as another, the relation between them normally being that of concrete to the focus of the paper does not need any classification. Instead, the abstract, particular to general.[a quotation sans marks] In Sartor symbolic analysis of three proverbs is placed to prove the point. The Resartus Carlyle opines, “In a symbol there is both concealment and analysis is done on the basis that the Galo proverbs in their very act yet revelation: hence therefore, by silence and by speech acting of symbolic conveyance, become instruments of defamiliarizing the together, comes a double significance.” [page no?] Without language. And to be defamiliarized, the proverbs use symbols that symbolism, even language is incomplete. They give a concrete are culture-specific and are typical of Galo tribe. The symbols in structure to language. Apart from the structure, the use of symbols in question may have different uses in different culture in different language is also a potent way of exerting extra effect to oral context, but the signification referred here is in Galo context. The communication. In the words of Viktor Shklovsky, the Russian symbols signify aspects that are confined to the Galo worldview. Formalist, symbolization helps in de-familiarizing ordinary language and in making it beautiful, attractive and forceful. Proverbs as Cultural symbols As proverbs are a special way of linguistic expression, use of The analysis of the given three proverbs display two levels of symbols in proverbs are abundant. The proverbs make use of meanings – the denotative or the manifest meaning at the first level, symbols of different aspects and thus become a rich linguistic and the connotative or the latent meaning, at the second level. At the expression. As such, the Galo tribe of Arunachal Pradesh is no denotative level, a proverb carries only its literal meaning. But at the exception. Since time immemorial, the use of proverbs has been connotative level, it transcends its formal feature of being just words there in Galo Language and their use in daily communication has not and refers to a meaning that is distant but expressive. It is expressive only given weight to the expression but has also helped in de- because it speaks of some other features that carry greater relevance, familiarizing the ordinary language and made it more expressive and greater effect, and greater importance. In asserting these greater vigorous. The extensive presence of symbols in Galo proverbs act as values, the proverb use symbols that convey greater relevance. When an agent in de-familiarizing the expression and segregate proverbs these symbols are brought to scrutiny, the Galo worldview is amply from ordinary language and make them a special linguistic magnified and the proverbial symbols become objects of Galo expression. Apart from de-familiarization and beautification, the use cultural identity. As instances, the analysis of the present three proverbs is placed. Proverbs as Cultural Symbols: An Analysis of Galo... 159 160 Mr.Tunge Lollen and Ms. Taw Azu
1. Abo gə menjɨ k duki əm nyiku gulu lo rokkop la, The duki, the gulu, the paasak and the kaalo are objects that are Ato gə menkok paasak əm nyitə kaalo lo lədu la. identifiable as Galo handicrafts. That way, a glimpse of Galo cultural Translation world is seen through the identification of symbols in this proverb. Laws of our ancestors are there in the wise man's hearth, 2. Lətəm pəden la. Saws of our forefathers are there upon the rich man's hearth. Boktəm pəden la. Implication Translation Here, the words abo (father) and ato (usually father-in-law, but here The site of lətəm is changeable, connotative of ancestors); shed their literal meaning and stand for the forefathers. The words menjɨ k and menkok mean true and wise The point of boktəm is changeable. words; and duki means a bamboo tube in which important things Implication were kept but are out of use now. Paasak is a rucksack, made of cane In the Galo practice, fishing is done by a unique method called hibok for carrying articles. Nyiku is an old and experienced man and nyitə pənam. In it, the site of a diverging river course is located and at that is literally a rich man but here it implies the importance such persons site, one of the diverging courses is blocked both at the tip and at the give to their belongings. Gulu is the rectangular wooden planks that frame the earthen hearth in a Galo house. It is the place where all end, where the diverging courses meet again and form the same river. important household works are done and the family decision is taken. Due to blockage at the tip, the blocked course becomes very shallow. Life revolves round it and it is the seat of administration also. Kaalo The shallow course is then diluted with the grinded particles of some is a rectangular frame of wood that is hung above the hearth to toxic plants that kill the fishes. Then the fishes are collected easily. In contain things. Rokkop la means to engrave and lədu la means to such practice, the tip of the divergent course is called boktəm and the keep something upon the kaalo. end is called the lətəm. As the course of the river always changes, the lətəm or the boktəm is changed (pəden la) as per the prevailing In this proverb itself, the presence of several symbols are seen. By the use of images like gulu, kaalo, duki, paasak and others, this course of the river. proverb symbolises the authority exerted by the ancient traditions In the proverb, the images of lətəm and boktəm are used to signify and customs that are epitomised by sayings and proverbs. As the flexibility in coming to terms with something, especially, marriage hearth of a family is the symbol of authority for the family, the regulations and disputes. The proverb thus symbolises that situations sayings and proverbs inside the frame of the hearth and upon the of such events should be taken as per the prevalent circumstances. hearth, symbolise the power and authority of the Galo traditions and One should not be a termagant in such matters. There must be a customs that still are the bedrock of Galo world. situational approach to all dealings. Besides, the symbols lətəm and Wisdom apart, the chosen symbols in the proverb is Galo specific. boktəm speak of the Galo way of life. For sustenance, people exploit Gulu, kaalo, duki and paasak are articles invented by the Galo people resources in their own style. Hibok pənam too, is a way of fishing out of natural materials in their own way. Moreover, the construction stylized by Galo people since centuries ago. From this specific style of gulu around the hearth and kaalo above the hearth is a convention of fishing, an onlooker easily identifies the Galo cultural practice. seen within Galo culture. In the given perspective, their symbolic use The symbols of lətəm and boktəm in this proverb thus become tools in the proverb paves the way to identify and traverse not only the to understand a specific Galo cultural practice. Galo customary path but the world of Galo handicrafts and artefacts. Proverbs as Cultural Symbols: An Analysis of Galo... 161 162 Mr.Tunge Lollen and Ms. Taw Azu
3. Potə lokə nyɨ gla gai nago, Conclusion Dɨ ntə lokə tapo gai nago. From the implications observed in the proverbs, there is vast scope to Translation build up the deduction that the symbolic expression of the Galo proverbs not only defamiliarizes the familiar words, it also denote A teardrop of drink from a big brew, particular pattern of thought, action, practice or behaviour that is A tapo-like share from a big piece. typical of Galo culture. Symbolic identification of the Galo proverbs Implication thus enables the understanding of the Galo worldview and their Traditionally, in Galo society, during community feasts and festivals, cultural diversity. As in the first specimen proverb, the symbols of people are distributed pieces of meats and rice beer. They dine and duki, gulu, paasak and kaalo are used as agents to defamiliarize the drink and make merriment. At such a time, it is the moral duty of all language of the proverb first. Then on further search, it is realized to cooperate and participate. None is expected to make demands and that they are symbols that also signify Galo culture at large. claims at such times. To maintain this spirit of community feeling, Obviously, the total cultural identity of a tribe can never be the proverb is often quoted in terms of poka (rice beer) and adin established merely on the basis of just three proverbs but certainly, (meat) as they are the main source of feasting. Here, the word potə the present three proverbs open the gateway to enter the entire means a brew in large scale that is meant for large gathering and culture-symbol relationship of Galo tribe. Like these three proverbs, dɨ ntə means a big piece of meat. These words are the derivational use the various symbols used in various Galo proverbs point to one of the words poka and adin. aspect or another of the bigger Galo cultural canvas and aid in comprehending the Galo cultural pluralism. Within the words potə and dɨɨ ntə, the symbols of teardrop (ny gla gai nago) and a small share (tapo gai nago, where tapo is Danio rerio, a Works cited kind of a small fish to indicate smallness) are fitted into the proverb Firth, Raymond.Symbols Public and Private . Oxford: Alden P, 1973. Print. to convey the value of sharing and living harmoniously without any Hall Jr, Robert.Cultural Symbolism in Literature , New York: Linguistica big claims. Little sharing in the social activities smoothen the process Ithaca, 1963. Print. of social progress and keeps up the communal harmony. In an Lollen, Tung. “A Study of Symbolism in 100 Galo Proverbs.” Diss. M.Phil, elaborate way, the proverb can be seen as a symbol of Galo's political RGU, 2007. Print. approach to life. Within a society; codified or non-codified, natural Symons, Arthur.The Symbolist Movement in Literature . New Delhi: A.B.S, or imposed, a political system is always set to govern people's way of 1919. Print. life. Though not strictly codified, the symbolic message conveyed through nyɨ gla and tapo within potə and dɨ ntə obviously signify the greater political life of the Galo people. Through the scrutiny of these symbols, the political way of life of the Galo people is understood to a large extent. Although these two symbols alone do not hold any authority to declare the whole political set up of Galo society; nevertheless, they certainly hint the overall political frame of which the codified Galo society is a part. Journal of Rajasthan Association for Studies in English11: 163-176 (2015) 164 Dalbir Singh Yadav
'Raagni' began as a major dramatic constituent of the popular Haryanvi folk drama 'Swaang' which was a musical play and was The cult of Haryanvi Raagni: staged to enact some story (Katha/Kissha) dealing with dreams, Mapping the Contours of Culture aspirations, joys and sorrows and even pains and sufferings of common folks. The story had a wide applicability and historical personages and even gods and goddesses were the main characters Dalbir Singh Yadav however, the response to such experiences they evinced matched well with the feelings and sensibilities of common people who India is a complex society that lives in many worlds simultaneously. sought emotional fulfillment in the melodious tunes ofRaagni . The There are multiple cultures that have given distinctive identities to articulation of different episodes of a story in the connected sequence multiple communities, and created a world characterized by the ofRaagni also provided balm to the wounded feelings and diversity of religious rituals, the language and its texture, costumes, simmering anxiety particularly in otherwise inarticulative situations. mores, dietary habits, routine life entertainment and aesthetic modes As a result, Raagni very quickly assumed the status of being the of living the community life. It is in the domain of culture that we backbone of 'swaang'. With the passage of time, Raagni emerged as think, express ourselves, articulate our aspirations and anxieties, and an independent folk art to deal with the issues of contemporary decide the mode of life we wish to engage in. In this land of relevance. diversified culture and traditions, the significance of study of th However, from the beginning of the 20 century itself, there have folklores and folk literatures can't be overemphasized. been two diverse tendencies about the significance of 'Raagni' in Haryana is small state situated in the vicinity of the national capital fulfillment of its societal obligation that enriches society and impels in the north-western part of India with a size of 44,212 sq.kms. towards advancement. On the one hand, it is considered as an Haryana has a rich cultural heritage and a vibrant folk literature indispensable part of culture of Haryana, for it has an easy access to portraying the socio-cultural, political and economic life of people of the core recesses of the sensibility of common folk. It has emerged as Haryana which is marked primarily by simplicity, hard labour, pure a viable medium to articulate the public life of people of Haryana. humour and ready wit that are interspersed in the fabric of While on the other hand, it is considered merely a cheap mode of traditionalism and modernity. HaryanaviRaagni forms an important entertainment fraught with vulgarity, obscenity and immorality that not only sullies the glory of the land but also leads the younger part of folk literature and is widely accepted as a potent and valid generation on the path of unethicality and absurdity. It perpetuates means by which to connect the masses of the area with the core ideas the age-old feudal practices and attempts to tie people within the of its culture and civilization which are rooted in the tenets of cultural fortress that is fortified by the ruling class patriarchy and cultural continuity and change. It is because of this unmatched nurtured by the caste dynamics of Manu Smiriti. capability and abundant creative scope in 'Raagni' as a poetic genre that different artists in different times have contributed their best in Notwithstanding the contradictory stances and ideological clashes, its development as a viable and conscientious medium to transform the cult of Raagni has traversed a vibrant journey ahead. Before the sensibility, tame the creative faculty and satiate the hunger proceeding further, it is imperative to understand the niceties and arising out of the curiosity to clutch to the roots of cultural tradition subtle nuances of this genre. The chief element in the composition of Raagni is the universal passion and pervading emotions of common and also to seek pure entertainment. The cult of Haryanvi Raagni: Mapping the Contours of Culture 165 166 Dalbir Singh Yadav folk that find articulation from the stage. The audience at once finds v/kehZ jktk dh iztk xSy nq%[k ik;k djSA itself emotionally connected with the singers who are no more iki dh dekbZ iSlk dke ugh vk;k djSAA individuals but representatives of folk life and culture. As part of the folk drama Swaang, it emerges in the plot at the time where it lrk, tka vki tks dks, vksjka uS lrk;k djS appears natural and befitting articulation of attendant sensibility and gs d`".k gs d`".k dgdS Åaps lqj rS VsjhA essential situation in pursuance of the story. Like other subsets of folklore and folk literature, Raagni is presented in the connected (There is noisy discontent in the kingdom about the loss of sequence of minute details of various episodes in the story. The values. Why have grandfather Bhishma, Dronacharya incidence of the story when reaches its decisive turn, evokes such become stone-hearted, as a result of which the evil human passions and behavioural reaction as when articulated Duryodhan, Dushashant and Shakuni have prevailed upon through the medium of folksong like Raaghni, appear a natural and the situation. The subjects of the king partake the sorrows spontaneous outcome of that central issue of society that is at the and money amassed by evil means turns useless in difficult centre stage of the plot of Swaang. Individual emotions find no place times. The one who troubles others, is also ultimately in Raagni rather however, an emphasis is always given to the troubled. This is loudly voiced far and wide in the name of articulation of collective representation. Sometimes two mutually Krishna). contradictory viewpoints in the medium of fierce dialogue between Outwardly, the artist Lakhmi Chand appeared traditional and averse the characters bring out the real passions and collective common folk to change, but when we delve deeper we find him quite alert and behavior in full dramatic splendor. compatible with the challenges of his times. Raagni in its infancy The scope of this paper demands that not all Raagni artists can be was nurtured by the artists belonging to the lower strata of society included and only those who are representatives of certain prominent but most ironically could not become very popular for lack of folk issues in the time continuum of the 20th century and the 21 st patronism by the ruling class. The upper caste artists like Lakhmi century are included with the pious aim that their inclusion in the Chand, and Mehar Singh joined the cult of Raagni only after staging staggered time frame of the two centures will reflect vividly the revolt with their family members. Lakhmi Chand has articulated this whole corpus of cultural understanding of folk life in Haryana. In its social malady in his Raagni, by ascribing the talent of dancing as not most basic and traditional form, Raagni as a part of Swaang, got lowly but rather encompassing in its fold all that is in the universe upswing in the hands of Baje Bhagat, Pt. Lakhmi Chand, Mehar including gods and goddesses. He sings thus: Singh Fauji, Pt. Mange Ram, Dayachand Mayana and others. The Raagnis of Pt. Lakhmi Chand have been very popular throughout Ykk[k pkSjklh th;k twu eSa ukpS nqfu;k lkjh perhaps because they strike the chord at the core human sensibilities ukp.k eSa ds nks"k crk ;k vdy dh gqf'k;kjh in the folk life of Haryana and also because of the stylistic dexterity lc rSa igye fo".kq ukP;k i`Foh Åij vkdS of the artists. From the story of Mahabharta, Lakhmi Chand writes thus: fQj nqt\s HkLeklqj ukP;k lkjk ukp upk dS e;kZnk dks Hkwy x, njckjka eS 'kksj gksX;k xkSjk vkxS f'koth ukP;k Y;k ikoZrh uS C;kg dS Nknk Hkh"e nzks.kkpkjh dk fgjnk D;wa dBksj gksX;k ty ds Åij czgek ukP;k dey Qwy ds Egka dS nq;ksZ/ku nq'kklu 'kdquh dkSjoksa dk vksV gksX;kA czgek th uS ukp&ukp ds jph l`f"V lkjhA The cult of Haryanvi Raagni: Mapping the Contours of Culture 167 168 Dalbir Singh Yadav
(All Eighty four lac species existing in this universe dance (Every child of Hindustan was tormented because when and what iss bad in dancing for it is the expression of a battle among states stopped, the battle among people superior talent. First of all Lord Vishnu danced on arrival began. Some bold valiant tolerated the tormentation while at this earth, secondly Bhasmasura danced after creating those weak got afeared. Some turned mad while some havoc. Lord Shiva danced in happiness after marrying committed suicide. Some ran away while some changed goddess Parvati. Lord Brahma danced from among the their religion some were butchered, some died. Go and see lotus flower floating on water so much so that Lord Brahma has created this world even while continuing his dance). the cities like Amritsar and Lahore while are now vacant.It appears as if demons have struck the land) Mehar Singh Fauji has also expressed his pain at discrimination of art on the basis of caste. He had to bear the scolding of his father on The Raagnis of Mehar Singh are quite popular for their patriotic having joined the profession of Raagni singing. To quote: fervor and military ideals of sacrifice, devotion and separation of dgS tkV rwa Mwe gks fy;k cki esjk cgdk;k jSA soldiers from their families. Mehar Singh articulates the situation when a soldier prepares to go back to his army unit after completion ns'k uxj ?ksj xke NwVX;k fdrdk xkuk xk;k jSAA of his leave period. To quote: tkVkadk ;ks dke esgjflag ds xko.k gdk gks lSA NqV~Vh ds fnu iwjs gksX;s U;w lkspu ykX;k eu Ega Nksjh Nksjs cSBs gks rks fny cgyko.k dk gks lSA cka/k fcLrjkpky iM~;k dqN ckdh jgh uk ru EgaA (My father has been beguiled that his son has turned a Doom (caste) from Jat (caste). I have been (The soldier thinks pensively how fast the days of his leave excommunicated. This is not a profession for Jats for this is period have finished and nothing joyful remains in his not heroic deed but merely an entertainment for leisurely heart as he steps forward taking his bed holdall.) lads.) Haryana has been in news recently however for notorious reasons When India attained independence in 1947 and the country was such as honour killings, caste killings, khap panchayats, skewed sex partitioned. There was in general an atmosphere of jubilance but the ratio, female foeticide, etc. However, the cult of Raagni in Haryana undercurrent of pain and suffering especially in the states of has dwelt on length on the issues of contemporary relevance like Haryana-Punjab was captured by the Raagni artists. To quote from women Empowerment, Peasant issues, Labour movements, rich and Harikesh Patwari: poor divide, etc. Behind the veneer of a t ough and sturdy exterior of lu~ 47 esa fgUn ns'k dk cPpk cPpk rax gksX;kA Haryanvi culture, there runs underneath a softness, melody and jkT;ksa dk tax cUn gksX;k rks ijtk dk tax gksX;kAA music of a throbbing heart ever pining for the have-nots of the land. dqN dqN tcj tqYe uS lgxs dqN detksj ls MjxsA In the words of Dr. Karan Singh: dqN Hk; esa ikxy gksxs dqN [kqns [kqnd'kh djxs Behind this rave for sound bites in the entertainment news dqN Hkkxs dqN etgc iyVxs dqN dVxs dqN ejxs channels, ever gorging its viewers with the strange and the [kkyh iM+s ns[kY;ks tkdS ykgkSj ve`rlj cjxs startling, whatis forgotten quietly is the rich diversity of its cultures and the sturdy beauty of its folk songs and how much its t.kksa nkU;ka uS 'kgj rksM+ fn, lkQ blk Mukesh Yadav, in his corpus of art, deals with the issues of (Oh! Don't ask me my well being, better stop the mention of patriarchy. This form of social structure needs to be eradicated for it for these days I am forced to go to labour chowk even the health of the society. In the traditional form of the Raagni, before dawn.) woman has been presented as a beguiling witch that hunts man away The traditional society of the early 20th century believed in the from morality, glory and social prestige. She occupies the centre mystery and miracles brought about by saints. The society was stage but merely as one who sticks to her arrogance, insolence, suffused in superstitions, blind faith, faith healing and other religious foolishness, mean mindedness, etc. Woman is considered as one dogmatism and hypocrisy. In recent times, there have been Raagnis responsible for all that is evil in society and who needs to be coerced dealing with scientific awareness, reason and rationality in social into right conduct by the vigil and supervision of man. The view behavior. To quote from Habib Bharti: point was hailed and nurtured by the propagators of patriarch cal form of society. However, with the changing times, the issues of foKku Kku ds ne iS ns[kks mM+rs tgkt xxu esaA woman status in society have found prominence in the Raagnis of VekVj vkyw ,d ikS/ks iS vtwcs djs peu esaAA th th later 19 century and early 20 century. To quote from Mukesh dns dns ;k pspd ekrk [kwc lrk;k djrhA Yadav: jkst jkst fQjSa /kksd ekjrs nqfu;k lkjh MjrhAA gs th gs th cnu Ega xgjh csnu NkbZ Qsj Hkh dk.ks Hkksr gq, Fks dks, Hkjrw dks ljrhA vk/kh ftUnxh chr xbZ esjS bZc le> Ega vkbZ foKkuh ftc xSy iM+s rks ns[kh 'khryk ejrhA ns'k uS vktkn crkoSa] ;k ftUnxh esjh xqyke D;wa lwvk blk R;kj dj~;k ;k ekrk /kjh dQu esaAA nlohard igy uEcj Fkh] dVX;k esjk uke D;wa dqjMh dk /ku dgSa Nksjh uS ;wa th.kk esjk gjke D;wa (Aeroplanes fly in the sky as a result of power of scientific discovery. In the gar den, potato and tomato grow on the (Oh! God, my body and soul are pained at the thought how same plant. People were pestered by small pox in earlier half my life has passed and only now I come to understand times and they were forced to propitiate gods and how I am in chains despite my country being free. How I goddesses every time and despite this, many like Sarti and stood first in my class up to tenth standard and my name Bhartu turned one-eyed by the disease. When scientists has been struck off from school now. People believe that a pursued research, the goddess Sheetala died. Now such a girl is the gift of the garbage and my life is an utter futility). vaccine has been invented which has buried 'mata' in the The modes of agricultural production has drastically changed in deep earth.) recent times in states like Haryana and as a result of which the farm The gnawing issue of unemployment in the youth has drained out labourers are facing a tough and strange life when they have to move their vitality and joy in life. Some dejected young men and women out of their village fold and go to city centres in search of work. come in the grip of drug abuse due to unemployment. The sordid Elucidating the malady of the labourers on labour chowks in cities picture of unemployment is portrayed by Balbir Singh Rathi in his these days, Raagni artist Ramphal Jakhmi notes: Raagnis: jkth [kq'kh dh er cw>S] cUn djns ftdz pyk.kk gsA tc rS iwjh gqbZ i<+kbZ th esjk nq[k ikX;k fnu ls igY;ka jksV cka/k dS] iM+S pkSd Ega tk.kk gsAA dS cw>sxk ckr esjh eSa tho.k rS rax vkX;kA The cult of Haryanvi Raagni: Mapping the Contours of Culture 171 172 Dalbir Singh Yadav (I am pained now as my studies have come to an end and and every calamity in life was mitigated by unity, cohesiveness and oh! Don't ask my state as I have become fed up with my coordination in people but contrary to that, present gloom designates life). the change in the cultural life style marked by fragmentation, individualism and self-centred attitude to life in which paradigm Among thoseRaagni artists who are fervently involved in dealing social degeneration, degradation, deprivation and immorality tend to with the issues and concerns of our times through this genre of folk replace the quietitude of folk life. Moreover he also brings to the literature is Satyavir Naharia. He is a budding literary genius of the forefront the socio-cultural evils of the past that are still nurtured in Rewari region who has drawn rich and vivid contours of the public the present time of positive change . life of the people of Haryana in his two creative outpourings viz LOK RAAG and EK BAKHAT THAA. His Raagni lines find place The candid contrast in the way of life as presented in Naharia's in some of the Hindi dailies and are read with great interest Raagni pave a great way in moral cleansing in today's westernized especially by those who seek to trace the basic forms of our socio- public life full of sick hurry and divided aims. No artist before cultural mores and way of life. Contraries meet in Naharia's Naharia used this contrastive technique of foregrounding the past life personality as despite being a student of Chemistry, he articulates in order to feature out the present time. Naharia seems to be very splendidly the rich socio-cultural veracity of Haryanavi way of conveying a clear message that the root cause behind the rising ills in life through the literary form of Raagni and so also the reader finds a life and the type of heinious social crimes in present times is the sad distinct juxtaposition of 'past glory' and 'present gloom' in his change that has come in public life of people in this so called creation. To quote:- progressive, postmodern ear of 21st century. His Raagni deal with the ^^,d c[kr Fkk] xke uS ekul jke crk;k djrsA varied factes of Haryanvi culture be it social, political, economic or religious. One of the remarkable features of Haryanavi culture is vkil ev~ Fkk esy&tksy] lq[k&nq%[k cryk;k djrsA unity and brotherhood which was realized and practiced through a ekMh djrk dkj dksbZ rks] lc /kedk;k djrsA routine gathering in the chaupal around a 'hookah' that was not C;kg] BhPpS vj [ksr D;kj Ega gkFk caVk;k djrsA merely a smoking pipe but stood as a symbol of dignity and honour for the whole community. It was here that the bond of oneness bc cSjh gkSX;s HkkbZ&HkkbZ] jksoS ;w egrkjhA among the village folks was fostered and pains, sorrows, worries and igye vkys xke jgs uk] ckr lqukS ;k EgkjhA** (Lok RAAG, 60) pestering anxiety were empathetically deliberated and elaborately discussed and sincere and substantial efforts were made to remedy There was a time when people equated a village to God. the wrong. Expressing dismay at the awful change that time has They lived in harmony and shared joys and sorrows. They wrought about, he articulates thus: collectively slighted the one who committed an act of moral aberration. They partook in the hard labour work of one ,d c[kr Fkk gqDds dk tc eku gqoS Fkk U;kjkA and her in fields as well as on occasions of marriage. Now lq[k&nq[k dh cryk;k djrs cSB HkkbZ nl&ckjgA the mother earth weeps on the sordid reality of a brother vknj uk vj Åap&uhp dk /;ku jgS Fkk lkjkA turning enemy of his brother. Listen to me as I say that the tone and tenor of village life has changed completely. gqDdk gs Fkk x< nsgkrh vj gqDdk HkkbZ&pkjkA gqDdk ckj dk QSa'ku vkj~;k nqfu;k u'ksMh udVh gksX;hA The past glory is inherent in the fact that village folks lived a life of elemental simplicity full of harmony despite the ills that life posed uk oks ekul uk oks gqDds bc ?kj&?kj esa gqdVh gksX;hA (Lok RAAG, 61) The cult of Haryanvi Raagni: Mapping the Contours of Culture 173 174 Dalbir Singh Yadav (There was a time when 'hookah' assumed elevated status. She is an unfailing companion in vicissitude of life. She Ten or twelve brothers gathered to share their joys and performs the daily chores of brother, father, mother and her sorrows. There was respect for elders and moral values pre husband. She is an epitome of social morality and sings the dominated. 'Hookah' symbolized cultural strength in totality songs of the world. That houses is unfruitful where no girl and brotherhood. 'Hookah' has become an object of fashion is born.) now and people have turned into addicted immorals. Nowhere is visible that 'Hookah' nor those people of yore Naharia makes a vehement onslaught on the rising corruption in but what is visible is that in every household is miniature public life today: 'Hookah'. Glorifying motherhood he writes :- ^^dke djkY;s ys&ns dS rw] er dkuwu i<+koS ^^ ek¡ dh ek;k dS vkXxS lq.k] QhDdh nqfu;k lkjhA ?k.kk fu;e iS er pkyS rw] uk rS Qsj iNrkoS ek¡ rks HkkbZ ek¡ , gks lS] ek¡ dh eerk U;kjhA** (Lok RAAG, 108) est ryS ;k Åij dS] dksbZ riS HksaV p ^^ le>f.k;s dh ej gksj~;h] vj uqxj;k ekSt mMkj~;k Works Cited pkSxjns uS Hkz"Vkpkj bc] vi.kk jax fn[kkj~;kA Chahal, Ramphal, Mathana Raghubir, and Fauji Mehar Singh . Sampuran vke vkneh Mx&Mx iS lq.k] bldh Bksdj [kkj~;kA Haryanvi Granthawali. Kaithal: Sukirti, 2009. Print. jgh lgh ;k dlj esVn~;h] eagxkbZ uS ekj~;kA** Chander, Subhash, ed.Haryanvi Lok Dhara (Pratinidhi Ragniyan). Panchkula: Aadhar, 2012. Print. (Lok RAAG, 68) Naharia, Satyavir.Ek Bakhat Thaa (Haryanavi Ragani Ke Bol ). Rewari: (The unworthy are prosperous and the wise are suffering. Satyageet, 2014. Print. Corruption is wide spread and is at its full bloom. The ---.Lok RAAG (Ragni Sangrah). Rewari: Satyageet, 2008. Print. common man is undergoing the pangs of its onslaught at every step. Whatever the hope left if any, is thwarted by the Patwari, Harikesh.Harikesh Pushpanjali & Azadi ki Jhalak . Narwana: Baiznath. Gupta & Sons, 2010. Print. price-rise”) Sharma, Puran Chand.Pt. Lakhmi Chand Granthwali . Chandigarh: Haryana But now in the backdrop of its well established form it becomes Sahitya Academy, 2010. Print. imperative to realize thatRaagni like any folk art, tends to bind people's psyche within the hegemonic fortress of the ruling class of Singh, Karan, and Kumar Devender.The Unknown Voices . New Delhi: Radha , 2011. Print. society and impels them to treat the normative line of social mores. In the contemporary postmodern time of globalization, urbanization and liberalization, it can't be over emphasized that this form of folk literature is being exploited by some cheap artists to render vulgar humour, topsy-turvy social values and misconstrued relationship in love and marriage. What is important today is that any such endeavour which attempts to sully the purity of our culture should be firmly thwarted andRaagni as a popular medium of cultural expression need to receive creative experimentation, in which direction Satyavir Naharia has been tirelessly working. He has successfully condensed the existingRaagni form into a composition of six lines to suit the needs of fast pace of modern life. This experimentation has been widely hailed as the need of the hour and is also adopted by the maiden Haryanvi news channel A-1 Tehlaka Haryana. However, he has retained the contrastive technique even in his new experimentation. Robert Browning has rightly said, “The petty done, the undone vast.” It has been my endeavour to portray the culture of Haryana through the representative Raagnis, however the corpus of Raagni is huge and culture is an ever evolving process and so a lot more scope lies ahead for further exploration and elaborate deliberation on the issue. Journal of Rajasthan Association for Studies in English11: 177-181 (2015) 178 Sonika Gurjar Yet Detha, better known as Bijji was an unsung figure of world literature. Stories by the self-proclaimed folklorist Vijaydan Detha Revitalizing Folk Tales of Rajasthan : stand at a unique juncture where the ever-dynamic collective Vijay Dan Detha consciousness preserved in oral cultures of folk tales is represented through the privileged retelling by the author and where the sheer choice of medium tends to freeze the inherent fluidity and flexibility Sonika Gurjar of these tales. Detha was exposed to Russian literature, which inspired him to return to his native village Borunda and write in his Rajasthan is not just about the mysterious wonder of age old and native language, Rajasthani. It was here at Borunda that he along gargantuan palaces, sky high fortresses, the almost unending desert with his friend Komal Kothari set up the iconic Rupayan Sansthan, tracts or the mouth watering cuisines or even the meandering by- an institution that has done Path breaking research and archival work lanes, transferring one as if to the bygone era, but also assimilates a gathering and restoring oral literature of Rajasthan. Determined to fund of folk literature consisting of ballads, songs, proverbs, folk “garland the age-old Rajasthani, folklores with story - writing skills". tales and Panegyrics. Detha started a hand-composing press that brought out the periodical Lok Sanskriti (Folk culture). The stories published in it were later As we talk about the short story writers the first name came in our compiled in his tour de forceBataan ri Phulwari (Garden of tales mind is of Vijay Dan Detha. Detha was a born storyteller in a 1960-76) a fourteen volume collection of stories drawing on somewhat literal sense. His family belong to a sub-caste known as Rajasthan folklore. Having written more than eight hundred stories 'charan' who were traditional story tellers and poets - custodians of in Rajasthani, Detha has received several honors and awards for his an oral literary tradition for a long as anyone can remembr. Detha's life-long work, which include Padam Shri (2007), Sahitya father Sabaldan Detha and grandfather Jugtidan Detha were also well st Chudamani Award (2006), Katha Chudamani Award (2005), known poets of Rajasthan. Born on 1 1926 at a small village Fellowship of the Sahitya Akademi (2004), and the first Sahitya Borunda in Jodhpur. At the age of four Detha lost his father and two Akademi Award for Rajasthani (1974). His popularity, however, rose brothers in a feud. At the age of six he moved to Jaitaran (25 km mainly after his storyCharandas Chor was adapted first for theater from Borunda) where his brother Sumerdan used to work in civil by Habib Tanveer (1975) and for a children's film by Satyajit Ray court. He studied there till class IV. His brother has transferable job (1975). Amol Palekar's Shahrukh Khan stirrer filmPaheli (2005) hence Vijaydan also had to move with him. Vijaydan did his school based on Detha's storyDuvidha , made Detha a household name. study at Bihar and Barmer. Detha in his school years was poor in English language and had to face many embarrassing moments. In The collection under review is the second volume of a two volume Barmer while competing with another student he realised that he collection entitledChouboli and other short stories. The first volume wants to be a writer. His brother then transferred to Jodhpur where contains the title storyChouboli which is a string of eight connected Detha studied in Durbar school. Detha joined college in 1944 by that stories and six other stories. The second volume includes eleven time he had already established his name in poetry, however he gives stories, adapted by Detha from Rajasthani folk tales and tastefully credit for it to his cousin brother Kuberdan Detha, who had left selected from his vast body of work. Detha's stories were marked by school after X standard. Vijay Dan used to pass his cousins poems in a sensitive depiction of power relations and gross injustices but laced his name, applause brought from those poems made him to think to with wry humor. Though he tackled many issues, his characters were establish his own name in writing. never black and white. His stories were narratives about the complex Revitalizing Folk Tales of Rajasthan : Vijay Dan Detha 179 180 Sonika Gurjar value structures and social systems of what Bharat (Pre-modern who is so realistic in the guise of a deyan (witch). In the story Untold India) understood in its own terms and with its own categories of Hitlers a professional cyclist dares the arrogant owners of a newly thought. Detha's stories were earthy, born of the soil, and layered acquired tractor and meets his tragic end. with irony. On the gender issue, he broke all boundaries with a story Each story of Detha involves telling as well as retelling. Detha Two Lives about a girl who pretends to be a man and marries a certainly deserves adulation for passing on the verbally transmitted, woman. The story was talk with a poetical mysticism that was more traveling tales to us by translating them into the equally forceful and evocative then descriptive. dynamic stories where the narrative voice retains the flexibility of The make believe world of fantasy in these stories by Detha, as in the oral storytellers. the narrative tradition of any oratory, takes for granted the Over the last two decades some of his works were translated into connection between nature, nurture, natural and supernatural. Here English by Christ A Merrill, and Kabir. Their success in translating humans interact freely with other products of the mother the work in all its vibrancy and vitality into a completely alien environment, such as animals, birds, insects and plants, often language and to a completely different set of audience spells out their interchanging their forms as also their language; here ghosts own excellence as tale - teller. On November 10, 2013 the pre- participate in worldly affairs, while mighty kings, seths and Thakurs eminent Marwari writer or the Shakespeare of Rajasthan passed turn out to be cowards and foolish and ordinary lowly folk, wise. In away. His voluminous body of work will live long because it is this world of traditional wisdom, where worldly ways, are ridiculed imbued with a wealth of experience, insight and modes of expression and human frailties and strengths are delineated, Detha has injected that lie outside the English speaking world. his own ideological preferences for social justice (influenced by Karl Marx) "My main themes are against God, religion and capital" says Works cited the writer acknowledging his Marxist values. Hence in spite of Choudhary, Ashok.Bijji, The Shakespeare of Rajasthan. 2014. Web. hardships, the subjugated always survive and the candle of hope is imagery from everyday scenes and sights which showed her sense of solidarity with folk life as it is lived from day to day. Her poetry Exploring the Tresses of Folk Traditions reflects her love for her nation and sings the joys and sorrows of her in the Poems of Sarojini Naidu people. A. N. Dwivedi points out aptly: A poet is a person of sharp sensibility and deep insight and is Hitendra Goyal primarily guided and controlled by his inner urges. But he is also a social being, even if for a moment or two. As a social being, he comes into contact with other persons, places and things and Widely known as Nightingale of India (Bharata Kokila) Sarojini thus gains in experience. These other experiences supply food to Naidu has given true music to the Indianness and India's folk his inner experiences. (Sarojini Naidu and Her Poetry 1981, 51) ambience. Born on the 13th Feb. 1879 in Hyderabad, she had a family in which her father Dr. Aghoranath Chattopadhyaya was the founder Sarojini Naidu was sensitive towards Indian folk traditions. Though of Nizam college of Hyderabad and a scientist and her mother, Mrs. she belonged to the aristocratic society, yet she was sympathetic Varasundari, was a Bengali poetess. Naidu inherited qualities from towards the humble lives lead by the weaker section of people both her father and mother. Her poetry ranges from vast green field present in the Indian society. Affinity for humble folks is one of the of toilsome farmers to the wandering singers and snake charmers to important aspects of Sarojini Naidu's poems which are based on folk bangle sellers. One can very easily locate India in its true colours on life. According to Rameshwar Gupta, her poetry “has the undertone the panoramic canvas of Naidu's poetic genius. We come across of our daily sorrows and joys: it bears the echoes of a human heart” almost all the minute aspects of Indian culture and its traditional (Grover and Arora 1993, 295). Sarojini Naidu had compassion ideas all dipped in the element of folk touch. Despite her vital towards the humble folks of her motherland. She projected their toil contribution to Indian poetry, one can't ignore Naidu's invaluable in day to day life. She sang of their sorrows and joys, hopes and selfless services to the National liberation. This how she is aspirations. Gokak says, “She has almost a psychic sympathy with considered not only a great poetess of India soil but also a the great cavalcade of India's wandering singers and dancers and Nationalist who wanted to see her country as a free bird. other humbler folks” (Grover and Arora 1993, 410). Many critics have put Naidu's poetry as one which is known for its Sarojini Naidu's poems depicting Indian folk life encompass various lyrical wealth along with its portrayal of Indian character. She is a aspects through which an image of colourful Indian traditions poetess of Indian soul and sensibility. Her themes and subject matter emerges out. Some portray the lobour of ordinary people, some give involve all “India” phenomena including men and women, fauna and music to the joy of celebrating an occasion or festival together by the flora, customs and traditions, festivals and celebrations, myths and people of village folks, some delineate the daily routine in the lanes legends, markets and village fairs, feasts and marriage, superstitions of villages and some give colour the sentiments of harmony and and folk traditions. The reflection of the whole India can be viewed brotherhood. All the great Indian these and images have been in the poetry of Naidu. Her poetry becomes a mirror through which orchestrated in the poetry of Naidu in such a way that a very foreign we can travel all the lanes of India. reader may very aptly conceive the true meaning of India and Indian folk. One of the striking themes of Naidu's poetry is folk life of India. Her poetry gained vitality and spontaneity through the folk inspiration. Like Tagore, Sarojini Naidu was also a great lover of humanity and Her folk poetry reflected simplicity and contained vocabulary and throughout her life she strived to serve the humble and the Exploring the Tresses of Folk Traditions in the Poems... 183 184 Hitendra Goyal oppressed. She had observed minutely the lives of the humble folks wayward movement, its complexity and ambivalence. The bride's of her country and appreciated in her poetry their participation in personality has passed a state and acquired a status from a passive humble activities of day to day life. Sarojini Naidu painted beautiful role as a daughter, she has moved unto the active role as a wife. The picture of various occupations that were prevalent during her time image 'falling like a tear from the eyes of a bride'is beautiful and and which are even now an important aspect of Indian life such as appealing and in the words of Rameshwar Gupta “an achievement” the weavers, fishermen, bangle sellers etc. unto itself. The delicate theme is skillfully woven into the texture. She has entered 'Samsara' with its obligations and realities. She is “Coromandel Fishers” is a lyric enriched with vivid imagery and folk now a committed and confirmed individual. 'The Palanquin Bearers,' culture of the Coromandel Coast of India. It depicts the relationship a simple folk-song directly reflecting the depths of lyric a vanished of fishermen with the world of nature. In the poem human emotions aspect of rural life, thus gains a richness of associative symbols and are set against the world of Nature. The first stanza of the poem images which lie embedded in the native consciousness. The poet depicts the solidarity between the fishermen. It is one of the directs her poetic sensibility softly and lightly towards an important aspects of folk life in India. Naidu's poem “Palanquin unmediated vision of experience. Bearers” inThe Golden Threshold is one of the poems which has a unique title and depicts the tradition of carrying a bride in a “Wandering Singers” is one of the poems written by Sarojini Naidu palanquin. Dwivedi remarked: “It is a poem of great artistic beauty that portrays the carefree life of the meek and contented wandering and has a rhythmic swing in it which is well in accord with the soft singers, who have no interest in the material world, who do not enjoy onward movement of the palanquin-bearers” (Sarojini Naidu and any comfort, who do not have homes to live but they sing -“All men Her Poetry 1981, 122). They sing of the beauty of the bride and are our kindred, the world is our home” (1958, 4). The line reflects carry the palanquin with delight and with poise: Sarojini Naidu's faith in universal brotherhood. The wandering singers are in harmony with everyone around them. They do not have Softly, O softly we bear her along, close relationship with any particular person. They believe in She hangs like a star in the dew of our song; universal brotherhood and therefore they are far above the She springs like a beam on the brow of the tide, frustrations and sorrows experienced in human relationships. They She falls like a tear from the eyes of a bride. accept life in totality and are ready to accept everything offered to Lightly, O lightly we glide and we sing, them by fate. Describing the carefree attitude of wandering singers We bear her along like a pearl on a string. (1958, 7-12) towards life, Sarojini Naidu has written this lyric beautifully in the voice of the wandering singers: The above stanza takes us from the fluid surfaces of life to its crystallized depths and complex intensities. The palanquin-bearers What hope shall we gather, what dreams shall we sow? have to bear her along softly. They are now covering a rougher Where the wind calls our wandering footsteps we go. terrain, as they approach another place, which is to invite the No love bids us tarry, no joy bids us wait: unknown and the unfamiliar into the bride's life. The bride hangs like The voice of the wind is the voice of our fate. (1958, 9-12) a star in the dew of their song. She springs like a beam on the brow of the tide. She falls like a tear from the eyes of a bride. The images According to B. S. Mathur, “Wandering Singers” depicts Sarojini and the action verbs indicate the burden, the tension and the solidity Naidu as a poet, who was “filled with unlimited patriotism that is of the actual world, its capacity and reflection, its agitation and synonymous with internationalism” (1977, 66). “Wandering Beggars” inThe Broken Wing is also one of her poems which Exploring the Tresses of Folk Traditions in the Poems... 185 186 Hitendra Goyal beautifully depict the positive character of the wandering beggars. which once again paints a picture of luxury and chivalry. These lines They wander from dawn till night homeless but they are in harmony convey the colour values prominent in the poems of Naidu due to the with life. They are aware of the fact that, “Time is like a wind that influence of the Romantics. Sarojini Naidu's poems were unique and blows” (1958, 13) and the future is a mystery for all, therefore they the striking feature of the poems was the Indianness in them. have a carefree attitude towards life and say: “So we go a fearless Naidu's poems that deal with the folk traditions of India, describe band, / freedom in our hand / Wandering from land to land,” (1958, various shades of the lives of common folks of India. The folk songs 17-19). The wandering beggars do not care for the materialistic reflect “the vistas of variegated and bizarre life in India and enchant world around them for they know that the ultimate reality for the rich us by their lilting, rhythmic music” (Raizada 1989, 100). Sarojini or the poor is death. Naidu subtly expressed this reality in the last Naidu depicted the occasional celebrations of the humble folks in stanza of this poem where the night symbolizes death: “Till we meet many of her poems. “Harvest Hymn” is one such poem where voices the Night that brings / Both to beggars and to Kings / The end of all are heard rejoicing the fruits of harvest by the village folks and their journeyings,” (1958, 21-23). “Street Cries” by Sarojini Naidu is offerings made to God for the blessings bestowed upon them: written on the vendors who sell their goods in the streets of India. Even today though India is having a hike in its economy, we have Lord of the Universe, Lord of our being, large scale business flourishing all around but street hawkers still are Father eternal, ineffable Om! seen delivering their products door to door. They have limited Thou art the Seed and the Scythe of our harvests, resources but they labour a lot to earn their living. Sarojini Naidu Thou art our Hands and our Heart and our Home. portrayed the life of street vendors beautifully. In stanza 1 the street hawkers are depicted roaming in the streets at the dawn: We bring thee our lives and our labours for tribute, Grant us thy succour, thy counsel, thy care. WHEN dawn's first cymbals beat upon the sky, O Life of all life and all blessing, we hail thee, Rousing the world to labour's various cry, We praise thee, O Bramha, with cymbal and prayer (1958, 25-32) To tend the flock, to bind the mellowing grain, From ardent toil to forge a little gain, Bangle-Sellers And fasting men go forth on hurrying feet, The poemBangle-Sellers is associated with bangles and the Buy bread, buy bread rings down the eager streets. (1958, 1-6) implications of women's roles in a traditionalist Indian social setting. The bangle seller is trying to convince the woman by explaining the “In the Bazaars of Hyderabad” is a descriptive lyric in which Sarojini spiritual and symbolic importance of these bangles. In this process, Naidu portrayed the traditional and colourful pageantry of Indian Sarojini Naidu makes strong connections between the bangles and bazaar which is evident even today in India. The vocation of their role in providing "happy daughters and happy wives." merchants, vendors, goldsmiths, humble fruit-men and flower-girls are described in this poem beautifully who are engaged in their Some are meet for a maiden's wrist, occupation to earn a living. The merchants are selling “Turbans of Silver and blue as the mountain mist, crimson and silver, / Tunics of purple brocade,” (1958, 3-4). The Some are flushed like the buds that dream. colours and texture of cloth convey their association with the royal The subsequent stanzas describe through lush and natural imagery families of India. Naidu further described merchants selling: “Mirror the beauty of the bangles and their representation of these ideals help with panels of amber, / Daggers with handles of jade” (1958, 5-6), Exploring the Tresses of Folk Traditions in the Poems... 187 188 Hitendra Goyal to increase their precious value. Some of these descriptions invoke There are innumerable gods and goddesses whom the Hindus have the passion of "marriage's fire" always worshiped and sung hymns to since the time of the Rig Veda., Kali , the Mother is one such deity, and in the present hymn Sarojini Meet for a bride on her bridal morn has succeeded capturing the very spirit of the worship that is offered Some, like the flame of her marriage fire, to her every year by the people of India as a whole, as well as Or, rich with the hue of her heart's desire, individually: Tinkling, luminous, tender, and clear, Corn-Grinders Like her bridal laughter and bridal tear The poemcorn-grinders is a lyric about the wretched condition of And, in the last stanza, help to bring to light the socially accepted Indian women who have to do the manual work of corn-grinding, role of women in this setting. The purple and gray flecked bangle is especially the young widows of that time. The women in early meant to symbolize a woman who "serves her household in fruitful morning hours, when the stars still laugh and all the happy world is pride, and worships the gods at her husband's side." asleep, are at their grinding wheels, singing but in a pathetic tone, Some are purple and gold flecked grey For she who has journeyed which harmonises well with their own life experience and the lonely through life midway, Whose hands have cherished, whose love has hours of the morning: blest, And cradled fair sons on her faithful breast, And serves her O little bride, why dost thou weep household in fruitful pride, And worships the gods at her husband's With all the happy world asleep? side. Alas! Alas! My lord is dead! Kali, the Mother Ah, who will stay these hungry tears, The poem,Kali, the Mother is a hymn to Kali, “the Eternal Mother”. Or still the want of famished years, Indian folk culture is dominated by ritual. The rituals observed on the And crown with love my marriage-bed? occasion of festivals draw on the participants' sense of their own My soul burns with the quenchless fire common helplessness, in the face of dancers and mysteries which confront man, both in his own nature and in his world, Through such That lit my lover's funeral pyre: rituals both the individual and the community express their common Alas! Alas! My lord is dead. attempt to placate some supernal being who can destroy them as well Cradle Song as protect them from un known dangers, lurking in the darkness of the future: A 'Cradle Song' or lullaby is a part of Indian culture which is a song by the mother to put her children to sleep. In the present poem, the O' Terrible and Tender and Devine! Indian mother perhaps is reciting the lullaby. She describes the O” Mystic mother of sacrifice various places from which she has gathered the song that is We deck the somber altars of thy shrine descending gradually upon the eyelids of her child: With sacred basil leaves and saffron and rice From groves of spice, All gifts of life and death, we bring to thee O'er fields of rice, Uma, Haimavathi Athwart the lotus-stream, Exploring the Tresses of Folk Traditions in the Poems... 189 190 Hitendra Goyal I bring for you, koel to fly. He helps everyone as and when he needs His help or his A glint with dew suffering. He loves everyone and saves all from sorrows and protects A little lovely dream. from pain. Hence, they surrender themselves to him and ask him not to leave them without rain Finally the baby goes into a deep and sound sleep. In the golden light of the late evening produced by the clear starry skies, the stars from Lakshmi, the lotus Born heaven look down upon the baby in its cradle. The mother places the The very Indian poemLakshmi, the lotus Born is addressed to the baby in the cradle with soft caress and a promising dream. Goddess of Fortune, Lakshmi In Hindhu mythology Lakshmi,wife of Dear eyes, good-night, Lord Vishnu is worshipped as goddess of fortune and happiness. This poem is a finest example of Indian faith in performing rituals and In golden light worshipping idols It was composed on the 'Lakshmi Puja Day' in The stars around you gleam; 1915. In it the poetess invokes Lakshrni, the goddess of fortune in a On you I press traditional way to shower prosperity and wealth : With soft caress Prosper our cradles and kindred and cattle A little lovely dream. And cherish our Health-fires and coffers and corn Hymn to Indra, Lord of Rain Hearken ,O' Lotus Born This poem is about the prayer to the rain god, Indra by farmers for Here the poetess addresses the deity Goddess Lakshmi not only for rain. It is believed by the Hindus that the rain, thunder and lightning herself but also for the entire mankind. occur by the grace of Indra. Hence, this poem is composed as the “For our dear land, we offer oblation villagers pray to Indra for rain for their agricultural purpose. To keep thou her glory unsullied , unhorn The farmers pray to Indra to make the thunder which is described as And guard the invincible hope of our nation His voice, to wake up the storm from sleep which can break even the mountains by is force and split the waves of the sea. Indra is the Hearken ,O' Lotus Born maker of streams and rivers: Conclusion O Thou, who rousest the voice of the thunder, Sarojini Naidu's lyrics on the various vocations of Indian people And biddest the storms to awake from their sleep echo the melody and rhythm of rich folk traditions and customs. Who breakest the strength of the mountains as under, “Palanquin Bearers”, “Coromandel Fishers”, “Bangle Sellers” are some of the fine examples of Naidu's melodic compositions. Chavan And cleverest the manifold pride and rifer remarks aptly: “The folk songs evoke a characteristically passionate Dost nourish the heart of the forest and plain, response from the lyrical sensibility of the poet. In them, the poet Withhold not Thy gifts O Omnipotent Giver! tends to elaborate recurrent rhythmic patterns with the help of They flow through the forest and plain lands which is utilised for repetitive images and musical sounds” (1984, 25). Sarojini Naidu's cultivation. He is omnipotent and has the ultimate power over the poems are well crafted by various devices and are appreciated for earth and sky and he grants joy to the eagles and teaches the young their lyrical quality. Her poetry reflects her passion for music and Exploring the Tresses of Folk Traditions in the Poems... 191 Journal of Rajasthan Association for Studies in English11: 192-199 (2015) life. Naidu's poetic world glows with fascinating colours and creates a delicate pattern of joy and beauty. She portrayed the familiar world of Man and Nature. She was extremely sensitive to the joys and Folktales: Exploring the Past to Recreate sorrows of her people and depicted them beautifully in her poetry. the Present and Reweave the Future Her poems have beauty and charm of their own and reflect her art of writing poems having the stamp of originality. Sarita Chanwaria Thus we can observe variegated scenes of Indian life being presented throughout Sarojini Naidu's poetry. Her depiction of India is In modern times people have become too much materialistic and comprehensive and realistic. She depicts With beauty, grace, love, consumerist which has turned them blind towards nature, as a result sympathy and penetration the changing seasons, the rivers and lakes, beaches and forests, flowers and birds, men and women of different there is ecological crisis in the form of global warming, pollution, ethnic and cultural backgrounds, engaged in diverse vocations and shortage of clean water, decreasing bio-diversity and natural exhibiting various skills. The simple rustic scene of rural India and disasters. They no longer have a sense of duty for conservation of the mundane life is being very picturesquely portrayed by the author. natural environment and think and regard it as the duty of the government only to preserve and conserve it. Selfish and conceited Works Cited as they are, they themselves are depleting, destroying and polluting A Bibliography of Indian English. Hyderabad: Central Institute English and it. This imprudent and reckless attitude of the present generation Foreign Languages, 1972. Print. poses a serious threat to the future generations. Thus, there is an Bibliography of Indian Literature (20th Century, Vol.1 covering English, utmost need today to make our children aware regarding the present New Delhi: Sahitya Akademic, 1962. Print. state, protection and preservation of the environment. Basu, Lotika.Indian Writers of English Verse. CalcuttaUniversity, 1933. Print. Oral storytelling can be the best way to emotionally connect the Iyengar, K.R. Srinivas.Indo-Anglian Literature. Bombay: Asia Publishing children with the natural environment, building up their relationship House, 1973. Print. with ecology and enhancing and promoting their eco-awareness. As Kotky, P.C.Indo-English Poetry. Gauhati University: Department of John Kotter has rightly said “We learn best- and change- from English Publication, 1969. Print. hearing stories that strike a chord within us.” The simple telling of Sharma, K.K., ed. Indo-English Literature: A Collection of Critical Essays. tradition stories can help children appreciate ecology in past, present Ghaziabad: Vimal Prakashan, 1977. Print. and future situations. One of the most important things that storytelling can do in environmental education is to help humans “comprehend the stories” of the non-human world. “Stories extend your imagination to see the world from perspectives other than your own. When you hear someone's own story, your sympathy is engaged and you recognize that other person as a conscious being capable of suffering and joy.” (Nanson 34). This paper makes an effort to examine and evaluate folktales as an instrument and technique for teaching environmental education and Folktales: Exploring the Past to Recreate the Present ... 193 194 Sarita Chanwaria emphasize that folktale is a persuasive method for moulding the rivers, streams and mountains, how she awoke the spirits and created tender minds of the children, making them eco-conscious and living creatures of all kinds including insects, worms, fish, snakes, helping them to learn about the many facets of their environment and birds animals and also Human beings, instructing the first people to better understand the interrelatedness of their lives with their take care of the Earth for their children. surroundings. “Welcome!” the Sun Mother said to the first people of the Earth. Folktales are carriers of wisdom that is universal and timeless. The “Look around you – this is the place you belong to. All around you details may vary according to the difference in time and place but are your family; the land, the wind and the waters, the plants and the there is a remarkable consistency in their messages. They transmit animals. You are all part of the same spirit,” (Casey, 15) this shows the customs and traditions from one generation to the other, that everything whether living or non-living is interdependent and cultivating knowledge and a way of life. There is no conflict between interconnected and we should live in harmony with nature. oral storytelling and book culture. In fact, the children are more “I have walked every step of the Earth and now it is awake. The likely to want to read stories as a result of hearing them. The phrase Earth is alive. The Earth is sacred.” “once upon a time,” invites the reader to share the content inside. These invitations become even more effective when the words are “Care for creation. Look after the land for your ancestors; look after elaborated with illustrations. the land for your children and for your children's children…” (Casey, 15) The tradition of oral storytelling has been practiced for thousands of years and continues to grow and change and the book, 'The Barefoot The folktale entitled “Why the Sky is So Far Away” comes from the Book of Earth Tales' written by Dawn Casey and Anne Wilson, Edo people of Nigeria. Like many African myths, this tale tells how commits these oral stories to print. In this beautiful anthology of Humans once lived close to and in harmony with nature. It also folktales there are seven separate stories that have come from illustrates how our own actions have the power to create or destroy different parts of the world. Each story in some way or the other this equilibrium. The story transports us back to a time when “In the celebrates the beauty and power of nature and reminds us to take beginning, the Sky was close to the Earth. So close you could reach care of the Earth and to live in harmony with the rhythms and up and touch it. And you could eat it! In those days, people always patterns of nature. The book is a beautiful amalgamation of ancient had enough to eat, without ever having to work for it….” (Casey, 22) wisdom and modern environmentalism. The book has some unique But one woman Osato squandered the Sky's generous gifts, driving characteristics that make it special. Prior to each folktale there is a our former ally to flee high beyond our reach. brief history of where the story originated from and how it has “I gave you all you needed, its voice floated down to Osato, “but still sustained its popularity. The stories are also interspersed with you took more. I cannot stand such greed. I must leave. I will not environmentally friendly crafts and activities, such as how to make a return.” corn doll. The themes of the folktales are identified as nature- human “But how will we live?” wept Osato. “What will we eat?” interaction, negative attitudes towards the environment, pollution, natural life and elements of nature. There was silence. The folktale “Sun Mother” from Aboriginal Australia describes how Osato's tears fell to the Earth. And the Earth spoke. “Dry your tears,” the Sun Mother created each part of the Earth including grass, trees, it said gently. “I can feed you. But you will have to work for your Folktales: Exploring the Past to Recreate the Present ... 195 196 Sarita Chanwaria living. You will have to learn to plow fields and sow seeds and birds spread their wings and flew off.” The compassion shown by the harvest crops. And remember what you have learned today. Take young boy gives the environmental message very subtly and only what you need. And I will give it gladly.” (Casey, 26) beautifully and when the young man who rescues them was in Casey writes in the introduction to the tale that “the story is hundreds trouble these little winged creatures came for his help “Do not cry,” of years old, yet it offers a timely reminder to consume less and said the birds. “You saved us. Now let us help you. We cannot return conserve more.”(Casey, 20) As Gandhi said “The Earth can provide the gold you spent. But we can help you with your dream for a for every man's need but not for every man's greed.” Casey further garden.” The close affinity between the world of nature and human writes that without meaning to, we often take more than we need. beings and the negative attitude towards nature is related in the story. About one fourth of the food we buy ends up being thrown in the A Balinese folktale “Grumpy Gecko” tells how all of nature is trash. Production, transportation and storage use a lot of energy, connected so that even the flashing fireflies that are keeping the little water and packaging, which is all wasted if the food is thrown away lizard Gecko awake at night are part of a chain that nurtures his uneaten and this edible waste, gives off harmful greenhouse gases existence. This story describes that all living things in nature are that contribute to climate change and pollution. interconnected and important in cycle of nature. “Exactly,” said the The Native American story “She Who is alone” narrates the story of Tiger “Gecko, everything in this world is connected. Go and live in an orphan child's sacrifice of her only treasure that brings needed peace with the fireflies.”(Casey, 46) rain to her tribe and earns her a new name and the respect of her “Amrita's Tree” is based on a true story from India, in which a young people. She said, “O Great Spirits, here is my warrior doll. It is the girl's courage saved the trees that sustained the life of her village. only thing I have from my family who died in this famine. It is my Respect for trees, and for what they contribute to human life, is the most valued possession. Please accept it.” The Great Spirits accepts underlying theme of this story. In long-ago India; there lived a girl her gift, end the draught and as a sign of forgiveness filled the land who loved the trees. “When she found her favourite tree, she threw with beautiful flowers and it begins to rain. her arms around it. “Tree,” she cried, “you are so tall and your leaves Folktale “The Magic Garden” from Kazakhistan shows how are so green! How could we live without you?” For Amrita knew the compassion and sharing bring rich blessings to humans and the importance of trees, as she said “…they shade us from the hot desert natural world. In folk tales birds of the air usually play the role of the sun. They guard us from the terrible sandstorms. They show us spiritual world that makes life more manageable for the people. In where to find water to drink,” and when Maharaja's men came to the this tale a young man saved the birds and they in return helped the village to cut down the trees she begged “Please, leave my tree, chop young man when he was in trouble. “I have here the most rare birds me instead.” (Casey, 77) and she hugged the tree with all her in the kingdom…The Khan will decorate his palace with their bright strength. But at the end of the story in Casey's version the Maharaja feathers. He and His court will feast on their sweet meat. Some of also understands the importance of trees and forests in the lives of these birds are the last of their kind. Only the Khan is rich enough to the people and says “You have shown great courage and wisdom to possess such birds!”(Casey, 67) shows the cruel and insensitive protect your trees. From this day on your trees will not be cut…,” attitude of the human beings towards the 'Other' little living In the original legend, Amrita Devi and several hundred villagers creatures. “But the young man buys the birds and gave all the gold to gave up their lives while protecting their forest, nearly three the camel driver, and then he began to untie the birds. One by one the centuries ago. This tale inspired the people of India to start the Folktales: Exploring the Past to Recreate the Present ... 197 198 Sarita Chanwaria Chipko (“Hug the Tree”) Movement, whose members support minds of the children and during this period, children learn mostly nonviolent resistance to the cutting of trees. In recent times the through games, stories and folktales. Chipko movement has inspired people to explore the significance of Thus, folktale is a very effective tool and method in the teaching of environmental folktales in the western countries. This folklore has environmental education and a more engaging method because it been translated into various languages and prescribed for school promotes reflective thinking and teaches while entertaining. children in many countries. Folktales are a serious and illuminating exploration of life and Finally the Welsh tale, “Stink Water,” shows how creative thinking history. Telling them is narrating life, is celebrating cultural values. among neighbours can give birth to solutions that benefit all. Thus, Folktales also act as a reminder to listeners that people of ages gone opening the door for parents and children of all ages to find their by were aware of how to survive in their environment and also play a own creative ideas. crucial role of nurturing young children into responsible citizens of This book suggests that the centuries-old practice of 'Living Green' is society. perhaps more relevant today than ever before, and shows how to It is prudent to focus on oral literature as a way of having a sound adapt lifestyles to live in harmony with nature. According to Nanson understanding of people and rich cultural heritage. We must value in aboriginal cultures, story tellers were “tradition bearers” who literature and storytelling, as, story itself is fundamental to what it reminded people how to live in a sustainable relationship with the means to be human, it is the vehicle through which we learn to natural world: understand ourselves and others, to appreciate the ways in which we “Theological crisis demands of us a creative reconciliation of things are different, and to see life from other perspectives than our own. In that have become disconnected and positioned in opposition to each this age of mass and instant communication, we must protect other: between humankind and nature, between the inner world of literature and share it with our children and with all future myth, spirituality and imagination and the outer world of science, generations of children. Once the children learn about their past they politics and empirical reality. The potential of ecological storytelling can then be able to speculate their future direction in life. This amply to bridge the divide between science and the imagination is reflected demonstrates that folktales are serious literature that guide the in the careers of its practitioners” (Nanson, 59-60). younger generation. Human beings are destroying the nature most and trying to conquer it Mothers can play an important role as they are the first teachers of and be its master. The effects of this attitude are negative in general their children, they must take the initiative of telling the stories about as nature has always proved to be stronger than man. It has often nature and environment in order to create eco awareness among the shown its power by controlling manpower through natural children. It will be highly beneficial because if children are calamities. In recent years, on the other hand, deteriorating balance encouraged to explore nature from the beginning, they will not face of the nature has led to increasing sensitivity towards environment the extreme experiences. Folktales intertwined with ecological issues and it is clearly understood that environmental awareness is of great can render the most valuable service to the humanity in that context. importance for sustainable development. Environmental education is Thus we can maintain a dialogue with the past while retaining a a process that should start at preschool period. “As a twig is bent so correct pulse of the present and a perspective of the future through the tree will grow,” in formative years it is easier to mould the tender speculative thought and images embodied in folktales. Folktales: Exploring the Past to Recreate the Present ... 199 Journal of Rajasthan Association for Studies in English11: 200-201 (2015) Folktales as a tool for environmental education offers a platform to anonymous women and men who weave tales to reweave the world, with a hope to recreate an alternative future characterized by Book Review interconnectedness and holistic approach of life. A Daughter's Graphic Tribute to her Mother Works Cited Casey, Dawn, and Anne Wilson.The Barefoot Book of Earth Tales . G.K. Sukhwal Cambridge: Barefoot Books, 2009. Print. Nanson, Anthony. Storytelling and Ecology: Reconnecting people and Life narratives are important literary creations. They exhibit the Nature through Oral Narrative. Pontypridd: U of Glamorgan P, 2005. signature of the writer as well as the stamp of the person portrayed. Print. More often than not, they are very personal accounts penned down Platt, Kamala. “Environmental Justice in Children's Literature: Depicting, with certain degree of passion. The writer not only knows the person Defending and Celebrating Trees and Birds, Colors and People.” Wild portrayed but is also in some way related to the object of portrayal. Things: Children's Culture and Ecocriticism. Wayne State U P, 2004. Thus, in no case life narratives claim any objectivity. Rather, they are Print. known for their innate familiarity of content and style. Shiva, Vandana. Staying Alive: Women, Ecology and Development. South The bookMy Mother has been written by Dr. Anita Luniya Kothari, End Press, 2010. Print. Lecturer in English, College Education, Rajasthan. It is a biography Shiva, Vandana.Stolen Harvest: The Hijacking of the Global Food Supply . very beautifully written and dedicated to Sh. Fateh Singh Ji Luniya, Cambridge: South End P, 2000. Print. Late father of the author. The book has been published by Kumar and Company, Ajmer, Rajasthan on 22nd May, 2014. A loving tribute to a mother on her 81st birthday, the book has been a great effort to gather past memories and thoughts. Beginning with the historical facts of the family members the author gives us detailed information of the bringing up of the mother. The marriage and family life of the mother, birth of three children, their marriages, birth of grand children etc. have been very beautifully portrayed. Joining service at India Jute Mills, Jagatdal, by the father of the author and living in an Anglo - Indian environment completely changed the life of the mother and in turn of the author too. A very hard worker, not shirking her duties, disciplined about time management, playing with the children, encouraging them for studies as well as hobbies was her way of living. After doing her chores of the house hold, mother used to spend her time reading books, enjoying long walks, tending the garden, tennis parties, badminton launch parties, watching movies at cinema halls, and various other activities. Her passion for cricket was legendry. A Daughter's Graphic Tribute to her Mother 201 Journal of Rajasthan Association for Studies in English11: 202 (2015) Illness did strike mother and she underwent several surgeries for various diseases. She has displayed abominable courage and inner Book Review –Black Womanhood: Analyzing strength. After passing away of the author's father in 1994 the mother the Discrimination Double felt very lonely and waited long for time to heal. The following lines from the poem written by the author at this juncture express her H. S. Chandalia grief: Fiction has been used as a tool of portraying reality. In many ways it has also That forgetting, even for a minute, been a vehicle of protest. The twentieth century saw the emergence of a number Would be akin to betrayal. of protest movements across the world. The fall of the British Empire and the end of the colonial era brought to the fore numerous postcolonial voices which The mother has since then renounced a few things and turned were reflected in the works of the writers who belonged to the erstwhile spiritual. Following Lord Krishna and Buddhist practices, she turned colonies. Among the many voices the Black American novelists were very vocal religious. She takes care of all the family members moving from one in expressing the trauma of suppression. They had to suffer not just the pain of colonial rule but also excesses of racial discrimination. The women writers place to another. She donates, likes to read religious books, has portrayed the plight of double discrimination suffered by them. Among the most spiritual inclinations and takes deep interest in chanting. vocal of these is Toni Morrison. Dr. Tarana Parveen's bookBlack Womanhood is an analysis of gender and racial discrimination as reflected in the novels of Toni She still has the large-heartedness to adjust to all circumstances. Self Morrison. sufficient nature makes her to cause least trouble to those around her. Toni Morrison, an African American novelist, wrote a number of novels depicting When the author too underwent surgery recently she was a nurse par the trauma of Black women in American society. Though she herself does not excellence. like to be addressed as a feminist, in her novels she has depicted vividly the plight of those Black women who became victims of racialism and sexism not The book is full of beautiful and attractive photographs which only at the hands of colonial forces but also at the hands of men of their own provide us a very clear picture of persons and places. There is a map community. Toni Morrison was awarded the Nobel Prize for literature in 1993. at the end which gives us an idea of the Central Provinces and Berar, Dr.Tarana Parveen, Sr. Lecturer in English, Govt. Meera Girls' College is an avid reader and a serious researcher. She has chosen four novels of Toni India 1903. A complete family tree too is provided at the end which Morrison namelyThe Bluest Eye, Beloved, Sula and Love for this study. The gives us an idea of the complete family at a glance. The book study presents her thematic analysis of the novels in the light of feminist and engrosses us from the very beginning and captures our attention till post- colonial theoretical framework. The importance of this study cannot be the end. The mother has shaped the life of the author in every aspect. undermined. Today, in most universities in India African – American writing is a major area of teaching and research. The global order is also changing and The impact of the mother on the life of the author can be easily felt. women today stand not at the fringe but compete in all possible ways with their The language of the book is informal and is drawn from the author's male counterparts. The study undertakes to analyze the novels chosen from thematic perspective. very normal routine life. There is little effort to embellish and bring There are stylistic, morphological and structural perspectives as well which in flowery expressions. The diction is appropriate to the theme and have also been explored in the study. Dr. Parveen has taken pains to review the the flow is lucid. The author appears to be narrating the tale of her work of Toni Morrison in the light of current scholarship available on her writings. mother like a grandmother's tale and the reader is enthused with the This work is also valuable because it gives an insight into the personality of a curiosity of knowing “ what next”. writer who dedicated her life for the up lift of the marginalized Black women folk of America. The study can also be useful for analyzing the relationship A slim volume, the book has the quality to absorb the reader's between the Dalit and Non-Dalit sections of Indian society. I am sure this work attention till he reaches the last page, often in one sitting. will draw the attention of the critics and scholars of Black American literature and will help them understand the personality and works of Toni Morrison. 204 Our Contributors ● Hema Paliwal, Scholar, JRN Rajasthan Vidyapeeth University, Udaipur OCUR ONTRIBUTORS ● Prof. Mukta Sharma, Professor and Head, Department of English, JRN Rajasthan Vidyapeeth University, Udaipur. ● Devendra Rankawat, Assistant Professor, Central University of ● Dr. Rekha Tiwari, Lecturer and HOD Guru Nanak Girls' PG College, Rajasthan, Kishangarh. Udaipur ● Dr. Naresh Kumar Vats, Associate Professor, GGS Indraprasth ● Shaifali Arora, Research Scholar, Department of English, Central University, New Delhi. University of Haryana, Mahendragarh ● Dr. Govind Saraswat, Asst. Prof., Dept. of English, Sona Devi Sethia ● Dr. Sonika Gurjar, Lecturer, G.N.P.G. College , Udaipur (Raj) PG Girls' College, Sujangarh. [email protected] ● Dr. Dalbir Singh Yadav, Assistant Professor of English, Govt. Girls ● Dr. Karan Singh, Associate Professor, P.G. Dept. of English, Govt. College, Rewari, [email protected] College Mahendergarh (Haryana), [email protected], Cell: 09728036361 ● Dr Sonu Shiva, Lecturer in English, Govt. Dungar College Bikaner, [email protected] ● Dr. Mehzbeen Sadriwala, Assistant Prof., M.V.S. College, J.R.N.R.V. University, Udaipur. ● Jamil Usta, Lecturer in English, Govt. Dungar College, Bikaner. [email protected] ● Dr. Pankaj Vyas, Assistant Prof., S.S. College of Engineering, Udaipur. ● Sunita Sadh, Junior Research Fellow, Jai Narain Vyas University, ● Dr RashmiRajpal Singh, Government PG College, Bhopalgarh Jodhpur ● Dr. Mukta Sharma, HOD, Department of English, M.V.S. College, ● Mr. Tunge Lollen, Assistant Professor in English DPG College, Kamki Udaipur Arunachal Pradesh; Mob: 09436687583, [email protected] ● Rekha Tiwari, Lecturer & Head, Dept. of English, Guru Nanak Girls ● Ms. Taw Azu, Assistant Professor in English, D.N Govt. College P.G. College, Udaipur (Raj.) Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh. [email protected] ● Dr. Satish Kumar Harit, Associate Professor, Dept. of English, J. N. ● Urmila Purohit, Scholar, Janardan Rai Nagar Rajasthan Vidyapeeth Vyas University, Jodhpur University, Udaipur ● Dr. Vibha Bhoot, Assistant Prof., Dept. of English, JNV University, ● Dr. Hitendra Goyal, Assistant Professor, Deptt of English, JNV Jodhpur, [email protected] University, Jodhpur, [email protected], Mob.: +919461069113 ● Dr. Anant Dadhich, Lecturer in English, MLV Government PG ● Dr. Sarita Chanwaria, Lecturer in English, S.P.C. Government College, Bhilwara, [email protected] College, Ajmer ● Dr. Manoj Kumar, Asst. Professor, Amity University, Rajasthan ● Rukhsana Saifee, Assistant Professor, Chartered Institute of ● Dr. Prakash Joshi, Department of English & Other European Technology, ABUROAD (Raj.) 307026, Mob.: 09887464748 Languages, Dr. Harisingh Gour Central University, Sagar-470003 ● Dr. G.K. Sukhwal, Lecturer, S.M.B. Govt. P.G. College, Nathdwara, (India) [email protected] ● Haraprasad Ray, Research Scholar, Department of English, Jai Narain Vyas University, Jodhpur (Raj)