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Encouragez Les Framabooks ! Encouragez les Framabooks ! You can use Unglue.it to help to thank the creators for making Histoires et cultures du Libre. Des logiciels partagés aux licences échangées free. The amount is up to you. Click here to thank the creators Sous la direction de : Camille Paloque-Berges, Christophe Masutti Histoires et cultures du Libre Des logiciels partagés aux licences échangées II Framasoft a été créé en novembre 2001 par Alexis Kauffmann. En janvier 2004 une asso- ciation éponyme a vu le jour pour soutenir le développement du réseau. Pour plus d’infor- mation sur Framasoft, consulter http://www.framasoft.org. Se démarquant de l’édition classique, les Framabooks sont dits « livres libres » parce qu’ils sont placés sous une licence qui permet au lecteur de disposer des mêmes libertés qu’un utilisateur de logiciels libres. Les Framabooks s’inscrivent dans cette culture des biens communs qui, à l’instar de Wikipédia, favorise la création, le partage, la diffusion et l’ap- propriation collective de la connaissance. Le projet Framabook est coordonné par Christophe Masutti. Pour plus d’information, consultez http://framabook.org. Copyright 2013 : Camille Paloque-Berges, Christophe Masutti, Framasoft (coll. Framabook) Histoires et cultures du Libre. Des logiciels partagés aux licences échangées est placé sous licence Creative Commons -By (3.0). Édité avec le concours de l’INRIA et Inno3. ISBN : 978-2-9539187-9-3 Prix : 25 euros Dépôt légal : mai 2013, Framasoft (impr. lulu.com, Raleigh, USA) Pingouins : LL de Mars, Licence Art Libre Couverture : création par Nadège Dauvergne, Licence CC-By Mise en page avec LATEX Cette œuvre est mise à disposition selon les termes de la Licence Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 France. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/fr Préface Hervé LE CROSNIER Aborder un sujet par la perspective historique est toujours une source de clarification. L’histoire offre un éclairage qui prend en compte la di- mension temporelle et l’environnement social, économique et culturel. Ce livre en est une preuve supplémentaire, et il faut remercier Camille Paloque-Berges et Christophe Masutti d’en avoir pris l’initiative et d’avoir réuni ici toutes ces contributions. L’informatique est récente, une soixan- taine d’années. Les changements et l’impact sur le monde sont pour au- tant majeurs. Du calculateur électronique à la machine à communiquer mondiale d’aujourd’hui, c’est non seulement un chemin technique, mais également l’irruption d’une nouvelle structure sociale mondiale qui est en jeu. Les informaticiens ont changé de statut dans le cours de ces an- nées. De serviteurs de la machine, ils deviennent les réalisateurs d’idées et de concepts destinés à changer le monde. Les utopies numériques qui ont fleuri tout au long de ce parcours se transforment en pratiques so- ciales. Plus de deux milliards d’humains communiquent en instantané dans toutes les langues. La moitié d’entre eux gèrent leur sociabilité sur un même réseau privé. Ces deux facettes portent en elles à la fois la magie qu’a introduit le numérique dans la vie quotidienne, ce sentiment d’appar- tenir à un monde commun ; et les dangers de nouvelles monopolisations, de pouvoirs disproportionnés et de traçage des activités privées. V VI Hervé LE CROSNIER C’est dans ce monde ambivalent, qu’ils ont contribué à construire, que les informaticiens ont du faire des choix au-delà de leur technique de spé- cialité. Des choix philosophiques, guidés par leur conception du monde, mais également par le plaisir collectif qu’ils peuvent prendre à parta- ger leur code, leur savoir-faire, leurs intuitions techniques. Affirmons-le d’emblée, les informaticiens prennent du plaisir à coder. Pour beaucoup, et peut-être pour les historiens des techniques qui liront ce livre, cela re- lève d’un autre monde. Les caricatures médiatiques du no-life, isolé der- rière son écran, ne collent pas avec le type de relations qui ont pu se tisser dans les groupes de geeks. Car le plaisir de la programmation et des usages pionniers de l’Internet ont incité à la création d’un groupe culturel qui se forge ses propres référents, fait émerger ses héros, installe ses sociabilités, ses marques de respect. La culture hacker a favorisé la diffusion des idées proprement révolutionnaires du logiciel libre. Car, comme toute culture, elle se base avant tout sur l’échange, sur la capacité à partager ses centres d’intérêt, à créer des cercles informels. À commencer par le partage du code informatique. Le logiciel est né libre. Dans les années cinquante et soixante, le marché de l’informatique ne concernait que le matériel et le service. Le logiciel était simplement le moyen de faire fonctionner ou de donner une utilité à ces machines qui pouvaient dévorer les chiffres et rendre calculatoire toutes les autres activités. Au point, comme nous le rappelle l’histoire des jeux vidéos présentée ici par Damien Djaouti, que les jeux eux-mêmes de- venaient pour les constructeurs de matériel des proofs of concept, capables de valider le fonctionnement d’un matériel informatique. La programma- tion permet d’inscrire des idées et des concepts dans la mémoire culturelle des ordinateurs. Au-delà de la conception d’un programme permettant une activité sur un ordinateur donné, le logiciel est un moyen de traiter, sur cet ordinateur particulier, un projet plus général. Le programmeur espère que ses modèles, une fois mis en œuvre sur une machine, seront répliqués sur d’autres ordinateurs, et deviendront des pensées communes. La compa- raison, menée ici par Pascal Robert, entre les idées de J.C.R. Licklider sur la communication et celles de Douglas Englebart sur la convivialité des interfaces est éclairante. Dans le legs de ces deux figures majeures de l’informatique des années soixante, nous trouverons la souris et l’Internet. Préface VII C’est-à-dire les germes du modèle de l’informatique qui est aujourd’hui pleinement partagé et constitue la base culturelle commune. Mais en chemin, les idées que ces ingénieurs et chercheurs diffusaient tous azimuts, sont revenues bardées de brevets, de code propriétaire, ac- compagnées d’une palanquée d’avocats, au point qu’actuellement, Apple et Google dépensent plus en frais juridiques qu’en recherche et dévelop- pement. Le modèle universitaire, qui consiste à rendre disponible le travail pour tout usage, y compris privé, et même éventuellement privateur, était celui des chercheurs pionniers. Il a joué un rôle majeur dans l’extension de l’informatique. Dès 1984, le fait que l’UNIX de Berkeley comprenait en standard une pile TCP/IP a permis aux laboratoires universitaires de tester l’Internet, d’intégrer le réseau dans la recherche. Le fait que les normes de l’Internet aient été élaborées collectivement et publiquement, a permis la diffusion très rapide des concepts et des modèles parmi les ingénieurs. Ce- pendant, le chemin vers l’appropriation privée des travaux universitaires, à l’image de Mac OS X utilisant l’UNIX de Berkeley, mais privatisant les propres apports de Apple, a rompu la chaîne de transmission des savoirs informatiques. Or, dans l’éthique des hackers, la transmission, la capacité à voir et com- prendre les subtilités d’un programme, à décrypter le fonctionnement d’un ordinateur, sont des valeurs principales, comme le rappelle Steven Levy dans son ouvrage qui vient d’être traduit en français [L’éthique des ha- ckers, Globe, 2013], et qui est le plus cité par les auteurs ici. Le hacker a besoin de comprendre, d’apprendre pour améliorer. Cela renvoie à la na- ture proprement incrémentale du logiciel. Une fois l’architecture mise en place, un logiciel doit évoluer en permanence. D’abord pour s’adapter aux changements de l’environnement informatique, aux nouvelles machines, comme aux nouveaux concepts de programmation ou d’interface homme- machine. Ensuite pour répondre aux attentes des utilisateurs. Plusieurs ar- ticles de ce livre insistent sur la place des usagers dans les communautés ou les écosystèmes autour d’un logiciel ou d’un service. L’informaticien travaille sur un modèle du monde, qu’il va faire manipuler par la machine, et sur un modèle de l’utilisateur qui définit l’ergonomie générale et les options possibles. Les modèles ne correspondent jamais au monde réel. Il s’agit toujours de versions simplifiées. Or, l’informatique a ce charme fa- buleux d’être une technique plastique, modulaire et modulable, réversible, VIII Hervé LE CROSNIER adaptable. Le grand jeu n’est jamais fini. Plus les usagers feront remonter d’informations sur leurs besoins, sur les problèmes rencontrés, plus les usages eux-mêmes dévoileront des failles, des erreurs, des bugs, et plus les capacités des groupes de programmeurs à faire évoluer le logiciel se- ront grandes. C’est également ce qui explique que, parmi les millions de logiciels libres disponibles, certains émergent et perdurent grâce à cette symbiose nouvelle entre les développeurs et les utilisateurs. C’est notam- ment le cas des logiciels libres d’infrastructure, depuis le gestionnaire de nom de domaine BIND qui est au cœur de l’Internet, jusqu’aux serveurs web, notamment Apache, les bases de données PostgreSQL et MySQL (et maintenant les bases noSQL), et bien évidemment les systèmes d’exploi- tation, comme GNU/Linux et ses différentes distributions. Les usagers qui vont constituer les communautés d’appui ne sont pas directement le grand public, mais les autres informaticiens qui utilisent ces outils pour produire des services au public. La garantie que cette chaîne complète – cet éco- système – va perdurer est au cœur de la question des licences qui, depuis très longtemps, crée un fort débat parmi les tenants du Libre. Le vaste panorama des licences proposé ici par Benjamin Jean nous aide à y voir plus clair.
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