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Negotiating Globalization Introduction “AlbanianshavebeenMuslimsformorethan500yearsandtheydonotneedoutsiders [Arabs]totellthemwhatistheproperwaytopracticeIslam.” RexhepBoja,MuftiofKosova1 ThequoteabovedemonstrateshowKosova’smostseniorSunniMuslimcleric,RexhepBoja, seesthepresenceofArab“non-governmentalorganizations”(NGOs)inKosovatoday.Despite beingthebeneficiaryoftensofthousandsofaiddollars,muchofwhichwenttorebuild buildingsoftheIslamicCommunityofKosovaor bashkesiaislameeKosovës [henceforthBIK] thatBojaruns,Kosova’sMuftiwants“theArabs”out. 2AnditisnotonlytheMuftiwhohas expressedconcern.InperhapsthemostclearcutexampleofhowmanyAlbaniansfeelaboutthe growinginfluenceofSau di-fundedorganizations,thenewsagencyKosovapress,consideredto bethemediaarmoffirstthewartimeKosovarGovernmentandnowofthesecondlargest politicalpartyofKosova,issuedinlateOctober2001thefollowingcommentary: “Formorethanace nturycivilizedcountrieshaveseparatedreligionfromthe state.[However],wenowseeattemptsnotonlyinKosovabuteverywhere Albanianslivetointroducereligionintopublicschools…Supplementalcourses forchildrenhavebeensetupbyforeignIsla micorganizationswhohidebehind assistanceprograms.SomeradiostationsnowoffernightlybroadcastsinArabic, whichnobodyunderstandsandwhichleadmanytoask,areweinanArab 1 country?ItistimeforAlbanianmosquestobeseparatedfromArabconnections andforIslamtobedevelopedonthebasisofAlbaniancultureandcustoms.”3 ThesestatementsmostsuccinctlyhighlightthefearsmanyurbanKosovarAlbanianshave abouttheirIslamiclegacybeing“hijacked”byoutsideforces.Itisnotthefir sttimethat thelocalpopulationhasconfrontedastateorstate -likebodiesthatsoughttodictatethe contentandmethodofpracticewithinKosova’sIslamiccommunity.Intermsof institutionalambitionsandevenoperationalmethods,thereisnotthatmuchwhichdiffers withwhattheSaudiJointCommitteefortheReliefofKosovaandChechnya(SJCRKC) wishestoaccomplishtodayfromhowBelgradeinthepostWorldWarIIperiodandthe GreatPowersintheperiodof1878-1912soughttopoliticallysubjugat eKosovausing Islam.Tellingly,however,thesocio -culturalconditionsunderwhichSaudifunded organizationsoperatetodayarepotentiallyfardifferentthanthosewithwhicheitherthe OttomanEmpireortheYugoslavstatehadtodeal.Thisdifferenceis bestunderstoodin termsoftheextenttowhichKosovarAlbanianshavealternativesourcesofspiritual sustenance,somethingwhichtheSaudiaidagenciesunderscrutinytodayarefarmore successfulinlimitingthantheirtotalitariancounterpartsinthepast. Culturalandpoliticalvarietyandtherighttofreelyadoptsocialpracticesother thantheonedictatedbythestatehashistoricallybeenessentialtoanyfreesociety.Much ofthearmedconflicttakingplaceinKosovasincethenineteenthcentu ryhasbeento assureoutsiderscouldnoteradicatethespiritualdiversityfoundintheregion.Itisallthe moretragicthattodayinKosova,afterabloodywarthatmostAlbaniansthoughtended Yugoslavtyrannyandculturalchauvinism,muchofthesame ambitionsoftheprevious 2 regimehasbeenresurrectedbyaninternationalcommunitykeenondivertingKosovar Albanianenergiesawayfromformulatingcertainpoliticaldemands. 4Similarly,and perhapsmoredangerousforthelong-term,thedistributionof“humanitarianaid”has beentiedtoanarrowsetofsocialstandardswhichtheinternationalcommunityclearly wishestoimposeonKosova’spopulation.ThisismostclearinthecaseofruralKosovar societyandhowithasbecomedependentonSaudi“charit ies”foritsbasicneeds. AsSaudi-funded“NGOs”operatingwithintheSJCRKCrunorphanagesand primaryschoolsthatclaimtoaddresstheseriousshortageofeducationandbasicsocial servicesinruralKosova,asortofclosedcommunityisbeingcreated inthesevillages. Sincemostoftheadultmalesoftheseregionshavebeenmurderedduringthe1998-1999 war,thechildrenandtheirfemalebenefactorsareleftwithlittleoptionsinthe countryside.Impoverished,muchoftheirhomesdestroyed,andthe utterlackofastate presencehasmadethesecommunitiesthemostvulnerabletotheSJCRKCanditslong- termstrategy.ThispaperpresentsthisrelationshiptheSJCRKChasdevelopedinrural Kosovaasoneofthefundamentalbuildingblocksforaninstitutional,materialand existentialhegemonythathadbeenelusivetoearlierregimes.Itissuggestedthatbecause ofanumberofmisrepresentationsWesternpowershaveofKosova’sIslamicheritageand institutionalchauvinismonthepartoftheinternational community,Kosova’srural populationmayinthenearfuturebecometheexclusivedomainofIslamic Fundamentalistgroupsthathaveemergedinsimilarlydevastatedandculturallyisolated regionsintheFormerSovietUnionandtheAfghanrefugeecampsloca tedinPakistan. ThethreatbeginswiththekindofexclusivepowerNGOorganizationshavebeen abletodevelopforthemselvessincetheemergenceoforganized“humanitarianism” 3 developedinthepostWorldWarIIperiod.Thekindofexclusivitythat“charitable” institutionscandevelopinsidecertainsocialsettingsisaphenomenonthatoperatesin muchthesameassertivewaysthatmarketingagenciesseektolocateandsecure customersfortheirproductsandservices.Thekindofhegemonydiscussedhere, however,issomethingfarmorecomplexthanthecommercial“globalization”thatresults inchildrenwearingNikeshoes,smokingliketheMarlboroCowboysoradopting mannerismsdepictedinHollywoodmovies.WhatisimportantaboutthecaseinKosova (andtheslumsoftheMiddleEast,CentralAsiaandeveninsideEurope)isthatthe perpetratorsofculturalhegemonydonotnecessarilycomefrom“theWest,”norarethe resultssoclearlyidentifiableintermssociologistshavenormallyusedwhenstudyingthe issue. JohnEspositoalmosttwentyyearsagourgedhisreaderstonotdissociatethe abilityof“traditional”societiessuchasthatfoundinSaudiArabiatoproselytizeusing theverytoolsofmodernityassumedtobetheexclusivetoolofWesterncapit alist societies. 5Perhapsreflectingthisassumption,theinternationalcommunity,dominatedby EuropeandtheUnitedStates,hasdeferredthecareofcommunitieslikethosefoundin ruralKosova,AfghanistanandIraqtoSaudi-basedcharitableorganizations.Whatis behindthisgestureisanassumptionthatMuslimsareuniformlylinkedthroughtheSaudi stateandwouldprefertobedependenton“fellowMuslim”charityorthattheSaudis knowwhatisbest.Forsomereason,Westernpolicymakersandbureaucra tsinthe internationalaidagenciesdonotseeanyharmintheunderlyingdesirebythesecharitable groupstosolidify“Islamic”traditionsinthesecommunitieswhiletheydistributefood, medicineandbasiceducation.Atleastthisiswhatonehearswhenquestioningthose 4 responsibleforoverseeingthedistributionofassistanceinKosova.Isuspectamore fundamentalrationalemaybebehindthisaswell:Westernaidagenciesandthosewho operatethemsimplydonotwanttoliveandworkinruralKosova. ThattheSJCRKCis notonlywillingtosendoutvolunteerstoworkamongtheregion’smostpoorestpeople insomeofthemostdifficultconditionsANDarewillingtopayfortheseoperations withoutanycontributionfromWesternagenciesexplainsagreat dealabouthowitisthat manypartsofKosovaaretodayunderthreat.Inotherwords,oilrichSaudiArabiahas beengiventhegreenlighttoactivelyengageinitsformofculturalmonopolizationthat, despiteprevailingassumptionsaboutMuslimprimitiveness,isreminiscentofcorporate behemothsthathavetraditionallybeenassociatedwiththephenomenonofglobalization orChristianevangelicalmissionariesactivelyseekingtoconverttheinfidels. 6 WhereIwoulddiffersomewhatfromJohnEspositoan dotherswhohavestudied theimpactoftechnologyandthemonopolyofsomecomponentsofthesehegemonic forcesintheoil -richGulfStates,istheimportanceoftherecipient.ForCoca -Cola,Bill GatesortheSaudistate,thereisstillthedifficultquestionofactuallyreachingatarget populationandassuringthemessage,productorwayoflifeisuniformlyadoptedwithout challengesfromothersources.Hereliesthecausalmechanicsofglobalizationthat assurestheprocessiscontingentandtherefore enablingforlocalactorstoultimatelyhelp shapethesuccessorfailureofsuchprograms.ThroughoutKosova’shistory,asIwill demonstratebelow,therehavebeenavarietyofoptionsavailableforthepopulationto activelybalancestateorextra -stat einstitutionsthatsoughttomonopolizetheculturalor politicallifeinKosova.ItisforthisreasonthattheSaudistrategyinKosovaisso revealing.Insteadofoperatinginurbanareaswheretherestillremainsagreatdealof 5 alternativestoSaudi assistance,theyhavesoughtwaystoeliminatethiscontingent dynamicbyseekingoutsegmentsofthepopulationthatarerelativelyisolatedfromthe world.Likeanybusinessseekingtomaximizetheirprofitsbyeliminatingthe competition,theculturalhegemonysoughtbyfaith -basedorganizationsliketheSJCRKC isbesteffectedinruralKosovawheretheinternationalcommunityhasdemonstrated littleornodesiretogo.WhileinstitutionalneglectonthepartoftheEuropean -dominated institutionswhose staffpreferredtoworkinKosova’scapitalcityisasignificantreason forruralKosova’sisolationtoday,thelevelofpovertythatplaguestheregionstemsfrom theconsequencesofYugoslavadministrationandtwoyearsofwar. Recognizingthis,accordingtotheSJCRKC’sownwebsite,theorganizationspent fourmillionSaudiRiyalstosponsor388religious"propagators"(i.e.,missionaries)to travelthroughoutKosovaintheimmediatepostwarperiod.7Theirtaskwastofind communities“mostaffectedbythewarandinneedofSJCRKC’sassistance.”Inreality, theworkofthesescoutswastoidentifythemostvulnerablecommunitiesandstakean exclusiveclaimtothem.ThisneededtobedonequicklyasinternationalNGOswere floodingtheregionimmedia telyaftertheendofthewar,manyofthemfaith -basedwho wereequallyeagertoproselytizeinruralKosova.InviewofthefactthatKosovabecame bymandateoftheUnitedNationsSecurityCouncilaprotectorateofthatbody,itisall themoreremarkab lethattheSJCRKCwasabletosecuremorethan200villagesand townsas“itsexclusive”zoneofoperation.Inotherwords,thevillagesnowbeing“cared for”bytheSJCRKChaverarelybeenvisitedbyotherinternationalNGOs. Ostensibly,theSaudishav ebeenabletocreateawebof“captured”and dependentrecipientswhoinreturnforthefood,shelterandmoneygiventothem,areto 6 undergoalong-termprogramofindoctrination.Today,theSJCRKCeducates,feeds,
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