Ananda Bhattacharyya

Oral Sources for Writing the History of the Sannyasi and Rebellion (1763-1800) Words and Silences. Vol. 6, No. 2 December 2012 Pp. 4-11

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wordsandsilences.org ISSN 1405-6410 Online ISSN 2222-4181 ORAL SOURCES FOR WRITING THE HISTORY OF THE SANNYASI AND FAQIR REBELLION (1763-1800)

Ananda Bhattacharyya State Archives, Kolkata [email protected]

In an earlier publication1 I have discussed various their origin, as it will be evident from my later aspects of the Sannyasi and Faqir Rebellion which discussion. The Sannyasis used to visit different took place in the second half of the eighteenth-cen- parts of Bengal either in connection with reli- tury Bengal. These were based on mainly the gious pilgrimage, or for the purchase of mer- archival sources2 available in different repositories chandise and to transact money lending. Simul- in India and abroad, collectorate records, govern- taneously, some of them rendered their services ment publications, district gazetteers and other sec- as mercenary groups to the local powers. Their ondary sources, as well as Bengali, Marathi and wonderful organisation and the wide communi- Persian sources. The oral sources were incorpo- ties were adopted in the Sannyasi order. Rajputs rated in that paper only to the extent in which these were also recruited even during the period of re- supplemented the written ones. The large amount bellion. Even the Sannyasis engaged in civil, of oral sources I collected during my research on military and economic activities used to recruit this theme, hence this paper, however, demanded a chelas (disciples) from among the Rajputs. It is full-fledged paper based on these sources. also reasonable range of their activities, includ- ing their subsequent armed conflicts with the The Sannyasis belonged to the Saivaite Dasanami British , could only be sustained by recruit- order and the faqirs were a group of heterodox Sufi ment of followers on a large scale. Sometimes orders commonly known as Madariya group of Su- they were also deployed for the purpose of trade, fis. The Dasanamis and the Madaris, though they or for the maintenance of their organisational did not traditionally belong to Bengal, had a linger- strength and security. The recruited followers ing tradition of existence in various parts of this consisted of heterogeneous elements. The new province. Apart from Bengal they had been living recruits were mainly drawn from outside Bengal. in different parts of , , Ra- Besides Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Sudras and the jasthan, Punjab and the South India since the day of poorer classes of different communities were re- cruited in order to understand the rituals, cus- 1 Ananda Bhattacharyya “Reconsidering Sannyasi toms religious practices and also other activities Rebellion”Social Scientist, Vol. 40, Nos. 3-4 March-April of various kinds of Sannyasis. As the followers New Delhi, 2012 pp. 81-100. See also, Sannyasi O Fakir Bidroho: Itihaser Punarbibechona “(in Bengali), Gangchil, of the Siva and Goddess Bhawani, they followed Kolkata, 2010. Hindu traditions in their religious observance. 2 The National Archives of India, New Delhi; West The Dasanami Sannyasis generally wore either Bengal State Archives, Kolkata; Allahabad Regional Ar- orange coloured clothes or the kaupina with a chives, Allahabad; U.P. State Archives, Lucknow and short piece of ochre-coloured cloth and garland Bangladesh National Archives, Dhaka.

3 of rudraksha. They rubbed ash on their body, used coloured flag, popularly known as “Bhairo to take bhang (intoxicated hemp) and wore iron Prakash” and “Surya Prakash”. chains round their neck. They carried an ochre- Though the Sannyasis admitted the fact that they Similarly the customs and rituals observed by were not merely ascetics but performed pilgrimage the Madari group of Faqirs were significant that in addition to their normal activities viz.mercenary, they did not observe the rituals, neither engaged money-lending and trade. Their annual cycle of pil- in prayers nor did they obey have any strict ad- grimage started with attending the Kumbha mela at herence to all the faiths, observances, daily Allahabad, Hardwar, Ujjain or Trimbak. In March, prayers, the Meccan pilgrimages, rather publicly they attended a mela at Janakpur in Nepal and then flouted those practices, drank wine. They did not moved to Bengal to finally take a holy bath at settle themselves in any fixed place and used to Sagar Island. Then they would either return to up- extort contributions from the local powers and per India via Bihar or move south-west to puri to common people as charity. In course of their re- offer their devotion to Lord Jagannath. It appeared ligious pilgrimage they used to collect contribu- from the discussion with the Mahants of Niranjani tions, if necessary, by force. Thus collection of akhra that that the Sannyasis used to compete with contribution, in one hand, and their procession each other particularly during their bathing cere- with large armed followers, on the other, created mony at Kumbha mela. The Sannyasis’ centres of a suspicion to the newly formed East India Com- pilgrimage and maths also could be viewed as pany that they were considered by the Com- branches of a far-flung commercial and banking pany’s Government as an enemy to the Govern- network which facilitated transmission of money ment. and goods. The geographical location of Benares In order to arrive at a clear understanding about also helped it to serve as a link in the commerce the ethnic roots of the Dasanamis and the with Bengal. The Sannyasi merchants of Benares Madaris, their social and cultural activities and who also held a large estate in Mymensingh had a their relations with the local powers vis-à-vis the trading connection with Malda. Thus it emerged Indian powers I visited different places, both in from their activities that the pre-colonial Indian Bengal and outside, where the descendants of powers neither imposed any restrictions on their them had been living for a long time. A lot of activities nor declared such activities as illegal. But information in the form of oral testimony was the Company’s government looked upon their ac- thus collected through the personal interviews tivities including their religious pilgrimage with with these people who have been incorporated distrust and suspicion in such a way that a conflict with the official documents and hagiographic lit- became inevitable which spanned nearly the whole erature. of the second half of the eighteenth century. The conflict between the Sannyasis and the Company The north and eastern regions of Bengal were was inevitable, because the state had undergone a the major strongholds of the rebel Sannyasis and radical change in the latter half of the eighteenth the faqirs. In north Bengal, particularly in Dina- century and the existence of social groups like the jpur, Rangpur (presently in Bangladesh), Malda Sannyasis and Faqirs and their erstwhile roles was and Cooch Behar and in eastern Bengal like a major stumbling block for establishing the kind Dacca, Rajshahi and Chittagong (Bangladesh) of “order” envisaged by the Company. This state- were the centres of operations of both the San- ment implies two-fold task, viz.to analyse the role nyasis and the faqirs. With the financial assis- of the Sannyasis in the pre-colonial social policy, tance of Indian Council of Historical Research and then to proceed to the task of constructing the (ICHR) and Indian Council of Social Science ground on which the conflicts with the Company Research (ICSSR), I visited those places which was based. were largely associated with the said rebellion

4 and was able to gather information which is unique traders may be corroborated with the oral inter- in nature.3 views taken in 1998 from one Saivaite Dasanami Malda4 living in Gosaintuli, adjacent to English Bazar locality of Malda. The name Gosaintuli clearly The archival sources of the West Bengal State Ar- indicates that this area was highly dominated chives, Kolkata and the National Archives, New and influenced by the Gossains; the place was Delhi, throw enough light on the operational activi- named after them. The present Mahant (Head of ties of the Sannyasis in the Malda area.5 It is learnt the Math or monastery) Manohar Giri, then aged that the Malda was a centre of their trade but not about ninety years, frankly discussed the ances- for money lending operations.6 Their trading capac- try of the Gossains (gossains are familiar in ities in those areas may be corroborated with the , and they maintained family life) Duncan Proceedings7 and it appears that the San- and their present-day activities. There is a differ- nyasis used to purchase silk and cocoons from the ence between the nagas and gossains. Nagas had aurangs (silk factories) from Malda and used to sell to maintain celibacy and their activities were that merchandise in Benares, Mirzapur and Alla- akhra based, whereas, the gossains could marry habad.8 The role of the Sannyasis of Malda as and lived in maths and also in their respective residences .Manohar Giri belonged to the Giri 3 The interviews taken by the present researcher with the suborder of the Dasanami Sannyasis and, ac- pirzadas of the darghas of Shah Madar at Mackwanpur in cording to him, his ancestors came from Kanpur district, khadims of the situated in Baliya- Benares. He also claimed that his ancestors dighi, Dinajpur and of Shah Neckmard in West Di- najpur (now in Bangladesh) and also the Mahants of the Pratap Giri, Rudra Giri and Nanda Giri, resided various Dasanami akharas situated in Allahabad and Be- in Makhdumpur (South of Malda) and Banshbari nares. The interviews had been conducted in 1998 with (North-West of Malda) and held a large tract of the financial assistance of ICHR and ICSSR, New Delhi, land and were wealthy. Pratap Giri died in 1909 for which I am grateful to them. while Rudra Giri died in 1940. They were celi- 4 This survey was conducted in 1998 with the local resident Sri Sudhir Kumar Chakraborty. He published a lot of bo- bates, as celibacy is a part of the Dasanami (ten oks on the history of Malda. names,viz.Giri, Puri, Bharati, Saraswati, Ban, 5 Allahabad Regional Archives, Allahabad (hereafter Aranya, Parbat, Tirtha, Ashram and Sagar) cul- ARA),Correspondence and Proceedings of the Resident at ture. According to Manohar Giri, his brother Benares (hereafter CPRB) Report of the Resident: Corres- Subhanarayan Giri, then aged eighty-five, was pondence and Proceedings of the Resident at Benares 19 May 1791, pp. 119-129; A. Shakespeare ed. Selections also a prominent Gossain of that area. The Gos- from the Duncan Records, vol. 2, Benares 1873, pp. 16- sains were then very proud of their ancestors 17; Petition of Mahanth Man Giri, Subal Giri and others: who played a dominant role in the Sannyasi re- Judicial (Criminal) Proceedings 14 September 1794, No. bellion against the colonial rule. The sannyasis 13. were very expert in the art of warfare as it is re- 6 Petition of Sadananda Bandyopadhyay, a silk broker: Bo- ard of Trade (Commercial) 13 March 1789, No. 27; Co- vealed both from the official documents as well llector, Government Customs House to Jonathan Duncan, as oral testimony. Their home was used as Resident, and Benares dated 31 January 1791: Correspon- akhara (lit. gymnasium) where they were trained dence and Proceedings of the Resident at Benares dated 7 and drilled in the use of arms, particularly in February 1791 pp. 86-89. swordsmanship, archery, use of matchlocks and 7 Duncan Proceedings: Representation of Gyan Giri: Co- rrespondence and Proceedings of the Resident at Benares shields. Some of the specimens of the arms and 9 September 1791, pp. 71-75; Proceedings of the Mirza- ammunitions could be seen in the residence of pur Adawlat dated 24 May 1788: correspondence and Pro- Manohar Giri and Subhonararayan Giri. Accord- ceedings of the Resident at Benares 9 September 1791 pp. ing to them, these arms were used by their an- 71-75. 8 William Harwood, to the Committee of Circuit: Commit- can, Resident Benares dated 31 January 1791: Corres- tee of Circuit, Rajmahal, 16 February 1773, pp. 182-183; pondence and Proceedings and Resident at Benares 7 Collector, Government Customs House to Jonathan Dun- February 1791, pp. 86-89.

5 cestors in the said rebellion. They also used to wor- utilized as an important source material for re- ship these arms and ammunitions regularly and construction of history, particularly in the con- continued to pay homage to their ancestors for their text of sannyasis and faqirs involvement in the rebellious characteristics. This information is not military activities of the eighteenth-century Ben- available either in the archival sources or in any gal. government publication. These materials may be Besides akharas, maths (monastery) also these Saivabihars are still found in various parts served as the residence of the Dasanamis who of Gosaintuli, in Malda. Some Saiva temples are traced their descent from Sankaracharya, the great also in existence where Saivite priests are ap- reformer of the tenth century. Math was also a cen- pointed for day-to-day worship. The gossains tre from where they could transact money lending were so dominant in that region that they con- and trading activities. There were four maths viz. trolled large estate. My discussion with them re- Sringeri, Joshi, Sarada and Gobardhan found in vealed that their ancestors also took active part four parts of India. He had established the Saivabi- in the Swadeshi movement of 1905. Sudhir Ku- hars (monastery of the Saiva ascetics,) for fighting mar Chakraborty, a local resident of that area, with the Buddhist tantriks (theosophists). The who had wide contacts with the Dasanamis san- Dasanamis inherited this practice and established nyasis of those regions, helped me in making Saivabihars. Manohar Giri stated that in Malda the contacts with the Dasanamis of Malda. He said Dasnamis established many Saivabihars by de- that there was another prominent Gossain whose stroying the Buddhist centres of residence and us- name was Hansa Giri and a locality, known as ing them for the maintenance of their day-to-day Hansa Giri Road, has been named after him. religious activities and other affairs. The ruins of Dinajpur Urs (death anniversary of the Pirs) of the Dinajpur was a major stronghold of the faqirs dargah .During the seventeenth-century, the fa- (wandering Muslim ascetics). Baliyadighi and mous Madariya faqir, Hasan Muria Burhana, Neckmardan (now in Bangladesh) in Dinajpur dis- resided in Baliyadighi and in 1659 had obtained trict were the centres of activities of the Madariya a sanad (charter) from Shah Shuja, the Mughal faqirs since the Mughal period. This information governor of Bengal. The original sanad is avail- may be found in the official correspondence of East able in Court and its copy has been appended by Maulavi Abdul Wali in India Company, district gazetteers and secondary 10 sources.9 I had the occasion to meet some of the 1903. It appears from the sanad that Hasan faqirs of Baliyadighi and Neckmardan during my Muria Burhana, the representative of the visit to those places in the 1990s. The local resi- Madariya order was permitted to collect contri- dents of that area are very much aware of the butions from the local people during their reli- Madariya group of faqirs and their activities. The gious pilgrimage and to go on processions with dargahs (tomb of the Sufi saint) and Mazars or arms and banners. It is thus proved from that Qabr (graveyard) of the Madari faqirs still exist, a sanad that the Madari order gained Mughal pa- fact confirmed by a local resident named Kalimud- tronage. din, who was appointed as khadim (caretaker of the My interviews also revealed that in Baliyadighi dargah) for lighting the mazar and maintenance of there were tombs of six Madari faqirs viz., Za- mat Ali Shah Burhana, Roshan Ali Shah 9 J.L. Sherwill, A Geographical and Statistical Report of the Burhana (lit. naked, nude), Abdul Hamid Shah Dinagepore District, Calcutta, 1865, p. 28; W.K. Firmin- ger ed. Bengal District Records, Dinajpur 1786-1788, (Letters Issued), Vol. 2, Calcutta, 1924, p. 160; J.C. Sen- 10 Maulavi Abdul Wali, ‘Note on the Faquirs of Balia- gupta, West Bengal District Gazetteer, Dinajpur, Calcutta, dighi in Dinajpur’ Journal of the Asiatic Society Ben- 1973, p. 162. gal, No. 2, Calcutta, 1903.

6 Burhana, Murshed Ali Shah Burhana, Farhad Ali served the urs but also collected contributions Shah Burhana and Hasan Muria Burhana. They from the visitors on the pretext that this fair was were the successive pirs (Sufi religious supremo) held in the memory of their Pir Neckmard. The of Hasan Muria Burhana. It was learnt from the in- officials were very appre- terviews with the local residents that Abdul Hamid hensive about the contributions levied by the Shah Burhana died in 1349 BS. His descendants Madari faqirs as it created panic among the vil- have migrated to Bangladesh after 1971. The lagers, some of whom fled and migrated to other present khadim of that dargah also informed that an villages.12 This explains why the East India urs was observed every year on the seventh Company government imposed various restric- Baisakh (Bengal month). He also mentioned that tions about the Madariya faqirs’ attendance in these faqirs carry some insignia such as mahi-o- that fair.13 maratib (fish standard), kashkol, kisti (wallet made Murshidabad of coconut) and danka (drum), which form the cul- tural characteristics of every Madariya faqirs. Non- Besides Dinajpur, Murshidabad was also a observance of Sharia (the Islamic scriptures) is also stronghold of the Madaris. The proceedings of a trend of every Madari faqirs who are sometimes Controlling Council of Revenue at Murshidabad also referred to as Be-Shara (non observance of Is- frequently refer to the Madaris’ attendance in lamic scriptures) faqirs. Abdul Hamid Shah that region since the period of Bengal famine of Burhana, the last descendant of the Madariya 1769-70.14 Even Majnu Shah’s letter to Rani faqirs, had seven hundred bighas (one bigha equal Bhavani is also recorded in the Controlling to 2025 yards) of rent-free land which was given Council of Revenue at Murshidabad.15 This letter for the maintenance of his religious worship and shows that the Madari Faquirs got special pa- daily means of subsistence. Bisrail, an adjacent vil- tronage and favour from the Mughal Govern- lage of Baliyadighi, was also controlled by the ment. But how and where the Madaris estab- Madari faqirs where an urs is observed on the fifth lished their influence is still obscure. A detailed and sixth of Baisakh in the memory of panch pir interview with Syed Mustafa Siraj, a renowned (five pirs). Bengali author, threw some light about the exis- tence of some Madari khanqahs (Sufi hospice) in Neckmardan, which is now in Bangladesh, was Kaliachak, near Gaur; Nemua and Berul under situated under the police station of Rani Sankal. the Police Station Bamungola in the village The place is named after the pir Neckmardan, Karaipur, formerly known as Amriti, and Ya- whose original name was Shaikh Nasiruddin Neck- tradanga. In Murshidabad dargahs were also es- mard. The interview taken by the present re- tablished in places, such as, Karnasubarna, Char- searcher with the present khadims of that dargah alpara, Lagachhalpara, Madartola, Hariharpara, revealed that the urs was observed regularly till Dilalpur and Kanchanpur. Thus Murshidabad ap- 1970 on the first Baisakh every year and a mela (fair) continued for a week. Nearly one lakh (hun- 12 Broughton Rous to Alexander dated 25 January 1772: dred thousand) people used to attend the fair and Controlling Council of Revenue at Murshidabad 27 Ja- nuary 1772. five hundred wells were dug for the use of the visi- 13 Ananda Bhattacharyya, “Insurgency and Counter- tors. Archival documents frequently refer about the Insurgency of Sannyasi and Fakir Rebellion”Journal of attendance of the rebel faqirs like Majnu Shah, Indian History, Vol.85.1-3 (2006) pp. 105-22. Musa Shah, Chiragh Ali and other in the fair of 14 Rous to Alexander dated 28 January 1772: Controlling Neckmardan every year.11 These faqirs not only ob- Council of Revenue at Murshidabad 3 February 1772; John Grose to the Chief of the Council of Revenue at 11 Governor General to the Collector, Dinajpur, dated nil, Murshidabad dated 28 February 1771: Charles Purling Revenue Department, Governor General in Council 29 Ja- to James Alexander: Controlling Council of Revenue at nuary 1782, No. 2; William Wilkinson, Magistrate, Dinaj- Murshidabad, 3 February 1772, p. 117. pur to the Governor General, 12 December 1794: Judicial 15 Letter of Majnu Shah to Rani Bhavani: Controlling Proceedings (Criminal) 19 December 1794, No. 11. Council of Revenue at Murshidabad 27 January 1772.

7 perars to have received a large degree of Madariya as Madarer Than (the place of Madar) on a high- influence. Syed Mustafa Siraj was of the opinion land on the west bank of the Karatoya in north that Hindus also took part in the religious festivals Bhagopara village (about one furlong southeast of the Madariya community in that region. Even to the Maynamoti Mantrir Dhap), and the dar- the discussion with the elderly persons of Mur- gahs at Chingaspur village in Nanuja union close shidabad corroborate the reflections of official doc- to the western rampart of and in uments in the way that even the Sannyasis used to Sherpur, all in the district of Bagura. come and assemble there for the purchase of Mur- Uttar Pradesh: Benares shidabad silk and from there they would import it to Nagpur and different parts of North India, espe- As has already been said, the sannyasis and cially Benares. The lingering tradition of existence Madaris did not belong to Bengal but had come of the Sannyasis and Faqirs in Murshidabad led the here from various parts of India, particularly rural people to compose different types of songs in north-west India. Uttar Pradesh was an impor- praise of Madari pir.Some folk songs were com- tant centre of the sannyasis and the faqirs. I had posed on the basis of Hindu mythological themes, the occasion to interview the Mahant of the particularly Radha-Krishna (Baishnav deities). akharas of the Dasanami Nagas and the Pirzadas These songs were popularly known as Madarer (descendant of pir) of the dargah of Shah Madar. Gaan (songs in the praise of Shah Madar, the In this context, my detailed interview with the founder of Madari silsila or lineage). Recently, Mahants of akharas situated in Benares, Alla- Bangla Academy of Dhaka has compiled a collec- habad and pirzadas of the dargah of Shah Madar tion of folk songs on the basis of Madari pirs and at Mackawanpur may be mentioned. The their rituals.16 Dasanamis were divided into gossains and nagas (naked sannyasis). The gossains used to live in Bagura math whereas the nagas used to live in akhara. Bagura, in eastern Bengal (now Bangladesh) was The akharas were Niranjani, Juna, Mahanirvani, also a centre of activities of the Madaris and the Atal, Avahan and Agni. The Mahants and the Sannyasis during the period of the rebellion. disciples of Juna and Atal akhara were very mili- Archival documents frequently refer to the assem- tant. Sir Jadunath has shown how the Atal blies of the sannyasis and faqirs at Mahasthangarh akhara produced so many fighting mendicants on the banks of river Karatoya.17 In this region the who were expert in the art of warfare.19 In East India Company’s official James Rennell was Benares, the Niranjani akhara is situated at heavily wounded at the hands of the sannyasis.18 Sivala Ghat, Avahan akhara at Dasashwamedh There are some mounds, (ruins) popularly known Ghat, Agni akhara at Rajghat while Niranjani, Juna and Mahanirvani akharas are situated on the banks of river Varuna near Sivala Ghat and 16 Muhammad Saidur Rahman, Lokosahitya Sankalan (in Hanuman Ghat. Anand akhara situated at Bengali), Dhaka, 1995, Vol .45, pp. 129-133; Ashraf Sid- diqui, Lokosahitya Sankalan (in Bengali), Vol. II, Dhaka, Kapildhara at Varanasi is presently under the ju- 1977; Wakil Ahmad, Banglar Lokosanskriti (in Bengali) risdiction of Niranjani akhara, Atal is under the Dhaka 1974, pp. 304-306. For details see Ananda Bhatta- control of Mahanirvani whereas Avahan is under charyya ”Madariya Silsila in the Perspective of Folk-Cul- Juna. According to the Mahant of these akharas, ture of 18th and 19th Century Bengal”, Annals of the Nirajani, Juna and Mahanirvani were the oldest Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Vol.87, (2006) pp. 241-258. akharas and had been established almost at the 17 To Warren Hastings, Committee of Circuit, Dinajpur, 2 Ja- same time. The Niranjani akhara, however, pos- nuary 1773, pp. 59-60; Charles Purling to the President dated 29, 30 and 31 December 1772: Home (Public) 11 19 Jadunath Sarkar, A History of the Dasanami Naga January 1773, No. 20. Sannyasis, (Allahabad, n.d.). Pp. 89-90. The fact may 18 W.K. Firminger ‘Two Letters of James Renell’ Journal of be corroborated with the akhra literature found in Alla- the Asiatic Society of Bengal, No. 2, 1913. habad

8 sessed enormous wealth and prosperity, compared Sundar Giri. They had close links with the Ni- to others. It was learnt from the oral discussions ranjani and Juna akharas situated at Hardwar, with them that one Digambar Prasad Giri, who was which was controlled by Mahant Jogender Giri attached to the Niranjani akhara, owned twenty and Narayan Puri. In Hardwar, Mahant Sankar thousand bighas of land in Varanasi. They had also Bharati and Bhagirathi Giri also wielded a con- established a market there from which they used to siderable influence over the akhara. It is note- collect monthly rent. They used to offer hospitality, worthy that the Niranjani akhara has established food and shelter to their brethren particularly dur- its branches in London, USA, Sri Lanka as well ing their pilgrimage which continued for more than as in some Islamic country like Pakistan. Even seven days. They were of the opinion that their an- today they recruit Brahmins, Kshatriyas, cestors were permitted to keep revolvers, guns and Vaishyas and Sudras in order to continue their offensive weapons for the safety of their treasure. traditional existence. Generally, the Mahant is This tradition is continued even today. They have the supreme head of the akharas and is appointed even inherited the militant and fighting outlook of for six years. Presently, the office of the Mahant their ancestors. They were so infatuated with their has been redesignated as ‘Secretary’. The Secre- arms that they brought out some weapons which, tary performs his duties with the help of an as- according to them, were used during the period of sembly popularly known as panchayat. It con- insurgency against the colonial rule in the second sists of no less than eleven members, who take half of the eighteenth-century Bengal. Two types of decisions on disputes, particularly for determin- flags, namely black and gerua (ochre) are flown on ing the legal heirs and successors of the Mahant. the roof of the akhara. This corroborates the opin- All members of the Akhra must consent to the ion of Sir Jadunath regarding the Sannyasis’ way of decisions made by the assembly. They (the life.20 Their tradition of leading celibate life is also Members of the akhra) admitted that this tradi- corroborated by the account of Arthur Steale21 and tion was established during the time of great re- M.A. Sherring.22 The Mahants admitted that former Sankaracharya and is followed even to- celibacy is the primary concern for the akhara life, day. and a married person cannot stay in the akhara. Allahabad These akharas also provided shelter to the wander- ing mendicants. The Sannyasis residing in the Juna This survey was conducted on 11 December akhara also wear rudraksha and coral beads. The 1998 along and with Uday Sankar Dubey and Juna akhara has branches in Gujarat, Nasik and Kasi Prasad Tripathi of Allahabad Sahitya Hardwar. They claimed that they had no political Sammelan. Besides Benares, Allahabad was also involvement. Their habit of consuming bhang a major stronghold of the Dasanami Nagas. My (hemp), ganja (opium) and liquor, as mentioned in discussion with the Mahants of the Dasanami the Mohsin Fani’s account is noticeable still.23 akharas at Daraganj in Allahabad also suggested that the old records pertaining to their akhara The Dasanami Sannyasis of Niranjani akhara of might be available at Hardwar. In Hardwar the Benares admitted that in order to keep their body akhara is situated at Mayapuri, Kankhal whose fit they perform physical training. The present Ma- Mahant was Brij Kisen Puri. They have enor- hants of Niranjani akhara were Hardeo Puri and mous wealth and rent-free land, and they con- trolled the adjacent area of that locality. They 20 Sarkar,n.d. Pp. 91. 21 Arthur Steale, The Law and Custom of Hindu Castes, have even established some shops and markets (London, 1866), pp. 321-324. from where they collect rent. 22 M. A. Sherring, The Tribes and Castes as represented in Benares, (Calcutta, 1876), pp. 49-52. On 11 December 1998, along with Uday 23 Muhammad Mahsin Fani, The Dabistan or School of Sankar Dubey and Kasi Prasad Tripathi, another Manners (tr.) David Shea and A.Troyer, London, 1901, interview was conducted with the Mahants of pp. 223-224.

9 Mahanirvani akhara, also situated in Daraganj, Al- (wearing loin cloth) as I witnessed among the lahabad. From outside, the akhara looks like a fort. nagas of Avahan akhra situated at Dasassamedh According to the Mahants it had an existence of ghat in Benares. Though outwardly the akhara over 300 years. According to the local tradition, the appeared very small, it had an underground akhara came into existence during the Mughal pe- structure which is generally used as their ar- riod. The architectural pattern of the akhara build- moury. They admitted that even today they were ing indicates the influence of the Mughal architec- engaged in trade, particularly in jewellery, which ture and sculpture. There are nearly three to four was their old profession. The available akhara hundred rooms along with a large courtyard where literature also throws light on the past history as the disciples were taking physical training in the well as their present-day activities of the sannya- use of arms. From the discussion with Omkar Puri, sis.24 the then Mahant, it was learnt (from the Mahant) Mackwanpur that this akhara was a rent-free land up to 1947. They have also a panchayat or a Board of Trustees So far as the Madaris are concerned, their for taking decisions on several issues. The Mahants headquarters were at Mackwanpur in Kanpur of the Mahanirvani akhara also asserted that their district of Uttar Pradesh. It was nearly forty ancestors used to render services to the various In- miles away from Kanpur and adjacent to the rail- dian powers as hired soldiers. They also remem- way stations Araul and Billore. The earlier name bered the celebrated gossain brothers, Himmat Giri of Mackwanpur was Khairabad and the name and Umarao Giri of the early eighteenth-century. Mackwanpur derived from Macknadeo, a Hindu Their photographs were hanging on the walls of the disciple of Syed Badiuddin, Qutb ul-Madar, the akhara and they used to pay their homage to these founder of this order. The present researcher had celebrated gossains for their warlike activities. It an occasion to meet the sajjada-nashins (descen- was revealed from the interviews that they used to dants of Syed Badiuddin, alias Shah Madar) in attend religious fairs at Ganga Sagar and Kumbha 1998. This survey was conducted by Syed mela on the fixed days and remained in contact Aftabuddin Abbasi, another Madari residing at with the other maths and akharas situated in vari- Satgachhia, South 24 Parganas. In this context it ous parts of India and abroad. According to the rule may be mentioned that the Madaris are divided of the Dasanam [or Dasanami?] assembly and all into four group’s viz., Khadiman (caretaker of members, particularly those who resided in the the dargah), Ashiqan (lovers), Taliban (seeker of akhara, maintained celibacy. The married Sannya- truth and knowledge) and Diwangan (wandering sis were generally not permitted to live in the akha- Dervish, in divine madness). The dargah at ras. The Mahant of that akhara also informed that Mackwanpur was under the jurisdiction of their election for a new panchayat takes place every Khadiman as they were the direct descendants of six months. Syed Badiuddin alias Shah Madar. The interview with the pirzadas threw light on some significant The Avahan akhara situated at Dasashwamedh aspects of the Madari silsila which are essential Ghat, Varanasi, was controlled by the Mahants for understanding the origin and evolution of the Brahma Puri and Badri Puri. At that moment, these said order. So many tazkirat (biographes of the two key persons had gone outside for collection of Sufi saints) have been published by them.25 The rent from the lands (forty to forty-five thousand bighas) which were given to different shopkeepers 24 Akhra Literature is found in different Akhras. on a contractual basis. I was surprised to see a mili- 25 Syed Khidmatul Madar Nazam Jafar Jahur, Harim Me tant Naga sannyasi standing in front of the Avahan Samdhiyat (in ) Rampur, n.d; Details of such Taz- kirats have been mentioned in Ananda Bhattacharyya, akhara whose physical features resembled the rebel Madari Silsila, (in Bengali). See also Ananda Bhatta- sannyasis of the eighteenth-century Bengal. That charyya, Understanding Madari Silsila, Journal of The Naga Sannyasis residing in akhra was kaupindhari Muslim Minority Affairs,Vol. 32, No.3, September 2012, pp.384-399

10 details of the day-to-day activities of the Khadi- Shah, Musa Shah, Chiragh Ali and others. Their man, the basic features of their annual urs which habit of speaking in ambiguous and figurative generally takes place on every 17 Jamadi I of the language was also followed by Bulbul Shah. He Hijri calendar, various courts of the dargah viz., clearly admitted that the Pir and the dargah were Sankar Durbar, Pakur Durbar, Langarkhana, Ja- more important to him than the external rituals matkhana and Dhamalkhana were also learnt of Islam which constitute the basic characteristic through my personal interviews. The detailed ac- of every Madariya faqir. Bulbul Shah kept long count of these courts is not found in any published matted hair. The keeping of long matted hair has book. How the Madariya faqirs perform their an- also been recorded by Buchanan-Hamilton, who nual rituals in the urs by fire-lighting ceremony has seen some Madariya faqirs in the early nine- (Dhamalkudna) was also learnt from them. In their teenth century in Rangpur, Dinajpur, Bihar, Bha- annual urs the four groups of the Madaris sit in the galpur and Purnea.26 There is no difference be- enclosure attached to the dargah. The significant tween the Madariya faqirs of the early nine- aspect of the urs was the preparation of cakes, teenth-century and Bulbul Shah. Even the life- sweets and simi. It was also learnt from their dis- style followed by the rebel faqirs is also evident cussions that a gigantic deg (cooking vessel) is kept in the present day. in Mackwanpur for preparation of khichri for the It is commonly known that the Madaris owned pilgrims. Two kettle-drums namely, Dal-Badal and enormous portion of land. Due to the non-avail- Karakbijli, are kept there, which according to them, ability of documents, it is difficult to describe were donated by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan and with precision, the exact nature of lands held by the Prince of Gwalior respectively on two different the faqirs outside Bengal. The present author’s occasions. The discussion with the pirzadas re- interviews with the pirzadas attached to the dar- vealed that the Mughal Emperors Shah Jahan and gah of Shah Madar at Mackwanpur, however, Aurangzeb were great patrons of Shah Madar and throw some light on their land holding in Naini- that a large portion of the dargah and mosques was tal, Badayun, Barielly, Etawah and other places renovated during their reigns. The Mughal mon- of Uttar Pradesh, as well as in Parbat Sawar in archs even sanctioned large tracts of rent- free land Jaipur and also in Nepal. for their daily means of subsistence, for construc- tion of dargahs of the successors of Shah Madar, Thus, it may be concluded that the oral sources for digging up wells and also for holing urs. It was appear to be an important source material for un- learnt that there were five thousand wells in and derstanding the ethnic roots, activities and their around Mackwanpur though most of these are to- ways of life. Even their rebellious activity day unusable. So far as the Diwangan are con- against the British Raj is also understood from cerned, the present researcher had an occasion to their oral testimonials. The lacunae found in the meet Bulbul Shah, a Diwangan faqir at Mackwan- archival sources and government publications pur during that time. The Diwangan faqirs are pop- may be supplemented with oral evidences and ularly known as Madariya faqirs. The Madariya interviews taken on different occasions for un- faqirs are known to have fought against the British derstanding the actual history of the Dasanami East India Company during the second half of the Sannyasis and Madari faqirs and their relations eighteenth-century Bengal. The physical appear- with the East India Company. ance of the Madariya faqirs, such as keeping of matted hair (jatā) wearing of rudraksha and corals, carrying of insignias like mahi-o-maratib, panjtan (five holy personages, namely Prophet Muham- mad, Hazrat Ali, Imam Hussain, Imam Hasan and 26 Francis Buchanan Hamilton, An Account of the District of Bhagalpur in 1810-11 Patna 1939, pp. 79- Fatima), kashkol and kisti clearly resembles the 81; An Account of the District of Sahabad in 1812- physical attributes of the rebel faqirs like Majnu 1813, Patna, 1934, pp. 52-53, 78, 131, 140.

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