Book Reviews
String theory—causing a disturbance of cosmic proportions
by the requirement that intelligent life be possible. The first viewpoint explains life as having emerged by chance as the fortunate by-product of the laws of physics, mathematics and probability. The second viewpoint has been termed the anthropic principle Mary Beth De Repentigny (AP) (p. 7). Until recently, the AP has been loathed by most evolutionary n this recently published book, scientists because of its religious ILeonard Susskind, professor implications or because, to them, it in theoretical physics at Stanford represents a surrender of the noble University, picks up where one’s quest for ‘rational’ answers. In fact, physics education may have left off. Susskind asserts that physicists had He gets the reader up to speed on the hoped that ST would be an alternative superior power, the hostage begins to latest understanding of particle physics to the AP (this should be a lesson to sympathize with his captors in order to and quantum field theory, but without those like Hugh Ross who want to maximize his probability of survival. 1 the equations. claim ST is predicted by the Bible ). It seems that Leonard Susskind has In fact, the author promises likewise been forced to embrace the early in the book that he will not Forced to accept the anthropic AP enemy because of its undeniable use equations in his explanations— principle explanatory strength and for his own survival as an objective scientist. and he keeps his promise. He does But ST has failed to explain all make fine use, however, of Feynman the properties of nature in a unique Do not mistakenly assume, diagrams. Susskind also gives way. In other words, it has failed however, that Susskind now believes engaging explanations on topics to be the much-sought-after ‘theory in the benevolent creator that the AP including particle physics, the Higgs of everything’—and indeed even apparently points to. No, indeed, to field, the geometry of space, and the Stephen Hawking has finally realized him the AP’s religious sound is muted Holographic Principle in black hole that finding a theory of everything by a combination of inflationary complementarity, just to name a few. is a logical impossibility thanks to cosmology and the Landscape of Susskind’s forté as a communicator Gödel’s incompleteness proof.2 If ST. He coined the term landscape in is his colourful analogies, which he ST is found to be wrong, Susskind 2003 to denote a mathematical space employs often in an enlightening says, ‘… we would be left with no representing all the possible vacuums and humorous way. He even waxes other rational explanation for the (by a ‘vacuum’ physicists mean an philosophical as he discusses the illusion of a designed universe’ (p. environment with a particular set of concepts of beauty and elegance in the 355). Theoretical physicists have thus physical laws, elementary particles, laws that describe nature. found themselves in the embarrassing and constants of nature) that String Dr Susskind’s stated subject of position of having fallen into the Theory allows (p. 20). As Susskind the book, however, is why the Laws of ‘waiting arms of the enemy’ (p. 14), says in the following quote from his Physics are, not what they are (p. 22). namely those who espouse the AP. introduction, explaining the struggle of Widely recognized as the father of Have you ever been forced by your ideas surrounding the AP is the subject string theory (ST), Susskind explains circumstances to begin seeing your of this new book: that a conceptual war is going on enemy as your friend? This type of ‘This book is about the emerging between two factions in science. He phenomenon can happen in a hostage physical paradigm that does make wants his reader to understand the situation. Psychologists call it the use of the Anthropic Principle struggle of ideas between those who Stockholm Syndrome, and explain that but in a way that offers a wholly believe that all the laws of nature can be this is an act of self-preservation which scientific explanation of the determined by mathematical relations comes out of the defense mechanism apparent benevolence of the and those who believe that the laws of of identification. Because the enemy universe. I think of it as the physics are determined, in some way, is not going to go away, due to his physicist’s Darwinism’ (p. 11).
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In fact, Susskind changes the (the ‘horizon problem’). According of last scattering, a time that we can meaning of the AP from being an idea to Alan Guth, inventor of the theory, never see. These quantum wrinkles, that explains apparent design in the the universe grew exponentially to if they existed, would have become universe as evidence of a designer to immense proportions in an extremely imprinted on the surface of last being evidence for the existence of short time before the conventional scattering. Susskind interprets the tiny ST’s fantastically varied landscape big bang is believed to have started. variations of brightness in the cosmic with the mechanism of eternal inflation During this growth period, all the microwave background, mapped out by for creating pocket universes. In inhomogeneities would have gotten the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy other words, Susskind’s version of stretched out (p. 163). Inflation to Probe (WMAP), to be the frozen-in the AP gains evolutionary science’s such a large degree would leave remnants of these pre-historic cosmic acceptance by attempting to replace the the universe with no variations in wrinkles. But he appears unaware of need for a supernatural designer by the the cosmic microwave background the severe methodological problems laws of very large numbers. (CMB). However, Susskind’s ideas with this ‘mapping’ that would never Two ideas are driving many are all moot, because the CMB actually be accepted in any other radiological evolutionary scientists to embrace the doesn’t cast the right shadows to have field.4 AP. First is the supposed success of come from the big bang.3 Thus, Susskind asserts that the inflationary cosmology and second Galaxies, on the other hand, would theory of inflation seems to have strong is the acceptance of a small, but non- need variations of density in order to support from the CMB. The fine- zero cosmological constant. Although have formed. If the density contrasts tuning of the Inflation Theory lies in its biblical creationists reject both of had been too weak, galaxies would having a suitable period for it to have these concepts, physicists recognize that each of these widely embraced not be able to form at all; if they had occurred. Susskind believes that when interpretations requires an been too strong, galaxies would grow our universe began, it conveniently enormous degree of fine-tuning found itself at the ‘lucky spot’ for intelligent life to be possible. (p. 304) of high enough energy Thus they can no longer deny density to inflate at least 1020 that, the universe appears to times. Otherwise, the universe have been specially designed for would not be big enough, smooth man. Such a thought is entirely enough, or have density contrasts unacceptable to Susskind who just right for our existence. He believes the whole point of admits that arbitrarily placing the science is to avoid explanations infant universe at such a fortunate involving a God who created place on the landscape would man with a purpose. In contrast, defeat his goal of explaining a creationist sees the purpose of the world without an intelligent science as being the fulfillment designer. But, as we shall see, of mankind’s Dominion Mandate with his interpretation of ST given by God to subdue and have and its enormous landscape of dominion over all that is in the Photo by NASA/JPL possibilities, finding some parts earth (Genesis 1:28). Most physicists agree, the fact that galaxies full of of space at the lucky spot would First we will look at how astronomical bodies exist demands an extremely finely- be mathematically inevitable. tuned cosmological constant. these two ideas involve a super- Although Dr Susskind seems precision to allow for life on earth to think that astronomical data to be possible, and then we will too rapidly and collapse to black have confirmed the reality of discuss how Susskind’s interpretation holes. Susskind thus believes that it inflation, this is not the case.5 As yet, of ST allows physicists to willingly now appears ‘all but certain’ (p. 166) it remains a mathematical construct, suppress the conspicuous ‘voice’ of the that galaxies are remnants of original designed to rescue the big bang heavens as it unambiguously declares quantum fluctuations which every field theory.6 the glory of God (Psalm 19:1, Romans has. Rapid inflation would stretch out How one interprets the CMB 1:18–32). the old wrinkles, but replace them with data is model-dependent. Gurzadyan new tiny quantum wrinkles which believes that the blotches from the Fine-tuning in Inflation Theory would have accumulated to form the WMAP temperature map are not the Inflation theory attempts to answer minute density contrasts that could result of lumpiness in radiation density the question of how the universe could eventually grow into galaxies. in the early universe. Rather, they are have become so homogenous that Inflation conceivably happened enlarged and smeared images caused by the cosmic microwave background before the first light in the universe the fact that individual photons from an looks the same in every direction appeared, at a time beyond the surface original bundle follow different paths
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from the source to the receiver.7 If this keeps the universe hospitable to the allow evolutionary scientists to deduce interpretation of the minute variations formation of life. a great deal about the history of the in the CMB is correct, inflation theory Physicist Steve Weinberg theorized universe. As always, the interpretation loses the foundation upon which it is the anthropic upper boundary for of these data is model-dependent.9 propped. Or if Robitaille’s analysis the cosmological constant to be Nevertheless, the results, according to is correct, then the maps have no 10–120 in Planck units. He calculated Leonard Susskind, are unambiguous: cosmological significance at all.8,4 that, at the time when galaxies are ‘The expansion of the universe is believed to have been formed, a accelerating under the influence Fine tuning of the cosmological cosmological constant one or two of a cosmological constant, or constant orders of magnitude larger than 10–120 something very much like it. To theoretical physicists like myself, ‘The mother of all physics would have enough repulsive force this is a stunning reversal of problems’ is Leonard Susskind’s to overcome the tendency for gravity fortune that cannot help but change phrase for the problem that comes to cause clumping. Then the slight our entire outlook. For so long when quantum mechanics meets the density contrasts thought to exist in the we were trying to explain why the Theory of Relativity. The result is a early universe would not have become vacuum energy is exactly zero. world in which astronomical bodies, the seeds from which galaxies, stars Well, it seems that it is not zero. as well as elementary particles, would or planets could emerge. Professor The first 119 decimal places of be torn apart by the most destructive Weinberg thus deduced that if the AP the cosmological constant cancel, force imaginable. The only way out, is valid, astronomers would discover but then, in the 120th, incredibly, as Susskind puts it, is for Einstein’s the cosmological constant to be not –120 a nonzero value results. To make famous cosmological constant to be much smaller than 10 , but not zero matters more interesting, its so incredibly fine-tuned that no one (p. 84). In different terms, Weinberg’s value is just about what Weinberg could possibly think it accidental (p. anthropic argument required the predicted it would be based on the 11). According to elementary particle effective gravitational attraction Anthropic Principle’ (p. 154). physics, not only do the vacuum contributed by the vacuum energy Now physicists are faced energies of fermions and bosons not to cancel the repulsive force of the with the apparent fine-tuning of the cancel, but their predicted gravitational cosmological constant with incredible cosmological constant as well as attraction is enormously too large. precision, up to 119 decimal places supposed support from the minute Since a positive cosmological constant leaving a tiny cosmological constant. variations in the cosmic microwave represents a universal repulsive force, Prior calculations of vacuum energy, background that seem to support a adding it into the equation counteracts based on theoretical particle physics finely-tuned Inflation theory. So how the resultant vacuum energy and only, made it 119 orders of magnitude larger than what the cosmologists do they handle interpreting these got. When the empirical data from patently providential appearances? astronomical considerations confirmed string theory to the rescue!
Weinberg’s theoretical prediction, 500 the fallout was nothing less than a String Theory has 10 conceptual earthquake, according to solutions Susskind. This has been said to be the Physicists have lost hope in ST as an most-wrong theoretical calculation alternative to the AP because it does not ever made. pick out a unique set of physical laws The science behind the data comes for elementary particles. On account from studying Type I supernovae. of ST’s lack of defining equations Because of the unique events that lead or principles, Leonard Susskind has up to a Type I supernova explosion, ascribed to it the following slogan: ‘A In order to attain his goal of explaining the scientists believe they always give Landscape of possibilities populated world without an intelligent designer, the off the same amount of light (p. 153). by a megaverse of actualities’ (p. 380). author believes our primordial universe, Astronomers can then tell how far There are several variables that cause faced with a stupendous number of potential away one is by how bright it appears. ST to allow an enormous number of starting points, fortunately found itself at the ‘lucky spot’, a ledge of high energy density. The velocity of the galaxy containing diverse environments, each with its The shallow tilt before the ledge represents the supernova can be determined own set of the Laws of Physics. The the theoretical period of inflation, while the using the Doppler method. Once the only one of these variables we will quick descent beyond the ledge is called galaxy’s velocity and distance are consider here is the universe’s ten- ‘reheating’, a time when the potential energy known, the Hubble constant can be dimensionality that ST predicts. The was converted to heat and particles. Then the universe just happened to roll down to determined. But since very distant math of ST goes wrong because of the our present valley with its tiny anthropic galaxies presumably gave off their light jittery quantum motion of theoretical cosmological constant. in the distant past, Type I supernovae strings unless the number of space
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much flux through any one hole. For universe, beginning with an initial illustration’s sake, we can constrain high energy density, metaphorically the flux integers to vary from 0 to ‘rolled’ to a valley of lower potential 9. Each of these ten possible flux energy where it sits and inflates forever. integers defines a potential vacuum. Just as in the thermal metastability of Each time we consider another hole, super-cooled water, ice crystals can the number of possibilities grows ten randomly nucleate and grow, so in the times larger. Taking five hundred quantum metastability of the inflating holes, we get 10500 configurations, each vacuum, bubbles of new volumes of representing an environment with its space with lower energy densities can own physical laws and vacuum energy. appear and grow. Because the space String theorists believe in generations With that many randomly chosen inside the new bubble also inflates, of bubbles with lower vacuum energy values for the cosmological constant, next-generation bubbles can form. In that rarely but inevitably appear, due no fine-tuning is needed to overcome fact, Susskind hypothesizes that the to quantum fluctuations, in an eternally the incredible improbability of 119 inflating universe. Conveniently for them, population of new bubble-nucleated vanishing decimals because there these hypothetical pocket universes of the 120 vacuums increases exponentially populated landscape are beyond our event will be roughly 1 in 10 possibilities until every point on the landscape is horizon, and would thus be impossible to lying within the tiny ‘window of life’ filled with pocket universes, making disprove. value for the cosmological constant the landscape of possibilities into (p. 291). a megaverse of realities. Just as dimensions is set at nine (plus the one Concerning ST, realize that the Darwinian evolution proposes the time dimension) in which case the wild landscape it predicts is not a real mechanisms of mutation and natural vibrations of different strings precisely place. It is a mathematical construct match, causing no harm. Otherwise, with each point representing a possible selection in its attempt to explain the the strings could violently oscillate to environment. To Susskind, the standard intricacies of life without a designer, so the ends of the universe. This stated model of the currently accepted ST proposes the mechanism of eternal ‘miracle of the strings’ would not work quantum field theory that describes inflation and the resultant populated if some things in the world were made elementary particles in our world is landscape as the only way to explain of point particles while other things merely one point in the landscape of the amazing fine-tunings of nature were made of strings. Everything possibilities (p. 91). without God. would need to be made of strings, or String theory then has 10 500 else a horrible clash would occur. This solutions, but it can explain nothing The author considers is what Susskind means when he says about our universe unless there is objections to string theory that ST is either a theory of everything a mechanism that can make those One good aspect of Leonard or a theory of nothing (p. 226). possible worlds into real worlds. Susskind’s writing style is that he If there are really nine space Some physicists believe in a vacuum confronts several objections to String dimensions to our existence, why do we selection principle that would single out Theory head-on. String Theory is a only perceive three? The answer is that our unique point in the landscape as the very complex mathematical theory string theorists conveniently roll up the only viable one. Susskind suspects this six extra dimensions to microscopically with very many possibilities for vacuum selection principle does not internal inconsistency. According small size by compactification. Motion exist because the mathematics of ST of elementary particles in the resultant to Susskind, all the parts fit together has gone toward greater nonuniqueness as a consequence of mathematical new hidden directions represents (p. 293). different properties of the particles. ‘miracles’ (p. 124). Some of his colleagues’ faith in such miracles is These six-dimensional geometries Eternal inflation theoretically wavering, though. He points out the that ST uses to compactify the extra populates the landscape space dimensions are called Calabi reticence of Tom Banks to get on Yau spaces (p. 237). These Calabi Yau The alternative to the vacuum board the megaverse train. Being spaces are very complicated, having selection principle is the populated an experienced and respected string hundreds of donut holes through which landscape which affirms there is theorist himself, Dr Banks feels that fluxes wind. Just as the flux through a natural mechanism that would the math involved in ST and eternal any surface must always be an integer, have populated a megaverse with inflation may be incomplete and even the flux through the various donut holes all possibilities. This hypothetical wrong. He argues that the Landscape in Calabi Yau space is also an integer mechanism is called eternal inflation. of metastable vacuums thus may be an of some flux unit. Seeing that a very It can be understood as a result of illusion (p. 351). Perhaps not all ST’s large flux would stretch out the Calabi the metastability of the vacuum and have gotten giddy by contemplating an Yau space to dangerous proportions, the principle that space clones itself endless expanse of nucleating bubble one must not theorize putting too (p. 294). The idea is that the original universes.
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One particularly strong objection vehicle for their selfish genes have is to pick out a solution to represent about ST bubbles up when one been excited by evolution (p. 33). And our universe, from the whole zoo of considers that the new universes how do these poor creationist souls solutions allowed by M theory’ (p. 353) created by bubble-nucleation events find themselves so bereft of rational [M theory is a morphed form of String in an eternally inflating universe would objectivity? Susskind explains that it Theory]. Physicists have seen the AP move beyond each other’s cosmic is because they lack the moral fiber to as the enemy because it threatens their event horizons. When objects cross resist succumbing to the human need paradigm that says everything about this boundary predicted by the theory to be comforted, which clouds their nature can be explained by mathematics of General Relativity, we can never judgment. Thus they fall into the alone (p. 187). But the widely accepted have any knowledge of them: ‘Some temptation of clinging to explanations non-zero smallness of the cosmological philosophers would argue that they that include God (p. 355). Pardon constant is, as Susskind puts it, ‘... a are metaphysical constructions that my clouded judgment, but when a cataclysm for physicists, and the only have no more business in a scientific scientist tries in manifest desperation way that we know how to make sense theory than the concepts of heaven, to make God irrelevant by imagining of it is through the reviled and despised hell, and purgatory’ (p. 300). But an incomprehensibly large number of Anthropic Principle’ (p. 22). Susskind Susskind rejects this skeptical view pocket universes in order to suggest is a desperate man—desperate to because it does not allow him to use that infinitesimally probable events are explain away the obvious handiwork the power of explanation that a vast and possible, I question his objectivity. of God in his firmament (Ps. 19:1). diverse megaverse of pocket universes Not only does Dr Susskind But when one’s science involves allows: ‘The existence of other pocket malign creationists’ intelligence and impossibly large numbers, he can universes remains, and will remain, scientific credentials, but he also dream up a theory whose improbability a conjecture, but a conjecture with misrepresents their beliefs. Knowingly becomes inconsequential—a world explanatory power’ (p. 348). To or unknowingly, he mistakenly states in which anything is possible, given put it bluntly, without the populated that creationists believe the world enough time. To the objection that Landscape, he would not be able to get was created 6,000 years ago with he has just substituted one impossible rid of the anthropic fine-tuning of our all geologic formations, isotope problem for another, Susskind answers universe which points to a benevolent abundances and dinosaur bones in place that no longer having to wonder why designer. I think it the height of irony (p. 194). On the contrary, creationists’ the cosmological constant appears to that Susskind accuses creationists of young-earth/global flood models for be so precisely fine-tuned is preferable believing in fairy tales when he himself scientifically explaining rapidly-laid to worrying about the absurdity of a uses scientific semantics to justify his geologic formations, discrepancies in landscape so prodigious that one can faith in a never-neverland of pocket find whatever he is looking for (p. universes. radio-isotope dating and blood found in dinosaur bones fit the evidences 292). and make better predictions than Susskind opens and closes his The author’s objectivity ends book with a quote from Pièrre Simon with Intelligent Design evolutionary models. To imply that creationists believe God just put those de Laplace. When Napoleon asked If Leonard Susskind gives a fair evidences in the record to give false him why his celestial mechanics had treatment of several criticisms of appearances is silly and slanderous. no mention of God, Laplace replied, ST, his balanced objectivity ends Thus Susskind builds up a straw man ‘Your Highness, I have no need of this when he deals with intelligent design, to tear it down with ridicule. hypothesis.’ Susskind works very hard and his opinion even turns into in his book to try to show why physics uninformed bigotry when he refers to Faced with a choice: believe does not need the God hypothesis, creation scientists. To Susskind, the in God or in the populated even in light of the common scientific idea of an intelligent designer is an Landscape of string theory interpretations that undeniably point intellectually unsatisfying myth. He to His design in creation. In so doing, calls intelligent design an illusion that In his book, The Cosmic Landscape, the author vainly imagines that the substitutes rational explanation for Leonard Susskind goes to great length 10500 solutions that ST allows are magic. ‘Creation-science’ fares even explaining that the meaning of the AP he real worlds. To him, our home is one worse in Susskind’s opinion, as he now advocates is not that the apparent of the very rare universes that had facetiously contrasts it with ‘science- design in the universe is evidence of a all the laws of physics conducive to science’, stating that the former is not designer, but that the apparent design the formation of intelligent life by real science (p. 194), but a threatening points to his belief that, with the 10500 evolution. Susskind’s ST is similar and antiscientific idea (p. 84). As for possible vacuums of ST, the existence to Darwinian evolution in that both biblical creationists, Susskind contrasts of our hospitable universe lies within worship at the altar of luck waiting them with thoughtful and intelligent probability, despite its extreme rarity. patiently (for billions and billions of people. Rather, they are religious folk As Stephan Hawking puts it, ‘... the years) for the god of chance to pour whose insecurities about being a mere Anthropic Principle is essential, if one forth its blessings. Romans 1:20–23
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says that when people reject the glory of God manifest in His Creation, A pathetic case for an old their foolish hearts are darkened, and professing themselves to be wise, they become fools. Without realizing earth it, Leonard Susskind has proven this passage of Scripture by espousing the A review of populated landscape interpretation A Biblical Case for an of ST. Old Earth by David Snoke References Baker Books, 1. Faulkner, D., The dubious apologetics of Hugh Grand Rapids, MI Ross, Journal of Creation 13(2):52–60, 1999;
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