Cezar ENACHE CINEMATIC RESOURCES of VISUAL

170 Cezar ENACHE

Cezar ENACHE

CINEMATIC RESOURCES OF VISUAL ANTHROPOLOGY FOR DOCUMENTARY FILMMAKERS

Abstract. This paper looks for the methodo- Visual anthropology is a branch logical resources of visual anthropology that of the cultural anthropology, which can be integrated into cinema production studies photography and film ethnogra- and especially in the documentary film. phical productions as well as (starting The question how to generate believable from the early 90’s), new media. We information about human behavior is tackled by discussing the importance of participative can also use the term of “Ethnographic documentary approaches as means for a film”. Visual anthropology incorporates dialogue between filmmakers and their the anthropological study of visual repre- subjects. sentation, including live performan- ces, museums, art, and mass-media productions. It deals with visual repre- sentations of all cultures, such as sand drawings, tattoos, sculptures and bas- reliefs, wall paintings, ivory statuettes, jewelry, hieroglyphs, paintings or photography. Human vision, its psychology, the properties of the different media, the relation between form and functionality, the evolution of representation in a certain culture, they all belong to visual anthropology. Because anthropology is such a fragmented science, its central domains are the ways visual representation link to the rest of the human EKPHRASIS, 1/2009 Integrating Methodologies culture. in Visual Culture Research pp. 170-178 Cinematic Resources of Visual Anthropology for Documentary Filmmakers 171

Even before anthropology became visual anthropology was defined by the an academic discipline, in 1880, the work of four people, all active in the ethnologists used photography in their second half of the twentieth century: Jean research. A great deal of their work was Rouch, John Marshall, Robert Gardner preserving data so they tried to record the and Tim Asch. We can see the shape of life of societies threatened by extinction ethnographic film by focusing on them”. (as an example the Native American In the US, visual anthropology was Indians pictures of Edward Curtis). for the first time used in an academic History of anthropologic film is environment in 1958, with the founding closely linked by that of the documentary of Films Study Center in Peabody and non-fiction, although ethnology- archaeology and ethnology Museum at fiction can be considered a sub-genre Harvard. John Collier Jr. wrote in 1967 of ethnographic film. One of the earliest the first book in the field, and many ethnographic films was made with visual anthropologists in the 70’s relied Lumière equipment (“The Elephant on semioticians like Roland Barthes for Promenade at Phnom Penh”, in 1901). essential critic perspectives. Robert Flaherty, who’s better known Today the Society for Visual Anthro- by his Eskimo movies (“Nanook of the pology (SVA) represents a sub-section of North”, 1922), became a film producer in the American Anthropology Association. 1913, when his administrator suggested In America, ethnographic films are being he took a camera in an expedition he was presented every year at the Margaret planning up north. Flaherty focused on Mead Film Festival. the Inuit traditional way of life and left Unlike the art historians, interested out any trace of modernity from his movie in the same items and processes, visual (he even refused to use a gun to kill a anthropology places these items in a harpooned walrus; this scene featured cultural context. Particularly archaeo- the movie as a proof of their unaltered logists use phases of visual development culture). This pattern persisted in lots in an attempt to understand the spread of of following movies (Robert Gardner’s the human species and its culture on vast “Dead Birds” for example). areas. By 10,000 BC, boat people used a Toward the 1940’s, scholars like quite sophisticated pictogram system Hortense Powdermaker, Gregory Bateson in writing, navigation as well as art. and Margaret Mead (“Trance and Dance Older visual representation use female in Bali”, 1952), were bringing the bodies, wearing clothing from around perspectives of the anthropology into 28,000 BC, that period corresponding to mass-media and visual representation. weaving invention in Europe. Here’s an Karl G. Heider wrote in the revisited example of the fragmentary character of edition of “Ethnographical Film” (2006): anthropology: a clay figurine representing “after Bateson and Mead, the history of a woman wearing a cloth is not just a 172 Cezar ENACHE piece of art, it is a window towards the shows and films were used to illustrate ways of that time, to a household (where the most important theories of the day. it was found), the material transfer (where Technology development made it clear the clay is coming from), processes (when that visual media could serve to a wider baking clay was used), when weaving palette of intercultural research. Some was invented, what kind of cloth was anthropologists still relied on photos in represented, and what kind of cultural their studies upon communities. Mead exchange happened with other societies and some other colleagues turned to in that time. film in the research and documenting “Visual anthropology is a sub-disci- the traditional patterns of non-verbal pline that has enormous potential to communication, such as body language be active in the world. Rather than and use of the social space. Others used simply producing more anthropology camera to document the extinct worlds for academic audiences, visual anthro- of hunter gatherer tribes far away. The pologists have a unique opportunity to production of ethnographic film really communicate across academic disci- took off in 1960, after the invention of the plines and cultural boundaries. The camera with synchronized sound. Due to effectiveness of the visual as a mode of its maneuverability and combination of social intervention is well established in colors and sound, this equipment opened historical and interdisciplinary contexts. the road to new recording possibilities for In this chapter I have demonstrated the field anthropologists. effectiveness of making anthropologically In 1965, ethnographic film reviews informed visual interventions.”1 becomes usual feature in American Anthropologist magazine. During the 1.1. Anthropological approach next year, the American Anthropologist in documentary film Association featured an ethnographic Producing visual representation in film section in their annual meeting anthropology is as old as the discipline program. Also Wenner - Gren Foundation itself. Even in 1870, ethnography based for anthropological studies sponsored the anthropologists made field photos. From establishment of the first professional 1890 on, they started using filming organization in ethnography visual. cameras too. After filming, they used the Shortly the visual anthropology term images not just as documentaries, but became officially adopted. With more also as a study material in conferences, in than ethnographic film (which became museums or universities. Pictures, slide- an issued category), visual anthropology became a discipline on its own. In 1970, at the Smithsonian Institute, 1 Pink, Sarah – “The Future of Visual Anthro- Mead co-organized a visual ethnography pology,” Taylor & Francis e-Library, New media interdisciplinary meeting with York, USA, 2006, 100. Cinematic Resources of Visual Anthropology for Documentary Filmmakers 173 researchers and practitioners. This group 5) Media for television or other mass started the National Human Studies Film communication forms; Center, with the purpose of preserving 6) Applied media made for the benefit existing data about the disappearing tribal of a community, government or enterprise cultures as a permanent scientific source – from the editor of “Visual Anthropology”, and producing and keeping of scientific Harald E.L. from Prins Kansas State research films. Informative notes turned University, adopted at the 9th International to professional journals and the scarce Anthropology and Ethnographic Studies meetings between anthropologists and Congress, Chicago, 1973.2 film makers became annual conferences. In 1972, the Society of Anthropology Film, sound and video tape are today and Visual Communication (SAVICOM) indispensable scientific resources. was founded. This organization, entirely They held believable information about dedicated to visual anthropology, later human behavior, which can be later became a section of AAA and started analyzed by independent investigators a journal called “Visual Anthropology in the light of new theories. These may Communication Studies”. The next year contain other information than language National Humanity Foundation made and preserve some unique facts of the the first annual visual anthropology way of life. Today is no longer a time conference in Chicago. of change, but a time of uniformity and Visual ethnographic media (film, consequently cultural loss. In order to video, photo and digital multimedia) stop this process and correct the human plays an important role in the application potential poor vision, it is essential that of anthropological knowledge as an active the legacy of mankind to be recorded in part of this science. all its remaining richness and diversity. Anthropologists involved in visual work production bring a valuable contribution The Anthropology and Visual Commu- to this discipline. Just like in printed nication Society proposes: media, film, video and multimedia, a large 1) To initiate at once a global filming amount of the ground material doesn’t get program in order to provide us with published. samples from traditional urban or rural 1) Films and documents added to cultures, with special attention for those ethnographic and/or historic recording, remote unique civilizations threatened by or those further used in language, extinction. choreographic and plastic analysis; 2) Ethnographic media contributing to theory and development debate; 2 Harald, E.L., “Visual Anthropology”, PrinsKansas State University, USA, 1973, 24 3) Innovations in new types of media; June http://societyforvisualanthropology. 4) Media used in teaching purposes; org. 174 Cezar ENACHE

2) To localize, collect, keep and file the using television to present their work to existing films, again with special attention a larger audience. As they adapted to the for extinct cultures. changing environment, the field work 3) To create an international distri- moved closer to home. In the globalised bution network so people being filmed to world where “exotic” and “different” are equally benefit from the results and make easier to find in your city than in the films available freely. Amazonian jungle, many anthropologists 4) To encourage the studies on ethno- now study the homeless, artists, farmers, graphic film modern techniques, especially business consultants, immigrants or for field professionals and the ones being refugees. This makes people ask those filmed.3 ethnographic film maker anthropologists what is different or original. 1.2 About subjective film, “If one of the foundational principles participative documentary of anthropological knowledge is expe- “Observational cinema provided the rience, understanding emerging from the initial premise for work carried out at sensory immersion of “being there”, how the Granada Centre. Although predicated can it be given form that does not involve on a certain kind of complicity forged translating it into a different register? Is within the filming process, it remained an it possible to both render experience important point of reference in situations and reflect upon that experience from where establishing agreement between within the representation itself? Among research subjects was more elusive and the most frequently aired criticisms problematic.”4 of observational work is that it lacks Anthropology always had a complex context, explanation or some kind of relation with television. Anthropologic interpretative stance toward what is knowledge, approach and expertise being presented. This is the crux of the were frequently used in the production issue.5 To the untrained eye, these films of television documentaries, and at the may seem indistinguishable from their same time many anthropologists tried television counterparts”.6

3 Hockings, Paul, “Principles of Visual An- 5 Grimshaw, Anna, “Eyeing the Field: thropology”, Mouton de Gruyter, Germany, New Horizons for Visual Anthropology”, 1995, 533. Visualizing Anthropology, edited by Anna 4 Grimshaw, Anna, “Introducing: Visualizing Grimshaw and Amanda Ravetz, op. cit., 23. Anthropology”, “Visualizing Anthropolo- 6 Robertson, Rachel, “Seeing is Believing: An gy”, edited by Anna Grimshaw and Ethnographer’s Encounter with Television Amanda Ravetz, Antony Rowe Ltd, Bristol, Documentary”, “Visualizing Anthropolo- UK, 2005, 9. gy”, edited by Anna Grimshaw and Amanda Ravetz, op. cit., 42. Cinematic Resources of Visual Anthropology for Documentary Filmmakers 175

The journalistic point of view of anthropology usually is the result of a anthropological approach esthetically collaborative approach (with the excep- relates to a scientific work which can tion of Bateson’s analysis over the Nazi develop into a theory as well as a work propaganda films), where subjects of the of art and a study model, both visually research play an active role in producing and affectively. data. Sometimes they have a personal “Film certainly can represent aspects or regional interest in the research, or of sensory experience visually through they might want to use the finished metaphors for that experience and willing visual product in other purposes (mostly the viewer to comprehend the film sub- commercial), so a certain amount of money jects’ sensory experience empathetically must be paid for their collaboration. or comparatively through his or her Participation is also important for metho- own resources of experience. Certainly dological reasons. If we assume that these aspects of sensory experience and applied visual anthropology scholars try to represent to various audiences other sensory qualities associated with them people’s experiences, then the visual’s cannot be equally represented in words interest is obvious, because it should and especially not in scientific writing.”7 help “trans-cultural communication”, if we quote MacDougall (1998). Film and In order to present sensorial both from video are good at representing aspects of field work experience and subjects wise, human experience, by visual and verbal anthropologists have two ways: images metaphor, which helps the emphatic and language. The new anthropologic interpretation of emotions, sensations cinema tries to integrate visual and and other dimensions of experience which anthropology as a science, which will lead seem common between different cultures. to films that will compete to anthropology “Uses of visual ethnography in industry speeches. Margaret Mead was a fervent are widespread. However, these may not supporter of visual, as well as of applied be anthropologically informed, especially anthropology. During the Second World when carried out by market-research War and beginning of the cold war, Mead agencies, and the ‘ethnography’ practiced was a councilor of the US government. is often far from the conceptualization John Collier Jr. is better known for his of long-term participant observation book: Visual Anthropology: Photography that many anthropologists still see as as a Research Method (1967) – a manual the discipline’s hallmark. Long-term for developing a systematic approach in fieldwork in one place, involving every- visual research. Whatever the institu- day interactions with informants over a tional context could be, applied visual year or more, presents an ideal scenario.”8

7 Pink, Sarah – The Future of Visual Anthro- 8 Ibid., 93. pology, op. cit., 51. 176 Cezar ENACHE

Participative documentaries states back from their existing knowledge and that it’s impossible that the act of making experience to understand new forms; the movie not to influence the events 4. Ideally, also both drawing from and being filmed. These films emulate the contributing to academic mainstream anthropologist’s approach as an observer visual anthropology theoretically, metho- and participant. Not only the film maker dologically and substantively.9 gets a role in the film, but we could have an example of a situation in a film Participative documentary approaches already altered by his presence. The the experimental domain and the avant- meeting of the film maker and his subject garde cinema, but it gives less retouches becomes a critic element of the film. to the inner quality of the film than its Rouch and Morin called that “cinéma expression, in relation with mentions of verite” by translating Dziga Vertov’s history for the final meaning. We keep term “kinopravda” in French. “The on reporting about history by people truth” means more often the truth of the and events (Langston Hughes, Detroit meeting, rather than an absolute truth. cityscapes, The San Francisco Bay Examples would be Vertov’s film “The Bridge), testimonies (participants from Man with a Movie Camera” (1929); Rouch Tongues Untied which describe black and Morin – “Chronicle of a Summer” gay community’s experience; the voice- (1960); Ross McElwee – “Sherman’s over tells us about Ngozi Onwurah and March” (1985); and the films by Nick her relationship with her mother in “The Broomfield. Probably Michael Moore’s Body Beautiful”; and scenes built around films would go here too, although they participative or observational ways of have a strongly deformed “exposé”. representation. Therefore, applied engagements of “The social sciences have long pro- visual anthropology involve not only moted the study of social groups. Anthro- visually informed or oriented social pology, for example, remains heavily interventions but also usually a series of defined by the practice of field work, other elements that might include: where an anthropologist lives among a 1. Engaging with an interdisciplinary context of applied research; people for an extended period of time 2. Researching, collaboratively or in a and then writes up what she has learned. participatory design, other people’s expe- Such research usually calls for some rience as they narrate and/or show and form of participant-observation. The perform it; researcher goes into the field, participates 3. Representing this experience in ways in the lives of others, gains a corporeal that are framed culturally and institu- or visceral feel for what life in a given tionally to try to give the target audience context is like, and then reflects on this a sense of it that is in a familiar ‘language’ but simultaneously causes them to stand 9 Ibid., 101. Cinematic Resources of Visual Anthropology for Documentary Filmmakers 177 experience, using tools and methods of Cinema vérite is no longer revoluti- anthropology or sociology to do so. “Being onary. It is the default language for there” calls for participation; “being here” music documentaries, and for all kinds allows for observation.”10 of behind-the-scenes and the-making-of documentaries; it is part of the DNA of “The sense of bodily presence, rather cop shows and docu-soaps and part of the than absence, locates the filmmaker “on credibility apparatus of reality TV shows. the scene.”We expect that what we learn It is built into expectations for grassroots will hinge on the nature and quality of video projects to expand expression, such the encounter between filmmaker and as the BBC’s Video Diaries project of the subject rather than on generalizations 1990s.12 supported by images illuminating a given perspective. We may see as well Growth in participative media can as hear the filmmaker act and respond stimulate interdisciplinary work, as socio- on the spot, in the same historical arena logists, anthropologists, communication as the film’s subjects. The possibilities researchers and film makers try to grasp of serving as mentor, critic, interrogator, this phenomenon. The perspective over collaborator, or provocateur arise.”11 the documentary film will always change and reflect the creative commitment Film makers trying to represent between scientists and film makers. their own contact with the world and “…personal-voice and home movies those representing big social issues and have been interwoven into reexamina- historic perspectives are the two major tions of popular culture. Stacy Peralta’s components of participative documen- “Dogtown” and “Z-Boys” (2001), an tary. As viewers we get the feeling that engaging and lively history of skate- we witness some dialog between film boarding culture, tracks its evolution from maker and his subject, which assumes the gritty side streets of Santa Monica to the situation, negotiates interaction and a billion-dollar business, some of whose emotional contact. These features of celebrities (such as Peralta himself) came the participative documentary model from those streets. It interweaves home a special attraction, from the personal movies with reminiscence and contrasts to historic perspective. Often this way both with vérité material from the fast- shows us faces of the historic world from paced and commercialized world of 13 involved specific perspectives. competitive skateboarding.”

10 Nichols, Bill, Introduction to Documentary, 12 Aufderheide, Patricia, “Documentary Film: Indiana University Press, Bloomington & A Very Short Introduction”, Oxford Uni- Indianapolis, USA, 2001, 116. versity Press, Inc. 2007, 55. 11 Ibid. 13 Ibid., 104. 178 Cezar ENACHE

Bibliography Aufderheide, Patricia, “Documentary Film: A Very Short Introduction”, Oxford University Press, Inc. 2007. Grimshaw, Anna, “Introducing: Visualizing Anthropology”, Visualizing Anthropology, edited by Anna Grimshaw and Amanda Ravetz, Antony Rowe Ltd, Bristol , UK, 2005. Harald, E.L., Visual Anthropology, PrinsKansas State University, USA, 1973, 24 June http:// societyforvisualanthropology.org Nichols, Bill, “Introduction to Documentary”, Indiana University Press, Bloomington & Indianapolis, USA, 2001. Pink, Sarah – “The Future of Visual Anthropology,” Taylor & Francis e-Library, New York, USA, 2006. Robertson, Rachel, “Seeing is Believing: An Ethnographer’s Encounter with Television Documentary”, Visualizing Anthropology, edited by Anna Grimshaw and Amanda Ravetz, Antony Rowe Ltd, Bristol , UK, 2005.