PRODUCTIVE SAFETY NET PROGRAM
2011 PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT PHASE I FINAL REPORT (DRAFT)
30th September 2011 PSNP PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1 - 2011
Contents
ABBREVIATIONS iv
PART 1. INTRODUCTION 1
1...... BACKGROUND ...... 1
2...... TERMS OF REFERENCE ...... 2
2.1 ...... Objectives 2 2.2 ...... Comments of terms of Reference 2 2.3 ...... Watersheds Studied 3 3. APPROACH AND METHODOLOGIES ...... 7
3.1 ...... Principles of 2011 PWIA – Phase 1. 7 3.2 ...... General Approach to undertaking the 2011 PWIA – Phase 1. 8 3.3 ...... Environmental Impact Assessment Methodology 15 3.4 ...... Social/Livelihoods Impact Assessment Methodology 24 3.5 ...... Economic Impact Assessment 27 3.6 Public Works Mapping: Methodology for the GIS Input 33 PART 2. KELETA WATERSHED: OROMIYA REGIONAL STATE 37
4...... Description ...... 37
4.1 ...... Biophysical Characteristics 37 4.2 ...... Socio-Economic Characteristics 52 4.3 ...... Features of the Public Works Micro-Watersheds in the Keleta Macro Watershed 58 5...... Impact Assessment ...... 65
5.1 ...... Environmental Impacts 65 5.2 ...... Social and Livelihood Impacts 66 5.3 ...... Economic Impacts 78 PART 3: ZAMRA WATERSHED 90
6...... Description ...... 90
6.1 ...... Biophysical Characteristics 90 6.2 ...... Socio-economic Characteristics 98
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6.3 ...... Features of the Public Works Micro-Watersheds in the Zamra Macro Watershed 102 7...... Impact Assessment ...... 110
7.1 ...... Environmental Impacts 110 7.2 ...... Impacts on Livelihoods 115 7.3 ...... Economic Impacts 132 PART 4. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION 144
8...... Conclusions ...... 144
8.1 ...... Inventory and Mapping of Micro-watersheds 144 8.2 ...... Environmental Impacts 145 8.3 ...... Livelihoods and Social Impacts 145 8.4 ...... Economic Impacts 148 9...... Recommendations ...... 150
9.1 ...... Inventory and Mapping of Micro-watersheds 150 9.2 ...... Environmental Impacts 150 9.3 ...... Livelihoods and Social Impacts 151 9.4 ...... Economic Impacts 153 ANNEX 1. DETAILED TERMS OF REFERENCE 154
The methodology should include: 158
ANNEX 2. MICRO-WATERSHED SUMMARIES 162
A. Zamra Watershed ...... 162
B. Keleta Watershed ...... 166
ANNEX 3. WATERSHED AND MICRO-WATERSHED MAPS 168
A. Zamra Watershed ...... 168
B. Keleta Watershed ...... 173
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ABBREVIATIONS
BoARD Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development CBR Cost Benefit Ratio DMFSD Disaster management and Food Security Directorate DP Development Partner ENTRO Eastern Nile technical Regional Office FSP Food Security Programme GoE Government of Ethiopia Ha hectare IRR Internal rate of return IWSM Integrated watershed Management L litre LIU Livelihoods Integration Unit LZ Livelihood Zone Masl Meters above sea level NGO Non-Government Organisation NPV Net Present Value NRM Natural Resource Management PET Potential Evapo-transpiration Ppm Parts per million PSNP Public Safety Net Programme PW Public Works PWIA Public Works Impact assessment
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FRONT MAP 1. LOCATION OF TARGET WATERSHEDS
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PART 1. INTRODUCTION
1. BACKGROUND
The Productive Safety Net Programme (PSNP) is a component of the Ethiopian Government‟s Food Security Programme (FSP), and is an essential feature of the food security investment strategy for chronically food insecure weredas of the country. The development objective of the programme is to contribute to reducing household vulnerability and improving resilience to shock.
The PSNP provides resources to chronically food insecure households through: (i) direct grants to labour-poor, elderly or incapacitated individuals, and (ii) payments to able-bodied members for participation in labour-intensive Public Works (PW) activities.
Since the launch of the programme in 2005, more than eight million beneficiaries that were repeatedly affected by food shortage have received transfers on a regular basis and have consequently been able to meet their food needs. Today PSNP is typically the major undertaking of the weredas where the programme is operational. It has attempted to bring together various Government, donors and non-Government stakeholders to work in an integrated manner to achieve food security for the chronically food insecure households.
The PW subprojects include soil and water conservation activities, feeder- roads, social infrastructure such as primary schools and health posts, water supply projects and small-scale irrigation. The selection of activities to be undertaken under the PW component is driven by a community-driven planning process, based on need.
The PW component of the PSNP accounts for approximately 80% of the PSNP budget. The PW programme during the last six years of programme implementation has enabled the creation of an estimated 180,000 community- level assets, planned and implemented through Ethiopia‟s Community-based Participatory Watershed Development approach. The majority of these involve the rehabilitation of natural resources, but also include construction or expansion of community-level infrastructure such as feeder-roads, health posts, primary schools, Farmers‟ Training Centres and support to various community-initiated small-scale agricultural activities.
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2. TERMS OF REFERENCE
2.1 Objectives
The objectives of the Phase I PWIA are to assess the actual impacts and effectiveness to date of Natural Resource Management PW subprojects (NRM subprojects) undertaken in watersheds under the PSNP, and to make recommendations for improvement as appropriate. The study will assess:
The extent to which the NRM subprojects form part and parcel of an integrated approach to watershed development;
The impacts of the watershed development activities to date on: - the biophysical environment, and - the communities living in the watersheds, including PSNP beneficiaries;
The contribution of the cumulative NRM subprojects to those impacts.
2.2 Comments of terms of Reference
It is noted that the work involves the collecting of relevant data on the environmental condition of two watersheds, identifying activities have been carried out in terms of watershed development, assessing the impacts of the PSNP PW activities, analyzing the data collected, developing recommendations, and producing and presenting the final report. It also noted that the assessment of impacts should be both qualitative and quantitative, and cost-benefit ratios should be estimated for NRM subprojects in the watersheds examined. The section below on the Methodology outlines how the Consultants will undertake this work.
It is understood that the focus of this PWIA is on the public works themselves and their environmental, social and economic impacts. The focus is thus not on the impacts of the FFW/CFW received under the PSNP on the recipients. This is the focus of the IFPRI-IDS Longitudinal Survey.
The Terms of Reference note that secondary data will determine the following:
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% of PW plans developed following community planning guidelines by December 2010. % of public works have an established management mechanism at completion starting from December 2010. % of public works reaching satisfactory standards and sustainability ratings by December 2010. % of PW projects screened by ESMF by December 2010.
The Consultants note that in fact this quantitative data is obtained during the Annual Public Works Assessment. However, it only conducted in selected sample woredas and that it is possible that the woredas within the two target Watersheds for this Impact Assessment may not have been included. In this case quantitative secondary data will not be available. However, the Consultants will endevour to make a qualitative assessment of this information.
2.3 Watersheds Studied
The Public Works Impact Assessment (PWIA) of Phase I involves a team composed of four members: Team Leader, Watershed Development Expert, Socio-Economist and GIS Expert, who are assigned to perform an integrated assessment on the impacts of public works sub-component of the Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP). There are two watersheds selected for the assessment, namely: Zamra in Southern Tigray Zone and Keleta in Arsi Zone of Oromia Region.
According to the preliminary watershed boundary, the area size of Zamra watershed reaches 1,797 km2, and Keleta is about 1239 km2. Zamra watershed embraces five Weredas such as Ambalage, Inderta, Hintalo Wajirat, Seharti Samre and Tanqua Abergele, with a total of 46 Kebeles in the Weredas. Weredas in Zamra Watershed
Number of Area No. Wereda Kebeles (km2)
1 Ambalage 10 206.6
2 Enderta 5 49.0
3 Hintalo Wajirat 20 808.1
4 Seharti Samre 10 729.6
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5 Tanqua Abergele 1 3.6
Total 46 1,796.9
Source: computed based on preliminary watershed boundary Keleta watershed touches nine Weredas, of which five have significant size of their areas in the watershed. Generally, there are 64 Kebeles fully or partly falling in the watershed. Weredas in Keleta Watershed
Number of Area No. Wereda Name Kebeles (Sq_km)
1 Boset 1 0.02
2 Deksis 3 33.18
3 Digeluna Tijo 3 5.82
4 Dodota 6 79.78
5 Hitosa 17 307.48
6 Ludehetosa 23 538.09
7 Robe 1 0.36
8 Sire 12 274.21
9 Tiyo 1 0.47
Total 67 1,239.40
Source: computed based on preliminary watershed boundary
Zamra is a watershed with relatively irregular terrain. Only about a quarter of its land area exhibits topographically stable section. The larger area (75%) falls in relief varying from undulating to steeply dissected plateau, where shrub and few natural forests exist. Scarcely available data indicate that around 44% of the watershed‟s land cover is under agriculture and pasture land occupies the second larger proportion. In Kelete watershed, areas west of Sire and Huruta towns demonstrate relatively flat areas mainly under agricultural activities. Areas in the eastern half are dominantly rolling and undulating relief, while steep slopes of hilly to dissected plateaus account close to 30% of the watershed.
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Zamra Watershed
Keleta Watershed
Data extracted from the Ethiopian Highland Reclamation Study (EHRS) revealed 70.0 percent of the area in Zamra watershed to have been under intolerable soil loss (above 12 t/h/y). That implied severe land degradation and extensive need for conservation and rehabilitation measures particularly between Hareko and Zamra towns in the western middle part of the watershed.
PUBLICEstimated WORKS soil IMPACT loss in Zamra ASSESSMENT: watershed, 1985 PHASE 1: 2011 5
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Zamra Watershed: Estimated Soil Loss
T/h/y Area (ha) %
0-5 11,776.3 6.6
16-30 102,535.8 57.1
31-50 3,695.0 2.1
51- 100 20,618.1 11.5
None 41,069.8 22.9
Total 179,695.0 100.0
Source: Extracted from EHRS, 1985
The severity of loss in Keleta watershed seems to be larger as 90% of the land area is believed to be in the intolerable range. High population densities, poor land cover and management practices could be accounted to have had greater contributions during 1980s and 1990s. It is only the northern part of the watershed that the potential for soil loss appears to be none or insignificant.
Estimated soil loss in Keleta watershed, 1985
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Keleta Watershed: Estimated Soil Loss
T/h/y Area (ha.) %
6-15 26,053.9 21.0
16-30 27,971.5 22.6
31-50 50,738.4 40.9
101- 200 11,774.9 9.5
None 7,401.1 6.0
Total 123,939.8 100.0
Source: Extracted from EHRS, 1985
3. APPROACH AND METHODOLOGIES
3.1 Principles of 2011 PWIA – Phase 1.
The following five principles have been adopted: (i) In view of the difficulties experienced in the 2008 PWIA in respect of combining household-level assessments of the effectiveness of infrastructure subprojects with assessment of the effectiveness of watershed development subprojects, and since household-level perceptions of the effectiveness of infrastructure subprojects are already being assessed using panel surveys in the regular FSP Impact Assessments, the 2011 PWIA should be limited to natural resource-based PW subprojects. (ii) In order to be able to assess the effectiveness of the community- based participatory integrated watershed development approach, the 2011 PWIA should focus not on individual subprojects, but on the totality of such interventions in entire watersheds, and on the role of the PSNP subprojects in the integrated whole. (iii) The 2011 PWIA should focus on a small number of representative watersheds covering the most common types of geographic and agro-climatic zone, and study those watersheds in depth, rather than be spread too thin over a large number of sites. This approach will also avoid the problem of attempting to study large numbers of subprojects in many different areas in the absence of a subproject database.
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(iv) Since the potential positive impacts of different types of natural resource-based subprojects were determined on a generic basis in the 2008 PWIA, the 2011 PWIA need not repeat this work; thus it should focus on actual, rather than potential, impacts. However, cost-benefit ratios should be estimated for the specific watersheds examined. (v) In view of the absence of an environmental baseline, the watersheds selected for study should as far as possible have data available regarding their pre-project condition.
3.2 General Approach to undertaking the 2011 PWIA – Phase 1.
3.2.1 Qualitative and Quantitative Approach
Impact assessments usually take either a quantitative or qualitative approach, with the two often viewed as alternatives. However, the emerging consensus is that both quantitative and qualitative methods have their own strengths and weaknesses (Kerr & Chung, 2001). Quantitative methods provide measure outcomes with statistical tests to support their validity. However, such conclusions are always subject to context-specific conditions. Qualitative methods provide methods by which this context can be understood and even expose threats to validity. This provides the rationale to combine both approaches to deal with the complexity inherent in watershed projects. Because of this, the approach to be adopted in the present impact assessment will combine a mixed quantitative and qualitative approach. An inherent problem with the quantitative approach is two-fold: firstly achieving complete randomization of beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries, and secondly identifying locations, communities and households which are completely representative of a before-project situation: i.e. the “control group” or the “baseline” situation. The approach to be used in the present assessment will be to carefully identify the responsible organization for the various natural resource public works that are identified within the two catchments (i.e. PSNP, NGO, Regional BoARD, etc). Given that some public works may have been implemented prior to the commencement of the PSNP the date of construction will also be carefully noted, so that a realistic picture of the “Baseline” situation of the two Catchments at the onset of the PSNP can be established. The qualitative approach is more flexible and allows for exploration of issues that emerge during the fieldwork. It also allows the assessment team to tap into the diverse perspectives of multiple stakeholders. “Triangulation”, using various informants, data collection methods and settings, will be used to cross-check on the validity of findings from one specific type of data collection.
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An important advantage of using the mixed data collection approach is that the Assessment Team members will using both approaches simultaneously, rather than relegating data collection to field assistants.
3.2.2 Specific Characteristics of Watersheds
The impact assessment approach will take into consideration the very varied characteristics of watersheds:
Spatial inter-linkages and externalities: watersheds are hydrological units and activities in the upper parts can have impacts (positive and negative) on the lower parts. In economic terms these are called “externalities”. Watersheds exist as “nested” elements at various scales (e.g. micro-watersheds, sub-watersheds, watersheds, sub-basins and basins). Processes acting at these various scales (e.g. sedimentation, stream-flow) are not linear, and relationships that exist at the micro scale do not necessarily exist at the macro-scale.
Programme multiple objectives, dimensions and determinants: the public works component of PSNP covers a wide range of activities impinging on various aspects of both land and water elements of the watershed. These activities are linked through the logical framework to numerous outputs, outcomes and goals. The impact assessment is particularly concerned with relationships between activities, outputs and outcomes.
Long gestation and difficulties in determining some Programme benefits: whilst some impacts may be determined in the short term others such as sheet erosion, which is a slow process, may be difficult to evaluate. Ethiopia has accumulated a very strong research-based data-base on the impacts of soil erosion on crop productivity, sedimentation and run-off (Nyssen et al.2007; Kassie et al., 2007; Merry & Tadelle G/Selassie, 2020). The PWIA will draw on this wealth of research results in its assessment of the impacts of these slow natural resource processes.
Determining the baseline conditions: the 2008 PWIA experienced considerable difficulties in establishing the baseline conditions for the PSNP Public Works programme. Approaches to overcome these difficulties have been outlined above.
Local bio-physical and socio-economic conditions are very variable even within the watershed: the 2011 PWIA-Phase 1 will utilize the considerable natural resources data that has been
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established by numerous programmes that is now available in Geographical Information System format. The Livelihoods Integration Unit (LIU) of the Disaster Management and Food Security Directorate (DMFSD) of MoA has assembled a very detailed socio-economic and livelihoods database for Livelihood Zones in the four main regions of Ethiopia.
Many watershed benefits (and costs) do not enter the market which has implications for determining comprehensive benefit:cost ratios: Often termed “environmental services”, the benefits provided by natural resources such as carbon sequestration (and reduction in green-house gas emissions) often do no enter the market place and on which it is hard to place an economic value. Numerous surrogate methods of assigning such values have been used in Ethiopia (ENTRO, 2008, Gete Zeleke & Mahmud Yesuf, 2006) and these will be utilized where appropriate.
3.2.3 Concept of Green and Blue Water
Falkenmark (1995) introduced the concept of “Green” and “Blue” water to emphasize the importance of evaporation (green water) and the potential for managing evaporation as part of the hydrological cycle (figure 1.) Figure 1. Green Water and Blue Water in the Hydrological Cycle
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Source: Falkenmark and Rockstrom, 2005. In water deficit areas such as the two target PWIA Catchments optimum use of green water is especially important, given the relative importance of rainfed cropping to irrigated cropping, which uses “blue” water. Soil and water conservation structures that increase soil water utilization by plants (crops, pastures and trees) can have a significant positive impact on production.
At the same time it is important to note that increased consumptive use of green water upstream will result in less blue water down-stream. This points to the need for an integrated or landscape approach to watershed management.
3.2.4 Need for an Integrated or Landscape Approach to Watershed Management
River basins, watersheds and sub watersheds and their hydrological processes operate in systemic way within a nested hierarchy but often in complex spatial and temporal patterns. For example, the linkages (or coupling) between soil erosion (or soil conservation) and sediment yield at the micro-watershed level and the sediment load and sedimentation downstream at the macro-watershed level often do not have simple linear relationships. However, in searching for potential “public” benefits emanating from watershed management interventions it will be important to identify and quantify as far as is possible these linkages in space and time.
The river basin is a hierarchy of catchments of different sizes: . Micro-catchments (1 – 5km2) There is a strong coupling between the catchment area and the channel. Vegetation and land management practices closely control the runoff and the export of water, sediment and dissolved load into the stream channel. There is also a close coupling between groundwater and the river. This is the size of basin that is normally taken for community level watershed management.
. Sub-Catchments (5 – 1,000km2) Coupling between catchment characteristics and stream is much weaker because of temporal and spatial lags in the system.
. Catchments (1,000 – 5,000km2) Coupling between catchment characteristics and stream is even weaker because of temporal and spatial lags in the system. Seasonal aggradation and sediment removal occurs with dry season flows through braided channels.
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The two target Catchments are highly varied and reflect not only the natural resource base, but also the complex social, cultural and economic characteristics of the land users and the economic, institutional and policy environment in which they operate. Land use systems have their own dynamics responding to endogenous and exogenous factors that have impacts on user livelihoods and the properties of natural resources and environmental services. It will be important to establish any causal linkages between land use systems and trends in these properties and services. Viewing the Catchments as hydraulic systems will enable the identification and where possible quantification of the upstream and downstream impacts of current resource use and management systems. The “Landscape” approach is complementary to Integrated Watershed management (IWSM) approach. The IWSM approach emphasizes hydrological boundaries whilst the Landscape approach considers the broad social, economic and institutional networks that may cross-cut hydrological boundaries (Merrey & Tadele Gebreselassie, 2008). Watersheds are thus conceived as socio-agro-ecological systems. Figure 2 indicates the framework of impact analysis that will be used during the present PWIA. Figure 2. Framework of Public Works Environmental, Social and Economic Impact Assessment
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3.2.4 Integrating Livelihoods into Integrated Watershed Management
The broader “landscape” approach incorporates the wider socio-economic environment. Of particular interest in the context of the PSNP – PWIA are potential impacts on the livelihoods of households and communities within the target watersheds. The “Livelihoods” concept provides a well-documented framework for analyzing potential impacts of public works. Figure 3 shows the Livelihoods Framework.
Figure 3. Livelihoods Framework
The livelihoods approach puts people at the centre of the impact assessment (Boyd & Turton, 2000) and can assist in:
Considering the social, cultural and agro-ecological factors which underpin peoples‟ livelihood decisions;
Highlighting the vulnerability of livelihoods to trends, shocks and seasonality and people‟s response to this vulnerability;
Focusing the impact of various policy and institutional arrangements on people; Livelihood Assets include the following:
Natural capital: land, water, vegetation, biodiversity, etc and environmental services;
Social capital: networks, groups, social relations, etc;
Human capital: skills, knowledge, good health and ability to labour; PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1: 2011 13
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Physical capital: basic infrastructure (transport, shelter, energy, communications);
Financial capital: savings, access to credit, loans, etc). A household‟s assets are associated with its ability to adopt SWC measures (Anderson & Thampapillai, 1990; Shiferaw & Holden, 1996).
The vulnerability context includes uncertainties of climate, markets, security and conflict. In the two target catchments climatic uncertainty is a particular contributor to household‟s vulnerability and their attitude to risk taking and time horizons when considering agricultural investments. Households enhance their livelihoods by building up their stock of capital assets. The transforming structures and processes refer to types of policies, administrative structures and institutions that households face in this process.
Livelihood strategies are the range and combination of activities and choices people make in order to achieve their livelihood goals. Three broad groups of strategies have been identified (Schoons, 1998):
Agricultural intensification/expansion;
Livelihood diversification (e.g. off-farm or non-farm employment); and
Migration. Adoption of SWC measures constitutes intensification of agriculture.
Livelihood outcomes are the end result of the various combinations of livelihood strategies that people choose to follow. Potential livelihood outcomes to households of adopting SWC measures include:
More income;
Reduced vulnerability;
Improved food security;
Increased well-being; and
More sustained use of natural resources.
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3.3 Environmental Impact Assessment Methodology
3.3.1 Data Sources and Collection Methods
(i) Designing field assessment tools/techniques As described both quantitative and qualitative approaches were followed to carry out assessment of the impacts of watershed development PWs (i.e. mainly physical and biological SWC) on the biophysical environment.
Before starting the field work for assessment of the environmental impacts of NRM-PW subprojects of the PSNP in the two watersheds; a summary matrix (framework) was developed. The assessment matrix describes the specific data/information needed, tools/techniques to be used and the corresponding sources of data/information for the entire process. The different types of data and methods of collection were established on the basis of contemporary standards and methodological approaches of data acquiring and analyses for conducting impact assessments of watershed development interventions. Equally, the specific data/information and corresponding field assessment tools/techniques were determined with full consideration of accommodating the key issues/indicators to be assessed, as stipulated in the ToR for PWIA – 2011 (Phase I); and, the indicators described in the Log-frame for the PSNP (2010-2014)1.
(ii) Data collection methods The methods used for data collection included review of literature and relevant documents on PSNP, gathering primary and secondary data/Information; as described in the assessment matrix prepared for capturing the environmental impacts for PWIA – 2011 (Phase I). Each of the latter has been briefly highlighted as below.
a) Review of literature and relevant documents on PSNP: The reviews made on literatures included publications and journals on the conceptual issues, technical standards and practical aspects of watershed development, NRM and related topics; which covered general references and specific research works done in Ethiopia. Likewise, relevant documents on the backgrounds of the PSNP and its different aspects have been covered. These have provided a good level of insight on the technical and practical aspects of impact assessments involving WSD, PSNP and experiences of relevance. The reviews have also allowed getting better understanding of the policies,
1 MoRD, 2009. Food Security Programme (2010-2014): Productive Safety Net. The FDRE Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development. Addis Ababa, August 2009. PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1: 2011 15
PSNP PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1 - 2011 strategies of both the government and donors that are related to or affecting the PSNP as well as the institutional arrangements and other programme implementation modalities thereto. b) Secondary Data/Information gathering: This is used to collect data form different sources including the key stakeholders at Regional, Wereda and Kebele levels in order to acquire documented data on the status of programme implementation and related information on the processes, challenges and constraints thereto. Accordingly, the secondary data sought for the study included, among others, background information (baseline data) documented before/upon starting the programme on biophysical and socio-economic settings (e.g. data on the land use/cover, erosion situation, farming systems, land management, crop production, livestock, HH energy sources, access to water sources and potentials … etc of the various micro-watersheds within the two target watersheds. Likewise, available informative documentations on pertinent issues like studies/research reports on erosion, effects of SWC, land management and productivity aspects in the study areas were also reviewed. The planning, monitoring and evaluation documents of the watershed development PWs as well as periodical reports produced at Wereda and micro-watershed (KA) levels were also among the important secondary data sources reviewed at field level. The following tools were used to collect the secondary data at field level:
A detailed checklist of pertinent Secondary Data/Information needed on WSM/NRM intervention sub-projects for collating and inspection/review at Kebele (micro-watershed) and Wereda levels; Accomplishments of Watershed Development Public Works at Micro- Watersheds (KA) and Wereda Levels (2005 - 2011); and, Accomplishments of Watershed Development/NRM Public Work interventions undertaken outside the PSNP at Micro-Watershed (KA) and Wereda Levels (2005 - 20011). c) Primary Data Collection The primary data sources included field observation different participatory techniques to get a first hand impression of the NRM-PWs at grassroots level. These have been highlighted as follows.
Site visits and direct observation: Direct observations and on-the-spot enquiries were made by making transect walks across the activity sites in the sample micro-watersheds that were selected to conduct first hand assessments. Checklists and earlier watershed maps were used; and, observations made on the status of physical structures, land cover and effectiveness of SWC structure/plantations … etc were noted with comments and photographed (where appropriate) during the transect walks. Likewise, the overall status in terms of roles of community members and implementation effectiveness of the watershed development PWs as well PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1: 2011 16
PSNP PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1 - 2011 as status of maintenances to SWC structures and their prospects for sustainability were assessed using participatory observation and enquiries.
FGDs and group interviews The participatory enquiry techniques included focus group discussions (FGDs) and group interviews held with Kebele Watershed (Planning) Teams (KWTs) as well as key informants (KIIs) at grassroots level. The FGDs and KIIs interviews were used to capture their perceived views on the changes in the levels of soil erosion, flood occurrence/damage, land cover, rehabilitation of degraded hillsides and gullies, crop and livestock productivity … etc as a result of undertaking the watershed development PWs. Community members‟ and KWTs‟ roles in realising the NRM activities including observance of maintenance works to the SWC structures, whether byelaws are introduced and their effectiveness were also covered during FGDs and group interviews. Moreover, aspects of the watershed development PWs implementation process including capacity issues at various levels (technical and organisational), adherence to PIM, the level of community empowerment and sense of ownership towards assets created by the interventions as well as sustainability of the watershed development public works. Some of the major issues covered by the participatory observation and enquiries included:
Availability of planning documents for WSM interventions and their soundness with respect to meeting the requirements of “Essential Principles of the PSNP” at each of the micro-watersheds; Assess available capacities of the various key actors in the planning, implementation and management of public works as per the guidelines and procedures set in the PIM for PWs and PSNP as a whole (i.e. their acquaintance with and effectiveness in their practicing/application); Assessment of the community watershed development plan and the planning process at each micro watershed in terms of their appropriateness, compliance of screening in accordance with the ESMF, integrated into the respective Kebele and Wereda development plans … etc; and, Formation and functional status of relevant local community institutions to plan, implement and manage public works; along with the level of community empowerment, sense of ownership and related issues. Accordingly, a total of 14 selected community watersheds (KAs) in five weredas of the two regions were covered by transect walks and participatory discussions for the impact assessment of the watershed development (NRM) PWs in the two watersheds, which are summarized in the table below.
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Table 1. Community Watersheds (KAs) Covered by the Study
Watersheds Region Wereda Kebele Administration (KA) Remarks
Emba-Alaje 1. Betmara 2. Waza Adiawuna Hintalo-Wajirat 3. Freweyni (Hewane) Tigray 4. Agereselam Zamra 5. Hintalo 6. Dekera Saharti-Samre 7. Nebar-Hadinot 8. Samre 9. Amigna-Debesso Dodota 10. Dire-Kiltu 11. Lode-Sharbe Keleta Oromiya 12. Alelu-Gesela Sire 13. Ebseta-Oduga a non-PSNP KA2 14. Gesela-Chache 2 Watersheds 2 Regions 5 Wereda 14 KAs
3.3.2 Assessing Effects of Watershed Development (NRM) PW Interventions on Soil Erosion and Land Productivity
The Watershed Development Public Works involving the biological and physical soil and water conservation (SWC) measures are essentially aimed at reducing the negative impact of soil erosion, and the losses of water, nutrients and organic matter associated with it. Thus, outcomes of the SWC measures are assessed in terms of their physical effects including the direct on-site effects and the indirect downstream (off-site) effects. This requires determining the resulting changes due to the interventions, notably, effects of the SWC measures on reducing soil erosion and improving land productivity at micro watershed (on-site) level. Such analysis, among others, helps to determine the extent to which the measures affected the soil erosion process, as might be signified by the difference between the rates of soil losses that existed before intervention and the current levels for the various micro-watersheds. It also enables to determine the extent to which the reduced erosion has, subsequently, favoured enhanced productivity of the land. This if followed by analysis of the downstream (off-site) effects resulted from the SWC measures.
2 This is a non-PSNP KA (micro-watershed) within Keleta Watershed; located upstream from the 2 PSNP targeted KAs (Alelu-Gesela and Ebseta-Oduga). Its visit was required in order to observe and note any interactions it might have with the watershed development (NRM) PWs interventions in the 2 low-lying micro-watersheds (KAs). PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1: 2011 18
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(i) Estimations of soil losses
The current levels of soil losses were estimated in order to determine the effectiveness of the watershed development PW interventions (SWC measures) in terms of controlling soil erosion. Effects of physical and biological SWC measures include their direct (on-site) effects at plot level as well as their downstream (off-site) effects on the environment. Except one KA in Keleta Watershed (i.e. Amigna-Debesso), most of the SWC measures through the PWs were undertaken on closure areas (communal lands) within the micro-watersheds. Therefore, estimation of the changes in quantities of soil losses due to direct on-site soil erosion and subsequent implications on land productivity are done for those closure areas. The current status of soil loss from the protected hillsides due to runoff is estimated using the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE), as initially developed by Wischmeier and Smith (1978)3; which is still the most widely used soil loss prediction model. The most recent update is called the “Revised USLE” or RUSLE (Renard et al., 1991)4. It was also adapted to Ethiopian conditions by Hurni (1985)5 as: A = R * K * L * S * C * P
Where: A = estimated soil loss (t/ha/yr), R = Rainfall Erosivity factor, K = Soil Erodibility factor, L = Slope length factor, S = Slope gradient factor, C = Land cover factor, P = Management practice factor This method of soil loss calculation has been used by different researchers to assess effectiveness of different soil and water conservation measures in different parts of Ethiopia including several watersheds in Tigray Region (e.g. J. Nyssen et al (2007)6; Gebreyesus Brhane et al (2009)7). The values for the various soil erosion parameters of corresponding to each of the studied micro-watershed were determined using inputs from different sources including direct field observations (e.g. density of land cover, management practices and effectiveness of the SWC measures). Available secondary data have also complemented the newly generated GIS maps on the land use/cover and the topography (i.e. slope gradient and lengths). Accordingly, the soil data was obtained from the FAO/LUPRD-MoA (1986)
3 Wischmeier, W. H., Smith D.D., 1978. Predicting rainfall erosion losses – a guide for conservation planning. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 537: Pp. 20-152. 4 Renard, K. G., G.R. Foster, G. A. Weesies, and J. P. Porter, 1991. RUSLE, Revised Soil Loss Equation. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, January – February 1991, Pp. 30-33. 5 Hurni H. 1985. Erosion - Productivity - Conservation Systems in Ethiopia. Proceedings 4th International Conference on Soil Conservation, Maracay, Venezuela: Pp. 654-674. 6 Nyssen, J., J. Poesen, Desta Gebremichael, K. Vancampenhout, M. D‟aes, Gebremedhin Yihdego, G. Govers, H. Leirs, J. Moeyersons, J. Naudts, Nigussie Haregeweyn, Mitiku Haile, J. Deckers, 2007. Interdisciplinary on- site evaluation of stone bunds to control soil erosion on cropland in Northern Ethiopia. Soil & Tillage Research 94 (2007) 151–163 ; Elsevier B.V. (www.elsevier.com/locate/still). 7 Gebreyesus Brhane and Kirubel Mekonen, 2009. Estimating Soil Loss Using Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) for Soil Conservation Panning at Medego Watershed, Northern Ethiopia. Journal of American Science 2009: 5(1), 58-69. PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1: 2011 19
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Soils and geomorphology map as revised by WBISPP (2003). The Land cover data was derived from the Land cover maps for Zamre and Keleta watersheds developed by this Study, which also undertook the slope estimation derived from the GIS analysis of the ASTER DTM data. The GIS maps provided quantified distributions of the land use/cover status, slope gradient and lengths, soil types and annual rainfall corresponding to the various micro- watersheds. Attempts made to acquire secondary data on the baseline situation of the biophysical environment for each of the micro-watersheds; which was expected to have been documented at the beginning of the Watershed Development intervention PWs, couldn‟t succeed. These secondary data could have provided the references (benchmarks) to help estimations and assumptions involved with the quantitative assessments. Use of RUSLE for estimating soil losses due to erosion rates and sediment yield quantities from the different micro-watersheds within a watershed usually reveal large variability due to the heterogeneous spatial features among the micro-watersheds. Such variability has required the use of a well thought-out approach that involved data intensive and discrete process in determining the sol losses. Thus, each of the micro-watersheds has been taken as a unit having approximately homogeneous characteristics. Accordingly, the soil erosion rates for the different micro-watersheds were estimated using a spreadsheet for all the KAs in each of the watershed with their areas and distribution into their respective land use/cover, soil types, slope classes and rainfall patterns. The soil erosion factors were then introduced using the corresponding values of the different factors of RUSLE, as given in Table --, for each of the micro- watersheds. The current level of soil loss for each micro-watershed was calculated considering their corresponding situations “before” the interventions. Table 2. The Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) adapted for Ethiopia - as derived from Hurni (1985)5
1. Rainfall Erosivity (R): Annual Rainfall (mm) 100 200 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 R Annual Factor R 48 104 217 441 666 890 1115 1340
2. Soil Erodibility (K): Soil color Black Brown Red Yellow K Factor K 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
3. Slope Length (L): L Length (m) 5 10 20 40 80 160 240 320 PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1: 2011 20
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Factor L 0.5 0.7 1 1.4 1.9 2.7 3.2 3.8
4. Slope Gradient (S ): Slope (%) 5 10 20 40 80 160 240 320 S Factor S 0.4 1 1.6 2.2 3 3.8 4.3 4.8
5. Land Cover (C): Land Cover Type Factor C Land Cover Type Factor C Land Cover Type Factor C
Dense forest: 0.001 Badlands Hard: 0.05 Sorghum, Maize: 0.10 C Other forest: 0.02 Badlands Soft: 0.40 Cereals, pulses 0.20 Dense grass 0.01 Fallow Hard: 0.05 Ethiopian tef: 0.25
Degraded Grass: 0.05 Fallow ploughed: 0.60 Contin. Fallow 1.00
Land Management Factor (P): 6.
Factor Factor Land Management Factor Land Management Type Land Management Type P P Type P
Ploughing up and down 1.00 Stone cover 0.50 Intercropping: 0.80
P Strip cropping 0.80 Stone cover 40% 0.0.80 Dense intercropping: 0.70
Applying mulch 0.60 Ploughing along contour 0.0.90
In order to determine soil loss estimations and sediment yields “after” the SWC intervention; SWC efficiency of 65% and Sediment Delivery Ratio (SDR) of 0.66, respectively; have been used to account for effects of the natural resources restoration activities. The latter are based on results of researches that have been undertaken by Makelle University on impacts of “Closed Areas” and SWC measures on reduction of soil erosion levels, sediment trapping, changes in soil properties and vegetation cover. These results have been reported in a number of publications including Nyssen et al. (2006); Desceemaeker (2005), Desceemaeker (2006), Muys et al. (2006), Aerts et al. (2004) and Aerts et al. (2006). Similarly, the Sediment Delivery Ratio (SDR) used was that estimated by the Eastern Nile Watershed Cooperative Regional Assessment (ENTRO, 2008). The changes obtained (i.e. differences in soil loss levels) and subsequent downstream effects between the „before‟ and “after” Watershed Development (SWC) PWs interventions are expressed as physical quantities of the soil losses (i.e. tons/ha/year) for each of the studied micro-watersheds.
(ii) Assessment of On-site effects of SWC measures The primary on-site effect of the SWC Public Works is controlling soil erosion, which has been assessed in terms of the changes in soil loss levels at each micro-watershed. This implies the changes brought about as an immediate PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1: 2011 21
PSNP PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1 - 2011 result of SWC measures including improved land management and changes made on the land use. The reduction in soil erosion has to do with saving the land as a basic resource, which also implies halting the decline in soil depth, better availability of nutrients and organic matter as well as retention of more water within the root zone for plant use. These changes, in turn, are tangibly described in terms of enhanced land productivity and improvements in water availability. As indicated earlier, the SWC measures are mainly undertaken on closure areas in the different micro-watersheds. Therefore, the on-site effects have been assessed in terms of the impacts realised in biomass production and water retention on closure areas. The gully control and reclamation activities using check dams and their re-vegetation by planting grass and forage trees; which also extend beyond the closure sites, have also been considered for the analyses. Changes in biomass production: The different SWC measures have enabled visible regeneration of natural vegetation as well as planting of different multi-purpose trees to be used as fuel wood, construction poles and animal feed sources. The enhanced biomass production levels realized through watershed management activities undertaken under the Public Works programme have been quantified to determine the impact thereof. In addition, opinions of the KWTs and individual community members were asked regarding their perceptions of changes in fodder and fuel wood availability in their respective micro-watersheds. The Public Works‟ achievement reports only indicate records of the number of planted tree seedlings without the area of plantation &/or planting rates. Thus, the analysis is made assuming that a density of tree seedlings of 2,000/hectare was used, which indicated that approximately 1 percent of the total Closed Area was being planted. For natural vegetation field observations indicated that the before closure vegetation of grassland with scattered trees developed into Open Shrub land with a crown cover of 2 to 50% over a five year period. Open shrub land developed into closed shrub land (crown cover >50 percent) over the same period. The incremental wood biomass was estimated using the specific land cover wood biomass stocking rates derived by WBISPP (2005) for Ethiopia. The annual sustainable wood biomass yield rates were also those derived by WBISPP (2005). Changes in water availability: The changes in terms of moisture retention in the soil and ground water recharging as a result of the various SWC measures have been assessed using qualitative methods. Although this might better be established by conducting measurements on ground water levels and flow rates of streams within the micro-watersheds; these were not done for the obvious technical limitations and lack of baseline data. Nevertheless, the effects of moisture conservation structures and different water harvesting activities in the micro- watersheds have been captured using participatory techniques during the FGDs and KIIs held with community members. Direct observations and participant information regarding access to water sources and levels of irrigation practices in the micro-watersheds are believed to provide good indication on changes in water availability. PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1: 2011 22
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(iii) Assessment of Downstream effects of SWC Public Works The downstream benefits can be subdivided into benefits related to “soil conservation”, comprising reduced sedimentation in the downstream rivers and canals … etc; and, “water conservation” related benefits such as the contribution to an increased dependable flow in the dry season, and a reduction in flood damage.
Sediment Delivery (SD) One of the off-site effects resulting from the SWC measures is the reduction of sediment delivery (SD) entering into the streams by the runoff from the hillsides in each of the micro-watersheds. Estimations of the sediment delivery ratio (SDR) for the various micro-watersheds is based on the assumption adopted from literature (ENTRO, 2007) and an average value of 0.66 has been taken.
Water availability The down-stream effect of the SWC activities in the upper part of the catchment could be described in terms of the steady flow of the streams during the dry season or prolonged flow extended well into a good part of the dry season. Such aspects of the water availability have been assessed using qualitative methods.
(iv) Carbon sequestration Carbon content of trees and the C:CO2 ratio were obtained using the UNFCC recommended method (Pearson et al., 2005). Increases in soil carbon contents were obtained from the Makelle University Research references cited above. These provide the basis for estimating the increment in soil carbon levels.
3.3.3 Limitations and Caveats
Notwithstanding the extensive use of the USLE / RUSLE around the world, there are limitations in the use of the equation. The USLE was developed on a standard plot in the United States and the soil loss “A” is equal to the units selected for “K” over the period selected for “R”, on a clean tilled fallow field with a length of 22.13 m and a slope of 9 %. Some research findings and experiences in the field, however, suggest cautions in its use. According to Boomer et al. (2008)8, the use of USLE is not advisable; despite its present widespread application, because it failed to Predict Sediment Discharges from
8 Kathleen B. Boomer, Donald E. Weller, and Thomas E. Jordan, 2008. Empirical Models Based on the Universal Soil Loss Equation Fail to Predict Sediment Discharges. In: Journal of Environmental Quality • Volume 37 • January–February 2008; Pp. 79-89. American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, and Soil Science Society of America. PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1: 2011 23
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Chesapeake Bay Catchments. Likewise, Jan de Graaff (1996)9 and Spaan (1996)10 advise for caution in using the equation under other climate and terrain conditions than the settings where the USLE or RUSLE were developed (i.e. standard plots in USA). Indicating that it concerns empirical models, they suggest that adaptations can only be made when substantial local research data are available.
On the other hand, other literature sources like FAO (1996)11 describes USLE as a handy agricultural non-point source models requiring only low or medium data inputs to calculate sediment loss & nutrient loss for long-term averages over spatial scales of 10's to 100's km2.
3.4 Social/Livelihoods Impact Assessment Methodology
3.4.1 Social/Livelihoods Impact Assessment
The study employed multistage sampling techniques i.e. a combination of stratified, simple random sampling and purposive techniques for primary source of data. Secondary data pertinent to the PSNP– natural resources PW activities which has effect on the livelihood of community was collected. Furthermore, observations were also made to obtain an insight into the socio- economic status of the community disaggregated by wealth categories. This study employed both qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection. The methodologies are further substantiated below.
3.4.2 Qualitative Data Collection
This impact assessment emphasized qualitative source of information. It is mainly due to the timeframe allocated for this work; the implementation of the PWs at community level, to allow the participant to discuss openly on the key impacts of PSNP - PW which enhances its reliability and validity, capture the impact of PSNP from communities own assessment among others. The qualitative data collection methods include focus group discussion with different wealth categories and personal observation. The criteria along with wealth breakdown are adopted from Livelihood Integration Unit of the Disaster
9 Jan de Graaff, 1996. The Price of Soil Erosion: an economic evaluation of soil conservation and watershed development. PhD thesis, Wageningen Agricultural University, Wageningen, The Netherland. 10 Spaan, W.P. and D. Meindertsma, 1996. Soil and water conservation measures; Lecture notes. Department of Irrigation and Soil & Water Conservation , WAU. 11 FAO, 1996. Control of water pollution from agriculture - FAO irrigation and drainage paper 55 1. PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1: 2011 24
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Prevention and Preparedness Commission (DPPC) (2008). Accordingly, there are five wealth categories i.e. rich, middle, poor and very poor. The criteria used for the stratifying the wealth categories include household size, land area cultivated, crops cultivated, livestock and asset holdings.
3.4.3 Focus Group Discussions (FGDs)
Consultation meeting was made with Tigary and Oromia Agricultural and Rural Development Bureaus to select the sample Woredas. For a detailed discussion, among five Woredas in Zamra watershed, three Woredas were purposefully (60%) selected for the study based on the stratified Livelihood Zone considering the coverage and performance with respect to PNSP-PW activities. The sample Woredas covered about 97 percent of the total areas of the Woredas in the selected watershed. Accordingly, Emba Alaje from highland, Hintalo from midlnd and Seharti Samre from lowland livelihood zones were chosen as a sample Woredas.
The assessment was carried out in eight Kebeles. They are representative bearing in mind that the relative homogeneity in terms of social and economic setting and farming system within the specific livelihood zone. Thus, the sample Kebeles are proportionally distributed among the sample Woredas. Through thorough discussion with each sample Woreda Agricultural and Rural Development office‟s concerned staffs, two Kebeles from the highland, three Kebeles from the midland and three Kebeles from the lowland were selected purposefully. Four focus group discussions were carried out in each sample Kebele with the stratified wealth categories households‟ i.e rich, middle, poor and very poor. Hence, 32 FGDs were conducted among 160 households of which 40 percent of the discussants were women headed households.
The study followed analogous methodology to select sample Woredas and Kebeles in Oromia region-Keleta watershed. Discussion was also carried out among the respective office experts to choose the samples. The targeted watershed has three Woredas, of which, the natural resource management PW is undertaken in two Woredas i.e. Dodota and Sire. These two Woredas were marked in this livelihood impact assessment. Information obtained from the Zonal and Woredas Agricultural and Rural Development Offices indicated that Dodota Woreda has 12 Kebeles in which six Kebeles are found in Keleta watershed. Among six Kebeles, three Kebeles were selected purposefully as a sample. With regards to Sire, the total Kebeles found in this Woreda is 12, however, the PSNP- PW is undertaking only in three Kebeles. Hence, two Kebeles were taken as a sample in the study. Similar to the Zamra watershed, in Keleta Watershed, four focus group discussions were carried out in each sample Kebele with the stratified wealth categories. Totally, 20 FGDs were conducted among 100 households and 40 percent of them were women headed households. The sampled respondents are represented both from
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PNSP–PW beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries. The following tables show the characteristics of each sample Kebele categorized by livelihood zones in Zamra-Tigray and Keleta-Oromia watersheds.
Table 3. Characteristics of sampled Kebeles in Zamara and Keleta Watersheds
Zamra Watershed, Tigray
%of Sample Distance Livelihood Woreda Sample Kebele kebele from the From the Accessibility Zone wereda Woreda (km)
Highland Emba Alaji Betemera 55 Asphalt 40 Hintalo Waza Ada Awala 22 Moderate
Midland Hintalo Wajirat Hintalo 18 “
Hagere Selam 23 8 “
Frewine/Hewane 16 “
Lowland Seharti Samre Dekera 18 No proper road
Nebar Handnet 43 28 Moderate
Samre 0 Moderate
Keleta Watershed, Oromia
Lowland Sire Alelu Gesela 12 Dry Weather road 67 Ebesta Ouduga 8 “
Lowland Dodota Amigna Debeso 16 “ 50 Lode Sharbe 12 “
Dere Qiletu 14 “
Source: Woredas and Kebeles ARD Offices and own observation, 2011
3.4.4 Observation
Personal observations and transect walk was also made to have an insight about the PSNP-PW performance and cross-check with other sources of information. While walking down the villages with agricultural development workers, the local settlers and other interested beneficiaries were took part and discussions were held on key aspects of NRM and livelihood systems across the watersheds.
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3.4.5 Secondary Data Collection
Secondary data relating to the PSNP watershed activities of PW was collected using a secondary data collection sheet. The sources of secondary data include PSNP reports prepared at federal, regional, Woreda and Kebele levels at the different phases of the project. These secondary data were used to substantiate the qualitative information wherever necessary.
3.4.6 Method of Data Analysis
The qualitative information drawn from FGDs and personal observations from the two watersheds were classified into different categories, checked and verified to identify regularities and patterns of different issues. Moreover, the data collected from different secondary sources were also reviewed to underpin different information gathered through FGDs and the observations. Triangulation was also used to crosscheck reliability and consistency of various sources of information. The key socio-economic impact assessment findings of the two watersheds were presented in the form of narration, tables and graphs. Pictures are also supplemented the information where appropriate.
3.5 Economic Impact Assessment
3.5.1 Financial and Economic Analysis
Cost benefit analysis is the standard method of evaluating interventions and projects (Enters, 1998) and will be used in the current analysis. It consists of impact analysis followed by valuation of the identified impacts. All direct, indirect and external effects are incorporated into the impact analysis. The object is to compare the present value of a stream of benefits to a stream of costs. A clear distinction needs to be made between “financial” (or “private”) and “economic” (or “social”) cost-benefit analysis. Financial analysis is the first step in assessing the economic costs. The analysis measures the private profits (losses) accruing to households or Communities based on the market (or financial) costs and benefits. This analysis will be an important input in determining farmers‟ and communities‟ likely adoption rates of the natural resource public works. Economic analysis measures the impact of the interventions on the welfare of society as a whole. Where there are market imperfections (market failures) and price distortions from government policies (e.g. taxes, subsidies) then “shadow” prices must be estimated.
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3.5.2 Measures of Programme Worth
Perspective of the Farmer or Community
The financial analysis determines an intervention's worth to a farmer or community and whether or not they are likely to make the necessary investments. There are two measures of concern to a traditional rainfed farmer in Ethiopia: the first is the overall profitability of the investment and probably more importantly, what will be the pay-back period – or when will the farmer or community start to recoup the initial costs of the investment. Here the (undiscounted) cash flow analysis can reveal how long this period is likely to be. The longer the payback period – notwithstanding the eventual profitability – will indicate the possible need for incentives, credit or direct support (as afforded by the asset development component of the safety Net Programmes).
Perspective of the Government
Governments are likely to be concerned about both the private and the public measure of the overall profitability of the proposed individual and the overall programme of interventions. They are concerned about the private profitability as a measure of the target beneficiaries' likelihood of adopting the improved measure and the possibility of having to use incentives or financial or other support to encourage individual investment. The use of the financial cash flow analysis in this regard has been described above. The financial analysis can also indicate the size of the resources required from Government for budgetary purposes but not to determine whether the Programme will make a positive contribution to the economy. The economic analysis provides this information.
Other measures of overall worth of an intervention or programme of interventions are the net present value (NPV) and the internal rate of return (IRR). The NPV is the difference between the present value of the discounted costs and benefits. If the difference is positive this means the investment provides a return greater than could have been obtained investing the money at the rate of interest equal to the discount rate. The IRR is the discount rate that is necessary to make the NPV equal to zero. A third measure is the discounted benefit:cost ratio which is the ratio of present value of incremental benefits to the present value of the incremental costs.
Governments will normally be concerned about the overall contribution of the programme to the national economy. Here the economic analysis provides the basis for comparison. It is the total net present worth that is the economic PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1: 2011 28
PSNP PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1 - 2011 objective that governments seek to maximize for the investment of available scarce resources (Gregersen et al., 1987). The IRR and the B:C ratios do not give any indication of the magnitude of the net benefits. Thus the NPV should always be part of the assessment of an individual intervention or the programme of interventions.
Whilst it is not intended that the micro-watersheds should be ranked it may be required that they be compared. The interventions that form part of the Public Works under analysis are not mutually exclusive interventions. That is to say there are no interventions that would compete for the same site, they are termed independent interventions. Gittinger (1982) has compared the three measures of worth for (i) independent interventions with no constraint on costs, (ii) independent interventions with constraints on costs, and (iii) mutually exclusive projects within a given budget. The interventions in the proposed programme fall within (ii) above.
Gittinger states that for these independent interventions with constraints on costs is possible to use all three measures of worth but that that only the discounted B:C ratio is the most appropriate.
3.5.3 Discounting
An important consideration is to estimate a farmer‟s or a Community‟ private discount rate. There is evidence that these can be very high and offer one explanation of why many farmers and communities have not been adopting or maintaining soil conservation measures. Discounting is used to calculate the present value of future costs and benefits. For financial CBA this is the personal discount rate of the farmer or Community investing in a soil conservation measure. Where well operating rural credit markets exist then the market borrowing rate of interest can be used. Where such markets do not exist then the farmer‟s own personal discount rate (or time preference) must be estimated. Some studies have been undertaken in Ethiopia to estimate farmers‟ private discount rates. In Andit Tid Watershed in North Shewa, Shiferew and Holden (2005) estimated farmer discount rates at between 25 and 58 percent. Much depends on farmers‟ livelihood vulnerability to external and local shocks: those with a higher vulnerability have higher discount rates. High discount rates have the effect of significantly reducing the net present value of a natural resource investment. The main focus of this analysis is on the PSNP‟s Natural Resource Public Works (PW‟s), which are in the main Community Assets (“Closed” Areas and Gully reclamations). Communities are more likely to have lower discount rates and the present study follows that of WFP (2005) and adopts a financial discount rate of 15 percent. PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1: 2011 29
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For economic CBA the rate should reflect the “social” time preference. Generally national planning agencies set the discount rate for the government investment projects and this will be followed in the present analysis. This rate is 10 percent.
3.5.4 Issues related to environmental and social costs and benefits with no or imperfectly reflected market values
Natural resources, as well as providing many goods and outputs (crops, livestock) that have values that can be priced in the market, also provide a number of services that have no values in the market place. These services include:
Hydrological services: of wetlands: flood damping, sediment retention of forests and woodlands: soil stabilization, flood damping.
Climatic Services: forests and woodland: greenhouse gas sequestration.
Soil formation and nutrient cycling: rock weathering, nutrient release by soil organisms and organic acids.
Crop and Livestock genetic resources for beneficial crop/livestock properties.
Recreation and aesthetic values.
Cultural and spiritual values.
In these cases the markets fail to reflect environmental values and there may be a number of reasons why. Two of the most important reasons are the prevalence of “public goods” and “externalities”. Public goods: have two characteristics: (i) no one can be excluded from consuming or experiencing them, and (ii) increased consumption by one person does not exclude its consumption by another person. One example might the view over the Abay Gorge. One person enjoying this magnificent view does not exclude another person from enjoying the view. This aesthetic value is a public good together with a number of others such as biodiversity, reduced sedimentation of downstream reservoirs and carbon storage. Free markets do not provide for such goods and governments are often required to ensure their supply.
Externalities: are “uncompensated” costs or benefits arising from the actions of an economic activity by one person or group, whose impacts are
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PSNP PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1 - 2011 experienced by another person or group. In watershed management an example of a cost externality is erosion in the upper part of the catchment causing sedimentation in the lower part of the catchment. An example of a benefit externality is the investment by farmers in soil conservation in the upper catchment and the reduced sedimentation in irrigation canals of farmers downstream. In this case the farmers downstream get the free benefits from the investments of farmers upstream.
Other reasons for market failures or imperfectly operating markets are lack of information (e.g. on prices) and distortions in prices due to government policies (export taxes, subsidies). Another area is the lack of clear or secure property rights.
It is important that non-market environmental impacts are included in the overall analysis where ever possible. The production function approach will be used where non-marketed goods and services often have a greater importance in the production process. This is examined below.
3.5.5 Valuation Procedures
There are a number of approaches to estimating the Costs of soil degradation12. Two approaches will be used in the present analysis. Market Prices This is the simplest valuation method and relies on market prices. Many goods and services are traded in local (teff, livestock) and international (coffee) markets. For these products market prices are used in the estimation of costs and benefits. In the economic analysis it is necessary to adjust market prices to account for market imperfections (e.g. coffee export taxes, fertilizer subsidies). The conversion factors for non-tradables in Ethiopia were taken from WFP's benefit cost analysis of their Soil and water Conservation Programme (WFP, 2005) and are as follows:
Conversion factors: Ethiopia - Non-tradables Exchange rate (ETB/US$1.00) 9.00 Non-traded agricultural products (except wheat 0.9 Labour 0.98
12 The approaches and issues raised here apply equally to the estimation of costs and benefits of soil fertility decline, salinization, river bank erosion and deforestation. PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1: 2011 31
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Production Function or Change in Production Approaches The production function or change of productivity approach13 has been the most widely used as it is logical and relatively easy to use, and will be used in the present analysis. The cost of land degradation is equal to the value of the crop production lost valued at market prices, plus the value of discounted future losses. The valuation is conducted by projecting crop yields without and with the conservation measure and multiplied by the crop price. It requires substantial data on the relationships between the specific processes of soil degradation and production loss.
There are some inherent problems (Enters, 1998) with the approach. Given the variability of crop yields due to the variability climatic and crop husbandry factors it can be difficult to distinguish at the field level differences between the with and without soil degradation situation. Additionally, where the soil or other natural resource (e.g. montane forest) is irreversibly damaged there may be the loss of an “option” value. (Mahmud Yesuf et al. (2005) quote the example of a deep soil that is being eroded but has no immediate impact on crop yield. However, the buffering capacity of a deep soil that could reduce the negative impact of drought is lost and this represents the loss of an option value.
3.5.6 Approaches to Off-Site Impacts of Soil Degradation
Most available soil degradation cost studies in Ethiopia refer to on-site costs. Mention is occasionally made of the off-site costs (“externalities”). These are mainly sedimentation of dams, reservoirs and irrigation canals, aggradation of river beds leading to flooding and bank erosion and reduction of water quality for drinking and hydro-power generation (damage to turbines). Some these are trans-boundary impacts.
Some of these impacts may not necessarily be negative. The nutrient enrichment ratios of more than unity indicate that eroded soil in most cases has higher nutrient and organic matter content than the soil from which it was derived. Deposition on down slope fields and from suspended sediment on flooded fields in flood retreat agriculture have beneficial effects. Farmers in Ethiopia recognize that soil deposited against contour bunds is more fertile than soil upslope. Until the construction of the Aswan high Dam river sediment provide considerable amounts of nutrients now replaced with chemical fertilizer. Given the importance of these externalities to the PWIA an attempt will be made to estimate of their costs and benefits. However, the scale
13 Also known as the “input-output” or “dose-response” methods. PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1: 2011 32
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(spatial and temporal) problems of linking erosion and sedimentation have been indicated in para 3.2.4 above. The production function approach will be used to estimate the costs of off-site impacts. As with its use in estimating costs of in-site degradation a careful assessment will need to be made of the linkages between the on-site soil erosion, the sediment delivery ratio and the rate of sedimentation at the downstream sites.
3.5.7 Distributional Concerns:
Standard cost benefit analysis does not normally analysis the distribution of costs and benefits although a careful analysis of the difference between the Financial and the Economic costs and benefits can identify those accruing to private individuals, those to Government (taxes, investment outlays in the project) and those to society as a whole (these may or may not include externalities) (Belli et al., 2001). Of particular interest in a watershed management programme with a strong sustainable livelihoods and poverty reduction focus, is the distributions of costs and benefits among the various primary stakeholders (e.g. herders, farmers,) and among locations (e.g. food deficit areas, food surplus areas). Distributional concerns are examined in the Stakeholder consultation in the Focused Group Discussions with the four Wealth Groups. These are examined in detail in the Social and Livelihoods Impact Assessment report. Distributional concerns will be incorporated into the analysis by assigning costs and benefits to the various Stakeholders identified in the Stakeholder Analysis and locationally to upstream and downstream parts of the Watersheds.
3.6 Public Works Mapping: Methodology for the GIS Input
3.6.1 Objective
The objective of the GIS input in PWIA is to: a. Measure the spatial dimension of achievements in public work activities against initial plans; b. Graphically and quantitatively present the spatial distribution of activities performed in Keleta and Zamra watersheds; c. Assess the contribution of public work program to the development and restoration of the selected watersheds; and d. Provide relevant information to the watershed development expert of the Assessment Team. PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1: 2011 33
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3.6.2 The Terms of Reference
The World Bank‟s Terms of Reference (ToR) for mapping PWs required the GIS expert to be based on the development plan maps of micro-watersheds in use at each watershed Kebele. According to the ToR, the expert would scan the maps, geo-references them, digitize feature classes, create ShapeFiles, build attributes, and make summaries by micro-watershed, Kebele, Wereda and watershed.
3.6.3 Challenges of the ToR and the Method Finally Adopted
The ToR assumed that all micro-watersheds in Zamra and Keleta watersheds are prepared to scales and contain objects drawn accurate to ground realities. However, about 90.0 percent of the micro-watersheds development maps have never been drawn in a way of allowing geo-referencing and adapting them to the GIS system. This is because of the fact that those maps were prepared mainly to orient local communities on gradual rehabilitation and development of micro-watersheds in their localities. In spite of this, most of the sketches are poorly managed and the materials used at the initial stage of planning are substandard. The technical and physical drawbacks of such maps have, therefore, hindered their use as recommended in the ToR. Figure 4. Example of micro-watersheds development plans in use at Kebeles
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The resolve this issue the GIS expert acquired scanned and georeferenced topographic maps of 1:50,000 scale from the Ethiopian Mapping Agency with the aim to trace the micro-watersheds in which PWs activities are being implemented. For a clear orientation and overview of the micro-watersheds by the DAs in the watershed Kebeles, the GIS expert planned the use of watershed boundaries and other supplementary features such as Kebele boundaries, roads, villages, churched and names of places.
Prior to the actual fieldwork, the expert, together with rest of the team members, contacted relevant regional, zonal and Wereda officials/experts with the view to establish linkages and earn stakeholders awareness at all levels of hierarchy. In order to develop insights into the watershed Kebeles and select those implementing PWs activities, guide maps were prepared and utilized as references for concerned experts and officials at all levels. The reference maps were preliminarily prepared based on livelihood zones, administrative boundaries and hierarchies.
3.6.4 Actual Capturing of Micro-Watersheds and PW’s Activities in Kebelles
The orderly arrangement of scanned topographic maps and the combined use of secondary spatial data layers facilitated an opportunity to easily capture micro-watersheds and encode PWs activities. At all places, however, the process required preliminary orientations on topographic map reading and spatial orientation of places on the map. The exercise was found easier and shorter particularly for the DAs already having good insights of their respective Kebeles and reasonable backgrounds in map reading. At all places, the roles of Natural Resources Management Process Owners have been tremendously high in account of their responsibilities in planning and implementing PWs activities in their mandate Weredas.
Micro-watersheds tracing in Kebeles followed delineating boundaries on laptop computer, encoding micro-watersheds by name, Kebele, types of PWs measures, Kebele and Wereda. Hence, such information formed preliminary attributes of micro-watersheds in which various PWs activities had either been implemented or under process since the beginning of the sub-program in 2005.
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Figure 5. Preliminary list attributes of micro-watersheds by Kebele and Wereda of domain
In addition to mapping micro-watersheds, drainage lines had to be digitized for both Zamra and Keleta watersheds in order to enable detail mapping and evaluate the spatial distributions of PWs activities according to watershed concept and the National Guideline of Community-Based Watershed Development. With the exception of some pockets in Keleta watershed, majority of PWs measures were found planned and implemented according to the concept and the guideline as well.
Figure 6. Micro-watersheds planned and implemented according to the requirement (Zamra watershed)
Micro- watershed Drainage Gedebo Name of _2 Micro- watershed
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PART 2. KELETA WATERSHED: OROMIYA REGIONAL STATE
4. Description
4.1 Biophysical Characteristics
4.1.1 Location and Extent
The Kelete Watershed is located in northern Arsi Zone of Oromiya Region. It rises in Mount Chilalo and enters the Awash River near Sodere just below Wonje Sugar Estate. The total watershed is 1,239km2 in extent. The watershed lying within Dodota and Sire woredas is only 361 km2.
Map 1. Location of Kelete Watershed PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1: 2011 37
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4.1.2 Relief and Drainage
The watershed within Dodota and Sire woredas ranges from 2,800masl down to 1,350masl at the junction of the Kelete and Awash Rivers. The relief forms three level platforms of increasing altitude separated by distinct scarps. This is shown clearly on the slope map (Map 3).
Map 2. Relief and Drainage
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Map 3. Slope Map (%)
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4.1.3 Climate
i. Mean Annual Rainfall
The mean annual rainfall generally increases with altitude: ranging from 1,080 mm in the southeast to 850mm in the central part of the watershed. It appears to increase again towards the northeast near the Awash River.
Map 4. Mean annual rainfall
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ii. Length of Growing Period
The watershed has two main types of growing period (map 5): in the lower half of the Watershed there is a single growing period, whilst in the upper Watershed there is a double growing period: a longer period followed by shorter period. The dependable length (i.e. occurs 4 out 5 years) single growing period is 94 days. The dependable length of the double growing period is 204 days and double cropping is possible except for a small area in the northeast of the watershed.
Map 5. Type and Length of Dependable Growing Period
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iii. Mean annual temperature
Mean annual temperature is again closely related to altitude rising from 12 - 15°C in the highest part of the Watershed to 20 – 22.5°C along the Awash River.
Map 6. Mean annual temperature (degrees C)
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iv. Mean Annual Evapotranspiration
Temperature and rainfall are the main influences on the mean annual potential evapo-transpiration (PET) with PET ranging from 1,900mm/yr in the lowest part of the watershed to 1,500mm/yr in the highest.
Map 7. Mean annual evapo-transpiration.
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4.1.4 Geology
The upper part of the Watershed is underlain by basalts and a narrow bank acidic rhyolites. The main part of the lower Watershed is underlain by Recent undifferentiated deposits: colluvium and alluvial. Occasionally these deposits have ridges of basalts protruding through them and which form prominent scarps.
Map 8. Geology
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4.1.5 Soils
Alisols are found along the lower western side of the Watershed. These are soils of low fertility with a higher clay content in the subsoil. Calcisols are found along the central part of the Watershed and on the second higher platform to the east. These are brown light textured soils of moderate fertility with secondary accumulation of lime in the sub-soil. On the first and highest platforms are Vertisols, with deep black cracking clay top and sub soils. Although of moderate fertility they suffer from water logging during the rains.
Map 9 Dominant Soils (FAO Classification)
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4.1.6 Water Resources
i. Sub-Watersheds
The Watershed is divided into three sub-watersheds: the main Kelete Sub- watershed, the Wabero sub- watershed and the Chancho Sub-watershed which is in fact part of the upper Kelete Sub-watershed. The Wabero River joins the Kelete River just before the latters junction with the Awash River. The areas and proportions of the total Kelete Watershedwithin the Dodota and Sire woredas are shown in Table 4. Table 4. .Areas (km2) and % area of the Sub-watersheds
NAME AREA (KM2) % AREA KELETE SUB-WATERSHED 171 47% WABERO SUB-WATERSHED 161 45% CHANCHO SUB-WATERSHED 29 8% TOTAL 361
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Map 10. Sub-Watersheds
ii. Aquifer Productivity
The highest groundwater production rates are found in the Unconsolidated sediments. To the west of the Kelete River rates are 50 – 80l/hour and to the east 30 – 50l/hour. On the upper platform overlying the basalts rates fall to 30/hour.
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Map 11. Aquifer Productivity (l/hour)
iii. Groundwater Quality
Groundwater quality in terms of suspended solids is highest where aquifer productivity rates are highest: 500 – 1,500 ppm. On the highest part of the watershed quality is highest: <500 ppm.
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Map 12. Groundwater Quality (ppm suspended solids)
4.1.7 Land Cover / Land Use
Rainfed cultivation covers most (79 percent) of the watershed. Tree cover is highest (11 – 20 percent crown cover) west of the Kelete River and lower to the east (1 – 10%). Along and just to the east of the Kelete River is a band of open Shrubland, which covers a well-defined gullied area. The open Shrubland gives way to grassland at the lowest part of the Watershed. There is a small plot of open Forest in the highest part of the Watershed.
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Table 5. Kelete Watershed: Dominant Landcover (ha)
LANDCOVER AREA (ha) AREA (%) Rainfed Cereal: lightly stocked trees 19,262 53% Rainfed Cereal: moderately stocked trees 9,480 26% Forest; Montane broadleaf; Open (20-50% crown cover) 43 0% Grassland; unstocked (woody plant) 1,440 4% Shrubland; Open (20-50% woody cover) 5,837 16% TOTAL 36,062
Map 13. Dominant Landcover
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4.1.8 Potential Soil Erosion Hazard
The potential soil erosion hazard has been mapped by the WBISPP using the revised universal soil loss equation modified for Ethiopian conditions (Hurni, 1986). The highest rates are found along the escarpment, which seprates the second and thrid platforms. A narrower band is found following the lower escarpment. Elsewhere rates are relatively low.
Map 14. Potential Soil Erosion Hazard
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4.2 Socio-Economic Characteristics
4.2.1 Administration
The Project area covers that part of Dodota and Sire woredas located within the Kelete watershed. The watershed covers some 47 kebelles although possibly only 30 of these are located totally within the Project area.
Map 15. Administration
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4.2.2 Population Distribution
Table 3. Total population, households, population density and household size within the Kelete Watershed The spatial distribution is shown in Map 16.
Map 16. Population Density and Distribution
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4.2.4 Livelihood Zones
Two Livelihood Zones as defined by the Livelihoods Integration Unit (LIU) of the Disaster Management and Food Security Directorate (DMFSD) of the Ministry of Agriculture are found within the watershed). These are indicated below.
i. Arsi-Bale Wheat, Barley and Potato Livelihood Zone
This Livelihood Zone found above 1,800masl. In the upper part of the Zone Above 2,500masl barley and wheat are the principle cereal crops with only barley found above 2,800 masl. Field pea and flax are minor crops. Chat and potatoes are the main cash crops. Between 1,800 and 2,500 masl. Teff (15% area), maize (13%), sorghum (12%) and wheat (10%) are the main cereal crops. Where vertisols occur the proportion of teff area is higher. Average farm sizes are 2.0 ha. Pulses and oil seed are very minor. As with the previous system cattle, goats and sheep comprise the livestock sub-system. Wood fuel is also scarce and dung fuel predominates. Livestock comprise cattle, sheep and goats with sheep predominating the small stock. Stall feeding is widely practiced. The system is distinguished by the paucity of tree planting. Wood fuel is thus very scarce and dung is the main fuel type as crop residues have a high value as livestock feed. The LIU Survey describes the following wealth grouping (Figure 7). Figure 7. Wealth Grouping: Arsi-Bale Wheat, Barley Potato LZ
Source: LIU (2008)
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All households purchase some of their food requirements: about 45 percent, the remainder being own production. Poor and very poor households obtain between 50 and 25 percent of their income from off-farm employment. Market accessibility is rated as medium.
ii. Rift Valley Maize and haricot Bean LZ.
This system is found below 1,800masl on the Alisols and Calcisols either side of the Kelete River. Maize and sorghum are the main cereal crops with haricot bean and faba bean extensively cultivated. The Public Works Kebelles are confined to this Zone. Livestock numbers are higher in this system and goats predominate over sheep. Tree cover is higher and fuelwood is the main fuel type with some dung use. Again crop residues are too value as livestock feed to use as fuel. The LIU Wealth Grouping is shown in Figure 8. Figure 8. Wealth Grouping: Rift Valley Maize and Haricot Bean LZ
All wealth groups produce more than half their food requirements. However, the two poorest wealth groups purchase 40 to 25 percent of their food needs. Both groups obtain between 35 and 20 percent of their cash income from off- farm employment. Market access is good.
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iii. Karayu Plains Agro-pastoral System
During the dry season Karayu Agro-pastoralists use the grassland and shrubland along the Kelete River for grazing and browse. The equivalent LZ is the Minjar-Karayu Pastoral Area LZ.
Map 17. Livelihood Zones (LIU, 2008))
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4.2.5 Transport Infrastructure and Markets
Map 18. Road network. The main Nazret to Assela road passes just to the west of the Watershed. An all-weather gravel road connects Dela with Sire. Within the watershed are a number of tracks of uncertain status.
Dela and Sire are the two main markets for households within the Watershed.
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4.3 Features of the Public Works Micro-Watersheds in the Keleta Macro Watershed
4.3.1 Micro-watersheds Distribution and Characteristics
In Keleta watershed, inventory of micro-watersheds was carried at 16 Kebeles where PWs activities are underway. In the watershed, only Dodota and Sire Weredas currently implement such activities in lesser scale than it is in Zamra watershed. A total of 32 micro-watersheds were mapped of which 13 are protected through PWs program, 15 through mobilization of communities, and the remaining three by NGO, private and a cooperative society. Administratively, 7 are in Dodota and 25 are in Sire Wereda. Their total area covers 3,693 hectare of which 73.0 percent are in 11 Kebeles of Sire and 27.0 percent in 5 Kebeles of Dodota. PWs purely account 59.0 percent of the inventoried micro-watersheds area while the size of those conserved through community mobilization is the second largest covering nearly 33.0 percent. Table 7. Micro-watersheds Mapped in Keleta Watershed
No. Type Number % Area % (ha.)
1 Cooperative 1 3.1 55,0 1.5
2 Government 1 3.1 103.3 2.8
3 Mobilization/Community 15 46.9 1,214.80 32.9
4 NGO (Sel-Help Int'l.) 1 3.1 22.4 0.6
5 PW 13 40.6 2,163.6 58.6
6 Private 1 3.1 133.8 3.6
Total 32 100 3,692.9 100
Source: Computed from micro-watersheds database Micro-watersheds in Keleta watershed are distributed over five agro-climatic zones, extending from upper Kolla to moist Dega. About 50,0 percent of their total area falls in dry Weyina Dega, a similar distribution in Zamra watershed. Figure 8. Micro-watersheds distribution by agro-climatic zone
0.0
4.7 24.8 Dry Upper Kolla Moist Upper Kolla Dry Weyena Dega Moist Weyena Dega 49.4 21.1 Moist Dega
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With regard to livelihoods, people living around the micro-watersheds eke their living on a mixed farming system, dominantly of crop production. The major livelihood earners are barley, wheat, oilseeds and pulses, to which 77 percent of the micro-watersheds areas belong. Cattle and shoats provide additional means of livelihood around all inventoried micro-watersheds.
4.3.2 Types of Conservation Techniques
A total of 15 major conservation techniques are under application in Keleta watershed. In the order of occurrence, plantation, soil bunds, stone bunds and hillside terraces are notable. Some of the technologies used here are not common in Zamra watershed. This could be due to differences in geological formation, topography and hydrological factors. Table 8. Occurrence of Conservation Technologies in PWs- implementing Kebeles
S.No. Techniques/Technologies Occurrence %
1 Forest Management 1 1.2
2 Graded Soil Bund 5 6.0
3 Cut-off Drain 6 7.2
4 Plantation/Pit 19 22.9
5 Water Way 2 2.4
6 Soil Bund 14 16.9
7 Stone Bund 12 14.5
8 Stone-Faced Soil Bund 5 6.0
9 Check Dam 3 3.6
10 Micro-Basin 4 4.8
11 Hillside Terrace 10 12.0
12 Gully Treatment (Soil, Wood, stone) 2 2.4
13 Eye Brow Basin 4 4.8
14 Heiring Bone 1 1.2
15 Fanya juu 7 8.4
Keleta watershed total 83 100.0
Source: Extracted from micro-watersheds database
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Figure 9. Distribution of inventoried micro-watersheds by type of program
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4.3.3 Micro-watersheds Relevance to Slope and Land Cover
Assessment of distribution by slope gradient showed higher concentration of conservation measures above 8.0 percent slope, taking about 60.0 percent. In account of the severe land degradation processes in the watershed, 35.0 percent of the micro-watersheds areas in the steeper slopes over 15.0 percent have currently been closed, conserved and protected through various measures, of which PWs sub-program shares as high as 60.0 percent of activities performed in Sire and Dodota Weredas. Table 9. Micro-watersheds Area by Slope Gradient and Relief Type
Slope Class (%) Relief Type Area (ha.) % Cumulative %
< 3 Flat or almost Flat 246.2 6.7 6.7
3 to 8 Gently Sloping 1,196.9 32.4 39.1
8 to 15 Sloping 954.9 25.9 64.9
15 to 30 Moderately Steep 557.3 15.1 80.0
> 30 Steep to Very steep 737.6 20.0 100.0
Total 3,692.9 100.0
Source: Computed from map overlay results of slope and micro-watershed layers. Assessment of land cover-based distribution indicated a trend almost similar to that in Zamra watershed. The dominance (40.0 percent) of conservation in direct influence of cultivated lands could explain a potential for improved yield, production and livelihoods under the use and application of appropriate conservation technologies and continuous maintenance of the physical structures laid in the micro-watersheds. Moreover, as 32.0 percent of the micro-watershed areas comprise vegetation components and severely degraded lands, rehabilitation and re-vegetation possibilities are expected on the ground that closed areas are sustainably protected and managed. Table 10. Distribution of Micro-watersheds by Land Cover
Land Cover Area (ha.) %
Bare rock, stones 93.4 2.5
Bare soil, eroded area 387.3 10.5
Dense woodland (>50% crown cover) 160.1 4.3
Grassland: (trees <20% crown cover) 975.0 26.4
Open shrub land (20 - 50% crown cover) 231.7 6.3
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Dense shrub land (>50% crown cover) 187.2 5.1
Open woodland (20 - 50% crown cover) 29.2 0.8
Plantation 73.6 2.0
Rain-fed cultivation: scattered trees 1,481.3 40.1
Village 73.6 2.0
Keleta Watershed: Total 3,692.4 100.0
Source: Computed based on land cover and slope overlay
Figure 9. Spatial distribution of micro-watersheds by slope
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4.3.4 The Physical Approach
In Keleta, drainage patterns are less regular in pattern and distribution. In areas where streams flow to common sheds, closed areas justify the prevalence of micro-watershed concepts and principles. In some cases, irregularities of drainage patterns have dictated conservation measures to take place according to slope steepness. In other cases, micro-watershed considerations are seldom any and closures are done without due regards to micro-catchment consideration. The Natural Resources Management Process Owners also accept the need for future rectifications and adjustments according to micro-watershed principles in areas of regular drainage systems. The practice of conservation in the immediate buffer zones of the main river systems, like that of Keleta, has demonstrated remarkable results in biological re-generation and protection of soils from storm run-offs.
Figure 10. PWs activities performed according to slope steepness and reverine buffers
Public works following steep slopes in the buffer of Keleta River
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4.3.5 Existing Coverage Status of PWs in Keleta Watershed
Based on their full knowledge of accomplishments in Kebeles, DAs and Natural Resources Management Process Owners in Dodota and Sire Weredas explained that they are about half way to cover areas that need similar interventions. The level of accomplishment in Dodota Wereda seems to be higher compared to the status reached in Sire Wereda, in which two- third of the total potential has not yet been covered. In the Wereda, community awareness and participation seems to be lower and knowledge on the concept and principle of community-based watershed development has not been fully trickled down to Kebeles and watershed communities. Sporadic distribution and alignments of steep slopes for closure seem to have limited community participation as they are distantly located. Table 11. Coverage Status of Conservation Activities in PWs- Implementing Kebeles of Keleta Watershed
% Total Kebele Wereda % Accomplished Remaining %
Qoro Dodota 50.0 50.0 100.0
Lode Sharbe Dodota 60.0 40.0 100.0
Dire Kiltu Dodota 80.0 20.0 100.0
Dilfeker Dodota 70.0 30.0 100.0
Amigna Debeso Dodota 75.0 25.0 100.0
Dodota Total 67.0 33.0 100.0
Lode Lamafo Sire 20.0 80.0 100.0
Alelu Gesela Sire 30.0 70.0 100.0
Amola Tabo Sire 30.0 70.0 100.0
Ebsata Uduga Sire 40.0 60.0 100.0
Koloba Bale Sire 35.0 65.0 100.0
Borera Chrauo Sire 35.0 65.0 100.0
Amola Chancho Sire 45.0 55.0 100.0
Sire Total 33.6 66.4 100.0
Keleta Total (%) 50.3 49.7 100.0
Source: Key Informant interviews.
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Accordingly, the overall coverage and status of accomplishment remained only 50.0 percent, which seems to be lower than the 70.0 percent coverage in Zamra watershed. Moreover, the overall intensity ratio suggests that there is 0.07 hectare of PWs land for each hectare of Kebele area. In Zamra watershed, the ratio is 0.13 hectare per a hectare area of a given land in certain Kebele. 5. Impact Assessment
5.1 Environmental Impacts
5.1.1 Actual On-site Impacts of Watershed Development
5.1.1.1 Positive environmental impacts Reduced soil erosion from closed areas Enhanced land productivity: increased biomass production Increased water availability (Groundwater recharge)
5.1.2 Negative environmental impacts Aggravating overgrazing: Altered asset keeping options of households:
5.1.3 Actual Downstream/Off-site Impacts of Watershed Development
5.1.3.1 Positive environmental impacts Sediment reduction Ground water recharging and improved base flow of streams Less incidence/damage from seasonal floods
5.1.3.2 Negative environmental impacts Potential conflicts:
5.1.4 Potential and Cumulative Impacts Crop production to be saved due to SWC interventions on closed areas: Opportunities to diversify livelihood opportunities: Replication of NRM initiatives at wider scales: Community members’ appreciation of their environmental:
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5.2 Social and Livelihood Impacts
5.2.1 Crop Production
The participants of the Focused Group Discussions have stated that the PW natural resource management activities particularly the soil and water conservation measures are reducing run-off and flooding of private croplands. Since majority of the farmland is found in plain area and the PSNP-PW activities are carried out far away from the center the performance is mostly recognized by farmers who have farmland nearer to the watershed closure areas. In the areas affected, along with other factors like fertilizer, improved seeds, insecticides, pesticides and advises of agricultural extension workers, the majority of the respondents agreed that the PSNP - PW activities are enhancing the farmland productivity. Accordingly, of the total 100 FGDs participants categorized under different wealth groups in the sample kebeles, around 75% of them believe that crops production and land productivity are enhanced after the implementation of PW activities. The study has also cross- checked the perception of discussants by the quantitative data and found consistencies of the change as depicted in the following table. Table 12. Percentage change of the major crops in the sample kebeles (Quintal/hectare)
Amigna Dere Lode Alelu Ebseta Description Major crops Debeso Qiletu Sharbe Gesela Quduga
Wheat 12 8 14 10 16
Barley 8 10 15 8 8 Prior PSNP White pea 3 7.5 5 8 12 - PW Maize 11 18 18 12 24
Teff 5 6 2.5 6 8
Wheat 25 12 19 16 26
Barley 18 14 18 14 14 Prior PSNP White pea 6 12 7 18 22 - PW Maize 28 24 28 20 40
Teff 8 10 6 12 12
Wheat 108.3 50.0 35.7 60.0 62.5 % Change Barley 125.0 40.0 20.0 75.0 75.0
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White pea 100.0 60.0 40.0 125.0 83.3
Maize 154.5 33.3 55.6 66.7 66.7
Teff 60.0 66.7 140.0 100.0 50.0
Source: Estimated based on sample Woredas ARD Offices and Kebeles data, 2011
5.2.2 Small Scale Irrigation
According to the Dodota Woreda Agricultural and Rural Development Office, the total irrigated land at the wereda level is 2917.99 hectares; of which the sample kebeles i.e. Amigna Debeso and Lode Sharbe constitute 877.25 and 1601.25 hectares respectively. These two kebelles form part of the Dodota Spate Irrigation Scheme. Spate irrigation is practiced only during the main rainy season. The irrigation system was constructed by the Oromia Water Resources Bureau while the periphery and field canals have been built by the PSNP-PW activities. The purpose of spate irrigation is to utilize the sudden floods originated from sporadic rainfall in the highland macro-catchments to the moisture stress lowland areas. After the land is inundated, crops are sown – sometimes immediately, but often the moisture is stored in the soil profile and used later. The discussants cited that since the area is moisture stress and highly vulnerable to erratic rainfall, there is a shortage of water during the main rainy season which is supported by floods comes from the upper stream in the two Dodota wereda kebeles mentioned above. In the irrigation scheme, irrespective of wealth categories, farmers who have a farmland proximity to the constructed irrigation canals are benefiting from the system. The table below shows the irrigated farmland size possessed by sample households in the selected Kebeles. Table13. Irrigated farmlands size of the HH in the sample kebeles
Irrigated farmland (ha) Sample Kebele Group Total < 0.5 0.5 - 1 > 1
Amigna Debeso 12.5 100 0 30.0
Lode Sharbe 87.5 0 70.0
Group Total 100 100 0 100
Wealth Categories
Rich 30.8 66.7 0 37.5
Middle 38.5 33.3 0 37.5
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Poor - 0 0
Very Poor 30.8 - 0 25.0
Group Total 100 100 0 100
Source: Socio-economic Impact Assessment, Focus Group Discussants, 2011 Information gathered from the study area indicated that different types of crops like maize, wheat, barley and vegetables such as onion, tomato, cabbage, potato and green pepper are produced. The production is for the consumption and market. The discussants has clearly stated that the irrigation system after the implementation of PSNP-PW sub-project is rising income, create job opportunities, reduce out-migration and introducing a new consumption habits. The representative households‟ as well as the sample kebeles‟ development agents depicted that the spate irrigation has multiple constraints which are hindering the effectiveness of the system in the study area. These include:
The production and productivity of spate irrigable products are determined by unpredictable size and frequency of floods which is an inherent risk of total production failure.
There is inequality or unfair water distribution in spate irrigation due to variation in size and frequency of flood from year to year.
The highland irrigation users (Hitosa wereda) are mostly blocking the floods to their farmland which is strongly affecting the lowland vulnerable users found in Dodota wereda spate irrigation.
There is a conflict between the upstream and downstream water users within the lowland areas where the latter are commonly marginalized due to lack of efficient water distribution management system in spate irrigation.
Even though the spate irrigation structure is well constructed, the water is inadequate and cannot serve even half of the irrigable farmland along the canals.
The performance of ponds and the canals is affected due to siltation problems.
It is very difficult to ensure the sustainability of spate irrigation as it is vulnerable to different shocks and stresses.
The increasing prices of fertilizers and pesticides as well as inadequate access to road to the market are the major problems frequently raised by the discussants.
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The assessment outcome disclosed that irrigation is one of the livelihood supporting options for rural who are engaged in farming in general and to the lowlanders who are often vulnerable to shortage of water and climate related stresses in particular. Households that benefit from spate irrigation are enhancing their income and supporting their livelihood after the PSNP-PW implementation. Moreover, the benefits of spate irrigation go beyond increased productivity of water use and include increased functionality of domestic water, groundwater recharge, fodder for livestock and environmental services such as flood control and biodiversity conservations. Thus, it is advisable to give due attention for the constraints of irrigation based agricultural practices to be sustainably reducing drought proneness and water related stresses and maximizing the proper utilization of the existing water resources for irrigation farming system.
5.2.3 Livestock Production and Beekeeping
(i) Livestock Production The implementation of natural resources management PSNP-PW activities including enclosure of the degraded areas changed the traditional life style of the livestock in this study area as well. The number of livestock population have decreased and communities are focusing on the market value of animals after the PSNP intervention. Accordingly, crop residue is the main source of animal fodder for 80% of the sample Kebeles, except Dere Qiletu in Dodota wereda where the “cut and carry” system from closure areas and plantation of multipurpose trees along the irrigated farmland are supporting the animal forage. On the other way, majority of the sample Kebeles which are not practicing irrigation farming due to the shortage of water and not yet benefiting from the watershed closure areas are attribute to inadequate fodder. With this respect, about 60 percent of the discussants believed that the availability of animal fodder is improved after the natural resources management PW activities while the remaining (40%) respondents replied that the problem is not yet adequately addressed.
For instance, the selling price of an ox on average was Birr 550.00 and rose to Birr 5,000.00-7000.00 draught power and as high as Birr 8,000.00 – 12,000.00 in the case of meat after the PW sub-project implementation. In the lowland agro-ecology, goats are the dominate animals and kept for urgent cash needs and stress periods. At present, the selling price of shoats, on average, is reached to Birr 1,250.00 from merely Birr 150.00-200.00 prior to the introduction of PW. Furthermore, milk which was not marketed before five years is now sold at birr 9.00 per liter.
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Shortage of water for animals was also another development barrier for livestock production particularly in the lowland areas. In this case, the assessment found that availability of water for animals is considerably better after the implementation of the PW activities. Despite Ebseta kebele of Sire wereda is still suffering due to lack of water for animals.
(ii) Beekeeping
Beekeeping has been practiced since a very long period in Keleta watershed; however, the limited bee forage and water due to land degradation and deforestation were significantly declining the honey production. The traditional system of beekeeping and low skills were cumulatively impeding the level of benefit to be gained from this sub-sector. The available information proved that the natural resource management activities implemented by the PSNP- PW sub-project are a base for the enhancement of honey production. In this program, different varieties of trees are planted and vegetables are rehabilitated in most of the enclosure areas which have enhanced the bee forage. Moreover, the significant increase in the honey price is also encouraging the farmers to look the activity as one of the potential income earning option to support their livelihood. The beekeeping activities are limited to those farmers who are settled near to the closures areas. Evidence has also indicated that the locally operating Catholic Churches along with the Agricultural and Rural Development Office avail the modern beehive on loan base for the poor and the very poor wealth categories only while the rich and middle class lack the opportunities. Of the total discussants in two weredas, about 20 percent of the poor and very poor households have traditional and modern beehives.
The discussants further explained that farmers could harvest honey once per year. In addition to the availability of adequate bee forages, the productivity of honey gathered per hive also varies by types of beehives technology. After the PSNP-PW implementation, the average productivity of honey per traditional hive goes up to 8 kilograms in contrast to 3 kilograms prior to the PW activities. In the case of the modern beehives technology, which has been mainly started after the PSNP-PW, the average productivity of honey per hives goes beyond 16 kilograms. The table below shows the productivity and percentage change of traditional and modern beehives in the sample Kebeles.
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Table 14. The productivity trend of honey in the sample kebeles
Prior to PW Post PW %change %change Wereda traditional modern Traditional Modern Traditional Modern
Amigna Debeso 3.5 NP 8 NH 129 -
Dere Qiletu 2 7 4.5 16 125 129
Lode Sharbe 3 9 5 12 67 33
Alelu Gesela 3.5 NP 7 NH 100 -
Ebseta Quduga 2 NP 4.5 NH 125 -
Source: Estimated based on sample Kebeles ARD Offices data, 2011
NA= Not Practiced NH= Not harvested In general, the findings implied that beekeeping activities which was significantly declining due to shortage of bee forage is now reviving after the natural resources management activities are implemented through the PSNP- PW and the emergency of modern beekeeping system. The trend is promising and moderately supporting the livelihood of vulnerable people. Nevertheless, constraints such as lack of accessibility of modern beehives to the rich and some of the middle wealth categories, erratic rainfall and inadequacy of knowledge on the improved beekeeping have had an adverse impact on the viable honey production and sustainable expansion of the sub-sector.
5.2.3 Tree Plantation
With regard to tree plantations, major progress has been made and many trees planted by the PSNP-PW participants both at communal enclosures and on the farmers‟ farmyards. Evidence indicates that the Woreda Agricultural and Rural Development Offices have been supplying seedlings for plantation. The common trees like Croton crostychyuss, Cordia africana, Acacia abyssinica, Casuarina equistefolia, Juniperus procera and Grevillea robusta are planted in the watershed. Moreover, fruit trees such as avocado, papaya, mango, and guava as well as fodder trees are planted by the community in their private land particularly in the Dere Qiletu Kebeles and a few other places within the watershed. The assessment also portrayed that the closure areas were intensively deforested due to the exploitation for fuel wood, construction and agricultural PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1: 2011 71
PSNP PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1 - 2011 tools since long ago which is considerably affecting their livelihood. It is only recently that the community are aware about the merit and demerit of trees and give due attention for the same. Field evidences of both the discussants and personal observations proved that the protected areas are covered by different species of trees and bushes attributable to the PSNP-PW activities. Consequently, the level of erosion and flood from the upper streams is also remarkably reduced and the soil fertility of the farmland is enhanced at downside streams. Because of this multiple effects wild life that was disappeared due to deforestation is now starting to inhabit in the protected and conserved areas. The findings confirmed that exotic and endogenous trees planted by the PW activity as well as private holdings are well surviving.
5.2.4 Fuel Wood, Construction Material and Agricultural Tools
The extraction of firewood, construction materials and agricultural tools are claimed to be the major causes of deforestation in Keleta watershed. The natural resource conservation in the degraded areas and sustainable protection of natural resources is one of the major activities of the PSNP-PW sub program. Instead of exploiting forest resources, the communities are using dung, crop residue and planted trees on their farmland and home compound for fuel and other purposes. A few households are also using energy saving stoves in Dodota Woreda. However the discussants informed that whatever efforts are so far carried out to fulfill the needs of energy and trees for different purposes of the community, they are insufficient to meet the growing energy needs. The perception of FGDs participants concerning the accessibility of fuel wood in their locality prior and after the PW area closure program is depicted in the following table. Table 15. Perception of sample Kebeles HH on the availability of fuel wood at local level
Prior to PW (%) Post PW (%) Woreda Kebele Abundant Average Scarce Abundant Improve Scarce
Amigna Debeso 25 50 25 - 75 25 Dodota Dere Qiletu 25 50 25 - 50 50
Lode Sharbe - 50 50 - 75 25
Alelu Gesela - 100 - - - 100 Sire Ebseta Quduga - 100 - - - 100
Source: Socio-economic Impact Assessment, Focus Group Discussants, 2011
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This clearly shows that the availability of fuel wood varies from Kebele to Kebele. For instance, participants in the Sire wereda of the sample kebeles perceived that accessing fuel wood is still very urgent in their locality even after the PSNP-PW implementation. However, the conditions are slightly improving in case of Dodota wereda. Like the lowland Zamra watershed, trees like eucalyptus that can growing fast and commonly used for fuel wood are not planted in Keleta watershed where the PW activities are carried out due to the climatic condition. Hence, the communities are often using animal dung and crop residues as a source of energy at the expense of fertilizer and fodder. The study result revealed that one of the major PSNP-PW activities i.e. tree planting in the degraded areas as well as on the individual farmland and homestead is practically changing the feature of the closure areas and brought about big difference when compared to open fields which are not protected and covered by trees. It was also observed that in addition to the new planted trees, indigenous plant species of bushes and shrubs are widely sprouting and create a favorable opportunities to the wild animal habitat. The activities are building awareness of the communities in terms of the merit and demerit of tree planting and its consequences in relation to their livelihood. The FGDs result also revealed that in the last three years the accessibility of woods for house construction and agricultural tools are satisfactory at local level since it becomes marketable by the highlanders as a source of income. However, fuel wood problem is still demanding attention like accessing alternative source of energy and promoting energy saving stoves to minimize the constraints in a sustainable manner.
5.2.5 Water Supply
The PSNP-PW is involved in the development of water supply infrastructure to reduce income losses due to excessive time spent on collecting water, to decrease the cost of health services especially for water related diseases, to fill the water demand of livestock which otherwise trekked long distance, and to improve education enrollment and attendance, particularly for girls to lessen the burden and time spent in fetching of water. The result of the study revealed that the level of accessibility of clean water varies from kebele to kebele. In this regard, Sire wereda sample kebeles discussants explained that they have been using rivers, ponds and any unprotected water sources for all types of domestic consumption prior to the PSNP-PW implementation. They spent an average of half a day collecting water and it was arduous for women and children. The implementation of the PSNP-PW activities is improving the clean water availability in majority of the PW sub-project areas as witnessed by the beneficiaries. Kebeles in Dodota wereda such as Amegna Debeso and Lode Sharbe which accessed to clean water prior to the PSNP-PW sub-project have also
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PSNP PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1 - 2011 complained on its inadequacy and raised the issues of distribution problem. However, clean water is still absent in Dere Qiletu where communities are forced to travel 7 – 18 kilometers every day to fetch water from Dera and/or Debeso kebeles. The table below summarizes the perception of discussants regarding the status of water supply service in their locality. Table 16. Perception of sample households regarding the water supply condition
Prior to PW (%) Post PW (%) Woreda Kebele Abundant Average Scarce Abundant Improve Scarce
Amigna Debeso - 50 50 - 100 -
Dodota Dere Qiletu - - 100 - - 100
Lode Sharbe - 100 - - 100 -
Alelu Gesela - - 100 - 100 - Sire Ebseta Quduga - - 100 - 100 -
Source: Socio-economic Impact Assessment, Focus Group Discussants, 2011
In general, the assessment revealed that access to potable water supply service is improved both in terms of quality and quantity after the PSNP–PW activities, despite a lot of efforts are required to address unreached areas. It has positive multiplier effects like saving time, reducing expenditure, improving health status and enhancing incomes which have a significant impact on people‟s livelihood. The common problem of the sustainable water supply schemes is the functionality issue due to scarcity of spare parts and inadequate trained manpower which call for critical attention in future related interventions.
5.2.6 Off-farm Activities
Off-farm activities were the other coping mechanisms for the sample Kebeles of Keleta watershed where low production and crop failure is familiar due to shortage and erratic nature of rainfall. Prior to the PSNP – PW activities, the average labour price was as low as Birr 3.50. The introduction of the PSNP- PW sub-project fundamentally changed the cost and supply of labor. To this effect, while the cost of labour is escalated to Birr 25-40 per person per day, there is a shortage of labour in the off-farm and non-farm activities as majority of the farmers are engaged in either on their own farming tasks or in the PSNP-PW activities. The assessment revealed that, though the proportion of farmers participating in off-farm activities are declining, the option is serving as a coping strategy to some portion of the local community.
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5.2.7 PSNP-Public Works and Gender Issues
Women in rural areas are not only engaged in reproductive activities like maintaining the existence of the family and child caring but also considerably assisting their husbands in various tasks particularly in agricultural activities during peak agricultural seasons. They have resource limitation like farmland due to long strand effect of cultural and social marginalization. Despite the fact that the condition are fully recognized by the government and non-government organizations as a cross cutting issues in the development arena, the sector demand a lot of efforts to rectify the socio-economic status of women and gender relations. This assessment has also looked at the gender relationship in terms of farmland ownership as depicted in the table below. Table17. Sample households’ farmland ownership status disaggregated by sex
Dodota Sire Farmland size Group Group (ha) Total Total Male Female Male Female
< 1 25 14.3 20.4 44.4 45.5 44.8
1 – 2 17.9 47.6 30.6 16.7 45.5 27.6
2 – 5 46.4 38.1 42.9 38.9 9.1 27.6
> 5 10.7 - 6.1 - - -
Group Total 100 100 100 100 100 100
Source: Socio-economic Impact Assessment, Focus Group Discussants, 2011 Like many development intervention, the PSNP-PW acknowledges the gender aspect that often marginalized from different development endeavors and provides full opportunities to benefit from the PW activities. The PSNP - PW activities comprises a larger number of women irrespective of the ability to perform the tasks. Comparable to the Zamra watershed, the women discussants in Keleta watershed have also explained that they have been suffering of food shortage for long time whereas the condition is significantly progressed which attribute to the income earned from PW activities. This becomes the main source of income for their livelihood. Some women beneficiaries are able to diversify their source of income through keeping small ruminants for market. Furthermore, women are also quite happy with the improvement of water supply condition which otherwise very burdensome along with other domestic and agricultural activities. Nevertheless, the scarcity and an inadequate availability of fuel wood is remain intact and a big question for them. Based on the rules and regulations of the program women are entitled for a direct support after 6 months of pregnancy and 10 months of lactation period. Despite the program encourages the involvement of women in leadership and coordination activities, their level of participation is minimal.
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Similar to Zamra watershed, some of the challenges faced regarding PSNP- PW activities in relation to women involvement include the work norm is very tough, takes longer time to accomplish the tasks, some of the PW activities work place is very far, increase the workload beside other household chores which carried out during their busy schedules in absence of electric light in all studied kebeles, and becoming a 6 months pregnant and undertaking laborious PW activities is the challenging for women. In sum, this assessment verified that the implementation of the PSNP-PW activities are benefiting women and considerably decreasing their level of food insecurity. A few women have been also fattening shoats to generate better source of income. Improvement and diversification of their income has a multiple effects in terms of utilization of social services like education and health facilities for their families. In due course, taking into account the above mentioned constrains are very essential to maximize the merit that can be obtained from the PSNP - PW sub-project.
5.2.8 Food Security and Vulnerability Context
The study assessed the food security situation in terms food availability, accessibility, stability and utilization in order to explore the impact of PSNP- PW intervention. In doing this, key points like the perception of the households‟ about food insecurity, seasonal food supply and demand situations and the capacity of households to meet the food needs adequately throughout the year were analyzed. The assessment indicated that irrespective of the wealth categories, households who are living in Keleta watershed were food unsecure and the condition was more serious for the poor and very poor groups. The FGDs revealed that households who are categorized under the poor and very poor wealth class were food unsecure for 6-7 months on average but have progressed to 4-5 months after the PSNP – PW implementation. The rich and the middle wealth class households were also food unsecure for about 4-5 months. At present, the gap of food insecurity level of the better off family is minimized to 3 months for the middle and nearest to 2 months for the rich households. The discussants are also confirmed that the PSNP – PW activities have improved their food security. In line with this, the level of migration to seek off-farm and non-farm activities is also significantly declined from time to time. The following table shows the food self-sufficiency status of households in sampled Kebeles before and after the PSNP-PW activities.
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Figure 11. Food self sufficiency of households in sample Kebeles (Pre and Post PW Period).
Source: Socio-economic Impact Assessment, Focus Group Discussants, 2011 The above figure clearly indicated that the food security status of the households in all wealth categories is enhanced after the PW implementation. On other hand, as the area is vulnerable to recurrent drought primarily caused by fluctuation of rainfall; even the rich and middle wealth category households are in precarious position to feed their family throughout the year without difficulty. The assessment further depicted that in Dodota wereda, the poor and very poor groups have shown a slightly higher proportion of increases in food self- sufficiency compared to the middle and the rich wealth categories. Among other factors such as cultivating their own farmland rather than rented out/sharecropping and fattening shoats to the market; their involvement in PSNP-PW activities which earned additional source of income considerably supports their livelihood. The following table shows its detail. Table 18. Percentage change of food self sufficiency months (Prior and Post PW) in the sample kebeles
% Change Woreda Kebele Rich Middle Poor Very Poor
Amigna Debeso 10.0 25.0 50.0 80.0
Dodota Dere Qiletu 57.1 50.0 33.3 60.0
Lode Sharbe 42.9 50.0 50.0 50.0
Alelu Gesela 42.9 33.3 33.3 33.3 Sire Ebseta Quduga 22.2 25.0 33.3 33.3
Source: Socio-economic Impact Assessment, Focus Group Discussants, 2011 PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1: 2011 77
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Regarding the frequency of meal consumption, the discussants explained that the average frequency of meals to the better off family is now three times a day which was twice prior to the PW. In the case of poor and very poor households, it was twice during the harvesting time but mostly once for extended period prior to the PSNP-PW. At present, the food security condition of these groups is improved, and thus, their frequency of meal increased from one meal to two meals. Nonetheless, irrespective of the wealth categories, the quantity and frequency of meal declines during the critical months of food gaps for almost all households. The findings more implied that the improvement of farmland productivity and crop production, emergency of irrigation farming system and diversifying with high value crops, fattening of animals for market, working on their own farmland instead of renting out and/or sharecropping and earning income from wage payment of PW activities have improved the food security situation and the proportion of households who are food unsecured. Therefore, it is can be concluded that the PSNP-PW activities are improving the food security condition of chronically food unsecured people.
5.3 Economic Impacts
5.3.1 Benefits from Closed Areas
Benefits to Communities from closed areas include the following:
Increased forage for livestock,
Increased fuel wood from indigenous trees,
Increased poles and fuelwood from Plantations,
Provision of bee forage and honey production,
Re-charged groundwater leading to initiation of springs and increased stream base-flow for irrigation,
Increased provision of medicinal plants.
Downstream benefits include:
Reduced sediment to rivers.
Global benefits include:
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Increased sequestration of CO2 (a Greenhouse gas) contributing to a reduction in global warming.
Increased species biodiversity.
5.3.2 Community Benefits from Closed Areas
(i) Increased Forage for Livestock Exclusion of livestock from closed area leads to an increase in herbaceous biomass. Maximum herbaceous biomass yield in both Zamre and Kelete watersheds is estimated (WBISPP, 2003) to be 1.6tons dry matter (DM) per hectare. Wolde Mekuria et al. (2006) surveyed open grazing areas, areas that had been closed for 5 and for 10 years. Herbaceous ground cover in open areas was 5 to 10 percent, in closed areas after 5 years it was 38 percent and 60 percent after 10 years. A four-fold increase over a five year period was assumed, with DM in open areas yielding 0.4tons/ha. There are positive impacts on livestock health and productivity (milk, draught power, fecundity, reduced calf mortalities) with increases in feed supply. To capture these values grass was valued using the annualized value of an ox over 10 years at 10 percent discount rate multiplied by the ratio of 1 ton of grass dry matter to the annual feed requirements of 1 ox (1.825 tons of grass dry matter). Community input costs for guarding and cut and carry amounted to ETB1,150 per annum. The cash flow shown in table 19 indicates that harvesting grass in year 1 is not profitable and in practice cut and carry does not commence until year 2 of closure. Table 19. One hectare budget and cash flow from one hectare of Closed Area Cut and Carry of Grass
yr 1 yr 2 yr 3 yr 4 yr 5 Area (ha) Pasture with closure 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Incremental Yield (t/ha) Pasture with closure 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 1.6 Production (t/yr) Pasture with closure 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 1.6 Gross Revenue (ETB) Pasture with closure 767.12 1,534.25 2,301.37 3,068.49 3,068.49
Community Recurrent Costs (ETB) Pasture with closure 750 750 750 750 750 Cut and Carry Labour costs (ETB) Pasture with closure 400 400 600 800 1000 Total Recurrent costs 1,150 1,150 1,350 1,550 1,750
Cash Flow -382.88 384.25 951.37 1518.49 1318.49
Using 15 percent discount rate for the financial analysis and 10 percent for the economic analysis over a period of 25 years gave the following Net present Values per hectare: PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1: 2011 79
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NPV 15%: ETB4,687 NPV 10%: ETB5,557
(ii) Increased Poles and Fuelwood from Plantations Harvesting occurs at year 10 when volume reaches 186 m3 per ha (Pukkala & Pohnjonen, 1989). Local price for poles is ETB30 and for fuelwood ETB64 per m3. The one hectare budget and cash flow is shown in table 20. Table 20. Budget and cash flow: 1 hectare of Eucalyptus Plantation
Indicative Budget and Cash Flow: Eucalyptus Plantation (1 hectare) Cash Flow Projections Project Year 1.Inflow 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Poles ETB ------13,950 13,950 BLT ETB ------6,629 6,629 sub-total ETB ------20,579 20,579
2. Outflow Production costs ETB 1,708 1,708 1,708 1,708 1,708 1,708 1,708 1,708 2,491 2,491 sub-total ETB 1,708 1,708 1,708 1,708 1,708 1,708 1,708 1,708 2,491 2,491 Cash Flow ETB - 1,708 - 1,708 - 1,708 - 1,708 - 1,708 - 1,708 - 1,708 - 1,708 18,088 18,088 Using 15 percent discount rate for the financial analysis and 10 percent for the economic analysis over a period of 25 years gave the following Net present Values per hectare for poles plus fuelwood: NPV 15%: ETB3,016 NPV 10%: ETB7,617
(iii) Increased Fuelwood from trees
The increased sustainable yield of fuelwood from indigenous trees after closure was as shown in table 21. Table 21. Increases in Stock and Yield (tons/ha) of Indigenous Trees after closure.
Increase wood Increase wood biomass (Bare Increase wood biomass (Open rock/soil to biomass (Grassland shrubland to dense Grassland)to dense to Open shrubland shrubland shrubland
Stock (m3/ha) 5.07 10.25 1.58 Yield (%of stock/annum) 4.6% 2% 1% Yield (m3/ha) 0.23 0.25 0.02
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Fuelwood NPV per m3 at 15 percent and 10 percent discount rates over 25 years were as follows: NPV 15%: ETB75 NPV 10%: ETB12
(iv) Provision of Bee Forage and Honey production Area closure has resulted in a dramatic increase in the provision of bee forage as a result of the increase in herbaceous and woody plants. The availability of improved hives significant increases in the annual yields of honey. In the Kelete Watershed the increase in yields is smaller: from 3ks (traditional) to 15kgs. The Improved Hive has only been introduced very recently into Dodota and Serie woredas (Burns et al., 2010) and with experience these are assumed to increase to 50ks per hive over 5 years. Honey prices in Arsi (Assela) are ETB40 per kg (CSA, 2010). Investment costs amount to ETB900 for the hive and ETB750 for the bee colony. A one Improved Hive Budget and cash flow is shown in Table 19. Table 22. One Improved Hive Budget and Cash Flow.
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INVESTEMENTS PY 1 PY2 PY3 PY4 PY5 - Improved hive 1 0 0 0 0 - Bee colony 1 0 0 0 0 - Honey extractor 0 0 0 0 0 0 INPUTS PY 1 PY2 PY3 PY4 PY5 - Improved hive 1 1 1 1 1 0 COLONY MORTALITIES/LOSSES PY 1 PY2 PY3 PY4 PY5 - Improved hive 0 0 0 0 0
OUTPUTS PY 1 PY2 PY3 PY4 PY5 Yield - Improved: kgs/hive/yr 15 25 35 50 50
Annual Production - Improved (kgs/yr) 15 25 35 50 50
Annual honey Consumed (kgs/yr) 0 0 0 0 0
Colonies Produced or sold/yr 0 0 0 0 0
ANNUAL INPUTS USED PY 1 PY2 PY3 PY4 PY5
Own Labour (pds) 50 50 50 50 50 Hired labour (pds) 0 0 0 0 0
Hired honey extractor (hire period)
CAPITAL COSTS INCURRED (ETB) PY 1 PY2 PY3 PY4 PY5 - Improved hive 900 0 0 0 0 - Bee colony 750 0 0 0 0 - Honey extractor hire 0 0 0 0 0 - Other 0
TOTAL CAPITAL COSTS - 1650 0 0 0 0
ANNUAL COSTS INCURRED (ETB) PY 1 PY2 PY3 PY4 PY5
Labour 500 500 500 500 500 Hired Honey extractor 250 250 250 250 250 TOTAL COSTS - 750 750 750 750 750
REVENUE STREAM PY1 PY2 PY3 PY4 PY5 Improved Hive - Gross Revenue 600 1000 1400 2000 2000 - Hive costs 900 0 0 0 0 - Colony costs 750 0 0 0 0 - Net Revenue -1050 1000 1400 2000 2000 - Revenue sale of Bee Colonies 0 0 0 0 0 - Less value of honey consumed 0 0 0 0 0 - Annual costs 750 750 750 750 750 - Other 0 0 0 0 0 TOTAL NET CASH FLOW -1800 250 650 1250 1250 RETURNS TO LABOUR ETB/pd -3.6 0.5 1.3 2.5 2.5
NPV (ETB) 747 Discount rate 15% NPV: ETB/hive 747
LIVELIHOOD DATA PY1 PY2 PY3 PY4 PY5 Honey consumed (kgs) 0 0 0 0 0 Incremental income (ETB/yr) -1800 250 650 1250 1250 Assets - Improved hive 1 1 1 1 1
Honey NPV per Improved Hive at 15 percent and 10 percent discount rates over 25 years were as follows: NPV 15%: ETB2,350 NPV 10%: ETB6,583
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(v) Increased supply of medicinal plants
Both herbalists and female headed households collect medicinal plants. For female headed households this provides an important element of their livelihood strategies. Howard and Smith (2006) in a study in Hintalo Wajarit woreda on female Headed Households and their use of Communal natural resources reported the collection of 129 plant species. The focal location for medicinal plant collection is the communal areas, and with the increase in both herbaceous and woody plants and a significant increase in plant species diversity (Muys et al. 2006). Another study in the forests of southwest Ethiopia derived a value for medicinal plants of ETB45 per ha (Sutcliffe, 2010).
5.3.3 Down-stream Benefits from Closed Areas
The key downstream benefits from closed areas are two-fold:
Reduced sediment delivered to streams and rivers
Increased infiltration to groundwater and base flow
(i) Reduced sediment delivered to streams and rivers Research by Makelle University (Descheemaeker et al.,2005) has revealed that closed area can trap sediment from upslope areas up to three times their own area, hereby increasing soil depth and increasing nutrient and soil organic matter content. In the present analysis it has been assumed that a closed area will trap sediment from an area upslope two times its own area. The trapping efficiency after 3 years is estimated to be 95 percent. To estimate soil erosion rates on non-cropland the analysis used Universal Soil Loss Equation as revised for Ethiopia. In the case of the Kelete Watershed the reduction in sediment load to the Awash River (using a SDR of 45%) is 33,643 tons/ annum. This is a 47 percent reduction in the sediment load before area closure of 71,300tons/annum. The sediment load of the Awash River at Wonje just above its confluence with the Kelete River is 130,000tons per annum. The contribution of the sediment from the Kelete watershed increases this load by 54 percent. Reducing the sediment load of the Kelete and thus the Awash River, will reduce the sedimentation in the Irrigation Schemes of the Middle and Lower Awash Basin.
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(ii) Increased infiltration to groundwater and base flow
There is clear evidence that locally, increased rain water infiltration has led to increased water supply to groundwater and base flow of local streams. Whilst the base-flow is increased the flood peaks in the rainy season are reduced. Estimating exactly what the overall balance is between reducing the flood peak and increasing the base flow in the dry season is on the overall annual flow of the Kelete River at its junction with the Awash River requires considerably more data and analysis than is available in the present study.
5.3.4 Global Benefits from Closed Areas
(i) Carbon Sequestration Whilst the benefits are area closure in terms of increased forage, wood, and honey production accrue directly to the local Communities, benefits from increased carbon sequestration accrue to the world at large. Whilst the local communities are responsible for realizing these global benefits they do not receive any reward for this service. One method of allowing local communities who do realize such regional or global benefits receive payment for such services is referred to as “Payments for Environmental Services”. More recently, increasing carbon sequestration through afforestation and reforestation (such as occurs in area closures) has been the subject of payment for environmental services through the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) under the Kyoto Protocol. This system allows development countries who have undertaken to reduce their Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions to offset these by paying Less developed Counties to undertake carbon sequestration through a variety of mechanisms including reforestation. Another mechanism of relevance to Ethiopia is the World Bank‟s Community carbon Fund which operates in a similar manner. The example in Ethiopia is the Humbo Project near Soddo which is undertaking area closure over some 5,000 ha as is receiving payments through the Carbon Fund for carbon sequestered in the increase in woody biomass at the rate of US$3.75 per ton of CO2 sequestered. More recently, reducing GHG emissions through afforestation, reforestation, reduced deforestation and reduced forest degradation have all come under the term REDD+. Using the increase in woody biomass and the soil carbon resulting from area closure it has been possible to estimate the amount of CO2 sequestered in the two Watersheds. A conservative estimate of US$3 per ton of CO2 sequestered has been used to value the benefits. The amount of CO2 sequestered would increase in line with the increase in wood biomass and build-up of soil organic matter.
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Total CO2 sequestered and their value as payment for environmental services for the Kelete watershed after 5 years of closure is estimated as follows: 126,590 tons CO2 ETB 5.47 million
(ii) Increased species biodiversity. The increase in plant species diversity in the closed areas has been consistently observed. Placing a monetary value of such increase in biodiversity is very difficult. Biodiversity values cover all other genetic, species and habitat resources. A World Bank cost assessment of environmental degradation of Iran placed a value US$ 16/ha on the value of biodiversity conservation of the Caspian forests. Akpalu and Parks (2007) used an estimate of US$ 23/ha for the value of biodiversity in Ghana's forests. Pearce (1996) in a review of a number of estimates for biodiversity value came to the conclusion that US$ 5/ha would be the most appropriate value. In the absence of estimates from Ethiopia or East Africa the value of US$ 5/ha might be appropriate for Ethiopia.
5.3.5 Total Gross Benefits from Closed Areas due to Public Works
The total gross quantifiable financial benefits to the public works implemented in the Kelete Watershed are shown in table 23. Benefits to increased forage have the highest percentage comprising 95 percent of total benefits. The benefits to honey harvesting are only 2 percent. This is much less than the Zamre watershed because of the lower hive yields and the lower market price in the Kelete watershed. Better connections to the Addis Ababa honey market through a Honey Producer Cooperative and increased value chain addition could increase this proportion significantly. This is the objective of the PSNP Plus Project of Catholic Relief Services.
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Table 23. Total Gross Financial Benefits from the Closed Areas to Public Works in the Kelete Catchment
TOTAL TOTAL TOTAL GROSS TOTAL FORAGE PLANTATION NATURAL CARBON Total NPV BENEFITS NPV WOOD NPV WOOD NPV NPV Honey NPV Wereda Kebelle ETB ETB ETB ETB ETB ETB
Dodota Amigna Debeso 133,359 37,742 2 0 3,735 174,838 Dilfakare 645,720 13,053 1,752 0 17,181 677,705 Dire Qiltu 982,003 20,403 2,451 0 25,397 1,030,255 Lode Sharbe 621,645 15,559 1,388 0 16,434 655,025 Qoro 727,999 15,470 941 0 19,172 763,583 Sirie Alelu Gesela 1,951,245 50,029 2,991 0 51,542 2,055,806 Ebsata Uduga 2,098,298 49,887 3,012 0 54,530 2,205,728 Koloba Bale 810,506 16,881 1,636 0 20,915 849,938 Lode Lamafo 1,455,354 29,420 3,948 0 38,096 1,526,817 TOTAL: KELETE WATERSHED 9,426,129 248,443 18,120 0 247,001 9,939,694 PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL GROSS BENEFITS 95% 2% 0% 0% 2%
The total gross economic benefits are shown in table 24. Table 24. Total Gross Economic Benefits from the Closed Areas to Public Works in the Kelete Catchment
TOTAL TOTAL TOTAL FORAGE PLANTATION NATURAL CARBON Total NPV TOTAL GROSS NPV WOOD NPV WOOD NPV NPV Honey BENEFITS NPV Wereda Kebelle ETB ETB ETB ETB ETB ETB
Dodota Amigna Debeso 127,499 105,726 3 49,230 4,101 286,558 Dilfakare 617,344 36,566 2,852 238,368 19,857 914,987 Dire Qiltu 938,849 57,153 3,992 362,507 30,198 1,392,700 Lode Sharbe 594,326 43,584 2,260 229,480 19,117 888,768 Qoro 696,007 43,336 1,533 268,741 22,387 1,032,005 Sirie Alelu Gesela 1,865,498 140,144 4,870 720,303 60,004 2,790,819 Ebsata Uduga 2,006,089 139,748 4,905 774,588 64,526 2,989,857 Koloba Bale 774,888 47,288 2,664 299,198 24,924 1,148,963 Lode Lamafo 1,391,398 82,414 6,429 537,244 44,755 2,062,240 TOTAL: KELETE WATERSHED 9,011,898 695,960 29,509 3,479,660 289,870 13,506,897 PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL BENEFITS 67% 5% 0% 26% 2% As in the Zamre Watershed the economic benefits to carbon sequestration are very significant and have the same implications for turning these global benefits into local benefits through payment for environmental services. There are also non-quantifiable benefits from reduced sedimentation in the Awash River and the reduction in sedimentation in the canals of the large irrigation schemes in the middle and lower Awash Basin.
5.3.6 Total Net Benefits from Closed Areas due to Public Works
The net discounted financial benefits from Closed Areas are shown in table 25. The overall Watershed benefit:cost ratio is 0.85. The benefits accruing to bee-keeping is relatively small. There are no benefits accruing to irrigation, with 97 percent of benefits derived only from the increased forage. This re- enforces the need to take advantage of the increased bee forage resulting from the area closures by developing market contacts with the Addis Ababa honey markets. PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1: 2011 86
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Table 25. Kelete Watershed: Net Discounted Financial Benefits and Discounted Benefit:cost Ratios by Kebelle
TOTAL TOTAL GROSS GROSS DISCOUNTED BENEFITS NPV COSTS NPV CB RATIO Wereda Kebelle ETB ETB
Dodota Amigna Debeso 174,838 164,929 1.06 Dilfakare 677,705 798,581 0.85 Dire Qiltu 1,030,255 1,214,473 0.85 Lode Sharbe 655,025 768,806 0.85 Qoro 763,583 900,338 0.85 Sirie Alelu Gesela 2,055,806 2,413,162 0.85 Ebsata Uduga 2,205,728 2,595,028 0.85 Koloba Bale 849,938 1,002,376 0.85 Lode Lamafo 1,526,817 1,799,879 0.85 TOTAL: KELETE WATERSHED 9,939,694 11,657,572 0.85
The net discounted economic benefits are shown in table 26. Table 26. Kelete Watershed: Net Discounted Economic Benefits and Discounted Benefit:cost Ratios by Kebelle
TOTAL TOTAL GROSS GROSS DISCOUNTED BENEFITS NPV COSTS NPV CB RATIO LZ Wereda Kebelle ETB ETB
Dodota Amigna Debeso 286,558 182,780 1.57 Dilfakare 914,987 885,014 1.03 Dire Qiltu 1,392,700 1,345,919 1.03 Lode Sharbe 888,768 852,017 1.04 Qoro 1,032,005 997,785 1.03 Sirie Alelu Gesela 2,790,819 2,674,348 1.04 Ebsata Uduga 2,989,857 2,875,897 1.04 Koloba Bale 1,148,963 1,110,867 1.03 Lode Lamafo 2,062,240 1,994,686 1.03 TOTAL: KELETE WATERSHED 13,506,897 12,919,313 1.05 The overall benefit:cost ratio is 1.05. The increase in the economic compared with the financial ratio is due to the inclusion in the economic benefits the global benefits due to carbon sequestration.
5.3.6 Benefits from Micro-scale Irrigation
In Dire Qiltu kebelle the PW‟s are supporting field preparation in a 60 ha irrigation scheme that obtains water from the Awash River. However, as this scheme is not in the Kelete watershed it is not considered in this analysis. The Dodota Spate Irrigation Scheme obtains water from the Boru river, an intermittent tributary of the Kelete River. At its maximum irrigable extent is estimated to be 5,000ha (van den Han, 2008). The scheme has been developed by the Oromiya Water Resources Board. The Public Works involvement has been supporting farmers to prepare their land in readiness PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1: 2011 87
PSNP PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1 - 2011 for irrigation water (digging tertiary canals, bunds, etc). As with the Spate diversion schemes the scheme is for supplementary irrigation of rainfed cereal crops, although onions are also cultivated. The scheme is currently operating in two Public Works kebelles: Amigna Debosa (877 ha) and Lode Shabe (1,601ha). Data is available on the increase in yields (van den Han, 2008) comparing a good rainfall year (2006) and the first year of supplementary irrigation (2007) as follows: Wheat: No increase Barley: 130% increase Maize: 266% increase Teff: No increase Harricot bean: 382% increase Market prices were obtained for Assela from CSA (2010). It was assumed that the PW‟s input was 20 pds per ha. In the economic analysis Capital costs in year 1 were assumed to be ETB10,000 per ha. Costs incurred in micro-scale supplementary irrigation refer variable costs incurred in extra labour (20 pds) and fertilizer. Details of costs, gross revenue and gross margin are shown in table 27 for one hectare. Table 27. Dodota Spate Irrigation Scheme: One Hectare crop Financial budget: Supplementary Irrigation of Cereals
Rainfed Crops: Irrigation multiplier = 1 1 1.3 2.66 1.5 1.5 3.82 Teff Wheat Barley Maize Sorghum Finger Millet H Beans Price ETB/kg 7.8 4.79 4.4 3.85 4.19 3.2 3.64 Yield q/ha 4.00 20.00 26.00 31.92 8.55 8.10 22.92 Sale value ETB 3,120 9,580 11,440 12,289 3,582 2,592 8,343 Variable costs 2,302 3,427 3,310 2,313 2,181 - 262 - Seed 312 1437 1320 323 191 0 262 - Fertilizer 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 0 0 - Crop protection 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Gross margin 818 6,153 8,130 9,976 1,401 2,592 8,081 Labour days/ha 73 65 65 80 70 70 62 Returns to labour 11 95 125 125 20 37 130 The NPV for 1 hectare of supplementary irrigated cereals at 15 percent and 10 percent discount rates to reflect the financial and economic benefits were as follows: NPV 15%: ETB4,385/ha NPV 10%: ETB4,972/ha
The net discounted benefits from Spate Irrigation are shown in table 28. These amount to ETB86.7million. These do not take into account the Capital Costs of the Irrigation Scheme.
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Table 28. Kelete Watershed: Net Discounted Financial Benefits from Spate Irrigation by Kebelle
TOTAL GROSS TOTAL GROSS TOTAL NET BENEFITS NPV COSTS NPV BENEFITS NPV Wereda Kebelle ETB ETB ETB
Dodota Amigna Debeso 30,770,678 87,725 30,682,953 Dilfakare - - - Dire Qiltu - - - Lode Sharbe 56,165,915 160,125 56,005,790 Qoro - - - Sirie Alelu Gesela - - - Ebsata Uduga - - - Koloba Bale - - - Lode Lamafo - - - TOTAL: KELETE WATERSHED 86,936,593 247,850 86,688,743 Taking into account the capital costs of the Dodota Spate Irrigation Scheme as ETB10,000 per hectare produces the result shown in table 29. This produces a Benefit:Cost ration of 3.5, which is a very positive return on investment. Table 29. Kelete Watershed: Net Discounted Economic Benefits from Spate Irrigation by Kebelle
TOTAL GROSS TOTAL GROSS DISCOUNTED BENEFITS NPV COSTS NPV CB RATIO ETB ETB LZ Wereda Kebelle Watershed Dodota Amigna Debeso Debeso 28,419,353 8,195,328 3.5 Total: MWS 28,419,353 8,195,328 3.5 Total: Not covered TOTAL: KEBELLE 28,419,353 8,195,328 3.5 Dilfakare Keleta - - 0.0 Total: MWS - 0.0 Total: Not covered TOTAL: KEBELLE - - 0.0 Dire Qiltu Bario Mire - - 0.0 Total: MWS - - 0.0 Total: Not covered TOTAL: KEBELLE - - 0.0 Lode Sharbe Meda Boo\'o Keleta 51,874,025 14,958,985 3.5 Total: MWS 51,874,025 14,958,985 3.5 Total: Not covered TOTAL: KEBELLE 51,874,025 14,958,985 3.5 Qoro Chirota - - 0.0 Sulula Tuimmie - - 0.0 Total: MWS - - 0.0 Total: Not covered TOTAL: KEBELLE - - 0.0 Sirie Alelu Gesela Adamognie Uuyoo - - 0.0 Barioo-Sofumer - - 0.0 Lele - - 0.0 Total: MWS - - 0.0 Total: Not covered TOTAL: KEBELLE - - 0.0 Ebsata Uduga Merfe - - 0.0 Wabaro - - 0.0 Total: MWS - - Total: Not covered TOTAL: KEBELLE - - Koloba Bale Tuliti - - 0.0 Total: MWS - - 0.0
TOTAL: KEBELLE - - 0.0 Lode Lamafo Jagado - - 0.0 Total: MWS - - 0.0 Total: Not covered TOTAL: KEBELLE - - 0.0
Total: MWS 80,293,378 23,154,313 3.5 Total: Not covered TOTAL: KELETE WATERSHED 80,293,378 23,154,313 3.5
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PART 3: ZAMRA WATERSHED
6. Description
6.1 Biophysical Characteristics
6.1.1 Location and Extent
The Zamra Watershed is located in the opper part of the Tekeze-Atbara Sub- basin (See Map 19). The area of the watershed is 1,800km2.
Map 19. Location of Zamra Watershed
6.1.2 Relief and Drainage
An undulating plateau is found in the upper Zamra Watershed above 2,000masl with isolated ridges reaching upto 3,000masl in the upper Zamra watershed (see Map 5). Below the plateau are undulating sandstone plains and low hills on ancient meta-sediments below 1,500 masl. The sandstone plains have a series of steep ridges rising to 1,900 masl.
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Map 20. Relief and Drainage
The high plateau and the Lowland plains and hills are separated by a steep escarpment (see Map 21). Very steep slopes are found in the southeastern part of the Zamra Watershed
Map 21. Slope Map (%)
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6.1.3 Climate
i. Rainfall
Mean annual rainfall over most of the two watersheds is between 500 and 700 mm/yr with considerable inter-annual variability (Map 22).
Map 22. Mean annual rainfall The rainfall pattern is bi –modal with the short (Belg) rains between February and April, and the main (Krempt) rains from July to September.
ii. Mean annual temperature
Mean annual temperature is inversely related to altitude. Thus, the lowest temperatures (12 - 15°C) are found at higher altitudes on the eastern side of the Watersheds, whilst the highest temperatures (21 - 24°C) are found in the lowest part of the Tekeze valley.
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Map 23. Mean annual temperature (degrees C)
iii. Mean Annual Evapotranspiration
The pattern of mean annual evapotranspiration follows that of mean annual temperature and closely related to altitude (Map 10) with lowest rates (1,300 – 1,600mm/yr) in the upper Watershed and highest rates (2,000 – 2,200 mm/yr) close to the Tekeze River.
Map 24. Mean annual evapo-transpiration.
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6.1.4 Geology
The upper parts of the Watersheds are underlain by shales and limestones, with the limestones forming the distinctive relief and the shales the plains (Map 25). Below the main escarpment the southwestern lowlands are underlain by red sandstones, which form extensive plains with isolated ridges and steep sided hills. The northwestern lowlands are underlain by meta- sediments (slates, shales, schists) which gives rise to rounded hills.
Map 25. Geology
6.1.5 Soils
Soils strongly reflect the underlying geology (Map 26). Chromic Cambisols overlie the red sandstones of the lower Watershed and whilst eutric and vertic Cambisols overlie the dark coloured shales and meta-sediments of the northwestern part of the Watershed. Vertisols and vertic Cambisols are found on the very flat slopes over the dark coloured shales of the northeastern part of the Watersheds.
Fluvisols are derived from river alluvium and are found in the wide valleys of the upper Watershed. Arenosols (very sandy), lithosols (shallow and stony)
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PSNP PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1 - 2011 and Regosols (shallow and poorly developed) are all found on the very steep slopes of the meta-sediments, sandstones and limestones in association with bare rock surfaces.
Map 26. Dominant Soils (FAO Classification)
Vertisols have a high clay content and thus the highest water holding capacity (150mm per meter), although they are difficult to work when dry. Their fertility is high although with a phosphorous deficiency. Vertic Cambisols can be found in close association with Vertisols and have very similar features. Fluvisols have medium textures with a water holding capacity of 100mm per meter and are of high fertility and are often used for small-scale irrigation.
6.1.6 Land Cover / Land Use
The areas and percent of total area of the dominant landcover classes are shown in table 30 and their distribution in Map 27 The most widespread (53% of the area) landcover is sparse grassland, which covers the steeper slopes and the low rainfall area near the Tekeze River. Rainfed cultivation covers 21% of the area followed by sparse shrubland. Bare rock covers 6% of the area) and dense shrubland some 5% of the area). These landcover types constitute 98% of the total watershed area.
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Table 30. Zamra Watershed: Dominant Landcover (km2)
LANDCOVER AREA (KM2) AREA % Open Grassland 964 53.5% Cultivation: Rainfed 417 23.2% Bare rock 167 9.3% Open Shrubland 127 7.0% Dense Shrubland 80 4.4% Open Woodland 31 1.7% Cultivation: Irrigated 4 0.2% Bare soil 3 0.2% Afro-alpine moorland 3 0.2% Open Forest 2 0.1% Water 2 0.1% TOTAL 1,800
Map 27. Dominant Landcover
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6.1.7 Water Resources i. Sub-watersheds
The Watershed has been divided into seven Sub-watersheds (Map 28). There are two main rivers: Zamra and Tirare. In the EMA 1:250,000 topographic map sheet the name “Zamra” appears on a three separate streams, including a tributary of the Tirare River. The name “Zamra” has been retained for the Sub-Watershed located between the Arequa and the Tirare Sub-watersheds.
Map 28. Sub-Watersheds The area of each Sub-watershed is shown in Table 31. Table 31. Area of Sub-waterswheds (km2)
SUB-WATERSHED AREA (km) AREA (%) Lower Tirare 355 20% Zilu 356 20% Kurkura 240 13% Shaho 130 7% Nebri 412 23% Upper Tirare 223 12% Zamra 84 5% TOTAL 1,800
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6.2 Socio-economic Characteristics
6.2.1 Administration
The watershed comprises four woredas as shown in map 29. The woreda area within the Watershed is shown in table 5.
Map 29. Woreda Administration
6.2.2 Population Distribution
The watershed falls within (but not wholly within) five Woredas: Alaje, Enderta, Hintalo-Wajirat, Seharti-Samre and Tanqua-Abergele. The 2007 rural populations (PCC, 2010) of these woredas are shown in table 32.
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Table 32. Total population, households, population density and household size within the Zamra Watershed.
WOREDA AREA (HA) HOUSEHOLDS HOUSEHOLD SIZE NO. KEBELLES Enderta 4,869 2,984 4.53 2 Saharti Samre 81,666 20,465 4.67 15 Hintalo Wejirat 87,822 22,441 4.45 13 Alaje 21,871 10,811 4.43 8 TOTAL 196,227 56,701 38 The spatial distribution is shown in Map 30.
Map 30. Population Density and Distribution
A noticeable feature is that the roads follow the highest population densities. In addition densities are higher along the Tirare river and on the plains in the northwest part of the Arequa Waterhsed.
6.2.3 Farming Systems
Three farming systems have been recognized within the Watershed (WBISPP, 2003) based mainly on their cropping systems. These in turn are
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mainly related to altitude and mean temperatures during the growing periods. These are as follows:
i. Wheat – Barley Farming System:
This is found mainly above 2,500 masl. Only barley is found above 2,900 masl. Average farm size is 0.9 ha, although the distribution is skewed to the smaller farm size. More than 80 percent of households have 2 or more plots, although where there is considerable variation in land quality this helps to spread risk. Rainfall is extremely variable and soils are generally of low fertility and as a consequence crop yields are lower and more variable than the national average. There is a major structural (i.e. permanent) grain deficit in this farming system ranging between 240 and 580 kgs of grain per family. Some grain is purchased from sales of livestock. Increasingly, deficits are being made up from food aid and food for work. Cattle are important as providers of draught power and manure, and small stock ready sources of quick cash.
ii. Teff-Maize-Sorghum-Finger millet Farming System:
This is found between 1,500 – 2,500 masl. Average farm sizes are 1.22 ha. Crop yields are low and households generally have a deficit of 96kgs. As in the previous farming system some grain is purchased from sales of livestock. Increasingly, deficits are being made up from food aid and food for work.
Ox:cow ratios vary between 1.35 to 1.47 indicating an emphasis on draught power. Cattle herd sizes are between 3.6 and 4.2 animals. Sheep to goat ratios are lower at 1.7 indicating a larger proportion of goats. In many areas hay on private plots is an important source of livestock feed. With respect to on-farm tree planting 53 percent of trees are indigenous and only 46 percent Eucalyptus, with 78 Eucalyptus trees per farmer. Over the past 15 years Eucalyptus planting started much later than in Amhara region but has since steadily increased, although at much lower rates to a current 14 trees/annum.
iii. Lowland Sorghum – Millet – Teff Farming System:
This system is found below 1,500 masl. Sorghum dominates the crop mix, followed by finger millet and teff. Sesame dominates the pulses. Crop
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PSNP PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1 - 2011 production in an average year provides a daily per capita calorie supply of 1,912 Kcals a deficit (of the 2000 Kcals minimum requirement) of 88 Kcals. This is equivalent to a deficit in grain equivalent of 51 kgs per annum per farm family. More households own cows than own oxen. The ox: cow ratio is 0.82 indicating an emphasis on milk in this farming system. The goat:sheep ratio of 43.2 indicates a clear preference for goats in the system.
6.2.4 Transport Infrastructure and Markets
Given the extreme dissection of the Zamra Watershed by the Tekezi River and its tributaries road infrastructure is not well developed. As can be seen on map 32 the all-weather roads tend to be confined to the ridges and plateaus between the deeply incised rivers. The main exception is the south-north the runs between Sokota and Adua.
Map 32. Settlements and Road network.
There are approximately 164 kms of All weather road and 155 kms of Dry weather road, although many sections of this type are of „All‟
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6.3 Features of the Public Works Micro-Watersheds in the Zamra Macro Watershed
6.3.1 Micro-watersheds Distribution and Characteristics
6.3.1.1 Spatial Distribution and Intensity
Summaries of inventory surveys in Zamra watershed showed the existence of 165 micro-watersheds in which various PWs activities have been undertaken. Of the total, 62 are in Alajie, 76 in Hintalo Wajirat and the remaining 27 in Seharti Samre Wereda. Generally, the micro-watersheds cover about 22,096 hectares, the distribution following 53.0 percent in Hintalo Aajirat, 33.0 percent in Emba Alajie and 16.0 in Saharti Samre. In the watershed, there are 26 Kebeles implementing PWs undertakings of which 6 are in Alajie, 13 in Hintalo Wajirat and 7 in Saharti Samre. Table 33. Micro-watersheds in Zamra Watershed
Micro- Wereda watersheds % Area %
Emba Alajie 62 37.6 7,253.9 32.8
Hintalo Wajirat 76 46.1 11,641.4 52.7
Saharti Samre 27 16.4 3,200.2 14.5
Total 165 100.0 22,095.5 100.0
Source: Summarized from micro-watersheds inventory database Figure 12. Areas of Zamra micro-watersheds by Wereda
12,000.0
10,000.0
8,000.0
6,000.0
4,000.0
2,000.0 Micro-watersheds Area (ha.) 0.0 Emba Alajie Hintalo Saharti Wajirat Samre
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The area size of the micro-watersheds is almost evenly distributed with the exception in Bahire Tseba, Muja and Mai Tehili Kebeles, the former two in Hintalo Wajirat and the third in Saharti Samre Wereda. Relative intensity of conservation activities tends to be higher in Emba Alagie Wereda where about 36.0 percent of the areas of the Kebeles in the watershed has been covered under PWs activities. In the Wereda, there is nearly 4 hectare of area under PWs measures for each 10 hectare of land in every Kebele falling in Zamra Watershed. Due mainly to recent introduction of PWs sub-program in Saharti Samre, the volume of work done and the intensity of activities performed seem to be lower than accomplishments in Alajie and Hintalo Wajirat Weredas. At the watershed level, there is two hectare of PWs-related micro- watersheds in every 10 hectare of land in each PWs-implementing Kebele. Figure 13 shows the distribution of micro-watersheds inventoried in Emba Alajie, Hintalo Wajirat and Saharti Samre. Table 34. Relative Distribution and Intensity of PWs-related Micro- watersheds in Zamra Watershed
Micro- Kebele % of Micro- Watershed Area (in Kebele Wereda watersheds % Area (ha.) WSHD) area Ratio
Emba Alagie 62 37.6 7,253.9 20,271.4 35.8 0.36
Hintalo Wajirat 76 46.0 11,641.4 80,298.4 14.5 0.14
Saharti Samre 27 16.4 3,200.2 72,220.1 12.8 0.13
Zamra watershed total 165 100.0 22,095.5 172,789.8 21.0 0.21
Source: Computed from micro-watersheds database In the agro-climatic consideration, 55.0 percent of the micro-watersheds are in dry Weyina Dega: a climatic zone ideal for the growth and adaptation of various crops. About 38.0 percent fall in Dry Dega where highland crops such as wheat, barley, oilseeds and pulses are widely grown. Figure 13 shows micro-watersheds distribution by agro-climatic zone. Figure 13. Micro-watersheds according to Agro-climatic Zone
37.5 Dry Weyina Dega Dry Upper Kolla 55.1 Dry Dega 7.4
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Figure 14. Spatial Distribution of PWs-related micro-watersheds in Zamra watershed
Crop-based livelihood pattern, according to the livelihood zone map, showed 49.0 percent of the micro-watersheds falling in the zones in which barley,
Wheat, Teff and pulses form the major livelihood source in a mixed farming system. The other quarter still lies in similar pattern of livelihood zone where maize serves additionally as a mixed earner of livelihoods in about the third of the micro-watersheds areas. Moreover, cattle and shoats also supplement livelihood earning in 72.0 percent of the micro-watersheds.
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Table 35. Micro-watersheds by livelihood zone
Micro- Area Main Crops watersheds % (ha.) %
Barley, wheat, Teff and pulses 75 45.5 10,885.7 49.3
Sorghum, barley, wheat and pulses 27 16.4 3,180.3 14.4
Sorghum, maize, Teff and millet 19 11.5 1,598.7 7.2
Sorghum, Teff, maize & pulses 2 1.2 135.3 0.6
Wheat, pulses, barley and maize 42 25.5 6,295.6 28.5
Total 165 100.0 22,095.5 100.0
Source: Computed from livelihood zone map (MoARD). In this report, the relevance of micro-watershed developments through implementing PWs measures has been examined in relation to their distributions by slope gradient and land cover. Analysis made to see slope- related distribution reveled 76.0 percent of the micro-watersheds area lying above a gradient rage over 8.0 percent. In particular, 44.0 percent of the total size of the micro-watersheds occupies steep slopes of 15-30 percent, which could be relevant and appropriate in the context of the national watershed development guideline of the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural development. In physical terms, 73.4 percent of the watersheds micro- watersheds conservation has been taking place above slope range of 15.0 percent. In the lower slope ranges, about 33.0 percent of PWs have been carried out mainly in the form of gully treatment, half-moon and micro-basin techniqes Figure 15. Slope-related occurrence of micro-watersheds in Zamra watershed
> 30
15 to 30
8 to 15
Slope Class Slope 3 to 8
< 3 0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 % of Micro-watersheds Area
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Figure 16. Distribution of micro-watersheds by slope gradient and relief type in Zamra Watershed
Furthermore, distributions according to land cover indicated a far more relevance and appropriateness in the context of human activities and pressures on land utilization. About half of the PWs activities performed so far seem to have applied on the direct influence of cultivated land units in the watershed. Moreover, the implementation of conservation and rehabilitation measures through PWs measures on vegetation land has been significant as about 36.0 percent of the micro-watersheds conservation has been carried out such land units. It could, therefore, be concluded that PWs sub-programs in the sub-watershed have had positive impacts on the improvement of human livelihoods and the general biodiversity in areas where implementations have properly taken place.
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Table 36. Distribution of Micro-watersheds by Land Cover in Zamra Watershed.
Area Land Cover (ha.) %
Cultivation: Rain-fed: Scattered trees 11,156.9 50.49
Open shrub land (20 - 50% cover) 4,061.6 18.38
Dense shrub land: (>50% cover 2,616.4 11.84
Village 196.2 0.89
Bare soil, stones 1,195.6 5.41
Bare rock 1,558.5 7.05
Urban Area 11.4 0.05
Forest: Plantation: Dense 41.2 0.19
Grassland: Scattered trees (<20% cover) 804.3 3.64
Open woodland (20 - 50% cover) 447.1 2.02
Forest: Coniferous: dense 6.5 0.03
Total 22,095.5 100.0
Source: Computed from overlay results of land cover and micro-watersheds Figure 17. Micro-watersheds by land cover in Zamra watershed
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6.3.1.2 Occurrence of PWs Techniques and Technologies
Generally, there are about 12 conservation techniques being applied in the inventoried micro-watersheds of Zamra watershed. Their spatial distribution varies with slope, land cover, land degradation and past erosion events. Measures such as plantation, check dam, stone-faced trench, deep trench and eye-brow basin are dominant. Table 37 shows the occurrence of the techniques and technologies applied in the micro-watersheds. Table 37. Occurrence of Conservation Techniques in Pws-Related Micro-Watersheds
S.No. Techniques/Technologies Occurrence %
1 Check Dam 23 13.9
2 Closed (Natural Forest) 2 1.2
3 Cut-off Drain 1 0.6
4 Deep Trench 19 11.4
5 Eye-Brow Basin 17 10.2
6 Gully Treatment (Gabion) 13 7.8
7 Gully Treatment (Stone, rock fill) 2 1.2
8 Half Moon 21 12.7
9 Hiering Bone 8 4.8
10 Hillside Terrace 7 4.2
11 Plantation 33 19.9
12 Stone-Faced Trench 20 12.0
Zamra Watershed: Total 166 100.0
Source: Extracted from Micro-watersheds database
6.3.1.3 Existing Coverage Status of PWs
Data on the coverage status of micro-watersheds developments in the entire watershed was gathered through interviewing DAs and Natural Resources Management Process Owners in ARDOs. Both categories of informants have sufficient knowledge on the total potential, the magnitude of areas still not covered and the portion treated through PWs and non-PWs interventions. As can be observed in Table 32, the areas conserved so far through different programs, manly PWs, generally covered 70.0 percent of the total need in Zamra watershed. In Emba Alajie, areas remaining uncovered in the parts of the Wereda lying in Zamra watershed are said to be below 10.0 percent. This has been accounted to early start ups, existence of other similar programs PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1: 2011 108
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and consistent implementation efforts made under the support and guidance of the Wereda ARDO. Table 38. Coverage Status of Conservation Activities in selected Kebeles of Zamra Watershed
S.No. Kebele Wereda % Accomplished % Remaining %Total
1 Betmera Emba Alajie 90.5 9.5 100.0
2 Adi Mesno Hintalo Wajirat 58.1 41.9 100.0
3 Muja Hintalo Wajirat 60.0 40.0 100.0
4 Fikre Alem Hintalo Wajirat 75.0 25.0 100.0
5 Adi Gudom Hintalo Wajirat 87.0 13.0 100.0
6 Hagere Selam Hintalo Wajirat 65.0 35.0 100.0
7 Amdi Weyane Hintalo Wajirat 93.0 7.0 100.0
8 Bahiri Tsibeha Hintalo Wajirat 80.0 20.0 100.0
Hintalo Wajirat Total 74.0 26.0 100.0
10 Samre Town (Surrounding) Saharti Samre 50.0 50.0 100.0
11 Mai Tehili Saharti Samre 45.0 55.0 100.0
12 Hadash Lemlem Saharti Samre 42.0 58.0 100.0
13 Amdi Weyane Saharti Samre 40.0 60.0 100.0
14 Nebar Hadinet Saharti Samre 40.0 60.0 100.0
15 Dekera Saharti Samre 55.0 45.0 100.0
Saharti Samre Total 45.3 54.7 100.0
Source: Key Informant interviews.
The reason for low level of accomplishments in Saharti Samre, according to the informants, is late planning and implementation of the PWs sub-program, which is the major source of budget for natural resources management and activities related to conservation and rehabilitation in the Wereda at large.
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7. Impact Assessment
7.1 Environmental Impacts
7.1.1 Actual On-site Impacts of Watershed Development
7.1.1.1 Positive environmental impacts
The positive impacts of the SWC measures on closed areas include reduction of soil erosion, enhanced land productivity and increased water availability; which are described below.
Reduced soil erosion from closed areas
The estimated annual soil loss from the closed areas due to gross sheet and rill erosion is calculated as per the methodology detailed under paragraph 3.2.1. Accordingly, the computed gross soil delivery to streams from grazing areas in Zamra Watershed before they were closed was about 1.01M tons/year. The current soil delivery rate after the PWs intervention with different SWC measures, improved land cover of the closed areas (i.e. the regeneration of natural vegetation and planting of trees) has been reduced by 0.4Mtons/yr. Therefore, the SWC measures and other improvements in the land management have enabled a reduction of over 41% in the level of soil loss from the closed areas.
Enhanced land productivity: increased biomass production
The different SWC measures and land restoration activities carried out on the closed areas have enabled improvement in terms of increased biomass production from forage, fuel wood and poles production. The increased wood biomass (Bare rock/soil to Grassland) to dense shrub land computed for all closed areas in Zamre Watershed shows that there is an increment of 2,094 tons, which is equivalent to a total sustainable annual wood yield of 952 M3/yr.
Increased water availability (Groundwater recharge) There tangible evidences showing increased availability of more water; as a result of the enhanced water retention (conservation) & groundwater recharging induced by the integrated watershed development interventions; which have, in turn, increased flow of small streams, re-emerge of long disappeared springs which converted increasing number of seasonal streams to perennial or with prolonged flow life into the dry season; have offered much to farmers in the micro-watersheds in terms of practicing irrigation, diversifying PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1: 2011 110
PSNP PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1 - 2011 farm enterprises (changing into more cash earning crops), more production & productivity of crops (from increasing cropping intensity & enhanced cropping patterns) … etc are meant opening up of a more profitable farming venture with assured sustainability into the future. This is not just a good will aspiration without grounds – there are a number of transformed localities to substantiate such trends – e.g. Dekera in S/Samre, Fre-Weyni & Hagere Selam in H/Wajirat … etc. (N.B. Also see the notes on spring development & other achievements in S/Samre & Hintalo-wajirat) Table 39. Irrigation practices as a result of re-emergence (rehabilitation) of springs (i.e. after the watershed development interventions):
Kebele Wereda Administration Description (KA)
About 50 HHs (13 are female-headed HHs) use the 1. Fre-Weyni spring water for irrigation farming (using motor (Hiwane) KA: pumps) and cultivate a total of about 12.5ha of =12.5ha land.
The volume of the stream flow has increased from its level before the project. As a result, the level of irrigation has increased from about 10 ha (before) to 20 ha now. Hintalo- - Before the project, there was only Guaya Wajirat 2. Hagere- crop (an indigenous herbaceous bean) Wereda Selam (KA): because of water shortage; but now we can produce onion & potato … etc. and the productivity has increased from 5 to 9-10 = 20 ha Qtls/ha, depending on the type of crop. - Some springs, which had long been disappeared, are coming back as a result of the watershed development works. - The base flow of the main stream (Tsegerada), used to last until December before the project; now it has become perennial (with diminishing flows) 3. Samre KA: - Spring Re-emergence (rehabilitation) enabled -- = 5.5 ha (2ha nursery & 3.5 ha of crop farms by 5.5 ha 15HHs) 4. Dekra KA: - Rehabilitated spring = 15 ha 75 HHs
Saharti- - Rehabilitated gully = 28.5 ha 151 Samre youths Wereda =43.5 ha Total irrigation = 43.5 ha
5. Nebar- Sand river yield increased with prolonged duration Hadinot KA: = about 2.5 ha by 6 HHs
= 2.5 ha
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7.1.1.2 Negative environmental impacts
The reduction in open grazing areas because of their conversion (fully/partly) into closed areas seems to create limited availability of the traditional feed resources from open grazing. This trend seems to involve two important implications in the community watersheds in Zamra Watershed - i.e. aggravating overgrazing and alteration in asset keeping options to the households.
Aggravating overgrazing:
As all the livestock within the micro-watersheds are depending on the communal grazing lands that have shrank in area, this could lead to further aggravate erosion due to overgrazing.
Altered asset keeping options of households:
The implication of limited grazing area means less number or no livestock per household. Therefore, it seems realistic that the tendency of the households in the micro-watersheds towards opting for livestock as asset building alternative would be minimal. Although further research might be needed to concretely establish the fact, this could be taken as a likely negative impact that alters households‟ traditional asset keeping options. In connection with this, a research conducted by C. Anderson et al. (2009)14 indicates that there is no evidence that PSNP protects households‟ livestock in times of climate or economic difficulties / shock.
7.1.2 Actual Downstream/Off-site Impacts of Watershed Development
7.1.2.1 Positive environmental impacts
Sediment reduction I
14 Impacts of the Productive Safety Net Program on livestock and tree holdings of rural households Ethiopia. BY CAMILLA ANDERSSON, ALEMU MEKONNEN AND JESPER STAGE – MARCH 1, 2009 2. PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1: 2011 112
PSNP PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1 - 2011 n the analysis it has been assumed that a closed area will trap sediment from an area upslope two times its own area. The trapping efficiency after 3 years is estimated to be 95 percent. To estimate soil erosion rates on non-cropland the analysis used five slope classes for which their corresponding RUSLE factors were determined. Based on estimation of Sediment Delivery Ratio (SDR) made by ENTRO (2008) for the Tekeze Basin as a whole, SDR value of 66% has been taken.
Accordingly, it has been found that the sediment flow into the streams and rivers in the downstream parts has been reduced by 41% due to the watershed development interventions on the closed areas in the upstream parts of the Watershed.
Ground water recharging and improved base flow of streams The physical and biological SWC measures undertaken on the closed areas in the upstream parts of the Watershed have proven to improve groundwater recharging and improved base flows of streams that reach the downstream areas. This means that the downstream communities would benefit from availability of more water for productive purposes.
Less incidence/damage from seasonal floods
One of the positive influences of SWC measures on closed areas is reducing the runoff coefficient of a given area due to changes in land cover. The decrease in runoff coefficient implies decreasing overland flow. In addition, impact of runoff storage in the trenches behind SWC structures like stone bunds enables retention of larger part of (even all of it depending on the rainfall regime) the runoff water. The impacts of these changes on the closed areas on the downstream would be less of excess flow as flood. Thus, the flood damage due to unwanted sediment on crop lands and pollution of streams would be reduced or totally halted. The effect of flood damages could be quantified but it needs data on past history of such damages and results of water quality analysis following flood incidences. Nevertheless, the point is about the positive impact created by reduction in flood.
7.1.2.2 Negative environmental impacts
Potential conflicts: Increased use of water by the upstream farmers‟ expanding irrigation practices using the revived streams might reduce flow to the downstream farmers which could lead to conflicts PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1: 2011 113
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7.1.3 Potential and Cumulative Impacts
Crop production to be saved due to SWC interventions on closed areas: Reduced flooding from uphill onto the farm lands Increased soil moisture due to the subsurface flow of the water retained by the SWC structures on the closed areas
Opportunities to diversify livelihood opportunities: Regeneration of natural vegetation & revival of springs have given way for initiation of bee keeping, which provides additional income and diversification of livelihood opportunities (e.g. Betmara in A/alaje, Dekera in S/Samre, Freweyni in H/Wajirat, … etc) Reclaimed gullies provide either additional productive space for adjacent plot owners (e.g. Betmara in A/alaje, Freweyni in H/Wajirat, … etc) or create employment opportunities for the landless youth (e.g. Dekra in S/Samre) The potential implications include more employment opportunities at local level, decline in out-migration, expansion of cottage industries such as wood working & agro-processing like packing of animal products (e.g. milk, cheese, butter, honey … etc), which have been already seen as emerging in some GTZ initiated SLM interventions in Tgray & Oromia regions …) Replication of NRM initiatives at wider scales: Trend-setting of the PWs interventions with viable NRM strategies – i.e. enthused by the encouraging results with the closed areas‟ regeneration; some communities have started to replicate the “area closure” strategy; just like tree planting & SWC structures on farmlands, by establishing new closed areas at their own expenses (e.g. Betmara in A/Alaje);
Community members’ appreciation of their environmental: Regeneration & greenery of degraded lands (intangible benefits with psychological implication of inducing „hopefulness‟ & positive aspirations about their environment & future development – as the saying goes - a person‟s humane attitude stems from perceived generosity of his/her immediate environment – conversely a degraded and hopeless environment yields a breeding place for violent & destructive personalities … );
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7.2 Impacts on Livelihoods
7.2.1 Crop Production
The outcomes of this assessment in the three livelihood zones across each wealth categories disclosed that crop production and yield has remarkably increased since the induction of PSNP-PW. The production is more than double which is attributed to the implementation of natural resources management- soil and water conservation measures such as soil and stone bunds, hillside terraces, trench bunds, gabion check dams and biological SWC measures. The participants have also noted that the PW natural resource management activities are significantly reducing run-off and flooding of private croplands. The runoff is not only washing away the soil and the seed but also eroding the fertilizers sowed. Furthermore, the program induced farmers to implement soil and water conservation activities in their private farmland which remarkably contributed for crop yield improvement. This further encouraged farmer to demand more soil and water conservation through PW on their private farmland. The majority of the discussants reported that despite it varies by agro-ecology; fertilizer and compost are progressively applied to their farmland after the PSNP-PW has been implemented. Accordingly, of the total 160 FGDs participants categorized under different wealth groups in the various livelihoods zones, around 98% of them confirmed that crops production and land productivity are enhanced. This information was also cross-checked with quantitative data gathered from the concerned sample Kebeles. With regard to this, secondary information verified that major crops production and productivity are noticeably improved since the last five years onwards. The following table depicted the change of major crops after PSNP-PW across different agro-ecologies as the result of PW NRM program. In general, the socio-economic impact assessment findings stipulated that the implementation of natural resources management PW activities to rehabilitate Zamra watershed areas is one of the major driving forces for the improvement of crop production and farmland productivity along with other determinate factors. Thus, this subsequent substantial positive impact has definitely a synergetic effect for the emergence of sustainable livelihood system through ensuring the effectiveness of crop production and productivity; and minimizes major limitations observed in the project study areas are of crucial.
7.2.2 Small Scale Irrigation
Small scale traditional irrigation systems are mainly used for production of crops like sorghum and maize which have been started long ago by limited number of households in some of the study areas. However, the productivity of irrigated cereals was ineffective due to multiple constraints including PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1: 2011 115
PSNP PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1 - 2011 shortage of water, demand of high level of inputs and intensive labor utilization, lack of farmers‟ adequate experience and shortage of skilled manpower in irrigation agronomy at local level. The market oriented production is a recent phenomenon after the PSNP-PW implementation for the majority of the farmers in the study areas. The access and the practice of irrigation based agriculture vary from Kebele to Kebele. The proportion of households living in sample Kebeles of Hintalo Wajirat Woreda have more irrigable land when compared to Kebeles sampled in Seharti Samre Woreda. When it is seen from the angle of wealth categories, the rich and middle households are practicing irrigation in all sample Kebeles unlike the poor and very poor family who are merely practicing partially i.e Waza, Frewine and Dekera. This is mainly due to lack of sufficient irrigable land. Whatever the wealth category that the household belongs, access to irrigable farmland is determined by proximity of own holding to irrigation water and facilities. The size of irrigable farmland across different livelihood zone of the sample Kebeles are summarized hereunder. Table 40. Irrigated farmlands size of the HH in the sample kebeles
Irrigated farmland (ha) Group Livelihood Zone Name of Kebele Total 0.125 - 0.25 > 0.25
Betemera 11.4 - 10.6 Highland Waza Adiawuna 38.6 - 36.2
Group Total 50 - 46.8
Hintalo 2.3 - 2.1
Midland Hagere Selam 6.8 - 6.4
Hewane 15.9 33.3 17
Group Total 25 33.3 25.5
Lowland Dekera 25 66.7 27.7
Group Total 25 66.7 27.7
Source: Socio-economic Impact Assessment, Focus Group Discussants, 2011 The major horticultural crops produced through small scale irrigation in the study areas are vegetables such as onions, tomatoes, cabbages, potato, green pepper, garlic, carrot, lettuce and spinach. Besides, fruit like orange, banana, mango, papaya, avocado and guava are produced. Though the sources of water vary from Kebele to Kebele the potential irrigation water sources in the study area include rivers, springs, ponds and deep wells. A considerable number of beneficiaries are also using pumps to water their irrigated land. Majority of the irrigation systems are constructed by PSNP-PW activities and a limited number of schemes were developed prior to this program are also supported by PW sub-project component for efficient utilization. PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1: 2011 116
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. This mode of production motivated the farmers to use agricultural inputs like fertilizer, compost, pesticides and improved seed. The beneficiaries established a water committee to manage and control proper utilization of water resources. The committee has a defined rules and regulation as well as bylaws which have been accepted by the beneficiaries. The assessment result disclosed that small scale irrigation focusing on the horticultural crops become an emerging potential agricultural intensification strategy in the study area which promisingly reducing food gap and enable to generate additional income to their livelihood. Irrigation farming provides multiple effects to the local community.
It raises the incomes of those farmers who are access to irrigated land. It benefits the landowners by appreciating the value of irrigable land to contract out and/or sharecropping. It induces a system of labor intensive job for landless and land scarce laborers and still depend on on-farm work as a source of income. In sum, it increases wage rates and farm labor opportunities. It minimizes out-migration and improves return migration which otherwise used as one of the major copping mechanism for the low income categories during the critical time prior to the PSNP-PW intervention. It provides fodder for livestock; and It introduces a new consumption habit and contributes for a better nutritional make-up of the majority of households as production is diversified with different vegetables and fruits.
According to this study, there are several merits of irrigation system in terms of enhancing the livelihood of the households in the watershed. One of the outcomes of irrigation practices were the increased in incomes of the households from the production of various vegetables and fruits and creation of employment. This means that more families can afford at least to buy clothes to their family; more children are attending school which otherwise very tough for majority of the households prior to the PSNP-PW; and greater diversification of their income to the activities like fattening oxen and shoats and sell with a higher price to reduce their risks and vulnerability to shocks and stresses. Sample households who have farmland but not currently accessed to irrigation system as well as majority of the households categorized under poor and very poor wealth groups that do not have farmland were also endowing their witnesses from the income and consumption point of views and vividly articulated their demand to be part of the system. The success and benefit of irrigation practices are bottlenecked by the following key factors
There is a considerable water runoff from the upper stream i.e. Emba Alaji Woreda to the midlands, Hintalo Wajirat Woreda. This flood is
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affecting the ponds as well as the irrigation canals which considerably reducing the size of irrigated land due to siltation problem. Producers are commonly obtaining most of the market information through neighbors and traders which is not adequate and reliable. Moreover, there are no producers‟ cooperatives/associations to bargain the price and actively follow up the market condition. The prices of the product are discouraging the producers who are involved in irrigation activities. For instance, the price of different vegetables mainly onion has dropped from 10 to 2 birr per kilogram in the lowlands and as low as birr 1.5 per kilogram in the highlands and midlands for the same production season of the last year. One of the possible reasons was excess supply of the product due to attractive price of the previous year without considering the corresponding demand capacity. As access to adequate markets and public transport is greatly complements irrigation based production in order to maximize the benefit from outcome, in some sample Kebeles like Dekera, Seharti Samre Woreda, perishable vegetables and fruits are carried by donkey with a terrible train to a far market place which leads to loss of a significant portion of sale. The alarming increase of price of pesticides are becoming a challenge as a result of high rate of disease incidences of vegetables mainly in green pepper has reduced production and incurred extra costs to the extent that farmers could not afford to buy. Inadequacy of water availability compared to the potential irrigable land; and Lack of storage facility for perishable products at least at the market center.
7.2.3 Livestock Production and Beekeeping
(i) Livestock Production Before PSNP-PW implementation, livestock rearing was counted in terms of the total number of Tropical Livestock Unit (TLU) than the quality of the livestock. This was the major characteristics of the sector in all agro-ecological zones. Besides, the discussants have mentioned that lack of adequate forage and grazing areas, inadequate credit facility, weak livestock extension services and inputs, rampant animal diseases and parasites, shortage of adequate water supply points and poor animal husbandry practices were the social, physical and economic constraints to livestock production for long time.
After the implementation of natural resources management PSNP-PW activities, the degraded areas which were previously serving as grazing lands and other purposes were closed for the purpose of soil and water conservation. Consequently, the number of total Tropical Livestock Unit and PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1: 2011 118
PSNP PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1 - 2011 animals per capita are declining across all agro-ecologies especially in the highlands and midlands. At present, households are keeping and feeding their livestock nearby at their home compound. This action has significantly changed the unproductive livestock rearing system persisted for a long period. Thus, traditional view of having large number of unproductive livestock as a sign of prestige had shifted to measurement of Tropical Livestock Unit (TLU) based on the current market value. Loss of livestock weight due to a long distance trekking under a terrible terrain to look for pasture and school children who spend hours per day to look after animals have gotten relief typically in the highland and the midland after the PW implementation.
Shortage of water for animals was also another development problem for livestock production in all agro-ecologies in general and severe in the lowland areas. Most of the available perennial rivers and streams dried up during the dry season. As a result, most households were suffering due to the shortage of drinking water for their livestock and were forced to trek their animals to long distances. After the PW intervention, the number and yield of springs are improved; and streams and rivers flow are increased which considerably minimized the water constraints. Besides, expansion of irrigation activities has also improved the water availability for animals.
The other shift in livestock production after the PSNP-PW activities was the emergency of small scale household based livestock fattening and sale for market. Small scale fattening of cattle, sheep and goat is currently becoming a promising venture to all wealth groups irrespective of landholding. This is simply because fattening requires less land, better fodder availability, favorable market conditions and the high demand for their products in the major urban centers. Provision of credit facility especially to the poor and very poor wealth groups and improved uses of veterinary services has also encouraged rearing and fattening livestock at households‟ level. Regarding change in market price, the study revealed that the selling price of oxen for draught power and meat on average were 550 and 900 Birr, respectively, prior to PW implementation. However, due to improved rearing practices, management and demand for livestock and livestock byproducts, the price of an ox for draught power becomes as high as 5,000 Birr while the price of fattened ox for meat is ranging from 8,000-10,000 Birr now. Likewise, the average price of shoats is also escalating from 150 to 1,150 Birr. Still, evidences showed that improved fodder is not adequate compared to the existing demand and the situation is getting worse in lowland agro-ecology due the prevalence of drought.
(ii) Beekeeping Various studies indicated that beekeeping is a long-standing but sideline practice in the rural communities since a very long period. Though it was not PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1: 2011 119
PSNP PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1 - 2011 considered as a business in earlier time, the activity plays an important role in rural development activities serving the households for consumption and as a source of income by selling honey. However, due to the limited flora attributed to land degradation and deforestation and traditional way of honey production and extraction, both in terms of technology and skills, the benefit so far gained from this sub-sector is extremely unsatisfactory.
The natural resources management activities by the PSNP-PW are now rejuvenating varieties of exotics and endogenous trees and vegetation in the closure areas and irrigation schemes. These trees provide a year round food for bees. In addition to the traditional beehives and managements, the modern honey production system is recently introduced as its remunerations are well recognized and emphasized. Furthermore, discussants clearly noted that the numbers of beekeepers of both traditional and modern beehives are increasing from year to year in the study areas. This is mainly attributed to the rehabilitation of natural resources which provides more flowers from diversity of trees and the radical rise of the price of honey at the market.
According to the discussions with different wealth categories, about 16.7%, 33.3% and 50% of the traditional beehives are found in highlands, midlands and lowlands, respectively. Whereas it has found that about 50%, 38% and 13% of the modern beehives are owned by the lowlands, midlands and highlands dwellers, in the same order. The same source has also depicted that sample households categorized under rich and middle wealth groups have possessed more than 85% of traditional and modern beehives compare to the poor who kee13% and 6.7%, respectively. While the opportunity of very poor wealth group participating in this sector is very minimal due to the high initial investment and fear of risk of paying back credit even though there is opportunity for loan service. The detail is illustrated in the following table. Table 41. Distribution of traditional &modern beehives in sample households
Description Traditional Beehives Modern Beehives Group Group Total Total Livelihood Zone < 5 5 - 20 > 20 < 5 5 - 20
Highland 13.3 50 16.7 13.3 - 12.5
Midland 33.3 50 33.3 40.0 - 37.5
Lowland 53.3 100 50 46.7 100 50
Group Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Wealth Category
Rich 46.7 100 100 55.6 33.3 100 37.5
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Middle 40.0 - - 33.3 60.0 - 56.25
Poor 13.3 - - 11.1 6.7 - 6.25
Group Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Distribution by Kebele
Betemera - - 50 5.6 13.3 - 12.5
Waza Adiawuna 13.3 - 11.1 -
Hintalo 20.0 - - 16.7 13.3 - 12.5
Hagere Selam - - - - 6.7 - 6.25
Hewane 13.3 - 50 16.7 20 - 18.75
Nebar Handinet 20.0 - - 16.7 - - -
Samre 6.7 - - 5.6 6.7 - 6.25
Dekera 26.7 100 - 27.8 40.0 100 43.75
Group Total 100 100 100 100 100.0 100 100
Source: Socio-economic Impact Assessment, Focus Group Discussants, 2011 Regarding the production of honey, farmers could harvest once or twice per year. The productivity of honey per hive is also varies by types of beehives technology and availability of adequate bee forages. As per the assessment, currently, the productivity of honey per traditional hive on average is 12.5 kilogram compared to less than 6 kilogram prior to the PW activities. In the case of the modern beehives technology, which has been mainly started after the PSNP-PW, the average productivity of honey per hives goes beyond 35 kilogram. The information from Woredas and Kebeles further verified that the productivity of traditional and modern honey has been improved since the last five years. For instance, one of the studied Kebele, Hintalo, Hintalo Wajirat Woreda, where the production of honey is well practiced; the productivity of honey from modern beehive is remarkably increased as high as 105 kilograms per hive. The table below witnesses the same trend. Table 42. The productivity trend of honey in the sample kebeles
Prior to PW Post to PW %change %chang Livelihood Wered traditiona e Zone a Kebele Trad. Modern Trad. Modern l modern
Emba Alaji Bete Mera 4 20 12 35 200 75.0
Hintalo Waza Ada Highland Wajirat Awala 5 25 12 45 140 80.0
Hintalo 5 30 15 50 200 67 Hintalo Midland Wajirat 4 20 17 40 325 100 Hagere
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Selam
Frewine 6 20 20 35 233 75
Dekera 6 - 18 36 200 -
Nebar Handnet 8 - 15 35 88 - Seharti Lowland Samre Samri 8 - 16 25 100 -
Source: Socio-economic Impact Assessment, Focus Group Discussants, 2011 Trad.: Traditional
At the same time as the rise in production trend, the price of honey has considerably increased. This is highly attracting and encouraging the farmers to take part in this sub-sector. Increasing demands of the product is also another potential for the development of apiculture. For instance, the honey extracted from traditional beehives escalating from 10-20 birr to 80-100 birr per kilogram during the last 6-7 years. In the same period, the price of honey produced from modern hives ceiling to Birr 120-150 per kg. Discussants mentioned that access to market is not well defined but there is widespread demand of honey and its price is likely fluctuating during the peak harvest seasons.
Sometimes, there is a possibility of selling the produce to traders and consumers at home gate. However, beekeeping is not smoothly run without constraints. Some of the major constraints suggested by the discussants are the price of modern beehives is relatively expensive for some of the middle and majority of the poor and very poor households and lack of sufficient knowledge and management of honey production. It is plausible to say that as production expands, there is a need to seek for wider market entities both marketing information and infrastructures.
7.2.4 Tree Plantation
Forest development and tree plantations including nursery establishment on the public land are one of the major tasks of PSNP-PW. Moreover, farmers are also starting to grow trees around their farms and/or home compounds and cut whenever they deem it to be necessary or useful. The level of tree plantations on the private land in lowland agro-ecology is very minimal due to water and moisture shortage. The survival rate of planted tree is determined by the availability of sufficient rain. The common types of trees planted in public and private land include Croton crostychyuss, Cordia africana, Acacia abyssinica, Eucalyptus, Casuarina equistefolia, Juniperus procera and Grevillea robusta. In addition, high value trees like coffee, Cana indica and fruit trees such as avocado, papaya, mango, orange, lemon, guava, tirngo and fodder trees are planted by PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1: 2011 122
PSNP PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1 - 2011 the community in their private land. Agricultural and Rural Development Office is supplying seedlings for the farmers. Enhancing community awareness regarding the merit of tree plantation and its proper utilization is the major tasks of PSNP-PW sub projects along with the physical activities. The discussants pointed out that the closure areas were intensively deforested through the harvesting of fuel wood, construction and agricultural tools. The assessment and the observation proved that most trees so far planted by the PW activity and naturally rejuvenating in the rehabilitation enclosures are well surviving. According to their perception, since trees require a longer gestation period to be used for different purposes, looking for alternative sources was an early task prior to the implementation of PW area closure program. With this regard, the study examined the FGDs participants‟ views concerning the accessibility of fuel wood in their locality prior and after the PW area closure program. The detail shows in the following table Table 43. Perception of sample Kebeles HH on the availability of fuel wood at local level
Prior to PW (%) Post PW (%)
Livelihood Woreda Kebele Scarc Zone Abundant Average Abundant Improve Worst e
Emba Alaji Bete Mera - - 100 50 50 -
Hintalo Waza Ada Highland Wajirat Awala - 25 75 - 100 -
Hintalo - 25 75 - 75 25
Hagere Selam - 75 25 - 25 75 Hintalo Midland Wajirat Frewine - 50 50 25 75 -
Dekera - - 100 - 100 -
Nebar Handnet 75 25 - - 25 75 Seharti Lowland Samre Samri 75 25 - 25 75
Source: Socio-economic Impact Assessment, Focus Group Discussants, 2011
The socio-economic assessment indicated that availability of fuel wood is considerably improved in the highland and the midland compared to the lowland. This could be due to the favorable agro-ecology condition for trees like eucalyptus that is growing within a short period of time and commonly used for fuel wood, however, the condition is not the same in case of lowland. Hence, due to the suppressed supply of fuel wood, especially in the lowland the majority of the communities are using animal dung which could be used as a fertilizer and influence the fertility of land and grain production. Furthermore, utilizing crop residues as energy source has also an adverse impact on the availability of fodder for livestock and release carbon dioxide to PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1: 2011 123
PSNP PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1 - 2011 the environment. Thus, accessing short-term alternative source of energy and promoting energy saving stoves are the possible mechanisms to minimize the fuel wood problems in a sustainable manner.
The assessment result revealed that accessibility of woods for house construction and agricultural tools are significantly enhancing at local level. The community has been travelling a very long distance to get appropriate tree for agricultural tools like Mofer and Kenber as well as for house construction. However, after the PSNP-PW the condition is changed since farmers are either using their own garden trees or buying from the market which was not the case in the previous time. Moreover, in the highland and the midland households who are intentionally planting trees for the market are selling trees and generating meaningful income.
7.2.5 Water Supply
Though efforts have been made so far the water supply coverage of Ethiopia especially in rural areas is still very low. In order to minimize the problem, developing community water supply point is considered as one of the PSNP – PW sub-project objectives. This is for the purpose of reducing income losses due to excessive time spent on collecting water, to decrease the cost of health services especially for water related diseases, to fill the water demand of livestock which otherwise trekked long distance, and to improve education enrollment and attendance, especially for girls to reduce burden and time spent on collection of water.
The study assessed the water supply condition of the targeted watershed in the prior and post PSNP-PW period to examine the intervention impacts. With this regard, the majority of the sample kebeles explained that for a long time previously they were using unprotected sources together with their livestock very far away from their homestead. The minimum and the maximum time used to fetch water were varying from about 1 to 3 hours for a single trip. Nevertheless, after the implementation of PSNP-PW, 75 percent of the discussants mainly in the highland and midland believed that the water supply service is improved and time taken to collect water is reduced to about 30 minutes at round trip. The water supply sources vary from kebele to kebele based on the existing water sources (spring, shallow well, borehole, hand dug well) at local level. The participants reported that there is no complaint on the payment charged for the potable water. Yet, in the lowland, for instance in Dekera and Nebar Handinet, the water supply problem is not addressed and it is adversely affecting their livelihood. The following table shows the perception of discussants regarding the status of water supply service in their locality.
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Table 44. Perception of sample households regarding the water supply condition
Prior to PW Post PW Livelihood Wereda Kebele Zone No Abundant Average Scarce Abundant Improve Worst Change
Emba Bete Alaji Mera - 25 75 - 100 - -
Waza Hintalo Ada Highland Wajirat Awala - 50 50 50 50 - -
Hintalo - - 100 - 50 50 -
Hagere Selam - - 100 75 25 - - Hintalo Midland Wajirat Frewine - - 100 75 25 100 -
Dekera - - 100 - - 100 -
Nebar Handnet - - 100 - - 100 - Seharti Lowland Samre Samri - - 100 - 100 - -
Source: Socio-economic Impact Assessment, Focus Group Discussants, 2011
The above finding indicated that access to potable water supply service is improving both in terms of quality and quantity after the PSNP – PW activities. The project has a multiple effect like saving time, reduce expenditure, improve health status and enhance incomes which have a significant positive impact on their livelihood. In the lowland, the majority of the community is still suffering due to lack of adequate and clean water. Likewise, the sustainability of the water supply schemes is often influenced by shortage of spare parts and inadequate trained manpower. Thus, availing clean water supply for the unreached kebeles and improving the functionality of the existing schemes with appropriate management system are the key points to be considered.
7.2.5 Off-farm Activities
Most farmers were engaged in off-farm activities at local level and working for the better off family as well as seasonally migrate outside their village to seek jobs mostly from the highland to the lowlands areas. Households mainly found in middle, poor and very poor wealth categories were generating significant portion of income from such activities. It was found that off-farm activities were one of the major coping mechanisms during critical shortage of food despite the price of labor was cheaper i.e. 1.5 to 5 birr per person per day. PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1: 2011 125
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The scenario of labor cost and supply is radically changed after the PSNP-PW introduction. First, the cost of labor is peaked to 25-40 birr per person per day. Second, as the majority of labors are absorbed by PW activities and/or the low income laborers are engaged on their own farming activities, the supply of labor for off-farm and non-farm activities is getting scarcer. Thus, though it may need an independent detail study, it is possible to indicate that labor suppression has been observed in the study areas where the PSNP-PW activities underway.
7.2.6 PSNP-Public Works and Gender Issues
In agrarian societies the role of women is concentrated on reproductive activities, i.e., maintaining the existence of the family and child caring. Besides household chores, women are also expected to assist their husbands in various tasks particularly agricultural activities during peak agricultural seasons. However, due to long strand effect of cultural and social affairs female headed households own small plots of farmland and fewer animals compared to males. The following table shows the sample households farmland asset ownership status disaggregated by sex. Table 45. Sample households’ farmland ownership status disaggregated by sex.
Livelihood Zone Descripti Farmla Group Total on nd size Highl Lowlan Midland and d
< 0.5 ha 32.5 22.2 8.8 19.9
0.5 - 1 ha 25 24.1 14.0 20.5 Male
1 - 2 ha 2.5 5.6 31.6 14.6
> 2 ha - - 5.3 2.0
Group Total 60 51.9 59.6 57.0
< 0.5 ha 35 25.9 8.8 21.9
0.5 - 1 Female ha 5 20.4 22.8 17.2
1 - 2 ha - 1.9 5.3 2.6
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> 2 ha - - 3.5 1.3
Group Total 40 48.1 40.4 43.0
Source: Socio-economic Impact Assessment, Focus Group Discussants, 2011
The PSNP-PW acknowledges the gender aspect as it is one of the key components in the development endeavor of the country. Women in general and rural women in particular have heavy workload both in terms of productive, reproductive and community management activities and their level of decision making in all cases is limited at the management level. One of the objectives of PSNP – PW is to provide equal opportunities to women in PW activities and enhance income to reduce their level of food insecurity. The PW activities comprise a larger number of women. The women discussants have explained that they have been suffering of food shortage prior to six years previously, which has been significantly addressed through income earned from PW activities. Hence, the program is one of the main income sources to their livelihood in general and also smoothen their consumption in particular.
The women participants have also revealed that natural resources management through PW activities improves water availability for human as well as for their livestock and boost access to fuel wood from their home yard. This enabled them to save a lot of time which could be allocated to other livelihood activities. Furthermore, female headed households who had rented out their farmland due to financial constraints is now cultivating and fully benefiting from their farmland. Regarding the eligibility for public works, pregnant women after six months and lactating women for a period of 10 months after giving birth are transferred from labor intensive public work to direct supporter until they come back to the PW activities. Though it varies from kebele to kebele, the majority of the women are working together with men. Despite it is clearly stated in the PW Implementation Manual, the proportion of women assigned to different management and coordination committees is still limited. The assessment further revealed that women have several challenges while undertaking the PW activities. These include: the work norm is very tough for female, it also takes longer time to accomplish the given task, it increases the workload as females are also responsible for household chores and exclusion of women from PW activity after 6 months pregnancy time may not be sufficient since it is very difficult to perform some of the PW norms especially after 4 months. In general, the study found that women are benefiting from the PSNP-PW activities and their level of food insecurity has been markedly reduced. The participation in the community affairs, access to education and health services as well as access to productive assets are better and encouraging after the PW implementation. Therefore, in order to fully attain the goal of PSNP-PW
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PSNP PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1 - 2011 sub-projects, it is very essential to deem and take concerted efforts to resolve the above constraints that faced women beneficiaries.
7.2.7 Food Security and Vulnerability Context
Food insecurity has been persisting in most of the Zamra Watershed for a long time. It is believed that the major causes of food insecurity are land degradation and declining crop and land productivity, deterioration of productive household assets, shortage of land, frequent drought and poor access to public services. This left the farmers for chronic and transitory food insecurity which became a part of their livelihoods among the poor rural community. In response, households were seasonally and sometimes permanently migrate outside their village to hunt alternative livelihood option. This was the common coping and adaptive strategy for the majority of the families so as to sustain their livelihoods. The PW natural resource management activity is the core component of PSNP and one of the means to enhance both the income of the households participating in the program and building the livelihood assets of the community in general. Cumulatively, it increases productivity and food availability to ensure food security. This livelihood impact assessment was approached through exploring the status of food availability, accessibility, stability and utilization in prior and post PW program. The report pinpointed the perception of the households about food insecurity, seasonal food supply and demand situations and the capacity of households who can meet the food need adequately throughout the year. Food self sufficiency of a household is conceived as a function of the total volume of production by the household member, income and employment, landholding size and other livelihood assets. It is measured in terms of the number of months a household can feed itself from own production and/or other sources of income. This assessment disclosed that the problem has a long term cumulative effects on the livelihoods of the majority of households who were food unsecured despite there were various degree of access to food within the community and a household. Based on the wealth classification, households from the poor and very poor groups were chronically food unsecured and suffering from season to season due to critical shortage of food and low cash income. The discussants pointed out that prior to the PW, these categories were food unsecured for the period of 6-7 months in the highlands and the midlands while the period increased to 7-8 months in lowland due to high level of vulnerability. Whereas the rich and middle class households unable to meet their food need for about 2-3 in highland and 4 months in the midland and the lowland, respectively. The community adopted different mechanisms to cope up with these critical periods like working for the better family with cheap labor price, borrowing from the better to payback/return with high interest/size, eating Beles and PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1: 2011 128
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Hamlet (a leaf grown in farmland as weed and not commonly consumed by the better family), sharecropping and/or renting out farmland and seasonally migrate to the neighboring or beyond Woredas to seek off-farm and non-farm activities. With increasing food insecurity and shortages of inadequate food which trigger malnutrition lead to depletion of the wellbeing of the households. Field evidence indicated that the present average food self-sufficiency period for the rich, middle, poor and very poor households is 11, 10, 9 and 9 months, respectively. These months are the periods when a household can feed its family from what it produced and cash earned and/or transferred in kind. With this regard, the discussants are vividly explained their food security condition has been significantly improved after the PW intervention. The graph below shows food self sufficiency status of households in sampled Kebeles before and after the PSNP-PW activities.
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Figure 18. Food self sufficiency of households in sample Kebeles (Pre and Post PW Period).
Source: Socio-economic Impact Assessment, Focus Group Discussants, 2011
The proportions of change of food self sufficiency among poor and very poor groups are significantly higher than the middle and the rich wealth groups. It is because of a diversified livelihood strategies as well as their involvement in PSNP-PW activities which earned additional source of income for the former wealth categories. The following table shows the proportional changes food self sufficiency among the different wealth categories. Table 46. Percentage change of food self-sufficiency months (prior and post PW) in sample kebeles
% change of food self sufficiency months Livelihood Wereda Kebele Zone Very Rich Middle Poor Poor
Emba Alaji Bete Mera 33 25 50 80
Highland Waza Ada Hintalo Wajirat Awala 20 11 67 80
Hintalo 38 43 50 80
Midland Hintalo Wajirat Hagere Selam 50 38 80 125
Frewine 38 25 67 80
Lowland Seharti Samre Dekera 25 67 100 125
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Nebar Handnet 43 67 80 125
Samri 11 25 80 125
Source: Socio-economic Impact Assessment, Focus Group Discussants, 2011
The assessment attempted to incorporate the frequency of meal consumed and the food habit of the households to examine in the process of food security assessment brought about after the PW program intervention. The frequency of meal is mainly depends on the availability of food in a particular season, the volume of previous and successive years‟ production and the prevalence and strengths of shocks and stresses. It was explained that prior to the PW implementation, the average frequency of meals for the better off family was twice a day. On other hand, the poor and very poor households have consumed twice for a few months particularly during the harvest but the consumption gradually declined to once a day. They also reduced the quantity of meals so as to cope up with the critical shortage of food. After the PW implementation, the frequency of meal becomes three times for the rich and middle wealth categories and the majority of poor and very poor households consume three times a day. The informants have also informed that peoples are now adopting a new meal habit i.e. breakfast, lunch and dinner and sometimes snack which was unusual prior to the PW implementation. Yet, the middle, poor and very poor wealth groups often reduce the quantity and frequency of meal during July, August and September which are still critical months for almost to all households. This obviously shows that there is a transitory food insecurity problem in the area. When the composition of food consumed is seen cereals are the dominant sources of food irrespective of the wealth status, sex and age of households. However, the practice of irrigation and better access to extension delivery services, the consumption habit of the household is diversified with vegetables like tomato, cabbage, green pepper, lettuce, potato, onions, carrot and others. Fruits like papaya, mango, guava, avocado and banana are mainly planted for income generation purpose but also consumed at household level. Hence, the trend of food consumption habit for the last five years indicated that the type and the number of food menus are increasing and diversified. The cumulative results in improving of farmland productivity and crop production, emergency of irrigation farming and producing high value crops, fattening of animals for market, working on their own farmland instead of renting out and/or sharecropping and generating income from wage payment of PW activities have promisingly improved the food security situation and the proportion of households who are food unsecure. Therefore, the natural resources management PW activities are practically enhancing the food security condition of the households and cascading to the poorest chronically food unsecured people. It was noted that the PW activities are the major income source and determinates the food security situation of some middle and almost all the poor and very poor wealth categories. It is valuable to emphasize here that any actions and decisions regarding PW activities should PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1: 2011 131
PSNP PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1 - 2011 be thoroughly studied to minimize the direct or indirect effect on the livelihood of these groups.
7.3 Economic Impacts
7.3.1 Benefits from Closed Areas
Benefits to Communities from closed areas include the following:
Increased forage for livestock,
Increased fuel wood from indigenous trees,
Increased poles and fuelwood from Plantations,
Provision of bee forage and honey production,
Re-charged groundwater leading to initiation of springs and increased stream base-flow for irrigation,
Increased provision of medicinal plants. Downstream benefits include:
Reduced sediment to rivers. Global benefits include:
Increased sequestration of CO2 (a Greenhouse gas) contributing to a reduction in global warming.
Increased species biodiversity.
7.3.1.1 Community Benefits from Closed Areas
(i) Increased Forage for Livestock Exclusion of livestock from closed area leads to an increase in herbaceous biomass. Maximum herbaceous biomass yield in both Zamre and Kelete watersheds is estimated (WBISPP, 2003) to be 1.6tons dry matter (DM) per hectare. Wolde Mekuria et al. (2006) surveyed open grazing areas, areas that had been closed for 5 and for 10 years. Herbaceous ground cover in open areas was 5 to 10 percent, in closed areas after 5 years it was 38 percent and 60 percent after 10 years. A four-fold increase over a five year period was assumed, with DM in open areas yielding 0.4tons/ha.
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There are positive impacts on livestock health and productivity (milk, draught power, fecundity, reduced calf mortalities) with increases in feed supply. To capture these values grass was valued using the annualized value of an ox over 10 years at 10 percent discount rate multiplied by the ratio of 1 ton of grass dry matter to the annual feed requirements of 1 ox (1.825 tons of grass dry matter). Using 15 percent discount rate for the financial analysis and 10 percent for the economic analysis over a period of 25 years gave the following Net present Values per hectare: NPV 15%: ETB4,687 NPV 10%: ETB5,557
(ii) Increased Poles and Fuelwood from Plantations Harvesting occurs at year 10 when volume reaches 186 m3 per ha (Pukkala & Pohnjonen, 1989). Local price for poles is ETB30 and for fuelwood ETB64 per m3. Using 15 percent discount rate for the financial analysis and 10 percent for the economic analysis over a period of 25 years gave the following Net present Values per hectare for poles plus fuelwood: NPV 15%: ETB3,016 NPV 10%: ETB7,617
(iii) Increased Fuelwood from trees Fuelwood NPV per m3 at 15 percent and 10 percent discount rates over 25 years were as follows: NPV 15%: ETB75 NPV 10%: ETB12
(iv) Provision of Bee Forage and Honey production Area closure has resulted in a dramatic increase in the provision of bee forage as a result of the increase in herbaceous and woody plants. The availability of improved hives in the Zamre Watershed has enabled significant increases in the annual yields of honey. In the Zamre Watershed they are reported to be from 5 kgs (traditional hive) to 50 kgs per hive per annum (local sources). Local market prices for honey in Tigray are ETB70 per kg, although prices in Makelle are nearly double. Investment costs amount to ETB900 for the hive
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PSNP PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1 - 2011 and ETB750 for the bee colony. A one Improved Hive Budget and cash flow (for Zamre Watershed) is shown in Table 47. Table 47. One Improved Hive Budget and Cash Flow.
BEE HIVES AND HONEY
INVESTEMENTS PY 1 PY2 PY3 PY4 PY5 - Improved hive 1 0 0 0 0 - Bee colony 1 0 0 0 0 - Honey extractor 0 0 0 0 0 0 INPUTS PY 1 PY2 PY3 PY4 PY5 - Improved hive 1 1 1 1 1 0 COLONY MORTALITIES/LOSSES PY 1 PY2 PY3 PY4 PY5 - Improved hive 0 0 0 0 0
OUTPUTS PY 1 PY2 PY3 PY4 PY5 Yield - Improved: kgs/hive/yr 50 50 50 50 50
Annual Production - Improved (kgs/yr) 50 50 50 50 50
Annual honey Consumed (kgs/yr) 10 10 10 10 10
Colonies Produced or sold/yr 0 0 0 0 0
ANNUAL INPUTS USED PY 1 PY2 PY3 PY4 PY5
Own Labour (pds) 50 50 50 50 50 Hired labour (pds) 0 0 0 0 0
Hired honey extractor (hire period)
CAPITAL COSTS INCURRED (ETB) PY 1 PY2 PY3 PY4 PY5 - Improved hive 900 0 0 0 0 - Bee colony 750 0 0 0 0 - Honey extractor hire 0 0 0 0 0 - Other 0
TOTAL CAPITAL COSTS - 1650 0 0 0 0
ANNUAL COSTS INCURRED (ETB) PY 1 PY2 PY3 PY4 PY5
Labour 500 500 500 500 500 Hired Honey extractor 250 250 250 250 250 TOTAL COSTS - 750 750 750 750 750
REVENUE STREAM PY1 PY2 PY3 PY4 PY5 Improved Hive - Gross Revenue 3500 3500 3500 3500 3500 - Hive costs 900 0 0 0 0 - Colony costs 750 0 0 0 0 - Net Revenue 1850 3500 3500 3500 3500 - Revenue sale of Bee Colonies 0 0 0 0 0 - Less value of honey consumed 300 300 300 300 300 - Annual costs 750 750 750 750 750 - Other 0 0 0 0 0 TOTAL NET CASH FLOW 800 2450 2450 2450 2450 RETURNS TO LABOUR ETB/pd 1.6 4.9 4.9 4.9 4.9 Honey NPV per Improved Hive at 15 percent and 10 percent discount rates over 25 years were as follows: Zamre watershed NPV 15%: ETB 5,453 NPV 10%: ETB11,397
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(v) Local Re-charged Groundwater leading to initiation of springs and increased stream base-flow for irrigation
Six instances were reported in the Zamre Watershed (in Hintalo Wajarit woreda) where following area closure and the implementation of rain water harvesting structures a spring which had not yielded for decades started to flow (in Hiwane kebelle) , and in the second case significantly increased stream base flow (Hagere Salem kebelle). In both cases the increase in water yield enabled the development of 6 and 10 hectares of irrigation respectively. The allocation of just 0.125 ha per household was reported by the Poor and Very Poor Wealth groups as having a very significant and positive impact on their livelihoods (see the Report on Social and Livelihood Impacts). In estimating the return on 0.125ha of irrigation it was assumed that the irrigated area had replaced an area under rainfed crops and the net revenue of this was deducted as an opportunity cost of the irrigation. It was also assumed that crop yields increased over a 3 year period to reflect the gaining of experience in irrigated cropping. Crop yields and prices were obtained from local informed persons and selected Micro-watershed Development Reports. Annual net revenue from 0.125 ha of irrigated vegetables was ETB1,543 (or ETB12,344/ha). The cash flow for 0.125ha of irrigated vegetables us shown in table 48. Table 48. Small-scale Irrigation: Cash flow for 0.125ha
SMALL-SCALE IRRIGATION: 0.125HA
PY 1 PY 2 PY 3 PY 4 PY 5 LABOUR pds 26 26 26 26 26 NET RETURN: IRRIGATED VEGETATBLES ETB 1,263 1,587 1,910 1,910 1,910 NET RETURN: RAINFED CROPPING ETB 367 367 367 367 367 INCEMENTAL RETURN ETB 896 1,219 1,543 1,543 1,543 MARGINAL RETURNS TO LABOUR ETB/DAY 35 47 60 60 60 CAPITAL COSTS ETB 1,250 - - - - CASH FLOW ETB -353.95 1,219.46 1,542.86 1,542.86 1,542.86 The NPV for 1 hectare of irrigated vegetables at 15 percent and 10 percent discount rates to reflect the financial and economic benefits were as follows: NPV 15%: ETB57,022/ha NPV 10%: ETB116,734/ha
(vi) Increased supply of medicinal plants Both herbalists and female headed households collect medicinal plants. For female headed households this provides an important element of their livelihood strategies. Howard and Smith (2006) in a study in Hintalo Wajarit woreda on female Headed Households and their use of Communal natural
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PSNP PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1 - 2011 resources reported the collection of 129 plant species. The focal location for medicinal plant collection is the communal areas, and with the increase in both herbaceous and woody plants and a significant increase in plant species diversity (Muys et al. 2006). Discussions with one herbalist in Hagere Salem kebelle revealed that he earned some ETB900 per annum from the medicinal plants that he collected from the Closed Area.
7.3.1.2 Downstream Benefits from Closed Areas
The key downstream benefits from closed areas are two-fold:
Reduced sediment delivered to streams and rivers
Increased infiltration to groundwater and base flow
(i) Reduced sediment delivered to streams and rivers Research by Makelle University (Descheemaeker et al.,2005) has revealed that closed area can trap sediment from upslope areas up to three times their own area, hereby increasing soil depth and increasing nutrient and soil organic matter content. In the present analysis it has been assumed that a closed area will trap sediment from an area upslope two times its own area. The trapping efficiency after 3 years is estimated to be 95 percent.
ENTRO (2008) estimated the Sediment Delivery Ratio for the Tekeze Basin as a whole at 66 percent. Using these factors it is estimated that the reduction in sediment to the Tekeze River in the case of the Zamre Watershed from the closed areas will be approximately 414,400 tons per annum. This is a reduction of 41 percent from the pre-closure estimate of 1.01 million tons/annum. The sediment load of the Tekeze River at the site of the TK5 dam was estimated (MWR, 1998) to be 31.1 million tons/annum. Thus, the reduction of 414,400 tons/annum represents a reduction of 1.3 percent of sediment being retained in the TK5 reservoir15. This converts into an increase of 1.3 percent generating capacity that would otherwise be lost. The annual generating output (in KWH) and the price per KWH are not available but knowing these factors would provide an estimate of the value of the closed areas in the Zamre Watershed in retaining generating capacity that would otherwise be lost.
15 The reservoir has almost 100 percent sediment retention (MWR, 1998) PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1: 2011 136
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(ii) Increased infiltration to groundwater and base flow
There is clear evidence that locally, increased rain water infiltration has led to increased water supply to groundwater and base flow of local streams. Whilst the base-flow is increased the flood peaks in the rainy season are reduced. Estimating exactly what the overall balance is between reducing the flood peak and increasing the base flow in the dry season is on the overall annual flow of the Zamre Rivers at its outlet requires considerably more data and analysis than is available in the present study. An indication is available from some preliminary work that was done during the Eastern Nile Watershed Cooperative Regional Assessment (ENTRO, 2008) of the impact of all WSM activities in the Tekeze River Basins. This indicated that whilst base flow did increase (by about 3.7 percent) the overall annual flow at the border was reduced by about 3.4 percent.
7.3.1.3 Global Benefits from Closed Areas
(i) Carbon Sequestration Whilst the benefits are area closure in terms of increased forage, wood, and honey production accrue directly to the local Communities, benefits from increased carbon sequestration accrue to the world at large. Whilst the local communities are responsible for realizing these global benefits they do not receive any reward for this service. One method of allowing local communities who do realize such regional or global benefits receive payment for such services is referred to as “Payments for Environmental Services”. The classic example is the New York city‟s water authority paying land owners in upper New York State where the water gathers to retain their land under forest cover to reduce the sediment and other contaminants entering the city‟s water supply.
More recently, increasing carbon sequestration through afforestation and reforestation (such as occurs in area closures) has been the subject of payment for environmental services through the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) under the Kyoto Protocol. This system allows development countries who have undertaken to reduce their Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions to offset these by paying Less developed Counties to undertake carbon sequestration through a variety of mechanisms including reforestation. Another mechanism of relevance to Ethiopia is the World Bank‟s Community carbon Fund which operates in a similar manner. The example in Ethiopia is the Humbo Project near Soddo which is undertaking area closure over some 5,000 ha as is receiving payments through the Carbon Fund for carbon sequestered in the increase in woody biomass at the rate of US$3.75 per ton of CO2 sequestered. More recently, reducing GHG emissions through PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1: 2011 137
PSNP PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1 - 2011 afforestation, reforestation, reduced deforestation and reduced forest degradation have all come under the term REDD+.
Using the increase in woody biomass and the soil carbon resulting from area closure it has been possible to estimate the amount of CO2 sequestered in the two Watersheds. A conservative estimate of US$3 per ton of CO2 sequestered has been used to value the benefits. The amount of CO2 sequestered would increase in line with the increase in wood biomass and build-up of soil organic matter. Total CO2 sequestered and their value as payment for environmental services for the two watersheds after 5 years of closure is estimated as follows: Zamre Watershed: 1,332,928 tons CO2 ETB60.87million Under the auspices of the Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF) the Government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia has prepared a Readiness Preparation Proposal (R-PP) (GFDRE, 2011) setting out a three year programme to develop a National REDD+ Strategy. The Ethiopian Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA) is chairing this process. As part of this process a number of “Pilot Projects” will be identified, both existing and new, from which to draw appropriate “lessons learnt”. These Projects will be assessed according selected criteria and the better performing strategies and experiences will be identified for scaling up and incorporation into the National REDD+ Strategy. These experiences include approaches to Participatory Forest Management and Conservation, activities to reduce pressure on existing forest resources - including better management of previous plantations, support for bamboo growth and use, and intensified agroforestry. The “reforestation” activities of the area closure would also come under this category.
(ii) Increased species biodiversity. Placing a monetary value of such increase in biodiversity is very difficult. Biodiversity values cover all other genetic, species and habitat resources. A World Bank cost assessment of environmental degradation of Iran placed a value US$ 16/ha on the value of biodiversity conservation of the Caspian forests. Akpalu and Parks (2007) used an estimate of US$ 23/ha for the value of biodiversity in Ghana's forests. Pearce (1996) in a review of a number of estimates for biodiversity value came to the conclusion that US$ 5/ha would be the most appropriate value. In the absence of estimates from Ethiopia or East Africa the value of US$ 5/ha might be appropriate for Ethiopia.
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7.3.1.4 Total Gross Benefits from Closed Areas to Public Works
The total gross quantifiable financial benefits from the Closed Areas to the public works implemented in the Zamre Watershed are shown in table 49. Table 49. Total Gross Financial Benefits from the Closed Areas to Public Works in the Zamre Catchment
TOTAL TOTAL TOTAL TOTAL GROSS TOTAL FORAGE PLANTATION NATURAL CARBON Total NPV IRRIGATION BENEFITS NPV WOOD NPV WOOD NPV NPV Honey NPV NPV LZ Wereda Kebelle ETB ETB ETB ETB ETB ETB
AHL Alaje Abinet 3,581,237 92,917 4,058 0 1,673,010 0 5,351,222 Betimera 5,656,350 146,757 8,380 0 2,614,079 0 8,425,565 Dejen 1,226,276 31,816 202 0 601,238 0 1,859,533 Fana 228,136 5,919 458 0 117,634 0 352,147 Seret 3,752,694 97,366 4,019 0 1,764,503 0 5,618,582 Tehiliweyane 2,523,022 65,461 868 0 1,176,335 0 3,765,687 Hintalo Wajirat Adi Mesino 707,898 18,367 444 0 339,830 0 1,066,539 Bahari Tseba 4,118,991 106,870 3,835 0 1,620,729 0 5,850,424 Waza Adi Awana 980,167 25,431 1,507 0 470,534 342,131 1,819,771 TOTAL: LIVELIHOOD ZONE 22,774,771 590,905 23,771 0 10,377,892 342,131 34,109,470 EDML Adi Gudom Town 22,689 589 4 0 26,141 0 49,422 Amdi Woyane 450,378 11,685 879 0 222,197 0 685,139 Ara Alem 853,108 22,134 10 0 392,112 0 1,267,364 Fikire Alem 1,138,542 29,540 2,592 0 548,957 0 1,719,630 Hagere Selam 635,293 16,483 549 0 313,689 342,131 1,308,146 Hareko 2,198,739 57,048 3,131 0 1,032,561 114,044 3,405,523 Hintalo 1,669,914 43,327 1,070 0 771,153 0 2,485,464 Hiwane 2,032,938 52,746 1,749 0 941,068 684,262 3,712,764 Mayi Nebiri 1,907,896 49,501 4,196 0 888,787 812,562 3,662,942 Muja 16,358,856 424,440 20,505 0 7,423,983 335,003 24,562,787 May Tehili 2,575,297 66,818 1,779 0 1,189,406 0 3,833,299 TOTAL: LIVELIHOOD ZONE 29,843,650 774,311 36,464 0 13,750,054 2,288,002 46,692,481 MTLL Dekera 2,193,636 56,915 4,289 0 1,032,561 0 3,287,401 Hadash Lemlem 1,397,645 36,263 1,121 0 653,520 0 2,088,549 Lemlem Arena 689,747 17,896 917 0 326,760 0 1,035,320 Nebar Hadinat 1,760,670 45,682 3,640 0 810,364 0 2,620,356 Samira Town 689,747 17,896 1,326 0 326,760 0 1,035,729 TOTAL: LIVELIHOOD ZONE 6,731,445 174,651 11,294 0 3,149,965 0 10,067,355 TOTAL: ZAMRA WATERSHED 59,349,866 1,539,867 71,529 0 27,277,911 2,630,134 90,869,306 PERCENTAGE SHARE OF TOTAL BENEFITS 65.3% 1.7% 0.1% 0.0% 30.0% 2.9% Benefits to increased forage production in the closed areas comprises 65 percent of the total quantifiable benefits. These are followed by the benefits to honey (30 percent) and spring initiated irrigation (3percent). Benefits to tree production from plantations and the indigenous trees in the closed areas are relatively small. However, their contribution to carbon sequestration and increased biodiversity are not captured in the financial analysis. Benefits to increased medicinal plants although clearly positive have not been quantified due to the lack of comprehensive data.
The total gross economic benefits are shown in Table 50.
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Table 50. Total Gross Economic Benefits to Public Works from the Closed Areas in the Zamre Catchment
TOTAL TOTAL TOTAL TOTAL FORAGE PLANTATION NATURAL CARBON Total NPV IRRIGATION TOTAL GROSS NPV WOOD NPV WOOD NPV NPV Honey NPV BENEFITS NPV LZ Wereda Kebelle ETB ETB ETB ETB ETB ETB ETB
AHL Alaje Abinet 3,423,859 202,798 5,983 1,552,549 2,044,728 0 7,229,918 Betimera 5,407,782 320,307 12,356 2,452,158 3,194,888 0 11,387,491 Dejen 1,172,388 69,441 298 27,190 734,824 0 2,004,141 Fana 218,111 12,919 675 98,902 143,770 0 474,377 Seret 3,587,782 212,507 5,925 1,626,880 2,156,550 0 7,589,644 Tehiliweyane 2,412,148 142,873 1,280 1,093,788 1,437,700 0 5,087,789 Hintalo Wajirat Adi Mesino 676,790 40,087 654 306,890 415,335 0 1,439,757 Bahari Tseba 3,937,982 233,250 5,654 1,502,395 1,980,831 0 7,660,112 Waza Adi Awana 937,093 55,505 2,223 424,925 575,080 784,227 2,779,052 TOTAL: LIVELIHOOD ZONE 21,773,935 1,289,688 35,048 9,085,678 12,683,706 784,227 45,652,282 EDML Adi Gudom Town 21,692 1,285 6 9,836 31,949 0 64,768 Amdi Woyane 430,586 25,504 1,296 9,986 271,566 0 738,938 Ara Alem 815,618 48,310 15 369,842 479,233 0 1,713,018 Fikire Alem 1,088,509 64,473 3,821 493,584 670,927 0 2,321,314 Hagere Selam 607,375 35,975 810 14,086 383,387 653,522 1,695,156 Hareko 2,102,115 124,510 4,617 953,204 1,261,981 261,409 4,707,836 Hintalo 1,596,529 94,564 1,578 723,946 942,492 0 3,359,110 Hiwane 1,943,601 115,121 2,579 881,326 1,150,160 1,568,454 5,661,241 Mayi Nebiri 1,824,054 108,040 6,187 827,117 1,086,262 1,862,539 3,851,660 Muja 15,639,967 926,368 30,233 7,091,943 9,073,483 571,832 32,761,993 May Tehili 2,462,126 145,834 2,622 1,116,451 1,453,674 0 5,180,707 TOTAL: LIVELIHOOD ZONE 28,532,173 1,689,984 53,764 12,491,322 16,805,112 4,917,756 64,490,111 MTLL Dekera 2,097,237 124,221 6,324 950,992 1,261,981 0 4,440,754 Hadash Lemlem 1,336,226 79,146 1,653 605,912 798,722 0 2,821,658 Lemlem Arena 659,436 39,059 1,352 15,294 399,361 0 1,114,502 Nebar Hadinat 1,683,297 99,703 5,368 763,291 990,415 0 3,542,075 Samira Town 659,436 39,059 1,955 299,021 399,361 0 1,398,832 TOTAL: LIVELIHOOD ZONE 6,435,632 381,188 16,652 2,634,510 3,849,840 0 13,317,821 TOTAL: ZAMRA WATERSHED 56,741,740 3,360,859 105,464 24,211,509 33,338,659 5,701,983 123,460,214 PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL GROSS BENEFITS 46% 3% 0.1% 20% 27% 5% The percentage of economic benefits to increased forage production remains the highest. However the economic benefits to carbon sequestration comprise 20 percent of total benefits. If these global benefits could be translated into local benefits through payment for environmental services they could provide a strong incentive for communities to expand the closed area. Not quantified but of considerable importance is the reduction in sediment entering the reservoir of the TK5 dam and this contributing reducing the loss of storage and power generation potential. The benefits to increased biodiversity in the closed areas has also not been quantified but is clearly positive.
7.3.1.5 Total Net Benefits from Closed Areas due to Public Works
The net discounted financial benefits from Closed Areas are shown in table 51.
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Table 51. Zamre Watershed: Net Discounted Financial Benefits and Discounted Benefit:Cost Ratios from Closed Areas by Kebelle
TOTAL TOTAL NET TOTAL GROSS GROSS DISCOUNTED DISCOUNTED BENEFITS NPV COSTS NPV BENEFITS CB RATIO ETB ETB ETB LZ Wereda Kebelle AHL Alaje Abinet 5,351,222 3,958,704 1,392,519 1.35 Betimera 8,425,565 6,252,536 2,173,029 1.35 Dejen 1,859,533 1,355,527 504,005 1.37 Fana 352,147 163,641 188,505 2.15 Seret 5,618,582 4,148,233 1,470,349 1.35 Tehiliweyane 3,765,687 2,788,952 976,735 1.35 Hintalo Wajirat Adi Mesino 1,066,539 788,160 278,379 1.35 Bahari Tseba 5,850,424 1,690,892 4,159,532 3.46 Waza Adi Awana 1,819,771 1,083,478 736,293 1.68 TOTAL: LIVELIHOOD ZONE 34,109,470 22,230,123 11,879,347 1.53 EDML Adi Gudom Town 49,422 25,081 24,342 1.97 Amdi Woyane 685,139 742,447 -57,308 0.92 Ara Alem 1,267,364 943,027 324,338 1.34 Fikire Alem 1,719,630 1,258,545 461,085 1.37 Hagere Selam 1,308,146 702,254 605,892 1.86 Hareko 3,405,523 1,374,885 2,030,637 2.48 Hintalo 2,485,464 1,845,925 639,539 1.35 Hiwane 3,712,764 1,122,120 2,590,645 3.31 Mayi Nebiri 3,662,942 752,608 2,910,334 4.87 Muja 24,562,787 18,083,100 6,479,687 1.36 May Tehili 3,833,299 2,846,737 986,562 1.35 TOTAL: LIVELIHOOD ZONE 46,692,481 29,696,729 16,995,752 1.57 MTLL Dekera 3,287,401 2,424,848 862,553 1.36 Hadash Lemlem 2,088,549 1,544,959 543,590 1.35 Lemlem Arena 1,035,320 762,447 272,873 1.36 Nebar Hadinat 2,620,356 1,946,247 674,110 1.35 Samira Town 1,035,729 762,447 273,282 1.36 TOTAL: LIVELIHOOD ZONE 10,067,355 7,440,948 2,626,407 1.35 TOTAL: ZAMRA WATERSHED 90,869,306 59,367,800 31,501,506 1.53
AHL = Alaji Highland Zone EDML = Enderta Dry Midland Zone MTLL = Middle Tekeze Lowland Zone
The total net financial discounted benefits accruing from the Closed Areas to the public works in the Zamre watershed amount to ETB 31.5 million. The overall benefit:cost ratio is 1.53, indicating that the return on the investment costs is 153 percent. The higher benefit:cost ratios for some kebelles are caused by the inclusion of the benefits from Spring Initiated Irrigation for which the Public Works costs are minimal.
The net discounted economic benefits are shown in table 52.
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Table 52. Zamre Watershed: Net Discounted Economic Benefits and Discounted Benefit:cost Ratios from Closed Areas by Kebelle
TOTAL TOTAL NET TOTAL GROSS GROSS DISCOUNTED DISCOUNTED BENEFITS NPV COSTS NPV BENEFITS CB RATIO ETB ETB ETB LZ Wereda Kebelle AHL Alaje Abinet 7,229,918 3,879,529 3,350,389 1.86 Betimera 11,387,491 6,127,485 5,260,006 1.86 Dejen 2,004,141 1,328,417 675,724 1.51 Fana 474,377 160,368 314,009 2.96 Seret 7,589,644 4,065,269 3,524,376 1.87 Tehiliweyane 5,087,789 2,733,173 2,354,617 1.86 Hintalo Wajirat Adi Mesino 1,439,757 772,397 667,359 1.86 Bahari Tseba 7,660,112 1,657,074 6,003,038 4.62 Waza Adi Awana 2,779,052 1,061,808 1,717,244 2.62 TOTAL: LIVELIHOOD ZONE 45,652,282 21,785,521 23,866,762 2.10 EDML Adi Gudom Town 64,768 176,684 -111,917 0.37 Amdi Woyane 738,938 727,598 11,340 1.02 Ara Alem 1,713,018 924,166 788,852 1.85 Fikire Alem 2,321,314 1,233,375 1,087,939 1.88 Hagere Selam 1,695,156 688,209 1,006,947 2.46 Hareko 4,707,836 1,347,388 3,360,449 3.49 Hintalo 3,359,110 1,809,006 1,550,104 1.86 Hiwane 5,661,241 1,099,677 4,561,563 5.15 Mayi Nebiri 3,851,660 737,556 3,114,104 5.22 Muja 32,761,993 17,721,438 15,040,555 1.85 May Tehili 5,180,707 2,789,802 2,390,905 1.86 TOTAL: LIVELIHOOD ZONE 64,490,111 29,254,900 35,235,210 2.20 MTLL Dekera 4,440,754 2,376,351 2,064,403 1.87 Hadash Lemlem 2,821,658 1,514,060 1,307,598 1.86 Lemlem Arena 1,114,502 747,198 367,304 1.49 Nebar Hadinat 3,542,075 1,907,322 1,634,753 1.86 Samira Town 1,398,832 747,198 651,634 1.87 TOTAL: LIVELIHOOD ZONE 13,317,821 7,292,129 6,025,692 1.83 TOTAL: ZAMRA WATERSHED 123,460,214 58,332,549 65,127,664 2.12
The overall benefit:cost ratio is 2.12, which is higher than the financial benefit:cost ratio. This is because of the considerable benefits to carbon sequestration which are not included in the financial analysis. As with the financial analysis those kebelles with slightly higher benefit:cost ratios have benefits accruing to micro and small scale irrigation.
7.3.2 Benefits from Micro-scale Irrigation
Micro scale irrigation refers to the supplementary irrigation made possible by three types of structures:
Spate irrigation
River diversion
Flood diversion Costs incurred in micro-scale supplementary irrigation refer variable costs incurred in extra labour (10 pds) and fertilizer. Details of costs, gross revenue and gross margin are shown in table 53 for one hectare.
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Table 53. One Hectare crop budget: Supplementary Irrigation of Cereals
Irrigation multiplier = 1.5 2 2 2 2 2 Teff Wheat Barley Maize Sorghum Finger Millet Price ETB/kg ETB 8.06 5.4 3.87 3.2 3.2 3.2 Yield q/ha Q 5.085 8 24.48 8.82 11.4 10.8 Sale value ETB ETB 4,099 4,320 9,474 2,822 3,648 3,456 Variable costs 2,263 2,314 2,701 2,089 2,136 207 - Seed ETB 273 324 711 99 146 207 - Fertilizer ETB 1,990 1,990 1,990 1,990 1,990 - - Crop protection ETB ------Gross margin ETB 1,835 2,006 6,773 734 1,512 3,249 Labour days/ha pd/ha 63 55 55 70 60 60 Returns to labour ETB/pd 29 36 123 10 25 54 The NPV for 1 hectare of supplementary irrigated cereals at 15 percent and 10 percent discount rates to reflect the financial and economic benefits were as follows: NPV 15%: ETB8,370/ha NPV 10%: ETB10,044/ha Total gross discounted benefits to Diversion Irrigation in the Zamre watershed amount to ETB15.56 million. This compares with ETB2.6 million from the Spring Initiated Schemes. All the diversions schemes are in Hintalo Wajirat woreda. Table 54. Gross discounted financial benefits to Diversion Irrigation in the Zamre Watershed
Spate Irrigation: Total NPV LZ Wereda Kebelle ETB
AHL Alaje Abinet - Betimera - Dejen - Fana - Seret - Tehiliweyane - Hintalo Wajirat Adi Mesino 739,387 Bahari Tseba 3,103,184 Waza Adi Awana 1,075,472 TOTAL: LIVELIHOOD ZONE 4,918,043 EDML Adi Gudom Town 134,434 Amdi Woyane 1,859,670 Ara Alem 168,042 Fikire Alem 729,304 Hagere Selam 520,932 Hareko 593,750 Hintalo 2,389,004 Hiwane 1,848,467 Mayi Nebiri 1,321,934 Muja 224,057 May Tehili - TOTAL: LIVELIHOOD ZONE 9,789,595 MTLL Dekera - Hadash Lemlem - Lemlem Arena - Nebar Hadinat - Samira Town - TOTAL: LIVELIHOOD ZONE - TOTAL: ZAMRA WATERSHED 14,707,638 PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1: 2011 143
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PART 4. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION
8. Conclusions
8.1 Inventory and Mapping of Micro-watersheds
The development plan maps at watershed Kebeles are incompatible for inventory and assessment of micro-watersheds in PWs-implementing Kebeles. They are neither sketched to scale nor usable for geo-referencing. In this regard, the methodology used in this phase of PWs Impact Assessment is faster, efficient, cost-effective and scientifically justifiable. There is little to pay for the acquisition of scanned and georeferenced topographic maps of 1:50,000 scale. The cost of acquisition could be reduced if scanned images are geo-referenced by the expert undertaking inventory and assessment of PWs activities in designated watersheds. Such a methodology would also pave the way for advanced spatial data processing and assessment of PWs interventions on various grounds. In a lesser scale, the methodology requires:
A GIS expert with experiences in watershed planning and management; DAs and Wereda Natural Resources Management experts capable of reading topographic maps; and Local knowledge of and experiences in PWs-implementing Kebele.
The absence of cumulative and comprehensive records for each PWs technique limits the scope and quality of PWs Impact Assessment. As indicated in this report, assessment of conservation measures may be limited to listing the type of techniques and technologies without documenting their quantitative information in the real sense of impact assessment.
The absence of initial base map and recent land use and land cover data constrains impact assessment of this kind. The appearance of PWs sub- program before the introduction of Community-based Watershed Development seems to have limited the availability of baseline data and information in a wider scale. Under such circumstance, integration of the sub- program into participatory watershed development endeavour appears to be less strong particularly in Keleta watershed where community participation and attitudes in conservation programs are not that high. The consequence has been reflected in the absence of records, sluggish pace of PWs implementation; and relatively longer time needed to gather the necessary data. The wider range and intensity of PWs activities implemented in Zamra watershed could be the result of experiences acquired in conservation practices, higher community awareness; and improved attitude developed long before the commencement of PWs sub-program.
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In general, the planning and implementation exercises of PWs in the inventoried micro-watersheds of Zamra and Keleta watersheds have been proved appropriate and relevant in terms of their distribution according to land cover, slope gradient and applied technologies. In the scope of this task, one could conclude the likely positive impacts of the sub-program on people‟s livelihood and the general bio-diversity. This could be justified by the fact that the alignment and distribution of protected micro-watersheds have widely considered cultivation land cover and vegetation areas. Worth mentioning in this regard is the non-representation of the two watersheds if sampling concept is taken into account. In Oromia Region, Keleta watershed, according to the regional officials, is one among 97 PWs-related watersheds, while the same could also apply to the situation in Tigray and any other regions.
8.2 Environmental Impacts
The study undertaken at desk level and in the field has enabled to grasp a number of successes and encouraging results with the watershed development (NRM) interventions of the PW component of the PSNP. Among others, the fact that the programme has taken watershed development (NRM) interventions, as one of the major component of the PW component of the PSNP makes it to effectively respond to the country‟s major problem of environmental degradation. Likewise, the technical issues, including regulatory and operational guidance being based on community based watershed management approach, which is the mainstream methodology of the MoARD. The PWs‟ requirement to be screened by ESMF also adds another important aspect for effective undertaking of the programme, which enables to avoid potential negative impacts.
8.3 Livelihoods and Social Impacts
The livelihood impact assessment of PSNP-PW subproject was undertaken in Zamra watershed, Tigray and Keleta watershed, Oromia regional states. The study is approached both from quantitative and qualitative aspects which constitutes primary and secondary sources. The study mainly analyzed the impact of natural resource management implemented through PSNP-PW in the respective watersheds vis-a-viz improvement in the livelihood and food security conditions of the vulnerable people. The study has drawn the following key conclusions.
The livelihood base of the majority of the studied watersheds is mainly derived from the production of crop and livestock and alley agricultural systems. However, these activities are not decently providing a means of living for the local community due to different natural, institutional, PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1: 2011 145
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demographic and economic constraints. As a result, the communities are not free from miseries of food insecurity and vulnerability to natural and manmade disasters. In response to this the PSNP-PW activities attempted to mitigate the problems through community centered natural resources management.
Soil degradation, deforestation and inappropriate agricultural practices have caused environmental degradation and dilution of biodiversity prior to the PSNP-PW interventions. Recently, the soil and water conservation and management has tremendously reversed the scenario through preventing erosion, built conservation structures, planted trees and attracted wild life to the ecosystem.
Crop production and farmland productivity in the respective watersheds has been enhanced after the intervention. Crop varieties increased utilization of fertilizers and chemicals, agricultural extension service is expanded, and awareness is raised on the impact of natural resources management on agricultural productivity among others. Yet, high price of agricultural inputs and erratic rainfall remain the major barriers for sustainable crop production.
As the watersheds are moisture stress and food unsecured due to low productivity, the introduction and expansion of irrigation farming system, after the PSNP-PW activities, have had visible impact on household food security status and income diversification. However, the potential of irrigation is not fully realized as problems like water shortage, upper and downstream dilemmas, siltation problems, lack of producers‟ cooperatives and poor market infrastructures are prevailing.
The PSNP-PW activities has enclosed the previously degraded pasture lands for rehabilitations which shrunk open field grazing system and shifted their livestock production system towards better quality and reduced the number of heads and became market oriented and the value of livestock is shockingly increased. Moreover, the accessibility and practices of forage budgeting is developed. However, in some agro ecologies, the demand of fodder is still inadequate.
Beekeeping is probably one of the most promising sources of income to enhance both food security and poverty reduction. It is very imperative in the case of Zamra watershed and an emerging practice in the Keleta watershed. The PSNP-PW facilitated the productivity through natural resources management which diversified bee forage and encouraged the adoption of modern beehives. It is, nevertheless, bottlenecked by inaccessibility of the modern beehive among some wealth categories in Keleta watershed, high price of the modern hives and insufficient technical knowledge of beekeepers in both watersheds.
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Most farmers have been, in one way or another way, engaged in off- farm activities to support their livelihood. Some migrates outside their village while others working for the better off farmers. After the PSNP- PW activities, the trend of off farm activities and migration is decreased.
The PSNP – PW beneficiaries have been earning a significant portion of income invested on food security and assets building are likely improved. In some cases the households have better access social services. Some farmers are started to work on their farmland instead of renting out which increased the availability of food and income from their own farmland. Moreover, the price of labour at local market is significantly higher after PSNP-PW intervention – the majority of labour is absorbed in PW activities and on their farm plot. This, in effect, created labour suppressions. However, the mode of payment for PW activities is not timely as per the schedule and to some extent the PW activities overlap with the peak agricultural activities.
The program has enclosed areas for tree planting at degraded communal lands and raised awareness among farmers to plant different species of trees on their private land. This helped to conserve soil and water and enhance the productivity. Moreover, it increased the availability of trees for construction, agricultural tools, fuel woods, enhance water recharge capacity, bee and animal forage, shades and habitats fro wild life, and providing environmental services. On other hand, the demand for fuel wood is not adequately met particularly in Keleta watershed.
The PSNP – PW activities has improved both in terms of quality and quantity. It has impacted on time saved, reduced expenditure, improved health condition and boost incomes which in turn enhanced their livelihood. In some lowland, sizeable portion of the communities are still suffering due to lack of adequate and clean water. Similarly, the sustainability of the water supply schemes is often constrained due to shortage of spare parts and inadequate trained manpower.
The PSNP-PW activities have magnificently benefited the poor and vulnerable women to gain additional source of income and reduce their food insecurity. The participation of women in different aspects of community has also improved. Yet, the work norm is very tough, takes longer time to accomplish, and created inconveniency during the pregnancy, lactation and routine domestic activities.
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The livelihood impact of PSNP-PW sub-project is manifested in the form of cumulative effects it has on food security and resilient community. Accordingly, the program has improved the farmland productivity and crop production, emergency of irrigation farming and producing high value crops, fattening of animals for market, expansion of beekeeping, promotion NRM, working on their own farmland instead of renting out and generating income from wage payment have had encouragingly improved the food security situation and reduced vulnerable segment of the society. Therefore, the natural resources management PW activities are practically enhancing the food security condition of the households and cascading to the poorest chronically food unsecured people. Nevertheless, there is a prevalence of transitory food insecurity conditions in both study areas mainly in the Keleta watershed.
It is, therefore, reasonable to conclude that the natural resources management through PSNP-PW activities have strengthened the households‟ social, financial and economic capacities and noticeably reduced the vulnerability of households to different shocks and stresses. Specifically, the SWC practices based on public work activities increasing production of crop and livestock, irrigation practices, availability of forages and water; increased the availability of natural capitals/assets like induced landscape, tree sheds, wild life and birds; physical assets; social capitals like social relations and involvement of women; economic and financial assets encompass increase of income from rising production, creation of new livelihood paths and cash transfer from public work activities. Thus, the program improved food security, increased income, enhanced wellbeing of the community and promoted sustainable use of natural resources.
8.4 Economic Impacts
Overall, the financial benefit:cost ratios of the Closed Areas are very close (Kelete) or above unity (Zamre). This indicates that the benefits to the Communities are positive. When the quantifiable global benefits of carbon sequestration are included then the economic benefit:cost ratios are significantly above unity in both watersheds. Translating these global benefits into local payment for environmental services would be one way of converting these into local benefits and providing a considerable incentive to expand the Closed Areas.
In both watersheds there were non-quantifiable but positive downstream benefits in terms of sediment reduction to the Tekeze and to the Awash Rivers. In the case of the Tekeze River this would reduce the amount of sediment being retained in the reservoir behind the TKL5 and reducing the
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PSNP PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1 - 2011 loss of storage and thus hydro power generation potential. In the case of the Awash, this will reduce the amount sedimentation in the canals of the large irrigation schemes in the Middle and Lower Awash. This in turn should reduce canal cleaning costs. Also there were non-quantifiable but positive benefits to increased availability of medicinal plants and overall plant biodiversity.
A comparison between the two watersheds reveals a number of conclusions: (i) Although the benefits to increased forage alone make the financial benefit:cost approach unity (0.91) it is important that other potential benefits are realized. Thus in the case of the increase in bee forage, the realization of these benefits in the Zamre Watershed were more than sufficient to tip the ratio above unity. (ii) In the Zamre Watershed there were examples of increased infiltration to water-tables, spring initiation and increased base flow, which enabled the development of small-scale irrigation. This was not the case in the Kelete Watershed. This is almost certainly due to the considerable differences in the local topography and the underlying geology between the two Watersheds. The topography, micro-drainage system and geology in the Zamre Watershed result in relatively shallow water-tables and thus a rapid response to base flow. In the Kelete Watershed with its very flat relief, very deep undifferentiated loose deposits, the sparse surface drainage system leading to the deeply incised Kelete River results in very deep water-tables and little opportunities for increasing stream base flows. (iii) In the Zamre Watershed there has been considerable development of micro irrigation from spate, river and flood diversions. This has not occurred in the Kelete Watershed again due to the very sparse surface drainage system. There is only one example of spate irrigation (on a relatively large scale) from one of the Kelete tributaries. The lack of detailed public works data at the micro watershed level in terms of area covered, works implemented and costs in both Watersheds hindered the financial and economic analysis to some extent.
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9. Recommendations
9.1 Inventory and Mapping of Micro-watersheds
Based on the above conclusions and the inventories made in both watersheds, the following issues are recommended:
The use of GIS and Remote Sensing techniques in programs such as this needs to be given due consideration in order to improve efficiency, ensure data availability; monitor changes and impacts, and cope with technological advancement; There is a need to further build the capacity of DAs and Natural Resource Management experts in Map Reading, Cartography and Introductory GIS. Such capacity building service should be provided not only for implementing PWs activities but also for generally managing and strengthening community-based watershed development programs; The preparation of micro-watersheds development plan and base maps needs to be based on and adapted from 1:50,000 scale topographic maps, whether enlarged or otherwise; The Wereda ARDOs should be encouraged to document a comprehensive periodical and cumulative accomplishment data, most preferably by type of techniques and technologies; The use of GIS should be considered as a vital element for PWs impact assessment as the technique provides greater flexibility and multifaceted capabilities; Prospective PWs impact assessment tasks should take in to consideration the use of recent land cover data, either availed from exiting sources or generated simultaneously from available satellite images; and There needs to be strong integration among multidisciplinary professions in PWs impact assessment teams.
9.2 Environmental Impacts
Some issues that need improvement include: There should be an Integrated watershed Management Plan (into which the NRM – PWs could be fitted) following the standard approach (i.e. as Watershed development planning has its own framework which follows its own logic) – it should be noted that the nature of PSNP shouldn‟t be considered as an obstacle because developing the Integrated watershed Management Plan of an area could be taken independent of the PSNP, where the PSNP might fit into an existing plan by taking its part of relevance. PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1: 2011 150
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The Watershed development planning at micro-watershed level has to be prepared with appropriate indicators and parameters to measure the effects & impacts at local level (which is not existing now)
In order to improve the operational elements of the PSNP for its better achievements with regard to the watershed development (NRM) subprojects; the following aspects need attention: Prepare baseline data for all intervention micro-watersheds – very important to take action even at this stage (applies to ALL KAs/Weredas in Tigray and Oromiya) Develop watershed development planning at micro-watershed level with appropriate indicators and parameters to measure the effects & impacts at local level. – i.e. just as required by the CBWDP Guideline. stage (applies to ALL KAs/Weredas in Tigray and Oromiya) Strengthen M&E at community & Wereda levels with good linkage to the regional bureau/PW unit; (applies to most KAs/Weredas in Tigray and Oromiya) Introduce systematic documentation and record keeping (something beyond the usual M&E) to allow tracking of progresses/changes by the Weredas & communities as well as regional bureaus, federal agencies of relevance and partners; (applies to most KAs/Weredas in Tigray and Oromiya) Enhance community awareness and involvement to ensure community empowerment and increased sense of ownership – this is particularly essential in the case of Keleta Watershed (Oromiya Region). Strengthen technical competence in Watershed Development (CBWD approach) and motivation levels of the relevant staff at Wereda and community watershed levels (applies to some KAs/Weredas in Tigray and ALL KAs in Oromiya) Enhanced training of community members and technical supervision at field level in the different SWC techniques in order to improve effectiveness of the SWC structures (applies to some KAs/Weredas in Tigray and ALL KAs in Oromiya)
9.3 Livelihoods and Social Impacts
Based on the livelihood impact assessment so far made and the above conclusions, the following key recommendations are suggested for program improvement and policy implications:
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Livelihood diversification along with agricultural activities helps the community to minimize vulnerability to food security and thus, there must be an effort to strengthen household income portfolio diversification. The program and other possible intervention in the natural resources management area need to scale-up considering the local conditions and taking into account the previous lessons. Thus, there is a critical suggestion to consistently working in the area of natural resources management and food security through popular participation. In order to benefit from emerging livestock markets and impacting on food security of the households, it is paramount important to devise mechanism to scale-up the productivity per head. This can be achieved through increased availability of fodder from natural sources and/or industrial by products, supply of adequate veterinary servicers and introducing improved breeds. The impact of irrigation on food security and poverty reduction greatly demands the establishment and/or revitalization of Water Users Committee, ensuring fair distribution of water, forming producers‟ associations and improving marketing and related infrastructures. There must be a due attention to avail sufficient and affordable agricultural inputs for subsistence farmers along with expansion of micro irrigation and water harvesting practices. Beekeeping as an instrument of income diversification and food security can be achieved if the mode of production is improved through expansion of the modern beehives at reasonable price for all beekeepers. Moreover, skilled based training need to be arranged for the better productivity of the sub-sector. It must be emphasizing that the interventions so far done in Zamra watershed is encouraging while more has to be done in the case of Keleta watershed. The PSNP-PW activities have had significant contribution in terms of increasing source of income and enhancing food security of the vulnerable households. This role can only be maximized if the payment is timely and the PW activities are performed during the framers‟ slack time. Tree planting as a conservation strategy and increasing food security is a powerful tool. Thus, the culture of natural resources management through tree planting need to be widespread. In order to reduce deforestation and overcome the problem of fuel wood, accessing alternative source of energy and promoting energy saving stoves in a sustainable manner is advisable. Availing clean water supply for the unreached kebeles and improving the functionality of the existing schemes with appropriate management system are the key points to be considered.
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Women are half of the society and the major beneficiary of the PSNP-PW sub-program. And thus, in order to fully attain the goal of the program, it is very essential to give and take concerted efforts to resolve the constraints of workloads and work norms that faced women beneficiaries.
9.4 Economic Impacts
The feasibility of including selected watersheds where public works are being implemented in closed area as pilot projects under the national REDD+ Strategy should be examined. This would enable specific methods of estimating carbon sequestration rates, systems of benefit sharing, monitoring and verification procedures to be developed.
In Public Works watersheds where bee keeping expertise is not strong (for whatever reason) there should be demonstrations and farmer training in aspects of improved bee keeping with improved hives in the closed areas.
Long term monitoring of selected Public Works Watersheds in terms of sediment loads and seasonal river flows to determine whether changes in these characteristics are occurring. This will enable a better estimate of the value of these downstream impacts.
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ANNEX 1. DETAILED TERMS OF REFERENCE
Productive Safety Net Programme 2011 Public Works Impact Assessment (PWIA) Phase I Terms of Reference July 2011
1. Background The Productive Safety Net Programme (PSNP) is a component of the Ethiopian Government’s Food Security Programme (FSP), and is an essential feature of the food security investment strategy for chronically food insecure weredas of the country. The development objective of the programme is to contribute to reducing household vulnerability and improving resilience to shock.
The PSNP provides resources to chronically food insecure households through: (i) direct grants to labour-poor, elderly or incapacitated individuals, and (ii) payments to able-bodied members for participation in labour-intensive Public Works (PW) activities.
Since the launch of the programme in 2005, more than eight million beneficiaries that were repeatedly affected by food shortage have received transfers on a regular basis and have consequently been able to meet their food needs. Today PSNP is typically the major undertaking of the weredas where the programme is operational. It has attempted to bring together various Government, donors and non-Government stakeholders to work in an integrated manner to achieve food security for the chronically food insecure households.
The PW subprojects include soil and water conservation activities, feeder-roads, social infrastructure such as primary schools and health posts, water supply projects and small-scale irrigation. The selection of activities to be undertaken under the PW component is driven by a community-driven planning process, based on need.
The PW component of the PSNP accounts for approximately 80% of the PSNP budget. The PW programme during the last six years of programme implementation has enabled the creation of an estimated 180,000 community- level assets, planned and implemented through Ethiopia’s Community-based Participatory Watershed Development approach. The majority of these involve the rehabilitation of natural resources, but also include construction or expansion of community-level infrastructure such as feeder-roads, health posts,
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PSNP PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1 - 2011 primary schools, Farmers’ Training Centres and support to various community- initiated small-scale agricultural activities.
2. Objective The objective of the Phase I PWIA is “to assess the impact and effectiveness of Natural Resource Management PW subprojects (NRM subprojects) undertaken in PSNP watersheds and to make recommendations for improvement”.
The study will assess: i) The extent to which the NRM subprojects form an integrated approach to watershed development; ii) The impacts of the watershed development activities to date on: a. the biophysical environment, and b. the communities living in the watersheds, including PSNP beneficiaries; iii) The contribution of the cumulative NRM subprojects to those impacts.
3. Scope of Work The fieldwork for Phase I PWIA should be conducted from July - September 2011. Given the short notice involved, and the need to keep the process manageable, the study should be of limited scope. It is thus proposed to limit the study to two watersheds, each of which should be representative of a type “typical” in the PSNP weredas.
This work involves the collecting of relevant data on the environmental condition of two watersheds that have been already identified, identifying activities have been carried out in terms of watershed development, assessing the impacts of the PSNP PW activities, analysing the data collected, developing recommendations, and producing and presenting the final report.
The assessment of impacts should be both qualitative and quantitative, and cost- benefit ratios should be estimated for NRM subprojects in the watersheds examined. The recommendations should incorporate advice on how the PW programme could be improved for enhanced effectiveness, to maximise positive impacts and minimise negative impacts.
Annex 1 contains a complete list of indicators against which, data should be collected or sourced.
4. Watersheds to be Studied
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The following watersheds are proposed as being convenient, representative, having already been mapped (to some extent), and having information about the watershed already documented.
Samre Watershed, Tigray
This watershed, which is typical of many in Tigray and covers 2,500-3,000 sq km. It has recently been the subject of a watershed development plan within the wereda planning process, as a result of which it is already well mapped.
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Keleta Watershed, Dodota Sire, Arsi, Oromiya
This watershed, which has also recently been well mapped, was included in the 2008 PWIA. The 2008 PW IA identified PW subprojects in the watershed and conducted some impact assessment work.
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5. Methodology The methodology should include: Literature Review, including reference to previous PSNP Impact Assessment findings, the 2008 PWIA findings and MERET Impact Evaluation reports; Data collection and impact assessment Cost-benefit Analysis Draft report Completion of Workshop to verify findings and reach consensus on recommentations Final report
6. Deliverables The following outputs are required:
i) A Progress Report after fieldwork has been completed; ii) An Draft Impact Assessment Report at the completion of the analysis of findings; iii) Presentation and discussion of the results to the Government of Ethiopia, the PSNP donors, and other stakeholders; iv) The Final Impact Assessment Report
7. Assignment Schedule It is expected that: Literature review will take no more than 2 weeks; The fieldwork will take no more than 1.5 months; Data analysis and Draft Report writing will take no more than 2 weeks; The Presentation Workshop, stakeholder responses and Final Report writing will be completed within 2 weeks.
On these assumption, the overall schedule is planned to be as follows: PHASE SCHEDULE Mobilization and literature review: Mid-July Fieldwork: August - mid-September Data Analysis and Draft Report: End September Workshop and Final Report: Mid-October
Thus the consultancy is planned to run from Mid-July through to Mid-October 2011.
8. Reporting Procedure The assignment will be coordinated by PSNP Donor Coordination Team (DCT). The responsible Consultant will report to Mr. Matthew Hobson, Co-ordinator.
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9. Profile of Required Consultant In view of the limited time available for the Phase I PWIA, and the need to complete it in time for the findings to be utilised by the Phase II PWIA, it is required that the responsible consultant has the following skills and experience:
(i) A minimum of Master’s degree or equivalent in a relevant subject (eg. natural resources, environment, economics, development studies);
(ii) At least twenty years experience as a professional consultant in the field of natural resources, a significant proportion of which should be in developing countries and in particular in Ethiopia;
(iii) A high degree of knowledge of land use, natural resources and the environment in the rural areas of Ethiopia;
(iv) A successful track record of mapping and watershed planning and development in Ethiopia;
(v) Close familiarity with the PSNP and in particular the PSNP PW Programme;
(vi) Extensive experience in determining outcomes from, and impacts of, NRM and SLM interventions in Ethiopia;
(vii) Extensive experience, and demonstrable capability, to lead surveys of community-based development activities.
It is expected that the responsible Consultant will require support from:
1 Economist 1 Watershed Development Specialist 1 GIS Specialist 1 Sociologist
10. Working Language The working language is English.
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Annex 1: Indicators against which to collect data for the PW IA
For the two watersheds identified, the same data set must be collected for these watersheds, as was collected for the 2008 public works impact assessment.
Where necessary, in addition, this impact assessment must collect data against the following.
Primary data will determine the extent to which the natural environment has been rehabilitated and enhanced
The key indicator for this is the % of households reporting that their environment has improved for the benefit of the community by 2012
The primary data will therefore need to ascertain:
a. availability of water resources, both surface and subsurface, for various uses (for instance. changes in number of water ponds, seasonality of springs, the benefits generated to selected communities, domestic water supplies, recharging capacity, etc) b. land use system, land restoration and vegetation covers (grasses, shrubs, trees, and overall biomass improvements) c. availability of wood and woodlots and grasses for various uses such as fuel wood, construction wood, etc d. effectiveness of soil erosion control and other mitigation measures e. improvements in key soil properties and its fertility improvements (example soil depth, soil organic matter, carbon sequestration, soil fertility and productivity improvement, etc) f. biodiversity improvement and species composition g. crop production and productivity enhancement/improvement, h. irrigation practices and its effective applications, i. livestock production and productivity, water and feed improvement for livestock, j. livelihood strategies and diversification of livelihood sources, including income generating and other livelihood activities, and quantify how much the community assets have contributed to HH income levels k. household food security status and changes in housing and housing amenities l. the gender dimension of all the changes, specifically benefits to women and women headed households from the interventions
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PSNP PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1 - 2011 m. emergence of market linkages, formation of associations, primary cooperatives, cooperatives and formation of other user groups n. contribution to local capacity development (physical and human capacity development) o. level of community empowerment and ownership issues p. sustainability of assets created by the interventions, and the future outlook for the assisted communities, watersheds, including the suggested follow-up, linkages q. level of Carbon sequestration as a result of public works r. level of carbon capture in different watersheds – rehabilitated and degraded – from different rehabilitation treatments
Secondary data will be used to identify the extent to which quality, new and existing, community assets with operational management mechanisms have been established.
Secondary data will determine:
% of PW plans developed following community planning guidelines by December 2010. % of public works have an established management mechanism at completion starting from December 2010. % of public works reaching satisfactory standards and sustainability ratings by December 2010. % of PW projects screened by ESMF by December 2010.
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ANNEX 2. MICRO-WATERSHED SUMMARIES
A. Zamra Watershed No. Kebele Wereda Aarea_Sq_km Surveyed?
1 Abinet Emba Alajie 47.50 Yes
2 Atesla Emba Alajie 1.29
3 Dejen Emba Alajie 25.63 Yes
4 Fana Emba Alajie 11.33 Yes
5 keyihitehili Emba Alajie 1.42
6 Seret Emba Alajie 33.96 Yes
7 Sesat Emba Alajie 0.29
8 Tehili Weyane Emba Alajie 43.01 Yes
9 Chelekoti Enderta 4.95
10 Didiba Enderta 26.81
11 Mesarete Enderta 16.38
12 Adi Gudom Town Hintalo Wajirat 18.01 Yes
13 Adi Mesino Hintalo Wajirat 35.05 Yes
14 Amdi Woyane_Hintalo Hintalo Wajirat 38.49 Yes
15 Ara Alemsegeda Hintalo Wajirat 66.81 Yes
16 Bahari Tseba Hintalo Wajirat 56.84 Yes
17 Betemera Hintalo Wajirat 42.54 Yes
18 Fikire Alem Hintalo Wajirat 74.44 Yes
19 Hagere Selam Hintalo Wajirat 88.94 Yes
20 Hareko Hintalo Wajirat 98.09 Yes
21 Hintalo Hintalo Wajirat 51.48 Yes
22 Hiwane Hintalo Wajirat 58.31 Yes
23 HiwaneTown Hintalo Wajirat 1.34
24 Mai Nebiri Hintalo Wajirat 56.94 Yes
25 Muja Hintalo Wajirat 120.52 Yes
26 Sebebera Hintalo Wajirat 2.65
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27 Waza Adiawuna Hintalo Wajirat 75.90 Yes
28 Amidi Weyane Saharti Samre 4.40 Yes
29 Dekera Saharti Samre 59.43 Yes
30 Fere Woyane Saharti Samre 3.00
31 Hadash Lemlem Saharti Samre 158.46 Yes
32 Lemlem Arena Saharti Samre 139.95 Yes
33 Mai Tehili Saharti Samre 66.83 Yes
34 Metkelili Meiat Saharti Samre 3.25
35 Nebar Hadinat Saharti Samre 249.64 Yes
36 Samira Town Saharti Samre 10.87 Yes
37 Lemlem Tanqua Abergele 2.25
Total 1,796.93 26
Distribution of Micro-Watersheds by Area, Kebele and Wereda
SR. Micro- Area No. Kebele Wereda WSDs % (ha.) %
1 Abinet Emba Alajie 12 7.3 1,247.0 5.6
2 Betemera Emba Alajie 15 9.1 1,734.9 7.9
3 Dejen Emba Alajie 8 4.8 1,025.7 4.6
4 Fana Emba Alajie 3 1.8 77.7 0.4
5 Seret Emba Alajie 14 8.5 1,818.0 8.2
6 Tehili Weyane Emba Alajie 10 6.1 1,350.4 6.1
Emba Alajie Total 62 37.6 7,253.9 32.8
Hintalo 7 Adi Gudom Town Wajirat 3 1.8 28.9 0.1
Hintalo 8 Adi Mesno Wajirat 4 2.4 526.9 2.4
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Amdi Hintalo 9 Weyane_Hintalo Wajirat 3 1.8 394.8 1.8
Hintalo 10 Ara Alemsegeda Wajirat 3 1.8 242.1 1.1
Hintalo 11 Bahire Tseba Wajirat 12 7.3 2,065.1 9.3
Hintalo 12 Fikre Alem Wajirat 5 3.0 306.7 1.4
Hintalo 13 Hagere Selam Wajirat 4 2.4 238.4 1.1
Hintalo 14 Hareko Wajirat 8 4.8 741.4 3.4
Hintalo 15 Hintalo Wajirat 6 3.6 749.8 3.4
Hintalo 16 Hiwane Wajirat 5 3.0 870.3 3.9
Hintalo 17 Mai Nebri Wajirat 6 3.6 668.9 3.0
Hintalo 18 Muja Wajirat 12 7.3 4,521.8 20.5
Hintalo 19 Waza Adiawuna Wajirat 5 3.0 286.4 1.3
Hintalo Wajirat Total 76 46.1 11,641.4 52.7
Saharti 20 Amdi Weyane Samre 2 1.2 270.3 1.2
Saharti 21 Dekera Samre 6 3.6 490.6 2.2
Saharti 22 Hadash Lemlem Samre 3 1.8 341.6 1.5
Saharti 23 Lemlem Arena Samre 2 1.2 125.3 0.6
Saharti 24 Mai Tehili Samre 5 3.0 1,197.2 5.4
Saharti 25 Nebar Hadinet Samre 5 3.0 470.9 2.1
Samre Town Saharti 26 (Surrounding) Samre 4 2.4 304.5 1.4
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Saharti Samre Total 27 16.4 3,200.2 14.5
Zamra Watershed Total 165 100.0 22,095.5 100.0
Micro- Wereda watersheds % Area %
Emba Alajie 62 37.6 7,253.9 32.8
Hintalo Wajirat 76 46.1 11,641.4 52.7
Saharti Samre 27 27.0 3,200.2 14.5
165 110.6 22,095.5 100.0
Distribution of Micro-Watersheds by Area, Kebele and Wereda
Micro- Kebele % of SR. Micro- Watershed Area (in Kebele No. Kebele Wereda WSDs % Area (ha.) WSHD) area Ratio
1 Abinet Emba Alajie 12 7.3 1,247.00 4,729.0 26.4 0.26
2 Betemera Emba Alajie 15 9.1 1,734.90 4,232.6 41.0 0.41
3 Dejen Emba Alajie 8 4.8 1,025.70 2,541.9 40.4 0.40
4 Fana Emba Alajie 3 1.8 77.7 1,112.5 7.0 0.07
5 Seret Emba Alajie 14 8.5 1,818.00 3,375.5 53.9 0.54
6 Tehili Weyane Emba Alajie 10 6.1 1,350.40 4,279.9 31.6 0.32
Emba Alajie Total 62 37.6 7,253.90 20,271.4 35.8 0.36
7 Adi Gudom Town Hintalo Wajirat 3 1.8 28.9 1,780.3 1.6 0.02
8 Adi Mesno Hintalo Wajirat 4 2.4 526.9 3,483.8 15.1 0.15
Amdi 9 Weyane_Hintalo Hintalo Wajirat 3 1.8 394.8 419.1 94.2 0.94
10 Ara Alemsegeda Hintalo Wajirat 3 1.8 242.1 6,659.9 3.6 0.04
11 Bahire Tseba Hintalo Wajirat 12 7.3 2,065.10 5,663.0 36.5 0.36
12 Fikre Alem Hintalo Wajirat 5 3 306.7 7,423.4 4.1 0.04
13 Hagere Selam Hintalo Wajirat 4 2.4 238.4 8,873.0 2.7 0.03
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14 Hareko Hintalo Wajirat 8 4.8 741.4 9,787.6 7.6 0.08
15 Hintalo Hintalo Wajirat 6 3.6 749.8 5,126.6 14.6 0.15
16 Hiwane Hintalo Wajirat 5 3 870.3 5,809.8 15.0 0.15
17 Mai Nebri Hintalo Wajirat 6 3.6 668.9 5,672.6 11.8 0.12
18 Muja Hintalo Wajirat 12 7.3 4,521.80 12,030.8 37.6 0.38
19 Waza Adiawuna Hintalo Wajirat 5 3 286.4 7,568.6 3.8 0.04
Hintalo Wajirat Total 76 46.1 11,641.4 80,298.4 14.5 0.14
20 Amdi Weyane Saharti Samre 2 1.2 270.3 3,828.3 7.1 0.07
21 Dekera Saharti Samre 6 3.6 490.6 5,922.3 8.3 0.08
22 Hadash Lemlem Saharti Samre 3 1.8 341.6 15,825.1 2.2 0.02
23 Lemlem Arena Saharti Samre 2 1.2 125.3 13,973.5 0.9 0.01
24 Mai Tehili Saharti Samre 5 3 1,197.20 6,662.0 18.0 0.18
25 Nebar Hadinet Saharti Samre 5 3 470.9 24,942.6 1.9 0.02
Samre Town 26 (Surrounding) Saharti Samre 4 2.4 304.5 1,066.3 28.6 0.29
Sub-total 27 16.4 3,200.2 72,220.1 4.4 0.04
Zamra Watershed Total 165 100 22,095.5 172,789.8 12.8 0.13
B. Keleta Watershed Distribution of Micro-Watersheds by Area, Kebele and Wereda
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Kebele % of Micro- Micro_WSSD Area (in Kebele Kebele Wereda WSDs % Area (ha.) WSHD) area Ratio
1 Amigna Debeso Dodota 1 3.1 317.4 1,813.7 17.5 0.17
2 Dilfakare Dodota 1 3.1 109.7 562.8 19.5 0.19
3 Dire Qiltu Dodota 2 6.3 228.3 2,110.3 10.8 0.11
4 Lode Sharbe Dodota 1 3.1 130.8 1,840.2 7.1 0.07
5 Qoro Dodota 2 6.3 205.3 947.6 21.7 0.22
Dodota Total 7 21.9 991.4 7,274.6 13.6 0.14
6 Alelu Gesela Sire 4 12.5 432.3 4,320.1 10.0 0.10
7 Amola Chancho Sire 3 9.4 305.8 1,187.1 25.8 0.26
8 Amola Tebo Sire 2 6.3 96.4 2,154.5 4.5 0.04
9 Borera Chirao Sire 2 6.3 312.2 2,733.1 11.4 0.11
Denkecha 10 Geferssa Sire 2 6.3 142.2 1,233.6 11.5 0.12
11 Ebsata Uduga Sire 3 9.4 463.9 3,261.4 14.2 0.14
12 Gesela Chacha Sire 2 6.3 113.9 3,101.2 3.7 0.04
13 Gesela Shashe Sire 1 3.1 186.5 1,625.4 11.5 0.11
14 Koloba Bale Sire 1 3.1 141.9 864.9 16.4 0.16
15 Lode Banban Sire 2 6.3 102.9 1,665.5 6.2 0.06
16 Lode Lamafo Sire 3 9.4 403.5 2,804.1 14.4 0.14
Sire Total 25 78.1 2,701.5 24,950.8 10.8 0.11
Watershed Total 32 100 3,692.90 32,225.4 11.5 0.11
PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1: 2011 167
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ANNEX 3. WATERSHED AND MICRO-WATERSHED MAPS
A. Zamra Watershed
Zamra Watershed
Keleta Watershed
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PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1: 2011 169
PSNP PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1 - 2011
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PSNP PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1 - 2011
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PSNP PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1 - 2011
ZAMRA WATERSHED: Agro-climatic Zone
PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1: 2011 172
PSNP PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1 - 2011
B. Keleta Watershed
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PSNP PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1 - 2011
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PSNP PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1 - 2011
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PSNP PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1 - 2011
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PSNP PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1 - 2011
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PSNP PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1 - 2011
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PSNP PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1 - 2011
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PSNP PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT: PHASE 1 - 2011
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