Living in Diaspora'

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Title: White settler societies: 'Living in diaspora'

Creators: Wilson, J. M. Example citation: Wilson, J. M. (2011) White settler societies: 'LivRing in diaspora'. Invited Presentation presented to: Diaspora/Cultures of Displacement?, Universite Paul Valery, Montpellier, France, 20-22 JuneA 2011. Version: Presented version T http://nectarC.northampton.ac.uk/5233/ NE N ew Zealand Women Traveller Writers: from Exile to D iaspora

The focus of this article is a group of New Z eal and w omen tr av el l er w r i ter s of t he first half of the twentieth centur y w ho l ef t their country of origin, and in the encounter with new worlds ov er seas, r econstr ucted themsel v es as deterritorialised, di aspor i c subjects with new understandings of home and belonging. Their work can be r ead as both transitional and transnational, r ef l ecting the ambivalence of multiple cultural affiliations and r ei nfl ecting l i ter ar y conv enti ons. Su ch encounters and new poi nts of r ef er ence from transiting through foreign lands inevitably catalyse new and unusual forms of diasporic writing, notable for a heightened consciousness of d i f f er ence (K al r a et al 2008: 30). This article ai ms to id ent i f y patterns of similarity and contrast in their work, and to d eter mi ne how they i ncor por ate thei r v ar i ed experiences of loss and liberation into artistic reconciliations with the homeland. A s M i chel d e Cer teau say s, ‘tr av el i ntr od uces an in-between zone, a condition of moving through space with feelings of transience, rather than in identifying with place and a f i xed or d er of positioning’ (1984). Katheri ne M ansf i el d , pi oneer of thi s group, sum s up the disorientation and disembodiment of journeying, the destabilizing of fixed r ef er ence poi nts of ti me and space, through the image of the pendulum:

I n the shor test sea v oy age ther e i s no sense of ti me. You hav e been d ow n i n the cabin for hours or days or years. N obody knows or cares. You know al l the peopl e to the poi nt of i nd i f f er ence. You d o not bel i ev e i n d r y l and any m or e -- you are caught in the pendulum itself and left there, idly swinging. (1984: 528)

Yet, in this article, I suggest, each writer in her own way moves through t he psychopathology caused by physical and mental dislocation and a crisis of rupture and uprooting, to d i scov er w ay s of articulating the interior changes caused by tr av el ling beyond the nation. In this they show that the conditions of exile (her e d ef i ned as d epar tur e without return) or diaspora (involving a return to the homeland) provide new poi nts of d epar tur e i n ar t, ev en while the circumstances of l i f e ar e v astl y ov er tur ned.

The four writers departed for England at different times, but can be linked by thei r migratory tr ajector i es: Katherine M ansfield left in 1908 (aged 19) published her f i r st v ol ume of shor t stor i es In A German Pension (1911) to critical acclaim, and w as soon recognized internationally as a foremost exponent of the short story; Robin Hyde, who consci ousl y modell ed her sel f upon M ansf i el d, l ef t thirty years later for

1 about 18 months in 1938 (aged 32), having already established her reputation as a poet, novelist, and journalist, having had two children out of wedlock, suffered mental breakdown and a d egr ee of soci al alienation.1 Tr av el l ed to new f or ms of social distance. N ei ther r etur ned , both died in exile: Mansfield from tuberculosis in 1923 and Hyde by her own hand in 1939. Thei r new percepti ons of homel and and (un)belonging, were captured in their art partly as a form of memorialization. In t he post-World War II per i od w er e Janet Frame, w ho l ef t f or sev en y ears in 1956 (aged 32) af ter spend i ng ei ght y ear s i n mental hospitals, publishing a prize winning volume of short stories and a novel. She travelled on a state l i ter ar y f und grant. The poet Fl eur A d cock l ef t per manentl y i n 1963 (aged 29), having separ ated f r om her husband, the poet Alistair Te Ariki Campbell, by w hom she had tw o chi l d r en, and compl eted her f i r st v ol ume (publ i shed i n N ew Z eal and in 1964). Both Frame and A dcock w er e to d ev el op a body of work which delineates positions of marginality in relation to more than one centre, challenging and testing out any prior sense of a N ew Zealand belonging through new r ef er ence p oi nt s and multilocati onal attachments ov er seas. All four sought w i d er cultural and vocational horizons than provincial society could offer, and new links to metropolitan culture. In this they ar e comparable to Australian women writer s such as Henry Handel Richardson (who travelled to Leipzig in 1888), M iles Franklin (w ho l ef t for the USA in 1906), and Christina Stead (w ho l ef t for England in 1928).

As canoni cal authors, writing ei ther as travellers or about the ef f ects of tr av el , thei r responses to geographical dislocation and their construction of themsel v es as ‘other’ to their place of origin constitute a significant but divergent strand of t he national literary tradition.2 Although they nev er became par t of a diasporic community in the way that contemporary Asian British w r i ter s such as M oni ca A l i , M eera Syal and Zadie Smith are, their writing, particularly that of Adcock and `f r ame, bear s aestheti c, psychological and thematic compar i son with mor e r ecent

1 On the hostility to Hyde f r om N ew Z eal and mal e w r i ter s of the 1930s, partly associated with her experimentalism and rejection of realism, see Stuart M URRA Y, Never a Soul at Home: New Zealand Literary Nationalism and the 1930s (Wellington: Victoria University Press, 1998): 165-169. 2 Frame, M ansfield and H yde are often seen as belonging to an alternative tradition to the mai nstr eam r eal i st one of mal e w r i ter s; see L aw r ence JON ES, Bar bed W i r e & M i r r or s: Essays on N ew Z eal and Pr ose (Dunedin: Otago University Press: 1987): 6; their w ork also differs from male expatriate w riters w ho left in the 1930s, such as Dan Davin, James Courage, and John Mulgan.

2 diasporic narratives of identity.3 That is, writing in transit of the twentieth century f eatur es cul tur al encounter and exchange, r ev i sed r el ati ons to the homel and catalysed by new identity formations in the hostland; it employs striking images of selfhood and is often generically innovative, bordering on forms of life writing. In summary, although the work of these writers does not constitute a literary tradition, collectively it inflects the national imaginary with multiple outsider perspectives and per cepti ons of d i ff er ence, implying a challenge to the monocultural and largely male or i ented nationalism that prevailed in provincial New Zealand until the l ate 1960s; for as Kalra et al claim, when a single sense of belonging comes under scrutiny in diaspora writing, the nation becomes a foil (pag). With its dialectic betw een the known and familiar and the foreign and strange, such writing creates new spaces, opening up national perspectives through reshaping connections to the wider world.

The claims that can be made about the generic complexity of such writing and i ts alternative forms of consciousness r equi r e si tuati ng in relation to t he constructions of home and belonging that are characteristic of w hi te settl er i nv ader colonies. A s outposts of the Br i ti sh empi r e -- N ew Zealand, A ustralia, Canada, and So u t h A f r i ca – they or i gi nated as mi gr ati ons f rom the Br i ti sh I sl es, mostl y as f r ee settlements, and so the notion of a British diaspora r emai ns r el ev ant. H ence ‘ i d eas of white racial identity, British subjecthood, and an emphasis on Englishness’, despite Irish or Celtic identifications, dominate (Wills 2010: 230). In these colonies ‘ Br i ti shness’ tr av el l ed acr oss space and ti me to be r ei nv ented and r el ocated, becoming an informing principle in the national consciousness, visible in patterns of cultural growth (Wills 2010: 230 citing Moreton-Robinson; Larkin 2006: 171; Tennenhouse 2007: 7). But writers who return from the colony to the metropolitan centr e reinflect this inherited construction with a v oi ce that r egi ster s conflicting per specti v es of d i sor i entati on, estrangement, yet recognition. Those in the r ev er se diaspora, therefore, both mal e and f emal e, contribute to the ongoing process of cultural transmission, a reshaping of concept s of inherited British identity and emer gi ng N ew Z eal and cultural nationalism.

A s ethno-national diasporas the white settler colonies have a continuing symbolic relationship with the land of ethnic origin, maintained through official netw orks and personal ties of loyalty and affiliation (Scheffer 2006: 130-32). The

3 See, f or exampl e, Roger BROM LEY in N ar r at i ves for a N ew Bel ongi ng: Diasporic Cultural Fictions (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2000).

3 Anglocentric model of national i d enti ty w as f or l ong per v asi v e i n N ew Z eal and, w her e Engl and w as of ten called ‘hom e’ , and visits to England of varying duration were not uncommon (Wilson 2009: 129-31). Both M ansfield, born in 1888, and A dcock, born in 1934, exemplify the colonial who comes to belong to two worlds. They tr av el l ed to England with their families at an early age and thei r immersion in metropolitan culture and society filled them w i th the d esi r e to return to Europe. Mansfield d epar ted in 1903 for an English education at Queen’s College in Harley Street, London, and after her return in 1906 r emai ned r estl ess i n N ew Z eal and . Her stor i es and sk etches f r om thi s per i od ar e star kl y cogni sant of the w hi te settl er’ s i ncompl ete habi tati on of the new l and and i ts d ar k , r ecessi v e atmospher e (e.g. ‘ Ol d Tar’, ‘In the Botanical Gardens’, ’ The W oman at the Stor e’), with hints of land appropriation and settler guilt, while her distance from England, coupled with r esentment of her bourgeois family, provokes nostalgia and longing, all bathed in the glow of her fascination with Wildean decadence and fin de siècle artifice.

A dcock al so d ev el oped d oubl ed and hybrid identity structures after visiting England in 1939 at the age of five, returning reluctantly to New Zealand at the age of 13. During this f or mati v e per i od she fell in love with life in England, to which she l ater l onged to r etur n, and became al i enated f r om the colonial habi t us in which she and her family then settl ed . H er pr ed i cament at finding herself back i n N ew Z eal and after a British wartime childhood appears in a coded form in her earl i est poetr y w hich draws upon English and classical models of verse: she uses a mal e per sona, there is longing for a geographically remote place, anxiety about being in the wrong landscape, and distorted imaging of gender relationships in rewritings of fairy tale and fable. H er r esponses to the N ew Zeal and surroundings are found in a diary entr y of 1 June 1959, written when she was working at the University of Otago in Duned i n:

Riding in the bus to Balclutha early yesterday mor ni ng, & back thi s afternoon, I had my usual feelings about the N.Z. l and scape—that I would like to grasp it, belong to it, be car r i ed aw ay by i t, but t hat i t nev er say s enou gh t o me, nev er str i k es me as suf f i ci entl y r eal or r el ev ant, In fact, it is so typical of itself (in what should be a sati sf y i ng w ay ) t hat i t m ak es me sl i ght l y si ck . (A dcock, Notebooks, 1959-1965) 4

4 I am grateful to Fleur Adcock for giving me access to her diaries and notebooks.

4 The sense of displacement blended with what l ater became a conflict of loyalties d u e to belonging to two places contributed to Adcock’s sty l i sti c r ange, w hi ch f eatur es contrast, paradox and an aw areness of contradiction.

All four writers draw on their tr av el l i ng exper i ence to i nter r ogate t he

homogeneous identity structures of the white settl er that are contingent on a

territorial, bounded nationalism. Mansfield was wri ti ng i n Eur ope betw een 1908 and

1922 at a ti me bef or e the local cultural tradition had consolidated and w hen New

Zealand nationalism w as nascent, having little pur chase ov er seas. Her sel f-

appellation as ‘the little colonial’ (Mansfield 1997: 2, 166) suggests her ambivalence;

significantly she tr av el l ed at f i r st anonymously in Europe, seemi ngl y reluctant to

ack now l ed ge her sel f as a N ew Z eal and er . Yet this negativity changed, and af ter her

br other Lesl i e’ s tragic death in 1915 she became i ncr easi ngl y obsessed about N ew

Zealand often returning in memory and dream. In her late N ew Z eal and stor i es she created an ‘imaginary homeland’, a ‘myth of place’ (Wevers 1995: 32), peopling the nation with the Sheridan and Burnell families, partly in an act of commemoration to her brother . Mansfield’s modes of recall based on distance and longing are paralleled

in Robin H yde’ s per cepti ons of cul tur al d i f f er ence in her br i ef sojourn in China and

England, and her dream-d r i v en reconnections with her New Zealand past

A l most ev er y ni ght l yi ng i n the r ed pad d ed qui l t, I d r eamed about N Z, d r eam s so shar p and v i v i d that w hen I w oke up, i t seemed the bl ack -ti l ed houses w er e a f ai r y t al e. (…) I w as r estl ess f or these d r eams and tur ned f or them f r om the ear l y shad ow of sl eep. (H yd e, D r agon Rampar t , 97, ci ted i n Leggott, 25)

A dcock’s r eject i on of provincial New Zealand af ter her return to the UK in 1963, also took the form of dream, vision and nightmare initially, but w ithin a decade of her arrival in England she started to meet the challenge of finding a new belonging by investigating her ethni c her i tage and d i si nter r i ng her mi xed Sco t s-I r i sh ancestry: in articulating this complex ethnicity she w as questi oning the homogenous

5 British or Pak eha 5 white settler identity (M cCarthy 2009: 190; Kalra et al 2008: 16). On her first visit to Ireland in the early 1970s she acclaims her Pr otestant her i tage by searching for the graves of her maternal U l ster gr and par ents i n M onney mor e. In the poem, ‘ Pl ease I d enti f y Your sel f ’ , she comments of her sel f : ‘British, mor e or l ess; Anglican, of a kind’ (2000: 61), confirms a longing for ancestral ethnic identification that would l ater extend to her paternal Mancunian ancestors (as imagined in her v ol ume Looki ng Back (1997). Janet Frame also ensures that the complexity of Britishness i s mad e v i si bl e to the N ew Z eal and trav el l er : the boat that Toby Withers takes to England in The Edge of the Alphabet (1962), i s far ew el l ed by a Pipe Band playing the Scottish song ‘ Speed bonny boat like a bird on the wing’; Toby shar es a cabin with an Irishman while another char acter on the same boat, Z oe Br y ce, l ater shares lodgings with the same Irishman and a Welshman with a limp (Frame 1962: 42-43, 171). A s late as the 1960s and 70s w hen A dcock and Frame w ere w riting such distinctions were seldom visible in the national consciousness, despite the regional character of the British settlement in certain parts of the country; and their recognition of Anglo-British ethnic d i v er sity anticipates more r ecent chal l enges to core Anglo settler nationalism by historians and cultural critics, that em p hasi se the regionalism of the category ‘British’: the strands of Irish, Scottish and Cornish as well as English (Wills 2010: 231).

If these w omen writers manifest a particular form of the settl er r estl essness found i n N ew Z eal and’ s l i ter ar y cul tur e in the early twentieth century, then in their reverse migration and ‘return’ to Europe, involving geographical and psychological di stance and new per cepti ons of home and origins, they translate el ements of alienated subjectivity into their art. In their trans-hemi spher e jour neys, M ansfi el d, H y d e, Fr ame and A d cock r esembl e the ‘ tr av el l i ng subjects’ of James Cl i f f or d w ho mov e thr ough settl ed bound ar i es of national and ethnic belonging and whose work acqui r es new el ements of aestheti c and ar ti sti c v al ue; y et d i f f er ences betw een them highlight the contrasts in approach between the writer in exile who is unable to return to the homeland by contrast to the expatriate or diasporic writer for whom the return is alw ays an option. In M ansfi el d and H yde’s w ri ti ng, journeys and displacement ar e r efl ected in fractured narrative structures, w her eas Jan et Frame and other A ustralian writers of ear l y tw enti eth centur y expl or ed the romanti c

5 M aori w ord to denote w hi t e str anger s of Eur opean d escent (d er i v ed f r om pakepakeha and pakehekeha, ter ms w hi ch r ef er r ed to w hi te-skinned beings of the imagination, the fairy-like inhabitants of the forest know n as Patupaiarehe).

6 i d ealisation of England as ‘home’ in novel forms.6 Short, discontinuous forms such as Mansfield’s sk etches and vignettes, H y d e’ s poetry and journalism, and in both cases thei r l etter s and d i ari es, show how the mi meti c r epr esentati onal forms of tr av el writing – cl ose to memoir and reportage – exi st alongside imaginative mod es such as f antasy and fabl e, someti mes i nter penetr ati ng them . Frame and A dcock, by contrast, rework t he more establ i shed literary genres. A dcock ’ s classical sty l e dev el op s a new dimension of informality af ter her ar rival in England as she si gnal s the intrusion of the startling and unexpected in w ays, suggesti v e of di sor i entati on. Frame w rote thr ee nov el s and tw o vol umes of shor t stor i es during her sev en y ear s in England, similar to N ew Z eal and diasporic male pr ose w riters of the 1930s and 40s like Dan Davin, James Courage and John M ulgan, who wrote nov el s, short stories and non fiction. Yet the points of dislocation and disarticulation that occur w hen the binary of home and host soci eti es i s di sr upted becom e nodes for psychological and narrative expansi on in her work, in shar p contrast to the realistic sty l e of male writing. The writers’ reworking of space, distance and identity r efl ect their i ncr eased mobility once they ar r i v e i n Eur ope. Mansfield’s two volumes of notebooks and f i v e volumes of l etter s r ev eal t he sem i -nomadic state of her l i f e, about to be cut shor t. Hyde, who like Mansfield died abroad, recorded her journey in w ays that blur the bound ar i es betw een documentary, journalism and fiction: a semi -autobiographical novel about her experiences in China, D r agon Rampar t (1939), w as based on ar t i cl es written for Woman Today, The M i r r or and Radi o Recor d; ther e w as poetr y , t he posthumous volume H ou ses by t he Sea (1952), and l etter s and jour nal s. In the works of all four textual fracture and fragmentation appear i n the r ecor d s and notes of multiple journeys and visits to different countries, as Great Britain, the expected destination, becam e just one sour ce of l i ter ar y inspiration: Mansfield constantly tr av el l ed to Eur ope and l i v ed at different times in Bavaria, Paris, Menton, Bandol, and M ontana-sur -Si er r e i n Sw i tzer l and ; H y d e tr av el l ed f r om N ew Z eal and v i a the Eastern front in China (to cover the Sino-Japanese W ar ), Hong Kong, Russia and Europe, bef or e r eachi ng Engl and i n September 1938; Adcock has travelled extensi v el y and v i si ted Tibet, Romania, and Ireland; Frame stayed in Ibi za and A ndorra as w ell as England on her fi r st ov er seas visit in 1958.

6 The classic is Henry Handel RI C H A RD SO N ’s trilogy, The Fortunes of Richard M ahoney (1930). In Christina STEA D’ s For Lov e A l on e (1944), t he jour ney and exi l e ar e l i nked to the d i scov er y of artistic vocation.

7 The sensation of being in transit, of occupying spaces betw een nati ons, outsi d e cultural norms and the usual social coordinates, is manifested in a volatile, fluid subjectivity. The writing of the four travellers demonstrates psychological intensity and interiority, evidence of what Gillian Rose calls ‘a relational subjectivity with its roots in alienation ‘ (REF). Going beyond the grounded pl aces w her e subjecti v i ty i s usually constructed and occupying spaces w i th r ed uced familiar r ef er ence poi nts initially, pushes them tow ar ds states associ ated w i th abjection, the cr i si s of sel f hood and on occasion the utopian potential for literature that Bill Ashcroft associates with the transnation (A shcroft 2010). I have identified in their work thr ee tr opes delineating a subjectivity not at home with itself, and this, I argue, is central to the kind of psychological fiction that Mansfield and Woolf pioneered in their aim to write the i nner centr e of w hat peopl e hope, thi nk and f eel . Associ ated w ith journeys and tr av el and m ani f ested through symbol, metaphor, and allusion they consi st of al ter nati v e i mages and metaphor s of the sel f i nv ol v i ng mask s, di sgui ses or d i ssembl i ng; the per ception of the unfamiliar as ‘other ’ and the self as a stranger; and the quest f or a ‘home i n thi s w or l d’ , a pl ace from w hi ch w omen can speak to initiate change. Although all three tr opes come from Robin Hyde, who can be seen as a successor to Mansfield and Woolf, they cor r espond to the ty pol ogy of homel essness and estr angement outl i ned i n K r i stev a’ s St r an ger s t o O u r sel v es.

Of all the images of the travelling self in these works, the most prominent and enduring is that of the godwit, the migratory bird that flies north from New Zealand to Siberia each year, making the long sea journey across the world to another homeland. Godw its as sy mbol s of tr av el and migration provide the name by which tr av el l er s f r om N ew Z eal and ar e of ten k now n; i t comes from Robin Hyde’s novel, The Godwits Fly (1938), in which a hoped for but unrealised journey to England comes to r epr esent the heroine, Eliza Hannay’s metaphorical journey to understanding the inner self (Sandbrook 1982: 332-33). 7 The migratory bird appears again in a poem by Charles Brasch w ritten in 1948, per haps i n homage to H y d e, and the r ef er ence to its departure antici pates the settl er r estl essness that al l four w r i ter s embod y , conv ey ed i n the l ast l i ne.

Remi nd i ngl y besi d e the qu ays t he w hi te Ships lie smoking: and from their haunted bay The god w i ts v ani sh tow ar d s anot her sum mer

7 On H y d e’ s d ebt to M ansf i el d’ s stor y ‘ Pr el ud e’ i n thi s nov el see M ur r ay , N ev er a Sou l at H ome: 189-190.

8 Everywhere in light and calm the murmuring Shad ow of d epar t ur e; d i st ance l ooks our w ay; And none knows where he will lie down at night. (Bornholdt et al 1997: 372)

The ti tl e of Jane Fr ame’ s semi -autobiographical posthumous novel, w ritten in 1963, Towards Another Summer (published in 2007) comes f r om Br asch’ s poem, and the f i gur e of the godw i t i s used by the nov el ’ s nar r ator , Gr ace Cl eav e, to r epr esent her state of estrangement. The bird’s wandering, nomadic existence and its liminality i mage her jour ney to Engl and and state of exi l e; she f r equentl y quotes f r om the poem i n addr essi ng this crisis of sel f hood, to r eassur e her sel f of w her e she comes f r om. The loss of cultural, linguistic, and human distinctions epitomise her dislocation: ‘Boundaries were not possible, where nothing finished, shapes enci r cl ed and ther e w as no begi nni ng: a stor m r aged and Gr ace Cl eav e w as standing in the midst of it’ (Frame 2007: 13). H er metaphor i c transformation into a bird is an antidote to the sense of sel f -di ssol uti on due to l oss of geographical bearings:

Grace Cleave had changed to a migr ator y bird (….) For so long she had felt not hum an, yet had been unabl e to mov e t ow ar d s an al ter nat i v e speci es; now t he solution had been found; she was a migratory bird; warbler, wagtail, yellowhammer? Cuckoo shrike, bobolink , sk u a? A l batr oss, or ange bi shop, god w i t ? (15)

Id enti f y i ng her sel f as a traveller through the migratory bird trope suggests that her identity was prone to splitting and division and required supplementation; bu t t he trope al so appropriately images nomadism, a state of flux, of being in process, rather than compl eteness or arrival (Golafshani 2008: 112).

By contrast to Frame/ Cleave’s adoption of an avian image is M ansf i el d’ s use of disguise and impersonation in her first years in Europe, noted i n d i ff er ent styl es of d r ess such as M aori or Japanese (Smith 2000: 46-47), and her apparent reluctance to d i v ul ge her N ew Z eal and i d enti ty . In some ear l y fir st per son narratives her her oi ne tr av el s either anonymously or in disguise, no doubt to counteract the collapse and intermeshing of the binaries of self and other. In ‘The Luft Bad’, one of her Bavarian stor i es col l ected i n I n A Ger man Pen si on (1911), the narrator is asked w hether she is English or American, but r emai ns non-committal about her unr ecogni zabl e accent. Her interlocutor then says: ‘You must be one of the two. You cannot help it’ (M ansfield 1984: 732). In other visits and journeys, notabl y in ‘ A n I nd i scr eet Jo u r n ey ’ , her narrator travels in disguise. Although Mansfield became increasingly nomadic and per i pateti c because of her diminishing energies and declining health,

9 d onni ng d i f f er ent mask s w hi l e on the mov e suggests a l i nk betw een tr av el , cr eati v i ty and w r i ti ng. A s w i th Fr ame, the i magi ng of the sol i tar y f emal e tr av el l er through facades or disgui ses implies indeterminacy of selfhood and being, the pr ojecti on of the d i ff er ent l ay er s of the subject’s per sonal i ty . Mansfield’s stories about l one f emal e tr av el l er s such as ‘ The Ti r edness of Rosamund’ , ‘ Somethi ng Chi l di sh but ver y N atural’, or ‘The Littl e Gov er ness’ , all turn on cases of mi staken i denti ty , er r oneous assumpti ons, or states of d r eam, f antasy and unreality.

Seco n d l y , the f emal e tr av el l er ’ s f eel i ngs of bei ng an outsi d er ar e r ei nf or ced by arrival at foreign destinations that are linguistically, ethnically and culturally unfamiliar. M ansf i el d memorably dramatizes the w oman’s responses to cultural difference in ‘Honeymoon’, abou t a new l y -w ed coupl e w ho v i si t the M edi ter r anean. Such d i ff er ences found in visiting European or Asian destinations contrast to t hose found on the l ong jour ney to a homeland society which is uncannily familiar. The w r i ter -traveller as a stranger or foreigner inhabiting an unknown territory d ev el ops affiliative relations, d i scov er s new patterns of sel f -representation, and alternative per specti v es to conventional d om est i c and nationalistic ones. Robin H yde, for exampl e, expl or es these concepts of d i ff er ence and d i stance to di scov er , i n the ter ms of K r i stev a, that the stranger or foreigner must be known in order to find the stranger w ithin (181-82). Hyde’s engagement with alterity is most intense in her travels in China, where she was powerfully affected by the sounds and sensations of an al i en cul tur e, and they embr ace K r i stev a’ s ‘ ethi cs of r espect f or the i r reconci l abl e’ (182). I n a poem f r om the sequence ‘ Journey f r om N ew Z eal and ’ H y d e i m ages the stranger as both herself and the f or ei gner s she meets, i nv esting the latter with ennobling spirituality:

W hat i s i t mak es t he str anger ? Say oh ey es! Because I w as jour neyi ng f ar , sailing alone, Changing one belt of stars for the northern belt, Men in my country told me, ‘You will be strange— Thei r w ays ar e not our w ay s: not l i ke our sel v es They thi nk, suf f er and d r eam.’ So I sat silent, and watched the stranger, why he was strange. (H yde 2003: 336)

H y d e r ef uses to become v i si bl e at the expense of the other , to r epr od uce the excl usi onar y ethnocentr i c d i scour se; but her subject position is shifting and unstable. She oscillates between ‘being sold into strangeness’ and longing for what is known: ‘But my heart will only dissolve, re-form/ The circling shapes of familiar things’ (332). I n another poem she w i shes to di ssol v e di stance between herself and the

10 stranger by r emov i ng gend er ed , cul tur al bound ar i es -- ‘ I w i shed to be, f or one d ay, a man selling mandarins’ (337) -- suggestive of the uncanny strangeness that Freud identifies in confronting the foreigner, who in Kristeva’s words, ‘I reject and also at the same ti me i d enti f y w i th’ (187). I n y et another poem H y d e r ev al u es t he exi l es condition of unbelonging with a vision in which all continents and seas ar e uni f i ed: ‘ i t seems to me, al l seas f use and i nter mar r y ./ U nd er the seas, al l l ands k ni t f i br e, interlock’ (337); as Sai d say s, ‘seeing the entire w orld as a foreign land’ (1991, 366).

Travel in Europe, Asia and Ireland allowed A dcock to expl or e and mak e sense of the r el ati onshi p betw een the v ar i ous stand s of her i d enti ty , d i scov er i ng tensions betw een her pl ace of or i gi n, her new r esi d ence, and alternative destinations. I n poems published in Sceni c Rout e (1974) about a jour ney to N epal , she implies through the semantic d ensi ty of the w or d ‘for ei gn’ the cultural and religious differences of the Orient. In ‘Bodnath’ her fingers ‘that twirl the prayer-w heel s, […]/ polishing their bronze by a f r acti on mor e’ ar e ‘f or ei gn’ ; w hi l e i n ‘ Exter nal Ser v i ce’ , another poem w r i tten about the same tr i p, w hat i s f ami l i ar to her (the sound of a BBC broadcast) is ‘the foreign news’ in Nepal (2000: 79-80). By contrast is t he imagined state of radical and ontological unbelonging conjured up in a later poem, ‘ For ei gner’ , about the psychological sensation of being excluded, cast down: the abject subject metamor phoses i nto a larva, imaged as a face floating on unguents and subordinated, pushed to the bottom of the nation:

These w i nd s bu l l y me.

I am to lie down in a ditch Qui et u nd er the thr ashi ng nettl es And pull the mud up to my chin.

(…)

I shall lie sound-pr oof ed i n the mud , A huge caddi s fly l arva, A f ace floating upon Egyptian unguents In a runnel at the bottom of England. (A dcock 2000: 107)

L i nk ed to the i mage of the str anger and the state of estr angement, i s Fr eud ’ s concept of unheimlich, close to the uncanny, and the ontological condition of ‘ bei ng- not-at home’ as theor i zed by H ei d egger an d Sar t r e (1995 and 1974, ci ted i n Mummery 30-34): these underpin the gend er ed f emal e quest f or ‘ a home i n thi s world’, in Hyde’s ter ms. The el usi v eness of the worldly home, territory or place

11 comes to sy mbol i ze the f emal e w r i ter ’ s inherent liminality and borderline exi stence r ei nf or ced by l eav i ng her homel and . In pursuing the question of home, all four writers blur the unheimlich, associ ated w i th the diasporic state of non acceptance and alienation, with the not-at-homeness that is part of the human condition of bei ng i n the w or l d , as di sti ngui shed by H ei d egger and Sar tr e; f or the di sr upti ons of selfhood catalyzed by diaspora and exile seem to call forth an innate condition of ‘being-not-at-home’ (M ummer y 2006: 31). H y d e, f or exampl e, seems to r ef er to the latter i n d ev el opi ng a utopi an ambi ti on f or femal e change; she d emater i al i zes ‘home’ as a place in w hich to live, to advance a discursive concept of home as a centr e of achi ev ed bal ance w hi ch enabl es mov ement bey ond .

I now know what I am looking for. I t i s a home in this world. I don’t mean four walls and a roof on top (…) I want a sort of natural order and containment, A centre of equipoise and an idea, not a cell to w hich one can retreat, but a pl ace from where one can advance; a place from which I can stretch out giant shadowy hands, and make a road betw een tw o obscure vi ll ages in China, teach the A r ab and Jew how to l i v e toget her i n Pal esti ne, ti d y up t he shack d w el l i ngs and shack destinies of our own thin Maoris in the north (1984: 10).

Grace Cl eav e i n Frame’ s Towar ds A not her Summer al so finds that travel exacer bates an ar chai c sense of non-belonging (associated with H ei d egger’s authentic Da-sei n ); according to the critic Isabel H aarhaus, thi s i s d ue to her primordial exile from the mother’s womb, leading to internal and then external exi l e, the l oss of sel f and of l anguage. M i gr ati on l ead s her to pond er the question of w her e home exi sts: ‘How could you go home if you were already home? Or was home some place out of the w orld?’ (Frame 2007: 70). Sh e also longs to return to the place of original belonging and protected intimacy, sy mbol i cal l y r epr esented by the si te of the mater nal ; but as a migrant, in order to arrive, as H aarhaus says, she must transfer ‘the d esi r e f or l i ter al pl acement w i thi n one’ s context -- the w or l d -- to the formulation of a desire for a transcendental and ultimately universal kind of ‘ bei ng in the world’ (2006: 12, cited in Golafshani 109-110). Cl eav e has not y et r eached the poi nt of ‘ subjecti v e ar r i v al ’ , of hav i ng d ev el oped a sense of pl ace i n the w or l d that can sat i sf y this desire for originary belonging.

For all four writers, the chal l enge to r ecei v ed concepts of home and bel ongi ng d ue to inhabiting new spaces through travel ent ai l s a r ad i cal r ev i si on of thei r gend er r ol es. Each abandons certain female expectati ons and responsibilities when leaving the country, breaching maternal, sexual or marital relations, cutting ties with family and children (both Hyde and Adcock left young children behind). In so doing, and in

12 substi tuting affiliative relationships for those of k i nshi p, they exempl i f y Sai d’s condition of ‘ w i l l ed homel essness’ (1983: 6, ci ted i n W ev er s 1995: 36). Ev i d ence of shifting contradictory subject positions due to intersecting gender and colonial di scour ses, show s them as constituting both identity and alterity (Blunt and Rose 1994: 11). They situate themselves literally as outsi d e the nation, and metaphorically outsi de the gend er ed , cul tur al expectati ons of w omen, i n thei r sear ch f or gr eater f r eed oms, new identiti es and ‘authenticity of being’ (Da-sei n ), i n H ei d egger ’ s ter ms, in the sense of not being-at-home (M ummery 2006: 32-33). Embarking on thi s quest al so suggests a chal l enge to H omi Bhabha’s ar gument about the unhomel y , -- that displacement and disruption do not totalize exper i ence – for the reconstruction in their art of forms of homeland belonging out of d r eams, memor i es and generic innovation of t en informs a new aesthetic practice (Bhabha 1994: 5). For H yd e and M ansf i el d who did not return to New Zealand, thei r ear l y y ear s and imagining of home becomes the centr al ar ti sti c f ocus. H y de’ s l ast poems about her Wellington childhood – H ou ses by t he Sea -- ar e her f i nest. M ost w er e w r i tten bef or e she l ef t N ew Z eal and , but she r ev i sed them when in China and finalised the manuscript when living in a caravan in Kent, before she committed suicide on 23 A ugust 1939 (H yde 2003: 24-30). Poems written during her journey link the easter n l and scape w i th the N ew Z eal and one she had l eft, noting correspond ences through geography and place as is often associated w ith diaspora writing (Hout 2007: 290).

I dream so much of the poems made in my youth. Smal l i d l e ghost s I had w r i t ten, f or got ten nev er si nce seen Sl i p i nt o my br ai n: say ‘W e w er e a par t of you ’ A s sw i f tl y gone agai n A sof t mi ght car r i es us on I t i s l i ke t he w i nd , str eami ng ov er W el l i ngt on hills Which, bearing all sunset’s flame, scorns not the kites; It is like the tide, flowing out from Island Bay, Bubbling round dinghies, it lifts the children’s boats (H yd e 2003: 343-44)

W hen travelling, Hyde found the need to cor r el ate her i mpr essi ons of new locations with memor i es of home. H er poetr y w r i tten i n China show s a clarity and acute obser v ati on of peopl e, pl aces and i nci d ent, as w el l as a finely tuned calibration of di stance: betw een her sel f and other s, betw een her e and ther e.

Mansfield, f r om her ear l i est d ay s i n Engl and , seemed to pursue a dream of home as a constantly shifting horizon, possi bl y a for m of escapi sm. In A pril 2009, just eight months after her arrival, in the midst of a crisis in which her lover Garnet

13 Trowell (to whom she was probably then pregnant), r ejected her and she married br i ef l y Geor ge Bow d en, she w ent on i mpul se to Br ussel s. On the coach to H ar w i ch she w ri tes: ‘The carriage is full but I feel I am goi ng home. To escape Engl and i t i s my gr eat d esi r e. I l oathe Engl and ’ (L et t er s 1: 90). Yet disillusionment follows. In a letter written from Brussells the following day she says, ‘sick at heart til I am physically sick with no home. No place in which I can hang up my hat and say here I bel ong—f or ther e i s no such pl ace i n the w hol e w i d e w or l d f or me’ (L et t er s 1: 91). Later u nabl e t o settl e anyw her e f or l ong as her heal th and finances declined, she f antasi sed w i th her husband, Jo h n M i d d l eton Murry, about different kinds of home ev en i nv enti ng a my thi cal pl ace cal l ed ‘H er on’ after the second name of her d eceased br other , L esl i e H er on Beauchamp; but her N ew Zeal and stor i es consti tute f or her the homecoming which eluded her in real life, and in so doing provide a new vision of the nation. In constructing the family as locus of meaning and activity she brings a metaphorical dimension to the myth of New Zealand, one of national cohesion, according to Lydia Wevers, through achieving temporal depth r ather than narrative continuity (42, 46). Mansfield cel ebr ates the pow er s of memory that bring this world to life, but as her own life runs out in the process, this is both ghostly and uncanny:

I t i s so str ange t o br i ng t he dead to life again. Theres my grandmother with her pi nk k ni tt i ng, ther e st al k s my u ncl e ov er the gr ass. I f eel as I w r i te ‘you ar e not d ead , my d ar l i ngs. A l l i s r emember ed . I bow d ow n to you. I ef f ace my sel f so t hat you may live again through me in your richness and beauty’. (L et t er s 4, 278)

By contrast, both Frame and A dcock d ev el op an aestheti c and themati cs w hich include thei r d i f fer ent realizations of the return. Like Mansfield and Hyde, they draw on memory, dream and the workings of the unconscious to recall their early life. In A dcock ’ s l atest v ol ume, D r agon Tal k (2010), f or exampl e, poems like ‘Kuaotunu’ and ‘Linseed’ d escr i be her f i r st consci ous moments w hen she i s tw o or thr ee. Fr ame’ s her oi ne i n Towar ds A not her Summer tak es r ef uge i n memor i es of childhood, to overcome overwhelming homesickness in a country whose culture and hi stor y oppr ess her . The diasporic imaging of her self as a migratory bird ev entual l y allows Cl eav e to i mpose some pattern on her exper i ence as i t d oes for Eliza H annay in The Godwit’s Fly, (Sandbrook 332). Although it conv ey s a fluid subjectivity, moving acr oss the binaries of colony and colonized, centre and periphery, homeland and hostland, disrupting their logic, i t al so pr ov i d es her w i th the r etur n tr ajectory (Golafshani 2008: 106-107), to fl y back to her native land ‘towards another summer’. In the sy m bol ’s transformation in the conclusion this identity is completed: ‘I fly

14 al one, apart from the flock, on long jour ney s thr ough stor m and cl ear sk i es to another summer. H ear me!’ (Frame 2007: 187).

The d i ff er ence betw een the ear l i er and l ater w ri ter tr av el l er s, ther ef or e, i s that both A dcock and Frame move on from their initial experiences of disruption and dislocation, to accommod ate the r etur n and homecoming in their art. Frame’s migratory bird image repr esents a decisive break w ith England as her source of creativity. Even though it d oes not enabl e Cl eav e to f eel at home ev er yw her e and now her e sufficient to achieve a place in this world, it figures her decision to rel ocat e her sel f i n N ew Z eal and and reconnect with the emerging national culture sy mbol i sed by Char l es Br asch. A shift in perception, contingent upon this shift in identity that comes with the completion of her journey, appears in Frame’s use of the i mage i n her next novel, T he A dapt abl e M an (1965), begun in England and completed upon her return to New Zealand: departure and return as found in nature now pr ov i d e a vantage point from which to contemplate human chaos: ‘The thought that he is not a migrating bird might make a man mad’. Without migration man is subject to time’ s f l ux and the di r ecti onl essness of humanity, ‘ they jour ney […] all in different directions, colliding, confused, distracting one another with pr omi ses, dr eams and f al se memori es’ (1965: 10), in short an ontological state of uncertainty and doubt.

Adcock made her first return to N ew Zealand in 1976, setting a pattern of f r equent v i si ts to see f ami l y and f r i end s ov er the next thi r ty y ear s. H er poetr y show s the ‘multivocality of belongings’ (Kaur et al 2008: 29) that come from living diasporically for over half a century: to N ew Z eal and w her e her fami l y l i v e, to England, her chosen home, and to I r el and w here her ancestor s ar e bur i ed . In ‘Instead of an I nter v i ew ’ , a poem w r i tten after the first return to New Zealand, she attem pt s to r econfi gur e ‘home’ :

H ome I expl ai ned to a w eepi ng ni ece Home is London, and England, Ireland, Europe. I have come home with a suitcase full of stones Of shel l s and pebbl es, potter y, pi eces of bar k; H er e they l i e ar ou nd the f l oor of my stud y As I tel ephone a cabl e ’saf el y home’ (2000: 115)

Despite the claim to multiple belonging in metropolitan England, Ireland and Europe, A d cock ’ s und er l y i ng ambi v al ence about her original home i s suggested i n the fragments of New Zealand stone and bark she has brought back i n her sui tcase,

15 sy mbol ising shr ed s of her former belonging. These categories points to the migrant experience of transition and translation that lack resolution (Bhabha 1994: 224), and the structure of anxiety that effects a making strange (H ei degger 1995: 189, cited in M ummery 2006: 32). A dcock’s sense of not being-at-home appears in the concern in the poem’s final line that she may have cast herself out permanently: ‘By going back to l ook , af ter thi r teen y ear s,/ hav e I mad e my sel f for the first time an exile?’ (115).

N ev er thel ess, A dcock draw s on this transitional, interstitial stage of acculturation and moves on from the initial conflict of loyalties. Like Frame who writes of the jour ney betw een N ew Z eal and and the UK in The Edge of the Alphabet, she has ad opted to the purposes of v er se narrative the exper i ence of long distance transnational trav el . Yet this has only come about with her entrenched settl ement i n England, the consolidation of her reputation and after many return visits recorded i n numerous poems and especially those published in T i me Z on es (1991). Unlike the poems of T he Scen i c Rou t e w hi ch r egi ster d i scov ery of new p l aces and an aw areness of similarities to and d i ffer ences f r om the places she v i si t s, those in T i me Z on es pr esent the mobi l e, gl obal tr av el l er w ho mak es transnational jour ney s, has plural locational attachments, and can relativise d i ff er ent places. This new characterisation i s r ei nf or ced by the appear ance of anony mous i nter sti ti al spaces -- the waiting room, the airport lounge, customs and secu r i t y checkpoints -- which epitomise the transient, official world of air travel. A number of poems draw on A dcock’s tr av el back and forth betw een hemi spher es, and this trajectory i s encapsul ated i n the long narrative poem, M eet i n g t he Comet , about a young woman who flies from England to N ew Z eal and to see H al l ey ’ s comet w hen i t appear ed i n 1988. Now the jour ney i tsel f has become a topic for poetry, and A dcock r ed ef i nes the tr av el ogue poem by draw ing attention to environmental i ssues. Like Frame who also travelled extensively away from and back to New Zealand during her lifetime, she draw s on her exper i ence of mul ti pl e jour ney s ov er time, to attain mor e di stanced and mor e comparative per specti v es, often relativizing differences through narrative technique. Mansfield and Hyde with their tragically shortened lives, only write fragmentarily about the long journey of migration, if at all, becau se t hey l ack the sense of a return, and of the compl eted patter n. This defines a clear shi f t in the per cepti on of home and belonging betw een Mansfield and Hyde writing in exi l e the first half of the twentieth century and Frame and A dcock writing as di aspor i c subjects after World War II.

16 In summary, w or k that has been w r i tten in transit, as w el l as from p l aces outsi d e the nati on, cr osses gener i c bound ari es, destabi l i ses constr ucti ons of gender , and interrupts relationships of filiation and belonging. It intersects with mainstream i mages of the nation through introducing tr opes of tr av el and estr angement, such as the godwit, a universal image symbolizing trans-hemi spher e migration. The w r i ter s’ explorations of home and homeland through metaphor and imagination repr esent both a counterpoint to and reframing of national articulations of belonging: they introduce new myths of home and nation (namel y i n M ansf i el d ’ s N ew Z eal and stor i es, and Fr ame’ s nov el s) and reinvigorate older ones about the ancestr al homeland. The intersection with the national imaginary al so comes from r enew i ng attachments-- such as by return visits (Frame and A dcock) or through memory, metaphor and i mage (H y d e and M ansf i el d)—and reintroducing concepts of difference.

The changing perspectives on selfhood, nation and belonging cov er ed in this article, I suggest, differ from the study of how communities are made and unmade, cited as the purpose of diaspora discourse (M ummer y , 2006: 41 citing Tololoyan, 1991: 1); for the consci ousness of the w r iter who is alienated in travel often articulates a more radical y et su bject i v e, compl ex r esponse than that of the col l ecti v e, and one that is anticipatory, a potential mod el for f ur ther under standi ng of i ssues of belonging and dislocation. N ev er thel ess the lives and work of these four writers mi ght be contextual i zed through both postcolonial and diasporic perspectives: fi r st with r ef er ence to Vijay Mishra’s claim that ‘imaginary homelands are constructed f r om the space of di stance to compensate f or a l oss occasi oned by an unspeak abl e trauma’ (423-424). M i shr a’ s allusion to colonisati on and cultural clash i s r el ev ant to writing outside the nation that emer ges in r esponse to the shock of unbelonging, the dislocations of departure and arrival, but w hi ch does not necessarily construct an ‘imaginary community’. Such categorisation i s more appropriate of M ansfi el d and Hyde w hose l i v es end ed abruptly in Europe, from w i thi n ‘ the space of di ffer ence’ , than to Frame and A dcock who made r econnecti ons with their origins, and d ev el oped thei r art by balancing the space of d i ff er ence with thei r r eal i sati ons and interpretations of the return. Frame, especi al ly in her last two novels w r i tten bef or e her death in 2004, Living in the Maniototo (1978) and The Car pat hi ans (1988), and A dcock in her recent poetry are, by contrast, closer to contemporary diaspora di scour se w hi ch according to James Clifford r ef l ect s an ‘ongoing transnsational

17 network that includes the homeland, not as something simply left behind, but as a place of attachment in a contrapuntal modernity’ (454). Clifford’s per specti v e, when applied to the w ork of A dcock and Frame, suggest that they anticipate the approaches to trav el , w riti ng and identity found in the work of the current gener ati on of N ew Z eal and w r i ter s — such as Sarah Quigley, Kirsty Gunn, Kapka Kassabova, and many other s si nce the 1980s — which continues to reinflect the national imaginary from afar. The f i ni tud e of the w r i ter s i n exi l e, w hose l oss of home and nation in departing for new horizons became associated with their deaths as well as their finest artistic accomplishment, now seems a r el i c of the past. Instead the multi-directional travel of r ecent d ecad es, the intersecting paths of contemporary global migration that continue to overturn the binary colonial and postcolonial tr ajector i es, ushers in an era of increasingly cosmopolitan and transnational migrant writing.

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