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Arab Nationalism: Historical Problems in the Literature Author(S): Rashid Khalidi Source: the American Historical Review, Vol Arab Nationalism: Historical Problems in the Literature Author(s): Rashid Khalidi Source: The American Historical Review, Vol. 96, No. 5 (Dec., 1991), pp. 1363-1373 Published by: Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Historical Association Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/2165275 Accessed: 24-05-2020 22:28 UTC REFERENCES Linked references are available on JSTOR for this article: https://www.jstor.org/stable/2165275?seq=1&cid=pdf-reference#references_tab_contents You may need to log in to JSTOR to access the linked references. JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at https://about.jstor.org/terms Oxford University Press, American Historical Association are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The American Historical Review This content downloaded from 79.147.42.147 on Sun, 24 May 2020 22:28:34 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Arab Nationalism: Historical Problems in the Literature RASHID KHALIDI As WITH MANY ASPECTS OF MIDDLE EASTERN HISTORY, the study of Arab nation- alism has tended to remain isolated from broader trends in history and the social sciences and specifically from the comparative study of nationalism. Similarly, most writing on nationalism has drawn sparingly on Middle Eastern examples. Thus, while a few of the early studies of nationalism in comparative perspective, such as that of Hans Kohn, devoted some attention to the nascent nationalisms of the Middle East including Arab nationalism, more recent writers, such as Eric Hobsbawm and Benedict Anderson, have touched on the Middle East only in passing, if at all.' Within the field of modern Middle Eastern history, beyond a general isolation from current trends in history, including the comparative study of nationalism, there has been a propensity toward compartmentalization along linguistic and national lines.2 This has led to an unfortunate situation in which those studying Arab and Turkish nationalism, for example, have often been unaware of the relevance of one another's work, unfortunate because Middle Eastern national- isms-such as Turkish and Arab nationalism before World War I or Zionism and Palestinian nationalism more recently-have strongly influenced one another in many ways and have served as the channels through which political concepts and forms of organization originating in Europe entered the Middle East. Failure to examine these reciprocal influences has at times led to an overemphasis on direct European influences and to numerous other kinds of distortions, notably a ' As can be seen from the title of his first book, A History of Nationalism in the East (New York, 1929), Hans Kohn came to the comparative study of nationalism after examining its specific properties in the Middle East and Asia, an examination that informs his book The Idea of Nationalism: A Study in Its Origins and Background (New York, 1944). See also E. J. Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality (Cambridge, 1990); Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism, rev. edn. (New York, 1991). Hobsbawm offers a list of recent works on nationalism (p. 4), including Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (London, 1983), Anderson's book, and the collection edited by Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, 1983). None of these books deals in any depth with Middle Eastern nationalisms. One of the few authors on nationalism with expertise in the Middle East field is Elie Kedourie, whose work is discussed below. See especially his Nationalism, 4th rev. edn. (London, 1985) and the edited work Nationalism in Asia and Africa (New York, 1970). 2 This compartmentalization may be due in part to the specialized language study necessary for work on the historiography of Arab, Turkish, and Iranian nationalism, as well as Zionism. It is also in part a function of the insidious influence of nationalist rhetoric on these different historiographies. As a result of the heady impact of the subject studied on some of those studying it, much research and writing on these topics has come to reflect in microcosm the antagonisms between Middle Eastern nationalisms. 1363 This content downloaded from 79.147.42.147 on Sun, 24 May 2020 22:28:34 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 1364 Rashid Khalidi downplaying of the regional context in which each of these national movements developed. The study of Arab nationalism in particular has suffered from these and other problems. Specifically, there has frequently been a failure to analyze the Arab case using methodologies derived from some of the more critical recent approaches in the study of nationalism. In the work of some scholars, this failure has been linked with an unquestioning acceptance of elements of the national narrative-or myths, to put it more bluntly-generated by Arab nationalism. The fact that the study of other Middle Eastern nationalisms is often plagued by the same flaws (often for the same reasons, growing out of the recent emergence of these national movements and the involvement of many of these scholars in the definition and support of their new polities) can be of little consolation to those interested in a balanced approach to the subject. As historians with even a passing acquaintance with the field are aware, this failure means that treatments of the history of the Middle East, especially the history of the modern Middle East, are often partisan and controversial. Even scholarly writing on this subject is sometimes influenced by current political preoccupations to a degree greater than in many other fields. At the same time, political and public discourse in this country is frequently studded with citations of what are taken to be "the lessons of history" in the Middle East by commen- tators who are, as a rule, blissfully ignorant of the slightest knowledge of the history, languages, and cultures of that region. It is doubly unfortunate that this should be the case at a time of intense and growing interest in this field, an interest sometimes hard to sustain because of the clouds of polemics that surround it, particularly at moments of crisis in the Middle East. Notwithstanding, it is possible to make a selection of seminal works in English on Arab nationalism and other aspects of modern Arab history that bear on it (the rich literature of works in Arabic and other languages will not be referred to here). These English-language works can be read with benefit by the nonspecial- ist, referred to in order to obtain a comparative perspective on other regions of the world, or provided to students interested in Middle Eastern history and politics. They can be grouped into two broad areas: the earliest works in the field and more recent books on Arab nationalism, including related works on specific nation-state nationalisms in the Arab world that shed particular light on the subject. As a preface to a discussion of these works, and to the key historical questions they deal with, a few introductory words on Arab nationalism are in order. ARAB NATIONALISM, like most other Middle Eastern nationalisms, was a child of the intellectual atmosphere of the nineteenth century and one of many responses to the process of incorporation of the world into a single system with Europe at its center which that century witnessed. Like these other ideologies, Arab national- ism in its fully developed form represented an expression of identity and of group solidarity within the projected new format of the nation-state by an amalgam of AMERICAN HISTORICAL REVIEW DECEMBER 1991 This content downloaded from 79.147.42.147 on Sun, 24 May 2020 22:28:34 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Arab Nationalism 1365 old elites and new social forces at once desirous of seeing their society resist control by outside forces and deeply influenced by the example and the challenge of the West. Arab nationalism represented both a revival of old traditions and loyalties and a creation of new myths based on them, an invention of tradition, to use Hobsbawm and Ranger's term. Thus, as Arab nationalism took hold, what had been described for thirteen centuries as the glories of Islamic civilization came to be called the glories of Arab civilization; the language and literature of the Arabs, always revered and cherished, took on a new and heightened importance; and a sense of pride in Arabism that had always existed but had long been dormant was consciously revived and actively fostered. By some time early in the twentieth century, at the end of this process of synthesis (which in many respects closely followed the pattern laid down by other national movements described by Anderson in Imagined Communities), the idea was widespread throughout the "Arab world" (itself a concept born of the rise of Arab nationalism) that anyone who spoke Arabic, looked back on the history of the Arabs with pride, and considered himself or herself to be an Arab was one, and that this sense of shared identity should in some measure find political expression. Soon, with the power of the state propagating it through the educational system, the media, and other avenues of access to cultural and political discourse in a number of newly independent Arab countries, the Arab idea was strongly entrenched. It is important to stress the unevenness of this process, with some parts of the Arab world coming earlier to Arabism-the term given to the early twentieth- century precursor of fully developed Arab nationalism-and others much later, with competing or complementary senses of identity stronger in some regions than in others.
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