Gaelic Words in Caithness Scots

By: Alasdair B. MacMhaoirn Sabhal Mòr Ostaig Slèite, An t-Eilean Sgitheanach, Alba (Scotland)

Abstract:

This paper presents an investigation of borrowing between Gaelic and Caithness Scots. It also evaluates the use of Gaelic words referenced to Caithness within Gaelic areas south and west of Caithness. As a result of this investigation a number of features emerged. Firstly, there are a high number of Gaelic words present in Caithness Scots. Secondly, the borrowing appears to have been one way as there didn’t appear to be much borrowing from Caithness Scots into local Gaelic. Thirdly, an intriguing question arose, although out with the focus of this study, that the language boundaries apparent from terrestrial place names may not be coincident with the boundaries of names of features pertaining to the sea. Overall the evidence suggests that there was a high degree of linguistic interaction between the Scots and Gaelic populations in Caithness.

Keywords: Caithness, Gaelic, Scots

Gaelic Words in Caithness Scots.

This paper will investigate the presence of Gaelic loanwords in Caithness Scots. It began owing to a very simple observation. As a Gaelic speaker familiar with local Gaelic and Gaelic-English speech spoken in the Rogart area and on the north coast the author has often noticed Gaelic words in Caithness Scots, although they are not frequently recognised as such by the speakers themselves in Caithness. The consequence of this observation was to investigate the presence of Gaelic loanwords to be found in Caithness Scots.

As a result of this investigation number of features emerged. Firstly, there are a high number of Gaelic words present in Caithness Scots. Secondly, the borrowing appears to have been one way as there didn’t appear to be much borrowing from Caithness Scots into local Gaelic. Thirdly, an intriguing question arose, although out with the focus of this study, that the language boundaries apparent from terrestrial place names may not be coincident with boundaries of names of features pertaining to the sea are considered.

This investigation of Gaelic loanwords will begin with a discussion of the methodology employed and sources utilized. There will then be a broad look at the topic of Gaelic loanwords in Scots in general and the focus will then return to Caithness itself and the historical division of the Gaelic and Scots speech communities within the area. This will be followed a detailed look at the evidence revealed by recordings of representatives of different speech communities between the years 1982 to 2004. Then a compilation of Gaelic loanwords will be presented and, finally, a look at Gaelic words described as pertaining to Caithness will be investigated for loanwords from Scots into Gaelic as formerly spoken in Caithness. The overarching impression is of two interacting cultures side by side and both coming under enormous pressure from English.

The methodology employed in this study was firstly to work through the lexis of Caithness Scots compiled by Mr Iain Sutherland of Wick, Caithness which was based upon recorded interviews complied over 22 years by Mr Sutherland with representatives of different speech communities throughout Caithness. Selections of the actual recordings themselves from which the dictionary was compiled were then reviewed. In order to investigate a possible contrast between the Scots and Gaelic speech communities recordings were targeted which came from speakers from north and eastern areas of the county where Caithness Scots was strong and the southern and western boundaries where Gaelic was formerly spoken.

The recordings are available at the Caithness Archive Centre, Wick, Caithness. They were donated by Mr Sutherland who is an habitual speaker of his native Caithness Scots as well as an author of a number of historical books and plays. Based upon these recordings as well as his own extensive knowledge, Mr Sutherland complied and published, A Caithness Dictionary[CITATION Sut \l 2057], to record the spoken language of Caithness Scots. It is important to note that owing to the distinction between literary and spoken Scots, as explained below, the list reflects everyday spoken language and not literary language, as Mr Sutherland explains in his introduction,

…all the words were spoken at one time or another, and I have heard nearly all of them over the last 20 years, used by the 70 or so people with whom I made tape recordings when I was preserving the different accents of Caithness. There were about 50 different accents that I could detect, now alas surviving only among the elderly.

More than just language, Mr Sutherland’s work has provided researchers with a varied and wide ranging set of material encompassing language, history, tales and legends, place names, sea related names, and descriptions of ways of life now gone.

The subject of loanwords and other remodelling of languages has been studied widely and has included some research on the relationship between Gaelic and Scots [CITATION McC95 \l 2057] [CITATION OBa97 \t \l 2057] and a lot of work has focussed upon phonology[CITATION Pőd96 \l

2 2057]. It has been pointed out frequently that there is a division between spoken and literary Scots with the result that spoken Scots contains many more loanwords from Gaelic than literary Scots[CITATION McC95 \l 2057], however it is notable that even the writing of Robert Burns contains some Gaelic[CITATION Dor91 \l 2057]. The distinction between spoken Scots and literary Scots language is emphasized strongly.

The picture that emerges, however, is unmistakeably that of a vital, productive and enduring influence exerted by one language on the other: a far cry from literary Scots and the dialects that are its principle sources[CITATION McC95 \l 2057]

The recordings in Caithness certainly seem to support this view.

In recent years the progress of the status of Gaelic throughout Scotland has been received very well, and Gaelic medium education is offered throughout Scotland, from Caithness to the central belt. Such progress however, has not been without its critics. With respect to the north of Scotland this has been evident, even at an official level, not only with regard to Gaelic education but particularly with regard to Gaelic signage. Negative comments range from personal opinions, a waste of money, to historical assertions that, “Gaelic was never spoken here.” Personal views about spending money are, as implied, personal, but the historical place of Gaelic in Caithness deserves and has received thorough refutation, even if the, “Gaelic was never spoken here”, proponents don’t seem to have accepted the evidence. In this respect one can only wonder, as one researcher has asked, how such hostility can exist in face of clear evidence[CITATION Sti08 \l 2057].

Place name evidence as well as historical accounts make it clear that among the parishes in Caithness the north eastern parishes of Bower, Canisbay and Olrig, were Scots speaking while Gaelic was strongest in Reay and Latheron, and also Halkirk[CITATION Duw15 \l 2057]. Owing to well-known social, political and economic pressures Gaelic use declined quickly in the twentieth century, and by the time of Mr Sutherland’s recordings in the Gaelic parishes in the 1980s informants could not name single living speaker native to Caithness, although they remembered speakers alive in the 1950s[CITATION SUT2 \l 2057]. It may also be said, sadly, that Caithness Scots is facing a similar situation, although on a later timescale. In the introduction to his dictionary Mr Sutherland sadly wrote:

This is an illustrated dictionary of words and expressions which were in common use in the county of Caithness until the latter third of the twentieth century when the introduction of television, on top of a century of persecution by the teaching profession, finally killed the language off. I regard the process as irreversible, and have produced this book more as an obituary than anything else; to tell what it was like to those who will never have either the pleasure of using it, or the privilege of hearing it in the wonderful variety that used to exist from Reay to Sarclet, or Stroma to Berriedale.

Unfortunately for Caithness Scots, or any other variety of Scots, as yet there are no modern programmes of revival such as Gaelic has achieved.

3 As mentioned earlier, recordings were chosen from strong Scots speaking areas and also from areas were Gaelic was formerly spoken. In this way it was surmised that the speakers would be expected to exhibit the greatest differences in language. Speakers were chosen from John O’ Groats, Whaligoe and Wick to represent the Scots areas, while the Gaelic areas were represented by speakers from Latheron, Dunbeath, and Reay. The recordings themselves are generally of good quality, considering they have been transferred from cassette to disk, and the interviewer, Iain Sutherland, was expert in raising numerous points of information and through his own deep knowledge of own language he added to the study simply by being himself.

The first recording reviewed was of a native of John O’ Groats, which of course is in the far north east of the county[CITATION SUT1 \l 2057]. The man interviewed had been a fisherman and he had a lot to say about tides, way of life, historical incidents and folklore. He also named features pertaining to the sea such as rocks, tides and channels, mostly west from John O’ Groats toward Hunna. Among the names he mentioned, three stand out as Gaelic or possible Gaelic names. They are:

Chailleach: This was a rock the fisherman pointed out to the interviewer. It occurred in a sentence simply as, “that is the chailleach…”. The initial a’ of the article in Gaelic was left off, but the lenition remained.

Nickie: This word was used for a channel. It seems to suit the Gaelic word, neag / èag, a notch or a channel, with a diminutive ending common in Caithness. It may also be related to the Scots and English word nick, which according to the Scots Online Dictionary can refer to a narrow gap in the hills.

Glug of Stroma: The word glug is used to describe the sound of water when contained in a vessel. In Scots the word glog can mean to swallow, gulp or gurgle, which surely must be similar in use. Certainly the Gaelic word suits the context to the channel on Stroma where the sea comes in and can be agitated between the rocks.

So it appears that in the far north east of the county at least one Gaelic word exists as a place name and at least two other possibilities are there also. Although it is beyond the focus of this paper, an analysis of sea related place names would make an interesting comparison with the large corpus of work on terrestrial place names. In another interview, Mr Sutherland pointed out that the sea rocks at Waster, just north of Wick, divided the different languages, with a sea rock to the south being named in Gaelic[CITATION SUT04 \l 2057]. This is farther north than would be expected by looking at terrestrial names.

Another interview reviewed in the Scots areas was of a native of Whaligoe[CITATION SUT6 \l 2057]. This village is widely known owing to the famous steps carved into the cliffs to connect the bay where the boats came in with the fish curing station on the top of the cliffs. The interviewee related a lot of tremendously interesting information in many ways, but Gaelic or

4 Gaelic words did not feature in anything she said, other than a few place names containing common elements in Scots speaking areas, such as Braehead and Knockwhin.

The third interview reviewed to represent a Scots speaking area was of a woman who was native to Wick[CITATION SUT04 \l 2057]. With respect to this speaker a number of Gaelic terms arose in speech and through questioning by Mr Sutherland who is, as mentioned earlier, also a Wick native and fluent speaker of native Scots. During the interview it was mentioned that the last Gaelic church service was in 1833. The words as they arose in the interview are as follows:

Portan: This is an obvious Gaelic borrowing, and was said to be how the Thurso people would say partan which is also used in Scots and derives from Early Irish[CITATION Mac11 \l 2057]. It was notable that the interviewee was strongly of the opinion that the word was a French word. The interviewer pointed out that the word was Gaelic, but she did not accept it.

Boorag: In context this appeared to be a form of bùrach, a muddle, or untidy mess.

Simmans: This is a type of rope called a Sìoman.

Mirlug: This was said to be the eye of a creel, and is perhaps related to mùrla, which is a type of conical creel (Dwelly).

Amatan: A Gaelic word for a silly or foolish person.

Trosg: This was described a term of endearment for a naughty but loved child. This is certainly the use of the word in Rogart.

Gabag: This was said to be an insult, may be found in Gaelic to describe a sharp or snappish person (Dwelly).

Slewan: This was said to refer to a lazy person. Perhaps it is related to the Gaelic word, Slaodaire, describing the same sort of person. In Rogart usage, slaodaire, describes a sloppy person who leaves a mess everywhere, but as pronounced in Rogart, “Slaodair’”, the vowels are quite different.

Turning to interviews conducted in formerly Gaelic speaking areas differences are immediately evident. Firstly, although all speakers had a recognisable Caithness accent they used a standard form of English rather than Scots. In fact, to my untrained ear they sounded quite Highland in comparison to the style of speech used by the interviewer Mr Sutherland. It was very interesting to note that with very few exceptions all the speakers were unacquainted with the Scots words Mr Sutherland was asking about, and also that they were weak in Gaelic terms as well. Their linguistic assimilation was into standard English with little or no trace of their recent Gaelic heritage and even less of Scots.

The first interview was with three men from the Dunbeath area[CITATION SUT2 \l 2057]. As with the Scots speakers their interview contained enormous amounts of interesting local information

5 but it was notable that when asked about Scots terms for plants and flowers they did not recognise them at all. The only word they recognised was juke, the Scots word for a duck. The same word in its Gaelic spelling, diùc, is recorded as the Gaelic term used in Caithness[CITATION Dwe \l 2057]. This may be one of the rare examples of Scots words taken into Gaelic, or perhaps it an onomatopoeia for the usual call for poultry, “tuig tuig”. When asked about Gaelic terms they were equally weak, but they did manage a term or two connected with peats, which were bodach, the first cut peat and then tarraing for a the next peat cut. They had no knowledge however of the Gaelic names for the implements used.

On the specific topic of Gaelic, they were asked if they knew of or remembered speakers native to the area. They came up with two, one of whom was the grandfather of one of the men. It was said that he was interviewed by someone from Edinburgh University in 1953. Another speaker was mentioned, but since his wife didn’t speak Gaelic they said that he only used it with his parents.

The next interview reviewed was of a man from Forse, which would be expected to be in the formerly Gaelic speaking areas.[CITATION SUT5 \l 2057] This interview focussed on names of birds. As with the previous interview the interviewee had no knowledge of the Scots terms for birds used by Mr Sutherland. The only exception was the widely used Caithness word shochad, for a lapwing. This word derives from Gaelic, seoc, a plume on a helmet, referring to the feather plume of the bird’s head. It may be a compound of, seoc and ad (hat).

The final interview reviewed in the formerly Gaelic areas was of a man native to the parish of Reay, on the western border with Sutherland.[CITATION SUT4 \l 2057] Similar to the other informants the man had little or no knowledge of the Scots terms connected with wildlife and crofting, although he did recognise the word futterad, meaning a weasel. In this example the assimilation was to standard English rather than Scots.

Based on the samples reviewed it seems clear that loanwords from Gaelic may be found in Caithness Scots, but only one loanword juke/diùc from Caithness Scots was found in Gaelic. It may also be said that the residents of the formerly Gaelic speaking areas uniformly spoke standard English, although with a Caithness accent. Their assimilation was into standard English rather than to Caithness Scots.

Turning to The Caithness Dictionary, we are presented with lists of words considered to be indicative of Caithness Scots. Working through the lists it is clear that quite a number of Gaelic words have been incorporated into Scots in Caithness. The results of working through the lists are as follows (unless referenced otherwise the Gaelic words are from Dwelly):

Abachan: ornament: Gaelic, apa, a diminutive person

6 Achrag: a stook, perhaps related to adag.

Aig: to work persistently at something, perhaps related to aig/ri.

Airt: direction, perhaps from àird, a compass direction

Airles: fees paid to herring gutters or farm workers, from àirleas, a pledge, which in turn may come from Scots Arles[CITATION Mac11 \l 2057]

Amidan: a fool, Gaelic, a fool

Assilag: a Storm Petrel, Gaelic: asaidheag.

Baak: a furrow around a field, Gaelic: bac, a bank, used in Sutherland for a peat bank, from Norse bakki [CITATION Mac11 \l 2057]

Badin-miskin: butterword, Gaelic: bodan-measgain

Bairnag: a limpet, Gaelic: bàirneag

Bauk: roost for hens, perhaps Gaelic: bacan

Baukie: a stake for a tether, perhaps Gaelic: bacan

Bhannag: a head scarf, Gaelic: beannag. It is unclear, why the word is spelt with a bh.

Birrach: greedy person, perhaps related to Gaelic: biorach, a sharp or angled person

Blainag: a pimple, the ag ending suggests Gaelic, perhaps related to bleun, hence blain and therefore meaning tender. [CITATION Mac11 \l 2057]

Bo-chiel, a cow man, Gaelic: bò, cow

Boddach, a grassy peat, Gaelic: bodach, used in Rogart with the same meaning

Boltie-lairag: the second element seems to be laireag, a lark

Boorag: a wet peat, heathery peat used for thatching, Gaelic: bùrag, used in Bettyhill with the same meaning

Boorach: a shambles, Gaelic: bùrach

Broug: an awl, Gaelic: brog, a shoemaker’s awl

Buss: to sulk, a sulk, Gaelic: bus: lip, used in Rogart for sulking.

7 C

Cag-filleag: cinquefoil. The ag ending is suggestive of Gaelic, and sources give còig- bhileach[CITATION Cly89 \l 2057] which seems close to the Caithness term.

Caise: a straw basket, Gaelic: cèis

Callag: cockeral, Gaelic: coileach. pronounced caileach in the far north coast and Rogart

Cawnach: cotton grass, Gaelic, Canach

Cir-cavaig: ragged robin, Gaelic, Flùr na Cuthaig, the second element suits the Caithness term, and perhaps the first element is from cìr, a crest. Another Gaelic name is Currac-cubhaige, also suggesting headgear shapes[CITATION Cly89 \l 2057].

Clocharet: a stonechat, Gaelic: cloichearan / clacharan

Corrag: water forget-me-not, Gaelic: cotharach[CITATION Cly89 \l 2057].

Corragad: march marigold, Gaelic: corrach-shod

Cushie: ring dove, perhaps the second element comes from moulting cf. Gaelic: calman- cathaidh, a moulting dove

Cown: to weep, Gaelic: caoin

Crellag: a bluebottle, Gaelic: creithleag

Croc: a hillock, Gaelic: cnoc

Cromags: fingertips, Gaelic: cromag, as defined by Dwelly, “any little hooked thing”

Crottie: red lichen, Gaelic: crotal

Cruive: a basket, Gaelic: perhaps related to craidhleag a basket or a creel

Cubbag: a bait basket made from heather, the ag ending suggests Gaelic.

Currag: forefinger, perhaps related to Gaelic currag, a cap or a corner[CITATION Mac11 \l 2057].

Dashag: a small corn scroo, diminutive of Gaelic: dais

Deathin: water hemlock, perhaps from Gaelic: detheodha

Diesal: clockwise, Gaelic: deiseil

Dirdie-lochrag / Dirdie-wafflag: butterfly, the second element in each suggests a Gaelic root.

8 Dumbeith: Dunbeath, Gaelic: Dùn Beithe

Eemag: an ant, the ag ending suggests Gaelic

Epag: hiccup, the ag ending suggests Gaelic

Ess cockie, dipper, perhaps the first element is from Gaelic: eas, a waterfall

Faddish: muirburn, perhaps related to Gaelic: fàlaisg

Farsach: great black backed gull, Gaelic: Farspach

Feelagir: speedwell, Gaelic: fualachdar

Fracher: Farquahar, Gaelic: Fearchar, pronounced Frachar in the far north.

Gevelag: earwig, Gaelic: gobhlag

Gill-towal: horse leech, perhaps from the elements, Gille, servant, boy, plus toll a perforation, cf deala-tholl

Gilpin: a sparrow, Gaelic: gealbhonn

Glaur: mud, Gaelic: Glàr

Glack: skin between the thumb and forefinger, perhaps from Gaelic: glac, a forked area or a gorge.

Gomeril: a fool, perhaps related to the Gaelic: gamal

Gowl: crotch, Gaelic: gobhal

Gowrag: a small haystack, the ag suggests Gaelic.

Groser: gooseberry, Gaelic: gròiseid

Gruishan: fringe, perhaps related to Gaelic: gnùis

Gyo: narrow coastal inlet, Gaelic: geò

9 H

Hairy brottag, catterpiller, Gaelic: bratag

Hakrig: Halkirk, Gaelic: Hacraig

I: none

J: none

Kurrans: broken straw left after thrashing, perhaps related to Gaelic: curracag: a small pile of straw or peat[CITATION Mac25 \l 2057].

Laraig: skylark, Gaelic: laireag

Libbag: a horn spoon, perhaps related to Gaelic: liob, a lip

Lissean-leesach: bedstraw (plant), Gaelic: lus an leasaich

Live: palm of the hand, seems to be Gaelic: làmh / làimh, hand

Lonnans: Couch grass, perhaps related to Gaelic: lòn, a meadow

Lurk: a fold in cloth, Gaelic: lurc

Lusachrie: self-heal, Gaelic: lus a’ chridhe

Lusan-lec: bedstraw (plant), Gaelic: lus an (lec), second element unclear

Lushaven: milk-wort, Gaelic: lus plus unclear elements

Lusnafir: sundew, appears to be Gaelic: lus na(n)…, perhaps related to lus na feàrnaich.

Machlan-buie: yellow rottle, Gaelic: modhalan buidhe

Mackeenie: Mackenzie, Gaelic: MacCoinnich

Maigs: flippers, clumsy hands, Gaelic: màgan, a clumsy hand

Me-an: bog violet, Gaelic: mòthan

10 Mirren: saxifrage, perhaps related to Gaelic: miuran, carrot or parsnip

Mogans: fingerless gloves, appears related to Gaelic: mogan, a footless stocking

Moo-ag: a soft or shell-less egg, Gaelic: maothag

Mullach: term of endearment for children, perhaps a form of Gaelic: mo luach / m’ ullaidh,

Nashag: bearberry, the ag suggests Gaelic, but the first element is unknown

Nether: adder, Gaelic: nathar

Niaff: an upstart, perhaps related to Gaelic: neimh, poison

Ochanie: Oh Dear, Gaelic: ochan an rìgh / ochan-ì

Ochanear: dawn, perhaps related to Gaelic: àrd an ear, the east

Oi: grandchild, Gaelic, ogha

Oines, grandchildren, Gaelic: oghaichean

Panner-cappel: bogbean, Gaelic: pònair-chapaill

Paelig: porpoise, Gaelic: peallag / peilig

Peepag: reed held between thumbs and blown on, Gaelic: pìobag, a small pipe

Pellad: tadpole, Gaelic: piullachan

Pirlag: a ball of dung, perhaps Gaelic: pùrlag, a fragment of anything

Pleuk: a pimple, Gaelic: pluc

Plouter: walk through water or mud, Gaelic: plùtair

Prontag: a ball of oatmeal, Gaelic: pronntag

Puttag: a buzzard, the ag ending suggests a Gaelic root

11 Q: none (only one entry in this section)

Rannag: bracken, Gaelic, raineach

Ring lairag: reed bunting, second element Gaelic: laireag

Ronyal: a large clumsy person, perhaps related to Gaelic: rongach, lazy

Ruddag: a robin, perhaps related to Gaelic: ruadhag

Ruthag: a young partan, Gaelic: rùdhag / portan

San lairig: sandpiper, second element Gaelic: laireag

San looag: ringed plover, the ag ending suggests a Gaelic root

Scarf: cormorant, Gaelic, sgarbh

Seed bird: grey wagtail, appears to be related to Gaelic: breac an t-sìl (speckled one of the seed)

Seed foullie: pied wagtail, also appears to be related to Gaelic: breac an t-sìl

Shangans: centipede, perhaps related to the word for ant, shannag

Shannag: ant, Gaelic, seang

Scoollag: wild mustard, Gaelic, Sgiollag

Sheet: soot, Gaelic: suith

Shochad: peewit, Gaelic: seoc, plume, perhaps with the addition of ad, a hat

Sile: eel fry, perhaps related to Gaelic: sìol

Simmans: straw rope, Gaelic: sìoman

Skelf: a hangnail, perhaps from Gaelic: sgealb, a splinter or a fragment

Skelp: a slap, Gaelic: sgealp

12 Skiach: hawthorn berry, Gaelic: sgìtheach

Skulder, jellyfish, Gaelic, sgoldair . This word is used in Golspie.

Slammag: a handful of something usually lifted with a spoon or a ladle, Gaelic: slaman

Smagan, toad, Gaelic, magan, on all fours

Smeech: sound, Gaelic: smid, a syllable or a word

Smeurach: embers, Gaelic: perhaps related to Gaelic: smùrach, dross

Sookag: clover, Gaelic: sùgag

Soorag: sorrel, Gaelic: sùrag

Spagach, out toes, Gaelic, spàgach

Sookag: clover, Gaelic: sùgag

Tartar: fuss, row, Gaelic: tartarach, noisey

Teuch: tough, Gaelic, tiugh, thick

Thrang; busy, Gaelic: trang

Trock: rubbish, Gaelic, troc

Tullach, a hillock, Gaelic: tulach

U: none

Wheenach: jaundice, Gaelic: a’ bhuidheach

Witchag: swallow, perhaps related to Gaelic: amhlag, ainleag

X: no entries

Y: none

Z: no entries.

13 Although a few words in this list maybe disputed, most are obvious Gaelic loanwords. There has been an obvious borrowing of Gaelic words into Caithness Scots. To look for evidence of Caithness Scots loanwords in a Gaelic lexis of Caithness Gaelic needs to be investigated. Fortunately, Dwelly’s Gaelic dictionary is available on-line and it may be searched for those words referenced to Caithness Gaelic speakers. Very many of these words produced on such a search are referenced to the Reverend Donald Mackenzie, Killimster, Wick, who was a native of Bonar Bridge, Sutherland.[CITATION Cur15 \l 2057].

A few of the words are familiar to the author who has heard them used in the Rogart area, and also in the Melness area. Owing to strong historical connections and especially as a result of Sutherland people moving into Caithness as a result of the Clearances it is unclear which words were recent additions to Caithness Gaelic, and which were longstanding examples of Caithness Gaelic. In any case, a list is provided of the all the words obtained in Dwelly, with reference to their use in Rogart and to their use on the north coast.

The use of the words on the north coast was verified by reviewing the list with a speaker in Bettyhill, who also has links with Melness.[CITATION Uil15 \l 2057] The use of the words in the Rogart area is referenced to the author’s own family knowledge.

List of Gaelic Words Referenced to Caithness known or unknown to speakers from Bettyhill and Rogart.

lòinean, Fat on the kidneys: unknown duain For dùin: unknown gloc-gàire, Laughter: unknown léidig, Convoy: unknown stradhaigeadh Straw in kiln: unknown diùcach Duck: unknown faradh Bier for carrying coffins: recognised but used as: aradh creachadair Skua: unknown finilte Poultice: unknown griogaran Pleiades unknown muchais Moths: unknown cuingeach- Pain in the ribs: unknown cléibh brad Laying goose: unknown giollan Boy: recognised ceannarmachd Bareheaded: unknown

14 sluinnse Lash, thrash: unknown abhardach Curious: unknown bannanban Headband: uncertain but perhaps recognised ceann-propaig Recognised but used as ceann-cropaig tuartan Cold in the head: unknown diongmhalt Stubborn: recognised but not certain ceathramh-dubh Disease in young cattle: unknown ceannaidheachd Private parts of a woman: unknown diùc Duck: unknown frodhadair Proof-man: unknown bainne briste Whipped cream with oatmeal: unknown casarmachd Barefooted: recognised clach-shaichte Dresses stone: recognised maisean Amiable man: unknown dùn-feòir Conical stack of hay: unknown allan-fionn Spinal marrow: unknown giorasach Hare: unknown bainne lampan Milks that thickens spontaneously: unknown smiorcadh Sense, courage: unknown miodhag A nip: unknown but used in Melness, as heard by the author sùstan Thousand: recognised uailean Stilts, handles of a plow: unknown rùdail Noise in bowels: unknown canabhlas A curse: recognised but used as camachal glòmag Handful of dry oatmeal eaten dry: unknown ceann-cnapaig Recognised lathaich- Peat-moss: unknown mhòine sùthar Polite, civil: recognised by uncertain gùn-goirid Recognised ceann-cnaip Unknown dùad Blockhead: unknown cuairteachadh- Family worship: recognised

15 teaghlaich dioltaidh Devilish: recognised dannsairean Unknown as a term for the Northern Lights giug Fish offal: unknown biotaidh Bad man: unknown buclag Rounded stone: unknown fìorlaid Firlot: unknown mersgirra Angler Fish: unknown spice Spike: recognised criarachan Nest of wild birds: unknown flasg Rushes for making ropes: unknown plòiseach Cloth: used in Rogart, but as plòideag for clothes diolt Devilish: recognised coirmeagadh Trouble: unknown stopag- Single stalk of heather: unknown fhraoich sìoman-òrdaig Rope twisted on the thumb: understood but not used càl-deanntaig Nettle used eaten as cabbage: understood but not used sìthichte Pleased: recognised feadan na h- Part of a kiln: unknown àth bìotag A bad woman: unknown carraigeadh Separation of straw from grain: unknown gibeag-fhlaisg Rushes for making ropes: unknown tùthan Long rafters: unknown gnudhadh Slush from winter snow: unknown glòn Whites of eyes visible: unknown athaich Damaged corn: unknown uradh Stale urine: unknown poc Mumps: recognised, but refers to disease in sheep cuiseachadh Intending: unknown spat Heavy shower of rain: unknown suaint Excellence: unknown

16 càl-diolais Mugwort eaten as cabbage: unknown pàintidh Broken pottery: unknown goileachan- A food: unknown éisg sgorrag Bannock of oatmeal: unknown fuarag Whipped cream and oatmeal: unknown ràing Ring or meal on a millstone: unknown cròchan Wheezing: recognised crugais Part of a mill: unknown àsradh Disease in cattle: unknown toll-cartaidh Hole in a byre for muck: unknown marag-geòidh Pudding made in a goose stomach: understood but not used geir Pain in the wrist: unknown fàrag Worm that bores into cattle: recognised sopachan Heather brush: unknown làimhreagadh An oatmeal soap: unknown clach-shìoman Stone to hold thatch: known amar-mine Part of a mill: understood but no used dilaoiris A beggar, or a poorly person: unknown in Bettyhill, but used in Rogart sgealp Slap, a sharp noise: recognised cuman Angler Fish: unknown upaig Useless person: unknown langadan Rope used on cattle feet: unknown cnap Rope: unknown as a term for rope aileag Meteorite: unknown cnamh The act of a calf suckling: recognised tromallan Numbness: known srannach Speaking through the nose: recognised sileadh-sùith Rain dripping through thatch: understood but not used bàn Placenta of a cow: unknown mòine-sluasaid A shape of a peat: unknown frodh Proofing quality of grain: unknown cual-fhraoich Sheafs of heather used a door: unknown

17 culm Dust from grain: unknown mearachadh Perishing from exposure: Unknown, but heard in Melness by the author teadhair A rope: recognised duaineil Bad fellow: unknown cogais Cork of a bottle: recognised as crogais ullag Food from bruised oatmeal: unknown sgiath Frame used in spinning: Unknown in context of spinning tìoradh Drying is a kiln: unknown meacan Nobody: unknown liaghra Frame used in spinning: unknown ploc Shinty club: recognised cnag Shinty ball: Recognised but pronounced as craig neul Giddyness: recognised

It may be seem from this list that a number of the words are not confined to Caithness, and also that a high number were unknown. The unknown words may simply be that they are unknown to the informant from Bettyhill and it may be that they were also used outside of Caithness. Many of the words refer to work involving brewing and milling or a way of life of earlier times and therefore not likely to be in current use. Specialised vocabulary aside however, overall there does seem to be a continuity of use from the south-east of Sutherland through Caithness and into the north coast.

In conclusion, the investigation of loanwords between Gaelic and Caithness Scots has shown evidence of quite a number of Gaelic loanwords in Caithness speech. Interestingly, the borrowing appears to be heavily one way from Gaelic into Caithness Scots and not the other way around. Very few possible examples of Scots into Gaelic were found, with juke/diùc being the sole obvious loan. Perhaps this is owing to the ample source material on Caithness Scots, and very little material for Caithness Gaelic.

Aside from the focus of the inquiry in this study, a question arose concerning names associated with the sea. With respect to terrestrial place names a division may be observed between Gaelic and Norse/English place names, however it may be that names of features at sea may not coincide with the same geographical division.

The evidence suggests that there was high degree of interaction between the Scots and Gaelic population in Caithness. It has been noted earlier that Gaelic heritage is not always recognised in the area, despite the historical evidence. It is to be hoped that the linguistic evidence

18 investigated in this study will add to both the historical knowledge and place name evidence so that tolerance and appreciation will result.

Bibliography:

CITATION Sut \l 2057: , (Sutherland, n.d.),

CITATION McC95 \l 2057: , (McClure, 1995),

CITATION OBa97 \t \l 2057: , (O' Baoill, 1997),

CITATION Pőd96 \l 2057: , (Pődör, 1995-1996),

CITATION McC95 \l 2057: , (McClure, 1995),

CITATION Dor91 \l 2057: , (Dorian, 1991),

CITATION Sti08 \l 2057: , (Stiùbhart, 2008),

CITATION Duw15 \l 2057: , (Duwe, 2012),

CITATION SUT2 \l 2057: , (SUTH/5/043, n.d.),

CITATION SUT1 \l 2057: , (SUTH/5/020, 1990),

CITATION SUT04 \l 2057: , (SUTH/5/05, n.d.),

CITATION SUT6 \l 2057: , (SUTH/5/063, n.d.),

CITATION Mac11 \l 2057: , (MacBain, 1911),

CITATION Dwe \l 2057: , (Dwelly, 1988),

CITATION SUT5 \l 2057: , (SUTH/5/059, n.d.),

CITATION SUT4 \l 2057: , (SUTH/5/56, n.d.),

CITATION Mac11 \l 2057: , (MacBain, 1911),

CITATION Cly89 \l 2057: , (Clyne, 1989),

CITATION Mac25 \l 2057: , (Maclennan, 1925),

CITATION Cur15 \l 2057: , (Curl, 15),

CITATION Uil15 \l 2057: , (Gòrdon, 2015),

19 20