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Conflict-Related Sexual Violence Against Men Is a Largely Unrecognized and Forgotten Perspective in Both Research and International Policies

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Conflict-Related Sexual Violence Against Men Is a Largely Unrecognized and Forgotten Perspective in Both Research and International Policies Bachelor Thesis Conflict-Related Sexual Violence Against Men A thematic analysis of the phenomenon in mass media Author: Mikaela Eriksson Supervisor: Susanne Alldén Examiner: Manuela Nilsson Term: HT20 Subject: Peace and Development Level: Bachelor Course code: 2FU33E Abstract Conflict-related sexual violence against men is a largely unrecognized and forgotten perspective in both research and international policies. Reports document that conflict-related sexual violence affects men, yet detailed consideration of the issue remains missing due to the lack of comprehensive research. The existing research is scarce and focuses primarily on the policy perspective or call for increased attention towards recognizing the subject. This study has sought to increase the understanding of the phenomenon through the perspective of mass media. The objective of the study has been to examine how the subject is portrayed by the media, including how male survivors in media describe their own experiences of sexual violence regarding masculine norms and stigma. The study has been conducted as a qualitative desk study by using empirical data from news articles in online newspapers. The study has followed an abductive approach and applied an analytical framework consisting of the two theories Social Stigma and Hegemonic Masculinity. A thematic analysis was used to interpret the empirical data and three main themes were identified. The findings suggest that the subject tends to be portrayed as unusual or as an exceptional phenomenon. The news articles use similar words to describe the subject, such as hidden, silent, ignored, and underreported. The subject is also deeply associated with stigma and masculine norms, both by the survivors and in the articles. The male survivors tend to illustrate how they feel ashamed, humiliated and stigmatized as a result of their experiences. The survivors also reflect upon a sense of loss in their masculine identity and have either avoided speaking about it or been rejected by society due to normative masculine expectations. Key words Sexual violence, male survivors, male victims of sexual violence, conflict-related sexual violence, masculine norms, stigma Table of contents Introduction 1 1.1 Introduction to the Research Topic 1 1.2 Research Problem and Relevance 2 1.3 Objective and Research Questions 3 1.4 Structure of the Thesis 3 Background 5 2.1 The Term Survivor 5 2.2 ConFlict-related Sexual Violence 5 2.3 Sexual Violence Against Men in Conflict and War 6 Literature Review 8 Analytical Framework 12 4.1 Theoretical Approach 12 4.2 Gender, Masculinity and Femininity 12 4.3 Power 14 4.4 Hegemonic Masculinity 15 4.5 Social Stigma 17 Methodological framework 19 5.1 Methodological Approach 19 5.2 Data Selection 20 5.3 Analytical Method 21 CodinG and Thematic Process 22 5.4 Discussion oF Sources 24 Why Use the Media as a Source for the Study? 24 Critical Discussion of Sources 24 5.5 Delimitations and Limitations 25 5.6 Ethical considerations 26 Findings 27 6.1 The Narrative in Media 27 6.2 Stigmatizing Culture 30 6.3 Masculine Expectations 32 Analysis 36 7.1 Sexual Violence Against Men, Stigma and Masculine Norms 36 7.2 The Portrayal of CRSV Against Men in the News Articles 39 7.3 Analytical ReFlection oF the Theoretical Framework 41 Conclusion 43 References 45 List of Abbreviations CRSV Conflict-Related Sexual Violence SVM Sexual Violence against Men DRC Democratic Republic of the Congo UN The United Nations WHO The World Health Organization UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees Introduction 1.1 Introduction to the Research Topic Different forms of sexual violence occur in a variety of contexts and circumstances; however, the focus of this thesis will be on conflict-related sexual violence (CRSV). The term conflict-related sexual violence refers to sexually violent acts that are directly or indirectly linked to a conflict perpetrated against women, men, girls, or boys. Generally, sexual violence in war and conflict has become an increasingly researched topic over the past years and the international community has focused immensely on implementing effective strategies to combat the issue (UN, 2019, p. 3). CRSV is often primarily referred to and associated with sexual violence against women and girls, yet it is significantly important problem in relation to men and boys as well. According to WHO (2002, p.154), sexual violence against men and boys, with exception of childhood abuse, has been largely neglected in research. Yet, sexual violence against men (SVM) in conflict situations has been documented in over 25 countries over the last decade (Apperley, 2015) and, according to a recent report made by the UN (2019), reports have been confirming that men and boys continue to suffer from CRSV. Violations against men have been reported in The Central African Republic, The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), South Sudan, Burundi, Sri Lanka, and The Syrian Arab Republic. The report also acknowledges that men and boys face physical and psychological consequences as a result. In addition, there are often no legal provisions implemented in regard to the rape of men, and fear of being prosecuted for same-sex conduct disrupt reporting further (UN, 2019, p. 6). Generally, myths and strong prejudices in society surrounding male sexuality prevent men from coming forward, which makes the problem highly 1(52) underreported and the extent of the problem is, therefore, difficult to grasp. There is still much to be done in most countries before this issue can be adequately acknowledged and discussed without factors such as denial and shame. A need for further development in this area is necessary since it could facilitate more comprehensive preventive measures and support for male survivors (WHO, 2002, pp. 154,155). 1.2 Research Problem and Relevance The research problem that has been identified for this study is that the general research on the topic CRSV against men is scarce. Scholars on the subject state that SVM occurs in conflict settings and that it should be acknowledged more in research and policies. Yet, CRSV against men and its surrounding factors is still not widely researched, nor acknowledged in-depth, in almost all contexts. Contemporary research on the subject focuses mainly on the policy perspective and how to adequately include male survivors into the concept of sexual violence. Hence, there is a prevalent gap in research that calls for further and more detailed research on the subject. The absence of focus on recognizing SVM is problematic. An increased focus of SVM in conflict-settings should be implemented, not to shift the focus from women and girls, but to also include male survivors in the discussion. Linos (2009) emphasizes that there is growing concern that SVM has not received enough attention. The human rights discourse used in research while examining contemporary wartime sexual violence tend to maintain the male- perpetrator and female-victim paradigm, which offers an incomplete picture of the issue and may be potentially damaging for male survivors. By analyzing the phenomenon through media, an increased understanding of how and if media strengthens traditional notions of men, masculine norms and stigma can be developed. Research in this field is relevant for developing effective and inclusive strategies that aim to prevent sexual violence in the international, 2(52) national, and local contexts. By researching the issue, I wish to highlight the phenomenon and promote a further inclusive view of sexual violence. 1.3 Objective and Research Questions This study aims to contribute to the limited research on the subject CRSV against men by examining the phenomenon from two perspectives. The objective is to analyze the general mass media discourse on CRSV against men to examine how the phenomenon is portrayed. The study will also analyze how male survivors describe their own experiences of sexual violence to develop a further understanding of how masculine norms and stigma may affect them. The research questions will thus adopt two perspectives that in combination enables a deeper understanding of the subject. The study will be conducted by analyzing the phenomenon through news articles in online newspapers. The research questions guiding the study are the following: • How is the subject CRSV against men portrayed in the news articles? What is the main pattern(s)? • How do the male survivors in the news articles describe their own experiences of CRSV in regard to masculine norms and social stigma? 1.4 Structure of the Thesis The thesis consists of eight chapters, including the Introduction. The second chapter, Background, explains the key terms of the study, including a background section of the topic SVM in conflict and war. The third chapter, Literature Review, presents the contemporary research on the subject of CRSV against men including the topic in relation to research on mass media. The fourth chapter present the Analytical Framework chosen for the study. The analytical framework consists of a description of the key concepts that constitutes the foundation of the theoretical framework which are gender, 3(52) femininity, masculinity and power. This is followed by a description of the two theories chosen, namely, Hegemonic Masculinity and Social Stigma. The fifth chapter, Methodological Framework, present the methodology and research approach used for the study. The methodological framework consists of one section explaining how the empirical material was collected. Followed by a description of the analytical research method, thematic analysis, that was used to interpret the empirical material. Finally, a discussion of the sources as well as the delimitations, limitations and ethical considerations for the study are outlined in this chapter. The sixth chapter, Findings, present the results of the study and the three themes that were identified during the thematic analysis. Chapter seven present the Analysis, where the findings are analyzed in relation to the analytical framework, the research questions and the research objective.
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