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Salient Features of Indian Society 1

Salient Features of Indian Society 1

HANDOUT 11 - SOCIAL ISSUES SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN SOCIETY 1. INDIAN SOCIETY IS A UNITED AND DIVERSIFIED SOCIETY: Diversity means differences. It means collective differences i.e., differences which mark off one group of people from another. These differences may be religious, biological, linguistic etc. On the basis of religious differences we have religious diversity. On the basis of biological differences we have racial diversity.

The term diversity is opposite of uniformity. Uniformity means similarity of some sort that characterizes a people. Uni- refers to “one” and form refers to “common ways.” D.N.Majumdar wrote a book with the title, “Races and Cultures of India” in which he explains unity and diversity in India. Diversity means variety for all practical purposes it means variety of groups and cultures. India is known for its socio-cultural diversity.

Unity means integration; it is a social psychological condition. It denotes sense of one-ness and sense of we- ness. It stands for the bonds which hold the members of a society together. Unity implies integration. Integration does not mean absence of differences. Infact it stands for the ties that bind the diverse groups with one another. i. Racial diversity: A race is a group of people with a set of distinctive physical features such as skin colour, type of nose, form of hair, etc. Herbert Risley had classified the people of India into 7 racial types: these are Turko-Iranian, Indo-Iranian, Scytho-Dravidian, Aryo-Dravidian, Mongolo-Dravidian, Mongoloid and Dravidian. B.S.Guha has identified six racial types: The Negrito, The Proto Australoid, The Mongoloid, The Mediterranean, the Western Brachycephals, the Nordic. ii. Linguistic Diversity: Linguist Grierson noted that 179 languages and 544 dialects exist in India. Constitutionally recognised languages belong to two linguistic families: Indo- and Dravidian. Malayalam, Kannada, Tamil and Telugu are four major Dravidian languages. The languages of Indo- Aryan family are spoken by 75 percent of India’s total population while the languages of Dravidian family are spoken by 20 percent. Other languages spoken in India belong to the Austro-Asiatic, Sino- Tibetan, a few other minor language families and isolates. India has 22 official languages. According to Census of India, the total number of mother tongues spoken in India is 1652. However, only around 150 languages have a sizable speaking population. According to Census of India of 2001, India has 122 major languages and 1599 other languages. However, figures from other sources vary, primarily due to differences in definition of the terms "language" and "dialect". iii. Religious Diversity: India is a land of multiple religions, particularly of , Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism, among others. Hinduism is the dominant religion of India. According to Census 2011, India now has 966.3 million , who make up 79.8 per cent of its population, and 172.2 million Muslims, who make up 14.23 per cent. Among the other minorities, Christians make up 2.3 per cent of the population and Sikhs 1.72 per cent. iv. Caste Diversity: India is a country of castes. The term caste is used in two senses i.e., and Jati. Varna refers to a segment of the four fold division of the Hindu society based on the functional criteria. The four varnas are , , and with their specialised functions as learning, defence, trade and manual service. Jati refers to a hereditary endogamous status group practising a specific traditional occupation. There are more than 3000 Jati in India. These are hierarchically graded in different ways in different regions. The practice of caste system is not confined to Hindus alone. Castes also exist among Muslim, Christian, Sikh, as well as other communities. For example the hierarchy of Shaikh, Saiyed, Mughal, etc among Muslims; among the Sikh again we have many castes including Jat Sikh, Majahabi; Casteism has also entered into Christianity.

2. HINDU WAY OF LIFE is the longest surviving philosophical tradition in India. Hinduism literally is the belief of the people of India, is the predominant faith of India. Hinduism is one of the oldest religious traditions in the world. Hinduism arose on Indian soil and is largely confined to Indian people. Hindu philosophy was influenced by 1

HANDOUT 11 - SOCIAL ISSUES Buddhist and Jain philosophies, and in turn Hindu philosophy influenced in India in its later stages. “Hinduism” is a term used to designate a body of religious and philosophical beliefs indigenous to the Indian subcontinent. Hinduism is one of the world’s oldest religious traditions, and it is founded upon what is often regarded as the oldest surviving text of humanity: the . The mainstream Hindu philosophy includes six systems–  Samkya,  ,  ,  ,  Mimamsa and 

Concepts that are very important to Hindu Philosophy are:  Leela  Maaya   Adharma  Birth and rebirth  yuga

Karma Theory Karma is: The self-controlled person, moving among objects, with his senses free from attachment and malevolence and brought under his own control, attains tranquility. -

Karma is a concept in Hinduism which explains causality through a system where beneficial effects are derived from past beneficial actions and harmful effects from past harmful actions, creating a system of actions and reactions throughout a soul's reincarnated lives forming a cycle of rebirth. In simple words the events in a person’s life are determined by karma. The term denotes the moral, psychological spiritual and physical causal consequences of morally significant past choices. A belief in karma is common to many of India’s religious traditions—including Buddhism and Jainism. Moreover, it is not evident that it is embraced by all sources that we consider Hindu. Karma is not a sufficient criterion of Hinduism, and it likely is not a necessary condition either.

The law of karma, the law of sowing and reaping, determines the form that will be taken in each new existence. This is the law of cause and effect in human life. Through our conduct we determine our own destiny in that good karma is acquired by living up to our dharmic duties and bad karma by ignoring or violating our given dharma. An unethical life may lead to rebirth below the station of the present life and a life of goodness may lead to a more favoured existence or to ultimate liberation from the round of rebirths.

Thus the doctrines of karma and rebirth are said to be grounded in the morals structure of the universe. They permit freedom and ethical advance in that they are under our control and are not determined by cosmic or environmental forces completely beyond our influence. According to the ways of life chosen by a person, his karma can be classified into three kinds namely:  the satvik karma, which is without attachment, selfless and for the benefit of others;  the rajasik karma, which is selfish where the focus is on gains for oneself; and  the tamasik karma, which is undertaken without heed to consequences, and is supremely selfish and savage.

Ashrama System Under the Ashram system, the human life was divided into four periods. An in Hinduism is one of four age-based life stages discussed in ancient and medieval era Indian texts. 2

HANDOUT 11 - SOCIAL ISSUES  The First Ashrama - "Brahmacharya" or the Student Stage: It is the life of a celibate student under the mentorship of a teacher  The Second Ashrama - "" or the Householder Stage: It is a long period of householdership, beginning with , when a person assumes the responsibilities of parenthood and other social obligations and when one provides for those dedicated to the spiritual quest  The Third Ashrama - "" or the Hermit Stage: It is a period of increased religiosity, when householder duties can be passed on to the next generation, during which one retires to the forest with his wife to practice rituals and for meditation and reflection  The Fourth Ashrama - "" or the Wandering Ascetic Stage: By complete renunciation of family and caste and by practicing austerities and rigid self-control, a person seeks union with Brahman.

If the person is successful in the fourth stage, struggle and strife cease and he gains peace and freedom through union with the all-embracing World Soul (Brahman). The inner spirit of humanity is the focus of attention, and its development, illumination, and release are the highest values. These stations were primarily for men. At the time of traditional Hinduism, women were excluded from the more rigorous structures of the ashramas and received their spiritual merit from working to uphold the dharmic obligations of their husbands.

Purusharthas Purushartha literally means an "object of human pursuit". The concept of Purushartha basically indicates different values to be realized in human life through human efforts. There are four Purusharthas or aims of life as propounded by Manu, viz.,  Dharma (virtue),  (wealth),  (pleasure), and  (liberation).

Puruṣartha is a composite word- and Artha. Purusha mean "human being", "soul". Artha means "purpose", "object of desire". Thus Purusartha literally means "purpose of human being" or "object of human pursuit". The Purusharthas serve as pointers in the life of a human being. The aim of life of an individual is determined by the doctrine of Purushartha. It also decides the course of life of man and lays down norms and values for the behaviour patterns. According to P.N. Prabhu, “The theory of Purusharthas concern themselves with the understanding, justification, management and conduct of affairs of the individual’s life in relation to the group in and through the Ashramas”.

Dharma (Righteousness) Dharma is always mentioned first whenever the scriptures talk about the four purusharthas. Dharma is the path of righteousness and living one's life. Hinduism describes dharma as the natural universal laws whose observance enables humans to be contented and happy, and to save himself from degradation and suffering. Dharma is the moral law combined with spiritual discipline that guides one's life. Hindus consider dharma the very foundation of life. It means "that which holds" the people of this world and the whole creation. Dharma is the "law of being" without which things cannot exist. According to the Bhagavat Purana, righteous living or life on a dharmic path has four aspects:  austerity (tap),  purity (shauch),  (daya) and  truthfulness (); and The adharmic or unrighteous life has three vices:  pride (ahankar),  contact (sangh), and  intoxication (madya).

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HANDOUT 11 - SOCIAL ISSUES The concept of moksha is also found in Jainism, . Moksha has been defined not merely as absence of suffering and release from bondage to samsara, various schools of Hinduism also explain the concept as presence of the state of paripurna-brahmanubhava (oneness with , the One Supreme Self), a state of knowledge, peace and bliss. The four essential conditions, before one can commence on the path of moksha include: (1) vivekah (discrimination, critical reasoning) between everlasting principles and fleeting world; (2) viragah (indifference, lack of craving) for material rewards; (3) samah (calmness of mind), and (4) damah (self restraint,) According Kapadia, “Moksha represents the end of life, the realization of an inner spirituality in man. Some thinkers believe that Moksha is the most important Purusartha and remaining three are only means while Moksha is end in itself.

Sansritization The term ‘Sanskritization’ refers to the phenomenon by which the behavior of a person or group in a society in influenced and guided by a ‘reference group’. A reference group is a group in society which is used as a standard to evaluate one’s attitude, customs, rituals etc. For example they gave up meat eating, drinking liquor and animal sacrifice to their deities. They imitated in matters of dress, food and rituals. By this they could claim higher positions in the hierarchy of castes within a generation. In the Indian context, it is assumed that some of the so-called low caste Hindus ape the customs, rituals and ways of life of the ‘twice-born’ castes, particularly the Brahmins. Besides the castes, the process of Sanskritisation has been indicated in tribal communities like Bhils of Rajasthan, Gonds of Madhya Pradesh and other hilly tribes. By the process of Sanskritisation a tribal community tries to prove itself to be a part of Hindu society. Sanskritisation promotes a sacred outlook and gives additional importance and respectability to the caste system. Economic betterment is not a necessary pre-condition to Sanskritisation, nor must economic development necessarily lead to Sanskritisation. However, sometimes a group may start by acquiring political power and this may lead to economic betterment and Sanskritisation. Srinivas has given the example of untouchables of Rampura village in Mysore who have got increasingly sanskritised though their economic condition has remained almost unchanged. M.N. Srinivas first introduced the notion of Sanskritisation to explain the process of cultural mobility in India, in his book ‘Religion and Society among the Coorgs’. In his study of the Coorgs, he found that the lower castes adopted some customs of the Brahmins and gave up some of their own, which were considered to be impure by the higher castes in order to raise their position in the caste hierarchy. For example, they gave up meat- eating, consumption of liquor and animal sacrifice to their deities. They imitated the Brahmins in matter of food, dress and rituals. To denote this process of mobility Srinivas first used the term ‘Brahmanisation’. Subsequently he replaced it by Sanskritisation. Srinivas said the words Karma, dharma, paap, , samsara and moksha are the most common Sanskritic theological ideas which become common in the talk of people who are sanskritized. According to Yogendra Singh the process of sanskritization is an endogenous source of social change. Mackim Marriot observes that sanskritic rites are often added on to non-sanskritic rites without replacing them. Harold Gould writes, often the motive force behind sanskritisation is not of cultural imitation per se but an expression of challenge and revolt against the socioeconomic deprivations.

Westernisation The term ‘Westernization’ refers to the social changes that have occurred in India during the British rule and after. Westernization has greatly affected our traditions, customs, our family and our respect and love for others. Westernization is a process in which societies adopt western cultures in areas such as industry, technology, law, politics, economies and lifestyles, clothing, language etc. Today, there are many people who are westernizing themselves among many cultures. Westernization has become common in the world especially in India. The Indian culture is one of the oldest and the richest cultures however, now that the western culture is kicking in, e.g. goods, festivals, dressings, foods etc., it is impacting on the Indian culture in many ways. The impact of Westernization in India in on:  westernization has given rise to single families  are breaking & our tolerance and patience has exhausted  all our rich values and traditions are slowly dying down 5

HANDOUT 11 - SOCIAL ISSUES  lifestyle relating to eating, dressing, dancing, and entertainment etc.  mental aspects such as knowledge of English, literature and science;  nobody now bother about others and only cares about themselves this behaviour is contradictory to the Indian culture  youth revolt against orthodox ways of living,  children prefers to remain away from their parents  rejection of taboos regarding food and social relationships;  taking in of western habits and practices such as pop and Jazz music, mod dresses;  subscribing to liberal views and reforms,  taking non-vegetarian fast food instead of traditional vegetarian food is becoming a fashion day by day. On the contrary westerners are looking towards Indian spirituality for solving their personal, social and national problems. They are coming to India to find peace through Yoga and Meditation. India has earned a good name in the field of Yoga and Meditation abroad. Our are giving teachings to westerners how to relax & how to keep themselves fit and away from diseases.

Backdrop of westernisation in India Mahatama Gandhi, tried to discourage Indians from getting attracted to western things. He started a ‘Swadeshi Movement’, emphasizing on the use of commodities manufactured in the nation itself with its own raw material. He asked people to make use of ‘Khadi clothes’ so that British cloth does not stand in market. After freedom of India, elite group from India started following British trends and implementing them in the nation as well. As a result general public also started following it. Thus drifting the Indian people slowly towards westernization.

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