Playing the partitura correctly and well:

Basso continuo accompaniment practices in church

music from late eighteenth-century Salzburg

Anthony George Abouhamad

A thesis submitted to fulfil requirements for the degree of Doctor of

Philosophy

Sydney Conservatorium of Music

University of Sydney

2020

Statement of originality

I declare that the research presented here is my own original work and has not been submitted to any other institution for the award of a degree.

Signature:

Name:

Date:

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Abstract

Scholars have long known that basso continuo accompaniment at the organ was part of standard Austrian church music practice in the late eighteenth century. Despite this, hardly any studies have examined this performance practice. The aim of this thesis is to contribute to our understanding of its performance by examining how court organists in late eighteenth-century Salzburg realised a basso continuo when accompanying church music.

Six manuals, written by Salzburg court organists from the time of Georg Muffat to Michael

Haydn, contain the foundations of this information. The purpose of this study is to ascertain the method that these organists used to realise an accompaniment from a figured bass, which Austrian musicians called ‘partitura’.

As invaluable as the Salzburg manuals are, they contain very little textural commentary. In fact, they mostly consist of illustrations of standardised musical patterns (what Robert

Gjerdingen terms ‘schemata’). From an analysis of these schemata, I reconstruct the Salzburg organists’ method for improvising a partitura. Then, I corroborate the findings of this analysis with an examination of the ways in which Salzburg composers commonly notated organ parts for church music compositions. From this study, I conclude that this method involved organists realising schemata from a figured bass in a manner appropriate to the style of composition they were accompanying. I explain this method using four

‘fundamental principles’, labelled ‘disposition’, ‘exchange’, ‘punctuation’ and ‘style’. The first three of these principles are collectively termed ‘construction principles’ as they describe the structure of a partitura and were derived from a structural analysis of the schemata in the manuals. The style principle, on the other hand, examines how the stylistic attributes of a composition dictate the appropriate application of these principles, which is communicated to organists through notational symbols, such as clefs and figuring.

The four fundamental principles that outline the Salzburg method for playing a partitura

“correctly and well” (an expression Salzburg organists Johann Baptist Samber and Matthäus

Gugl use in the titles of their manuals) provide us with insights into the practices of

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professional court organists of a small, yet significant, city on the periphery of the Habsburg

Empire. Besides being the home of Wolfgang Mozart, once a Salzburg court organist himself, the city boasted organists of the calibre of Georg Muffat and Michael Haydn. In addition to shining light on their methods of partitura playing, this study shows that Salzburg court organists understood basso continuo in contrapuntal terms. This challenges some of our most basic conceptions of ‘common practice tonality’ and asks us to reassess how we analyse and perform basso continuo, a practice that was integral to eighteenth-century performance and compositional practice.

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Acknowledgments

Without the support of many, the burden of completing this task would have been a heavier one. It is an honour and with gratitude that I thank those who have provided encouragement and support throughout my research candidature.

I would like to begin by acknowledging the University of Sydney for offering me financial support through the Australian Postgraduate Award (APA) scholarship as well as my supervisor, Dr. Alan Maddox, who tirelessly guided me through the process of writing this

PhD. His meticulous attention to detail and professionalism provide a model of scholarship I aspire for. I would also like to extend my appreciation to my auxiliary supervisor, Dr. Neal

Peres da Costa, who gave me the opportunity to practise my research, teaching in the

Historical Performance division at the Sydney Conservatorium of Music. My gratitude also goes to academic staff members Mr. Lewis Cornwell, Dr. Daniel Rojas and Dr. Kathleen

Nelson, who have been incredibly supportive and encouraging, and to the indefatigable Dr.

Marguerite Foxon for proof-reading my work and making me see reason in moments of doubt.

I extend my heartfelt appreciation to the library staff at the Conservatorium, especially

Ludwig Sugiri, Dina Komis, Simona McMaster, Wendy Patten, Holly Eades, Cassandra

Zielonko and Montse Vigo-Montes. Professional staff at the HDRAC office, Mr. Timothy

Crowe and Mr. Yaniv Levy, made sure that both my course details and brain were in order.

Thank you both for attending to my panic-stricken telephone calls with grace and kindness.

This thesis would still be far from complete without the skills of Luca Warburton, who patiently typeset all my handwritten musical examples with appropriate computer software and Eva Bart, who re-read my final draft and provided feedback with regards to spelling and grammar.

It is a pleasure to extend my gratitude to my friends Matt, Mikaela, Anton, Raf, Kiseok,

Evan, Meg, Justin, Annie and Theo, to whom I am forever indebted for their kindness. The days always felt shorter when ended at the Courthouse Hotel with the likes of Dan or Harry,

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after which I would be ready for another writing session. My sincere affection goes out to my friend and research partner, João Santos, who continues to teach me how to live analysis in performance. Finally, to Kathryn, Alex and Simon, all of whom contributed to the maintenance of my sanity in the casual staff office/postgrad room at various points throughout the working days of semester.

Not least of all, I would like to thank my parents, George and Lena, who have always supported my musical and academic pursuits, my siblings and their spouses and our newest addition, my nephew and Godson, George Elias Abouhamad. The aunts, uncles and cousins in my extended family have also provided me with moral support and all take a sincere interest in my work. Lastly, a special thank you to my grandparents, who left their homes in the hope that we would reap the benefits of their sacrifices.

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Note on Translations

All foreign language translations of text in this thesis are by the author unless otherwise specified. Translations from other sources are appropriately referenced. If modifications were made to these, the reference includes the additional indication ‘based on a translation by [author’s name] in [name of text]’. The original texts of all translations are provided either in the body with parentheses, for shorter quotations, or in footnotes where the original text is written out in full. Acknowledgements are made where help with translating text was provided. I have endeavoured to render English equivalents for key terms in German- language primary sources. Those terms that have too specific a meaning, however, are adopted as loan words and appear italicised without quotation marks.

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Table of Contents

Abstract ...... iii Acknowledgments ...... v Note on Translations ...... vii Illustrations ...... xii Figures...... xii Examples...... xv Tables ...... xvii Abbreviations ...... xviii 1. Introduction ...... 1 1.1 Current state of research in Austrian basso continuo practices ...... 2 1.2 Salzburg as a case study ...... 6 1.3 The Salzburg manuals as case study materials ...... 8 1.4 Historical context ...... 12 1.4.1 The contrapuntal paradigm in basso continuo ...... 14 1.5 Generating a Salzburg ‘method’ ...... 18 1.5.1 Fundamental principles ...... 19 1.5.2 The construction principles: disposition, exchange and punctuation ...... 20 1.5.3 The style principle ...... 22 1.6 Conclusion ...... 26 2. The Salzburg manuals ...... 28 2.1 Pedagogical purpose of the manuals ...... 28 2.2 The practical nature of education ...... 31 2.3 Practising partitura ...... 32 2.4 The nature of partitura instruction ...... 36 2.5 The arrangement of subjects in the manuals ...... 37 2.5.1 The foundational role of intervals ...... 38 2.5.2 Griff ...... 41 2.5.3 Cadences ...... 46 2.5.3 Fundamentum ...... 46 2.6 The partitura tradition ...... 49

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2.7 Conclusion ...... 51 3. Fundamental principles ...... 53 3.1 Construction principles ...... 54 3.2 Disposition principle ...... 55 3.2.1 Constructing schemata in three- and four-part dispositions ...... 55 3.2.2 The number of parts in a schema ...... 58 3.2.3 The dispositional structure of Griffe ...... 59 3.3 Exchange principle ...... 61 3.3.1 The structural significance of melodic parts ...... 64 3.4 The punctuation principle ...... 66 3.4.1 Cadences and punctuation ...... 66 3.4.2 Recursion and partitura improvisation ...... 67 3.5 The style principle ...... 69 3.5.1 Austrian styles of church music ...... 70 3.5.2 Style and partitura playing ...... 71 3.5.3 The derivation of the style principle ...... 72 3.6 Conclusion ...... 72 4. The disposition and exchange principles ...... 74 4.1 The disposition principle ...... 75 4.1.1 The nature of Griffe: dissonance treatment ...... 80 4.1.2 Griffe and schemata dispositions ...... 84 4.2 The exchange principle ...... 85 4.2.1 Fux’s ‘compromise’ ...... 88 4.3 The application of the disposition and exchange principles ...... 91 4.3.1 The nature of schemata: ‘Perfect-imperfect-Perfect’, or the ‘P-i-P-principle’ ...... 92 4.3.2 Expanding schemata ...... 97 4.3.3 Sample partitura solutions ...... 100 4.4 Conclusion ...... 104 5. The punctuation principle ...... 106 5.1 Definition and function of cadences ...... 107 5.1.1 Cadence and grammar ...... 109 5.2 The structure of cadences in the Salzburg manuals ...... 111

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5.2.1 The major cadence ...... 114 5.2.2 The minor cadence ...... 121 5.2.3 The minima cadence ...... 123 5.2.4 Deceptive cadences ...... 129 5.2.5 Cadential analysis ...... 131 5.3 Cadential hierarchy and recursion ...... 137 5.3.1 Recursion and the exchange principle ...... 141 5.3.2 Two partitura solutions ...... 145 5.4 Conclusion ...... 148 6. The style principle ...... 150 6.1 Style definitions in the eighteenth century ...... 150 6.1.1 Austrian concepts of style: A matter of ‘taste’ ...... 152 6.1.2 The Stylus Alla Capella and Stylus Mixtus ...... 154 6.2 Partitura construction in the Stylus Alla Capella ...... 154 6.2.1 Disposition ...... 155 6.2.2 Exchange ...... 162 6.3 The Stylus Mixtus: Arias ...... 168 6.3.1 Disposition ...... 169 6.3.2: Exchange ...... 171 6.4 Stylus Mixtus: Choruses ...... 174 6.4.1 Homophonic choruses ...... 174 6.4.2 Mixed choruses ...... 176 6.5 Conclusion ...... 179 7. Conclusion ...... 181 7.1 Method – theory, practice, and order ...... 182 7.2 A sense of ‘direction’ or ‘motion’? – theory and practice in basso continuo research.. 183 7.3 Practice – ‘Spontaneous replication’ and improvisation ...... 185 7.4 Recommendations ...... 187 7.4.1 Practical applications ...... 187 7.4.2 Future research ...... 188 Bibliography ...... 192

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Appendix A: Johann Ernst Eberlin, “Exercitium in denen Quinten”, from Fundamenta Partitura ...... 206 Appendix B: Wolfgang Mozart, “Laudate Pueri” from the Vesperae solennes de Dominica (KV 321), bars 1 – 22 ...... 207 Appendix C: Anton Cajetan Adlgasser, “Ave Maria”, from the Offertorium (CatAd 5.11), bars 11 – 26 ...... 209 Appendix D: Wolfgang Mozart, “Sancta Maria” from the Litaniae Lauretanae B.M.V. (KV6 109 (74e)), bars 1 – 14 ...... 210 Appendix E: Leopold Mozart, “Sancta Maria” from Litaniae Lauretanae B.M.V. (IB3), bars 4 – 11, edited by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart ...... 211

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Illustrations

Figures

Figure 2.1. The 7-Griff illustrated in a schema from Adlgasser and Haydn’s

Partiturfundament...... 45

Figure 2.2. Three examples of Fundamenta that descend six notes from Gugl’s Fundamenta

Partitura...... 47

Figure 3.1. A 2-Griff schema notated as a General-Bass in Samber’s Manaductio...... 56

Figure 3.2. Samber’s two-part partitura solution of the 2-Griff schema in figure 3.1 notated in

partitura with the General-Bass below...... 56

Figure 3.3. Samber’s three-part disposition of the 2-Griff schema in figure 3.1...... 57

Figure 3.4. Samber’s four-part disposition of a 2-Griff schema...... 57

Figure 3.5. Three- and four-part options for the 2-Griff catalogued by Gugl...... 60

Figure 3.6. Three- and four-part options for the 2-Griff catalogued by Adlgasser and Haydn.

...... 60

Figure 3.7. Three types of exchanged 2-Griff within the context of schemata...... 61

Figure 3.8. Gugl’s illustrated example of three manners of exchanging intervals in a four-part

major ligata cadence...... 63

Figure 4.1. Samber’s three-step process illustrating dissonance preparation and resolution. 75

Figure 4.2. Gugl encoding the upper framework part of the 2-Griff using figures...... 76

Figure 4.3. A three-part 2-Griff schema, notated as a General-Bass in Gugl, Fundamenta

Partiturae...... 78

Figure 4.4. The four-part 2-Griff schema in Gugl’s Fundamenta Partiturae...... 79

Figure 4.5. Common voice-leading solutions for the 2-Griff in three parts...... 86

Figure 4.6. Two partitura solutions of the 2-Griff schema in Adlgasser and Haydn,

Partiturfundament. The figured basses in the left half of the image represent these in a

shorthand General-Bass...... 87

Figure 4.7. Rule of the Octave by Gasparini/Jans...... 93

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Figure 4.8. Samber, “Von acht auffsteigenden Noten”, Continuatio...... 95

Figure 4.9. Gugl, “Von acht auffsteigenden Noten”...... 95

Figure 4.10. Exercise in the 6-Griff by Adlgasser and Haydn...... 96

Figure 5.1. A 'Gjerdingen string'...... 108

Figure 5.2. The Cadentia Perfectissima or “gantz vollkommene Cadenz” in Spiess's Tractatus

Musicus...... 109

Figure 5.3. Muffat’s cadential catalogue represented as a tree diagram. Letters (a), (b) and (c)

identify the major, minor and minima cadences as ‘true’ cadential constructs. Lower case

roman numerals indicate their respective constituents...... 113

Figure 5.4. The simple major cadence (“Cadentia major simplex”)...... 115

Figure 5.5. Ligata or ‘gebunden’ major cadences using the Griff of the ‘quarta dissonans’ (5/4).

...... 115

Figure 5.6. Another ligata cadence with the 6/5-Griff or ‘semisextilis’...... 115

Figure 5.7. Major ligata cadences “with the semisextilis and quart dissonans”...... 116

Figure 5.8. Melodic pairings of the major cadences in figures 5.2 – 5.5. Note that all follow the

same contour but with altered rhythms...... 116

Figure 5.9. An exercise in using the 6/5-Griff from Eberlin’s “Fundamenta Partitura”, ending

with a major ligata cadence...... 117

Figure 5.10. An exercise from Adlgasser and Haydn’s “Partiturfundament”, ending with a

major ligata cadence. The major ligata cadences in both figures 5.9 and 5.10 use the same

pattern of Griffe...... 118

Figure 5.11. The ‘complete’ (‘Gantz’) major cadence from Muffat’s Regulae...... 118

Figure 5.12. Other examples, which include illustrations of exchange options for the major

perfectis cadence...... 119

Figure 5.13. The major perfectis illustrated as a General-Bass in an exercise by Adlgasser and

Haydn...... 120

Figure 5.14. “Cadentia minor simplex ungebunden”, with Muffat’s comments: “tender”

(“zierlich”) and “another way” (“anderst”)...... 121

Figure 5.15. The minor cadence “Bound with the second or ninth”.Figure 5.12 ...... 121

Figure 5.16. The minor cadence “Bound with the fourth, second or ninth”...... 122

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Figure 5.17. “Minor cadence bound with the seventh”...... 122

Figure 5.18. Gugl’s examples of minor cadences used in compositions set in the fourth and

seventh Psalm tones...... 123

Figure 5.19. Muffat’s examples of the simplex minima cadence...... 124

Figure 5.20. Examples of the cadence “bound with the seventh” (“gebunden mit der

Septima”)...... 125

Figure 5.21. An example of the a minima ligata cadence in Eberlin’s Fundamenta Partitura.

Note the figuring, which follows Muffat’s directive concerning the voice leading of the

major sixth ascending to the octave...... 126

Figure 5.22. Examples of the minima ascendens, or tenorizans in Muffat’s Regulae...... 126

Figure 5.23. Spiess’s illustration of the cadenza cantizans, identical in construction to Muffat’s

cadentia tenorizans...... 127

Figure 5.24. Examples of the minima stabilis from Muffat’s Regulae illustrated in both

General-Bass and partitura...... 128

Figure 5.25. Adlgasser and Haydn, exercises from the chapter on the 5-Griff that include the

minima stabilis. This version of the cadence contains the Griffe: 5/3-6/4-5/3...... 128

Figure 5.26. An exercise in the 7-Griff from Eberlin, which is also a model minima stabilis. This

example is composed of the Griffe: 8/5/3-7/4/2-8/5/3...... 129

Figure 5.27. Gasparini’s examples of deceptive cadences...... 130

Figure 5.28. Minuet from Der Vollkomene Capellmeister with Mattheson’s grammatical

analysis...... 138

Figure 5.29. Melody marked with accentuation symbols by Türk in Klavierschule...... 139

Figure 6.1. Poglietti’s illustration and accompanying description about how to play fugues.

...... 156

Figure 6.2. “Et vitam” from the “Credo” in Leopold Mozart’s Missa in A Major (IA3)...... 158

Figure 6.3. “Pignus” from Michael Haydn’s Litaniae de Venerabili Sacramento (MH 288)...... 158

Figure 6.4. “Et in Saecula” from Wolfgang Mozart’s Dixit Dominus (KV6 193 (186g))...... 158

Figure 6.5. Opening of the “Laudate Pueri” from W.A. Mozart’s Vesperae Solennes de Dominica

(K.321)...... 159

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Figure 6.6. Bass entry marked with vertical strokes, indicating no accompaniment, in the

opening of the “Et in Saecula” from W.A. Mozart’s Magnificat (KV6 193 (186g))...... 161

Figure 6.7. A similar scenario in the opening of the fugue “Quam Olim Abrahae” from

Adlgasser’s Requiem in C Major (CatAd 2.01)...... 162

Figure 6.8. Bars 13 to 17 from the “Quam Olim Abrahae” (CatAd 2.01)...... 163

Figure 6.9. Upbeat of bar 12 through to the downbeat of 17 in of Mozart’s “Laudate Pueri”

from the Vesperae Solennes de Dominica (KV 321)...... 164

Figure 6.10. Bars 49 to 58 of Eberlin’s Motet “Universi qui te exspectant” (NeueE163)...... 166

Figure 6.11. Bars 14 to 23 of the aria “Ave Maria” from the Offertorium (CatAd 5.11) by

Adlgasser...... 170

Figure 6.12. Bars 1 – 13 of the aria “Sancta Maria” from the Litaniae Lauretanae B.M.V. by W.A.

Mozart’s (KV6 109 (74e))...... 170

Figure 6.13. Bars 6 – 11 of the “Sancta Maria” from Leopold Mozart’s Litaniae Laurentanae

(IB3)...... 172

Figure 6.14. The opening ten bars of the “Kyrie”, a movement including a homophonic

chorus in Stylus Mixtus, from Leopold Mozart’s Litaniae Laurentanae...... 174

Figure 6.15. Bars 29 to 40 of the “Kyrie” from Michael Haydn’s Litaniae de Venerabili

Sacramento (MH 288)...... 176

Figure 6.16. bars 17 to 24 of the “Kyrie” from the Spaur Messe (KV 258)...... 177

Figure 6.17. Bars 17 to 23 of the “Kyrie” (MH 288)...... 177

Figure 6.18. Bars 6 to 20 of the “Kyrie” from Adlgasser’s Requiem (CatAd 2.01)...... 178

Examples

Example 0.1. Probst, Johann Friedrich, Salzburg or Haupt-Ansicht von Salzburg vom

Kapuzinerberg mit Darauf-Sicht auf die rechte Stadtseite, circa 1750, coloured copper

engraving,

https://www.sn.at/wiki/Salzburg_(Kupferstich)_Johann_Friedrich_Probst#Erkl.C3.A4run

gen_ ...... xix

xv

Example 3.1. The opening eight bars of the final exercise in Gugl’s Fundamenta Partiturae.

Orange brackets divide the excerpt into two Einschnitte punctuated by cadences...... 68

Example 4.1. A two-part disposition of the 2-Griff, showing the outline of its two framework

parts...... 77

Example 4.2. Partitura à 3 for the 2-Griff schemata in figure 4.3...... 78

Example 4.3. Four-part disposition of Gugl's 2-Griff schema in partitura ...... 79

Example 4.4. A 4-Griff schema in three parts with voice-leading based on a model by Muffat.

...... 89

Example 4.5. Exchanged version of example 4.2...... 89

Example 4.6. The 4-Griff schema with voice leading modified to suit a four-part setting...... 90

Example 4.7. Two exchange options generated from example 4.4...... 90

Example 4.8. Less ideal four-part solution for the 4-Griff schema. Note the ‘empty’ 8/3/8

combinations for two of the three Perfect-Griffe...... 91

Example 4.9. Three schemata nestled within a larger unit...... 98

Example 4.10. Bars 15 to 18 from the “Laudate Pueri from W.A. Mozart’s Vesperae de

Dominica (K. 321)...... 99

Example 4.11. Proposed partitura solutions to an unnamed aria by Eberlin, from Fundamenta

Partitura...... 102

Example 5.1. The major perfectis illustrated as a General-Bass in an exercise by Adlgasser and

Haydn...... 120

Example 5.2. Cadential analysis of the “Kyrie” from W.A. Mozart’s Spaur Messe (K.258). . 132

Example 5.3. String diagram representing the four incisions between bars 1 to 19 in the

"Kyrie" (K.258)...... 136

Example 5.5. Bars 1 to 8 and 13 to 19 divided into two larger sections, (A) and (B)...... 142

Example 5.6. Two partitura so lutions, à 3 and à 4, for excerpt (A)...... 143

Example 5.7. Partitura solutions, à 3 and à 4, for section (B)...... 145

Example 5.8. Three- and four-part partitura solutions of cadences in the “Kyrie” from W.A.

Mozart’s Spaur Messe (K.258)...... 147

Example 6.1. Partitura solution to figure 6.8...... 163

Example 6.2. Partitura solution to figure 6.9...... 165

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Example 6.3. Partitura solution for bars 51 – 56 of Eberlin’s “Universi”...... 167

Example 6.4. Partitura solution to figure 6.12...... 171

Example 6.5. Partitura solution to bars 7 – 11 in figure 6.13...... 172

Example 6.6. Partitura solution for figure 6.14...... 175

Tables

Table 2.1 Interval calculations in Tones and Major/Minor semitones. M.st. = Major semitone,

m.st. = Minor semitone, T. = Tone...... 39

Table 2.2. Arrangement of Griff chapters in the Salzburg manuals...... 43

Table 2.3. Number of chapters the Salzburg manuals dedicate to each topic...... 48

Table 4.1. Catalogue of Griffe combinations in the Salzburg manuals...... 81

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Abbreviations

Library Sigla

A-Sd Salzburg, Dom, Konsistorialarchiv, Dommusikarchiv

A-Ssp Salzburg, Erzabtei St Peter, Musikarchiv

A-Wm Vienna, Minoritenkonvent

D-B Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin - Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Musikabteilung

D-Mbs Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek

F-Pn Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale de France

US-Wc Washington, DC, Library of Congress, Music Division

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Example 0.1. Probst, Johann Friedrich, Salzburg or Haupt-Ansicht von Salzburg vom Kapuzinerberg mit Darauf-Sicht auf die rechte Stadtseite, circa 1750, coloured copper engraving, https://www.sn.at/wiki/Salzburg_(Kupferstich)_Johann_Friedrich_Probst#Erkl.C3.A4rungen_

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1. Introduction

Since the middle of the twentieth century, scholars have debated whether musicians in late eighteenth-century Austria improvised a keyboard accompaniment in performances of the theatrical and chamber music compositions of Haydn and Mozart (and to a lesser extent, their contemporaries). Regarding church music, however, there is a general consensus that performances at the time included an organist playing from a basso continuo. Despite this, there are no comprehensive studies describing this practice. In the meantime, Bärenreiter, publishing for the Neue Mozart Ausgabe (NMA), has issued realised organ parts for the church compositions of Mozart. While there is little to no commentary on the methodology for composing these realisations, their construction suggests that their authors used the common practice system of harmonic tonality to complete this task. Even though these realisations are structurally coherent, they do not reflect the accompaniment that Mozart or any of his Salzburg colleagues would have improvised from a figured bass. Instead, six manuals on basso continuo, from Salzburg, some of which Mozart himself would have been acquainted with, contain the appropriate information for this task. In this thesis, principles are derived from an analysis of these manuals in order to reconstruct the procedure that eighteenth-century Salzburg court organists used to improvise an accompaniment from a figured bass in church music practice.

The principles describe an eighteenth-century performance practice. As such, they may be of interest to historically-informed keyboardists who are required to accompany eighteenth- century Austrian sacred music. The principles thus fulfil a need for information on the subject for performers involved in the ‘Historical Performance Practice’ movement. On the other hand, the analysis of the primary source materials, from which the principles are derived, engages with the history of music theory. As such, the findings of this analysis may be of interest to scholars working in the relatively new field of ‘historical music theory’. In fact, this thesis could not have been undertaken were it not for rediscoveries in this area of musicology, which, furthermore, approach analysis with a method that unifies theory with practice. The derivation of the principles adopts this approach when analysing primary

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source materials in an attempt to understand their content on similar lines to that of eighteenth-century Salzburg court organists.

In contrast to north German musicians, those in eighteenth-century Austria were less likely to codifying performance practices in large treatises. Likewise, they were far less predisposed to publishing large theoretical tomes. In other words, a treatise as comprehensive as Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach’s Versuch (Berlin: 1754/62), or as verbose as

Johann Mattheson’s Der Vollkommene Capellmesiter (Hamburg: 1739) are less common. Even more detailed Austrian sources, such as Johann Joseph Fux’s Gradus ad Parnassum (Vienna:

1725), the Tractatus Musicus (Augsburg: 1745) by Fr. Meinrad Spiess (OSB) (1683 – 1761) or

Leopold Mozart’s Violinschule (Augsburg: 1756), do not match those sources’ levels of technicality. The basso continuo manuals are far less substantial even than these. As will be demonstrated in Chapter Two, they assume enough prerequisite knowledge to alienate a modern researcher. By consulting sources connected to Salzburg, however, it is possible to draw tangible conclusions about basso continuo practice from the manuals even though they lack important details and appear obscure.

1.1 Current state of research in Austrian basso continuo practices

To date, scholarly research in Austrian basso continuo has mainly revolved around debates about its practice in larger scale chamber music compositions such as symphonies and concertos. These debates are almost entirely concerned with canonical composers and their

‘works’, leaving aside the so-called ‘lesser masters’. As early as the 1950s, H.C. Robbins-

Landon made the claim that the symphonies of Joseph Haydn (at least those written until circa the 1770s) required a keyboardist improvising an accompaniment not just to fulfil a performance practice, but also in order to fill in any notes in the harmonies that were missing in the composition.1 Landon’s research would come to affect not only musicological discussions (as will be discussed below) but also the performance of Haydn’s symphonies in the mid-twentieth century and into the present. As a member of the editorial board which

1 H.C. Robbins Landon, The Symphonies of Joseph Haydn (London: Universal Edition, 1955), 118. 2

produced the critical edition of Haydn’s complete symphonies, he included ‘cembalo’ in the instrumentation list of Symphonies 1 to 40 as well as 49 in this edition. For each of these symphonies, a separate cembalo part is provided.2 It may be because of these parts, that some performances of these symphonies continue to this day to include a basso continuo accompaniment.3

More than thirty years after Landon’s initial claim, however, Sara Anne Edgerton provided evidence to the contrary: that the basso group of players in Haydn’s symphonies did not involve a keyboardist.4 In relation to the performance issue, the newer research demonstrated that Haydn’s symphonies at Esterhaza, contrary to Landon’s claim, did not include a keyboardist. In light of this, Landon’s cembalo parts are superfluous, if not anachronistic. But the major blow to Landon’s research came in an article by James Webster, in which the author presented his research for the then upcoming recordings of Haydn’s symphonies to be directed by Christopher Hogwood. On the basis of evidence found in court employment records from Esterhaza and Vienna, along with anecdotal references in the region more generally, Webster claims that basso continuo ceased to be a chamber music practice in the “Viennese-Bohemian-Hungarian orbit after 1750”.5 As a result, Hogwood’s recordings of Haydn’s continental symphonies did not include a keyboard accompaniment.6

While Webster’s argument chiefly concerns Joseph Haydn at Esterhaza, the geography of his orbit includes the Habsburg Erblände (that is, ‘heredity lands’) as well as regions under the

Empire’s sphere of influence. Its chronology, additionally, includes the period of music history covered by the so-called classical period. As such, Webster’s argument suggests that

2 Joseph Haydn, "Kritische Ausgabe Sämtlicher Symphonien/Critical Edition of the Complete Symphonies," ed. H.C. Robbins Landon (Vienna: Ludwig Doblinger, 1981). 3 For a report on the history of Haydn’s symphonies that includes a discussion on the inclusion of a keyboard basso continuo accompaniment see Andreas Friesenhagen, "Haydn's Symphonies: Problems of Instrumentation and Performance Tradition," Early Music 39, no. 2 (2011). 4 Sara Ann Edgerton, "The Bass Part in Haydn's Early Symphonies: A Documentary and Analytical Study" (DMA diss., Cornell University, 1989). 5 James Webster, "On the Absence of Keyboard Continuo in Haydn’s Symphonies," Early Music 18, no. 4 (Nov. 1990), 602. 6 Joseph Haydn, Haydn Symphonies, The Academy of Ancient Music, Conducted by Christopher Hogwood (L'Oiseau-Lyre 0289 480 6900 2, 2015, thirty-two compact discs). 3

it was not just Haydn’s symphonies that did not include a basso continuo accompaniment, but all chamber music performed within the orbit throughout the classical period. In light of prior studies, Webster’s orbit is too broad to accurately account for chamber music practices in the region and time period it designates. Research into the symphonies of Wolfgang

Amadeus Mozart by Neal Zaslaw and by Linda Faye Ferguson into his keyboard concertos, for example, provide strong evidence that a keyboardist did provide an improvised basso continuo accompaniment in these forms of chamber music as late at least as the 1790s.7

In fact, the debate about basso continuo practices within the Austrian sphere of influence predates the publication of Webster’s article by several decades. By the time of the completion of Ferguson’s thesis in 1982, for example, the debate concerning the case of the tutti passages in Mozart’s keyboard concertos had been raging for almost a quarter century.8

Since Ferguson’s thesis, however, basso continuo accompaniment in Mozart’s keyboard concertos has become a common feature in historically-informed performances.9 This is not the case amongst modern concert pianists, although a 1993 recording featuring Friederich

Gulda provides an exception.10 Other pianists, such as the Badura-Skodas and Elwood Derr, have also advocated for a more widespread application of this practice.11

Despite the debate over chamber music, there was tacit acceptance within the scholarly community that late eighteenth-century Austrian theatre and church music involved basso continuo accompaniment. The former presumably required a keyboardist, at least in a

7 Neal Zaslaw, Mozart's Symphonies (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 464-68; Linda Faye Ferguson, ""Col Basso" and "Generalbass" in Mozart's Keyboard Concertos: Notation, Performance Theory, and Practice" (PhD diss., Princeton University, 1983). 8 Ferguson, ""Col Basso" and "Generalbass" in Mozart's Keyboard Concertos: Notation, Performance Theory, and Practice," 3-4 9 See for example, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Mozart Die Klavierkonzert/the Piano Concertos, With Malcolm Bilson, Robert Levin, Melvyn Tan (Fortepianos) and the English Baroque Soloists, Conducted by John Eliot Gardener (Archiv Produktion 0289 463 1112 7, 1999, nine compact discs). 10 Piano Concertos Nos. 23 and 26, With Friederich Gulda (Piano) and the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra, Conducted by Nikolaus Harnoncourt (Teldec Classics 4509-92150-2, 1993, one compact disc). 11 Paul Badura-Skoda and Eva Badura-Skoda, Interpreting Mozart on the Keyboard (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1962); Ellwood Derr, "Basso Continuo in Mozart's Piano Concertos: Dimensions of Compositional Completion and Performance Practice," in Mozart's Piano Concertos: Text, Context, Interpretation, ed. Neal Zaslaw (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996). 4

limited capacity, to supply the recitatives with harmony. Whereas church music compositions, on the other hand, often contain well-figured basses and include the indication organo as well as separate organ parts when parts survive. This evidence, in other words, makes it difficult for one to argue that there was not a basso continuo accompaniment in church music. It is perhaps for these reasons that scholars accept that there was a keyboardist present, improvising an accompaniment from a (figured) bass part, in these genres of music in late eighteenth-century Austria. This acceptance, however, has not been reflected in scholarly research into the details of these practices. Indeed, as far as I have been able to determine, the literature on the topic amounts to one article by Stefan Kunze on operatic recitative in the 1968/70 issue of the Mozart Jahrbuch and a 2010 chapter on Austrian sacred music by Franz Karl Prassl.12

While the practice of basso continuo accompaniment in church music has been largely overlooked, in-depth studies of eighteenth-century Austrian sacred music more generally have appeared consistently since the 1950s.13 Later studies, by scholars such as Cliff Eisen,

David Wyn Jones, Jen-Yen Chen and others14 evaluate the importance of church music in late eighteenth-century Austria, in part as a response to negative comments on its artistic worth by authors such as Charles Rosen.15 In light of this research, the comparative lack of interest in the performance practice of basso continuo, which is integral to church music, appears anomalous. This is reflected in the otherwise comprehensive definition of ‘Generalbaß’ in the

12 Stefan Kunze, "Aufführungsprobleme im Rezitativ des Späteren 18. Jahrhunderts. Ausführung und Interpretation," Mozart-Jahrhuch (1968/70); Franz Karl Prassl, "Zur Generalbasspraxis in der Kirchenmusik des späten 18. Jahrhunderts," in Mozart und die geistliche Musik in Süddeutschland. Die Kirchenwerke von Leopold und Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart im Spannungsfeld zwischen klösterlicher Musiktradition und aufklärerischem Staatskirchentum., ed. Friederich Wilhelm Riedel (Sinzig: Studiopunkt-Verlag, 2010). 13 For an analysis of the state of literature up till 1979, see: Walter Senn, "Mozarts Kirchenmusik und die Literatur," Mozart-Jahrbuch (1978/79). 14 Cliff Eisen, "Salzburg under Church Rule," in The Classical Era, ed. Neal Zaslaw, Man & Music (United Kingdom: Macmillan Press, 1989); Music in Eighteenth-Century Austria, ed. David Wyn Jones (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Jen-Yen Chen, "Catholic Sacred Music in Austria," in The Cambridge History of Eighteenth-Century Music, ed. Simon P. Keefe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009); Sakralmusik im Habsburgerreich 1570-1770, ed. Tassilo Erhardt (Wien: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2013). 15 Charles Rosen, The Classical Style Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven (USA: W.W. Norton and Company, 1972), 366-75. 5

Musik in Geschicht und Gegenwart (MGG), in which Austria is mentioned only in passing.16 A primary reason may be that there are so few published primary sources on basso continuo practice from Austria, at least in comparison with other regions such as north Germany and

France. There are, however, a significant number of manuscript sources from the Habsburg

Lands and its surrounds that shine light on the topic. If we wish to better understand

Austrian church music practices, an examination of these sources is essential. As the following discussion will demonstrate, these sources represent a distinct Austrian style of basso continuo accompaniment, which scholars have yet to adequately explore.

1.2 Salzburg as a case study

Although Historical Performance Practice research has so far paid relatively little attention to

Austrian basso continuo, there are a considerable number of extant regional sources describing these practices. Three seventeenth-century treatises address the practice of basso continuo accompaniment. Two of the treatises are from Vienna, one each by Alessandro

Poglietti (early 17th century – 1683)17 and Johann Jacob Prinner (1624 – 1694),18 and another by

Georg Muffat (bap. 1653 – 1704),19 who at the time was serving the Prince-Archbishop of

Salzburg. In the eighteenth century, three treatises stem from the city of Augsburg alone – reprints from an anonymously written Wegweiser, which touches on the topic of basso continuo,20 the Kurzer und deutlicher Unterricht von dem Generalbass by Leonhard Reinhard21 and a section from Johann Franz Peter Deysinger’s Compendium Musicum.22 Almost nothing is known of these composers today. From Vienna, Hellmut Federhofer and Christoph Prendl

16 Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart Online, s.v. "Generalbaß," by Jörg-Andreas Bötticher and Jesper B. Christensen, accessed March 06, 2020, https://www.mgg-online.com/mgg/stable/13478. 17 Alessandro Poglietti, Compendium: oder kurzer Begriff und Einführung zur Musica, sonderlich einem Organisten dienlich, 1676, Faksimile-Edition, Kremsmunster,̈ 5 (Stuttgart: Cornetto-Verlag, 2007). 18 Johann Jacob Prinner, “Musicalischer Schlissl,“ (autograph manuscript, US-Wc, 1677). 19 Georg Muffat, “Regulae Concentuum Partiturae,” (manuscript copy, A-Wm I H, 1699). 20 Anonymous, Vermehrter und nun zum viertenmal in Druck beförderter, kurzer jedoch gründlicher Wegweiser ... die Orgel recht zu schlagen (Ausburg: Jacob Koppmayer, 1698). 21 Leonhard Reinhard, Kurzer und Deutlicher Unterricht von dem General-Bass (Augspurg: Johann Jacob Lotters seel. Erben, 1744). 22 Johann Franz Peter Deysinger, Compendium Musicum oder Fundamenta Partiturae (Augsburg: Johann Jacob Lotter, 1763), D-Mbs 4Mus.th.337, http://mdz-nbn-resolving.ed/urn:nbn:de:bvb:12-bsb00052851- 2. 6

attribute a Gründlicher Unterricht, which survives only in a manuscript copy, to none other than Imperial Capellmeister Johann Joseph Fux (1660 – 1741).23 The only other source on basso continuo from Vienna, the Kurzgefasste Methode den Generalbass zu erlernen, was written by the famed pedagogue Johann Georg Albrechtsberger (1736 – 1809).24 As far as I am aware, it is the only Austrian manual on basso continuo to be published in the Imperial capital in the eighteenth century.

Perhaps the most historically interesting basso continuo sources, however, originate in the city of Salzburg. Of these, a collection of six survive. Because these specifically address practical problems of basso continuo accompaniment, and make no overt references to theoretical concepts, I will call these Salzburg sources, ‘manuals’. In Chapter Two, I explain further why these sources are more like manuals and less like treatises. These manuals, and their significance as belonging to an “important group of Salzburg court and cathedral musicians” was recognised by Federhofer in 1964; their significance lies in the fact that they represent a unified approach to basso continuo, in one city, that spans almost 100 years.25 It is primarily for this reason that the central focus of this thesis is the city of Salzburg.

Aside from the convenience of working with a recognised tradition, there are other reasons for choosing Salzburg. Isolating the area of study to one city, rather than studying Habsburg

Austria as a whole, means that there are less possible variables to account for. While

Salzburg was not a metropolis as large as Vienna, it was a significant town with its own ruler, court and musical establishment separate from the Habsburg capital. The Prince-

Archbishops who ruled Salzburg were often supportive of their musical establishment and the city boasts a few ‘firsts’, including: the first opera to be performed north of the Alps26 and

23 Federhofer mentions this document in Hellmut Federhofer, Georg Muffat an Essay on Thoroughbass, ed. Armen Carapetyan, Musicological Studies and Documents (Germany: C.L. Schlutheiß and Chr. Gulde, Tübingen, 1961), 8. Prendl supplies a transcription of this document and provides details of its origins in Christoph Prendl, "Eine Neue Quelle zur Generalbasslehre von Johann Joseph Fux," Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Musiktheorie 12, no. 2 (2015). 24 Johann Georg Albrechtsberger, Kurzgefasste Methode den Generalbass zu erlernen, (Vienna: Artaria, 1792). 25 Hellmut Federhofer, "Ein Salzburger Theoretikerkreis," Acta Musicalogica 36, no. 2/3 (1964): 51. 26 Grove Music Online, s.v. "Salzburg," by Cliff Eisen, accessed March 06, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.24437. 7

the first print publication of concertos in Europe.27 In the early eighteenth century, the

Prince-Archbishop Francis Anton von Harrach commissioned works by Antonio Caldara, and his successor, Archbishop Sigismund von Schrattenbach, was well known as a supporter of his court musicians, financing various study trips, including those by the Mozart family. It was perhaps because of their musical interests that the eighteenth-century Prince-

Archbishops of Salzburg had musicians in their court of such high calibre, including Georg

Muffat, Heinrich Ignaz Franz von Biber, Johann Georg Leopold and Wolfgang Amadeus

Mozart as well as Michael Haydn. While not a principal European musical centre, eighteenth-century Salzburg was a city that supported musicians who made significant contributions to the history of western music.

Not least of all, Salzburg’s musical activities were heavily focused on sacred music probably due to the fact that its Prince-Archbishops were at once the city’s spiritual and temporal rulers. As such, the sacred and the secular, the Church and the State were indivisible within

Salzburg’s political framework. While parts of Europe basked in Enlightenment philosophy in the late eighteenth century, Salzburg continued to operate within what Neal Zaslaw describes as a “Medieval Order”.28 It was the Church that stood at the centre of this order in late eighteenth-century Salzburg and contributed much (if not all) to the city’s courtly musical culture at that time. With the church at the centre of its musical culture, and basso continuo integral to church music, then an examination of basso continuo investigates an important performance practice in late eighteenth-century Salzburg.

1.3 The Salzburg manuals as case study materials

Federhofer’s ‘Salzburg Group’ is made up of six musicians who worked as organists for the

Salzburg court. They are defined as group because each organist documented instructions for basso continuo accompaniment. From this group, six manuals survive, which are: Regulae

Concentuum Partiturae by Muffat,29 Manaductio ad Organum and Continuatio Ad

27 Georg Muffat, Armonico Tributo (Salzburg: Johann Baptist Mayr, 1682). 28 Zaslaw, Mozart's Symphonies, 10. 29 Muffat, “Regulae Concentuum Partiturae.” 8

Manuductionem Organicam by Johann Baptist Samber (bap. 1654 – 1717),30 Fundamenta

Partiturae by Matthäus Gugl (circa 1683 – 1721),31 Fundamenta Partiturae by Johann Ernst

Eberlin (bap. 1702 – 1762)32 and Partiturfundament co-authored by Anton Cajetan Adlgasser

(1729 – 1777) and Michael Haydn (1737 – 1806).33 These documents offer instruction in

‘partitura’, a term that Austrian musicians used synonymously with basso continuo. As will be described in further detail in Chapter Two, partitura specifically refers to what we would nowadays specify as the realisation, that is the parts that a keyboardist improvises above the bass.

Only two of the Salzburg manuals, those by Samber and Gugl, were published in their authors’ lifetimes. Both are available as digitised copies through the Bavarian State Library.

Muffat’s Regulae, housed in the Minoritenkonvent, Vienna, survives in a manuscript copy from circa 1699 originating in Passau, where the author was employed from 1690. This manuscript has been transcribed into modern print and edited by Federhofer34 and a facsimile edition along with an Italian translation issued by Bettina Hoffman.35 The manuals by Eberlin as well as Adlgasser and Haydn also survive only as manuscript copies, not autographs. Unlike the Regulae, however, these were copied in Salzburg, where they are currently held in the music archive of St. Peter’s. The only copy of Eberlin’s Fundamenta

Partitura bears the year 1766, which means that this copy was made shortly after Eberlin’s death.36 The whereabouts of the original is unknown. Adlgasser and Haydn’s

30 Johann Baptist Samber, Manaductio ad Organum (Salzburg: Johann Baptist Mayr, 1704), D-Mbs Mus.th.1374, http://mdz-nbn-resolving.ed/urn:nbn:de:bvb:12-bsb10990059-3; Continuatio ad Manuductionem Organicam (Salzburg: Johann Baptist Mayrs seel. Wittib und Sohn, 1707), D-Mbs Mus.th.1374#Beibd.1, http://mdz-nbn-resolving.ed/urn:nbn:de:bvb:12-bsb11048210-9. 31 Matthäus Gugl, Fundamenta Partiturae in Compendio Data (six editions, Augsburg: 1719, 1727, 1757, 1762, 1777, 1805). Citations refer to the fifth edition (Augsburg: Joseph Wolf, 1777), D-Mbs Mus.th.1424 n, http://mdz-nbn-resolving.ed/urn:nbn:de:bvb:12-bsb10598642-9. 32 Johann Ernst Eberlin, "Fundamenta Partitura del Signor Giovanni Ernesto Eberlin, gentil uomo e maestro di Capella di S: A: R:ma Arcivescovo etc. e Prencipe di Salisburgo. 1766," (manuscript copy, A-Ssp [no shelfmark number available]). 33 Cajetan Anton Adlgasser and Michael Haydn, “Partiturfundament,“ (manuscript copies, A-Ssp, Hay 2120.1-5). 34 Federhofer, Georg Muffat. 35 Georg Muffat, Bettina Hoffmann, and Stefano Lorenzetti, Regulae Concentuum Partiturae: 1699 (Bologna: Associazione clavicembalista bolognese, 1991). 36 Eberlin, "Fundamenta Partitura." 9

Partiturfundament, on the other hand, survives in five copies. These have been dated from the early nineteenth century, the original is currently presumed lost.37

There is no written documentation indicating reasons as to why Adlgasser and Haydn’s

Partiturfundament was copied so frequently. Given that Haydn was one of Salzburg’s last court organists, this document may have been considered a precious resource by his successors; especially considering none of them wrote documents on basso continuo practices. An edited edition of this document, however, was published in 1833 by Hadyn’s student, Father Martin Bishofreiter (OSB). Unlike the manuscripts, Bischofreiter’s publication supplies each of the (figured) basses with realisations.38 While these realisations are valuable, inasmuch as they provide examples of early nineteenth-century Austrian basso continuo practices, it cannot be assumed that Bischofreiter’s edits reflect the manner in which Haydn or Adlgasser would have realised these same figured basses. In other words, as David

Chapman succinctly puts it, “the realizations … come from Bischofreiter himself and refer back to Haydn in spirit only”.39 As such, I will not treat Bischofreiter’s edition as a source stemming from Federhofer’s Salzburg Group although, it is peripherally linked to it.

It is primarily in the field of music theory that the Salzburg manuals have received scholarly attention after Federhofer’s 1964 article. Such contributions have been made by Thomas

Christensen,40 Wolfgang Hoffmann41 and Felix Diergarten.42 In addition to these studies,

Donald R. Boomgaarden and Richard B. Nelson describe Samber’s contribution to German

37 Adlgasser and Haydn, "Partiturfundament." As it is the least water damaged and clearest to read of the five copies, citations of the “Partiturfundament”refer to the manuscript A-Sp, Hay 2120.3 unless otherwise stated. 38 Michael Haydn’s Partitur-Fundament, ed. Martin Bischofreiter (Salzburg: Comm. der Mayrischen Buchhandlung, 1833). 39 David Chapman, "Thoroughbass Pedagogy in Nineteenth Century Viennese Composition and Performance Practice" (PhD diss., Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, 2008), 140. 40 Thomas Christensen, "Fundamenta Partiturae: Thorough Bass and Foundations of Eighteenth- Century Composition Pedagogy," in The Century of Bach and Mozart : Perspectives on Historiography, Composition, Theory, and Performance, ed. Sean Gallagher and Thomas Forrest Kelly (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2008). 41 Wolfgang Hoffmann, "Terz-Sext-Klangreihen bei Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Zur Behandlung einesmittelalterlichen Klangverfahrens im Tonsatz Mozarts," Archiv für Musikwissenschaft 2, (1996). 42 Felix Diergarten, "Beyond "Harmony" the Cadence in the Partitura Tradition," in What Is a Cadence?, ed. Pieter Bergé Markus Neuwirth (Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2015). 10

fugal theory in the early eighteenth century. They do not, however, discuss the lengthy sections on basso continuo in both the Manaductio and Continuatio.43 While these studies illustrate the potential theoretical bases of these two manuals, they do not suggest how these findings affect basso continuo practice. Such questions are addressed, on the other hand, in

Historical Performance Practice research, which uses Muffat’s Regulae Concentuum Partiturae as a means of better understanding early eighteenth-century basso continuo practices. Lars

Ulrik Mortensen and Jesper Bøje Christensen, for example, quote extensively from Muffat to demonstrate the ‘full-voiced’ (‘vollstimmig’) style of accompaniment fashionable in Italian- and German-language sources from the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries.44

These studies highlight an extraordinary aspect of Muffat’s basso continuo vocabulary and contextualise it within a broader Italian practice. They do not, however, attempt to explain the method behind this practice nor its theoretical basis.

It would appear, that music theory and Historical Performance Practice research are working at cross-purposes. This is not truly the case as one could well argue that they have different research outcomes. Nevertheless, these studies illustrate that the Salzburg manuals, with the exception of the Regulae, are treated as theoretical documents first and performance manuals second. On the part of performers, the lack of interest may stem from the Salzburg manuals’ apparent lack of depth; George Buelow’s description of Gugl’s Fundamenta Partiturae as having an “elementary character” could well characterise this attitude.45 If one were to view

Gugl’s Fundamenta Partiturae as a product of the Salzburg Group, that is within its historical context, then Buelow’s assessment appears unfair.

More than this, the Salzburg manuals are an important collection of documents because they tell us how Salzburg organists understood basso continuo in theory and practice. As the

43 Donald R. Boomgaarden and Richard B. Nelson, "Johann Baptist Samber's (1654–1717) Manuductio ad Organum: The First Modern Discussion of Fugue in German," Journal of Musicological Research 11, no. 1-2 (1991). 44 Lars Ulrik Mortensen, "'Unerringly Tasteful'?: Harpsichord Continuo in Corelli's Op.5 Sonatas," Early Music 24, no. 4 (1996); Jesper Bøje Christensen, 18th Century Continuo Playing: A Historical Guide to the Basics (Basel: Bärenreiter, 2002), 132 – 38. 45 Grove Music Online, s.v. "Gugl, Matthäus," by George J. Buelow, accessed March 10, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.11945. 11

following sections outline, this theory included a contrapuntal perception of basso continuo accompaniment. This means that Salzburg court organists, from Georg Muffat to Michael

Haydn, primarily understood this practice as combining horizontal layers to a given bass

(similar to the Fuxian method of composing counterpoint against a given cantus firmus) and not as an accompaniment involving a progression of chords. If the Salzburg manuals do indeed have an elementary character, then this character is somewhat deceptive; while they may appear simple at face value, an analysis of their content reveals a complex and nuanced theoretical and practice-based foundation.

1.4 Historical context

Although not explicitly stated within the documents themselves, it seems clear that the

Salzburg manuals had an instructional purpose. Who they were instructing is not specified; however, it is possible to deduce this through an examination of the manuals’ historical contexts. It is likely, that the manuals authored by Muffat, Eberlin as well as Adlgasser and

Haydn were used for instruction within Salzburg whereas the published documents, by

Samber and Gugl, would have had a wider readership. The documents used within Salzburg were probably intended to teach choir boys (‘Capellknaben’) living in the Salzburg chapel house (‘Capellhaus’). The Capellhaus housed fifteen students, all boys between the ages of four and twelve, and these boys were active members of the Salzburg Hofcapel.46 In an anonymous “Report on the present state of music … in Salzburg” (thought to be by Leopold

Mozart),47 published in Marpurg’s Historisch-Kritische Beyträge, the author writes that the boys received instruction in the organ.48 In addition to being a primary duty of Salzburg

46 Heinz Schuler, "Salzburger Kapellhauslehrer zur Mozartzeit: Eine Quellen-Studie," Acta mozartiana 35, no. 2 (1988); Gerhard Walterskirchen, ""Kein vergleichbares Institut im Bereich der österreichischen Monarchie". Zur Geschichte der Kapellknaben und des Kapellhauses," in Salzburgs Musikgeschichte im Zeichen des Provinzialismus? Die ersten Jahrzehnte des 19. Jahrhunderts, ed. Dominik Šedivý, Salzburger Musikgeschichte (Vienna: Hollitzer Verlag, 2014). 47 Grove Music Online, s.v. "Mozart, (Johann Georg) Leopold," by Cliff Eisen, accessed January 11, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.6002278234. 48 Leopold Mozart, "Nachricht von dem gegenwärtigen Zustande der Musik Sr. Hochfürstl. Gnaden des Erzbischoffs zu Salzburg im Jahr 1757," Historich-Kritische Beyträge zur Aufnahme der Musik 3, no. 3 (1757): 194. 12

court organists,49 basso continuo was an integral part of a comprehensive study of music in the eighteenth century, especially if we consider that it is discussed in most keyboard treatises from the period. As such, it is likely that part of the boys’ instruction included the study of basso continuo. Even though court employment records only list Adlgasser and

Haydn as official Capellhaus instructors, it is possible that Muffat and Eberlin’s manuals were also used to teach the Capellknaben; if not by these organists themselves, then by those charged with the boys’ instruction.50

If those unpublished manuals were written by organists as teaching aids either for themselves or their colleagues, which the historical circumstances in eighteenth-century

Salzburg suggests, then it would not appear so surprising that they contain so little theoretical commentary. The published manuals by Samber and Gugl, in contrast, explain concepts in more detail to accommodate for their amateur readership, many of whom, presumably would not have had private lessons with a court organist. Although the level of detail between the manuals vary, their methods of instruction are almost identical. While

Samber and Gugl’s methods were aimed at a more amateur readership than the other manuals, they still contain instruction from professional organists that at least reflect aspects of the educational approach used in the Capellhaus.

As discussed, the authors of the Salzburg manuals did not document theoretical commentary that they assumed to be self-evident. One of these assumptions is the very theoretical system on which the organists base their methods of basso continuo instruction. Until recently, the most common method of describing eighteenth-century basso continuo was through a

‘Ramellian’ system of harmony. This is one based on the theoretical writings of Jean-Philippe

Rameau in which chords are analysed through the theory of ‘fundamental bass’ (basse fondamentale). Instead, the Salzburg organists understood the practice of basso continuo

49 Ibid. 50 For the employment details of Adlgasser, Eberlin and Haydn see biographical information in Ernst Hintermaier, "Die Salzburger Hofkapelle von 1700 Bis 1806: Organisation und Personal " (PhD diss., University of Salzburg, 1972), 3-5, 75-80, 166-69; for Muffat, see Heinz Schuler, "Die Salzburger Domsingknaben, ihre Instruktoren und Präfekten des hochfürstlichen Kapellhauses im Zeitlater des Barock und des Rokoko," Genealogisches Jahrbuch 25, (1985): 130-31. 13

within a ‘contrapuntal paradigm’. That is, harmony is primarily understood in terms of voice leading and not as a progression of chords. Assessing the manuals from this perspective, I attempt in what follows to explain the theoretical underpinnings of the Salzburg organists’ method of instructing basso continuo and discuss its ramifications on practice.

1.4.1 The contrapuntal paradigm in basso continuo

The emergence of a tonal system of harmony in the seventeenth-century is a common narrative in current histories of music theory. Scholars generally agree that at some point in the latter half of the seventeenth century the concepts of chordal harmony and a system of

Major-Minor keys, factors that are integral to ‘common practice’ music, were forming. This system would gradually replace one based on counterpoint and modes. Susan McClary goes so far as to describe the eventual rise of harmonic tonality in the eighteenth century as a

“triumph”.51 Joel Lester takes a more sober view, describing this shift as gradual and slow.

Furthermore, he demonstrates that this gradual shift was taking place as late as the middle of the eighteenth century in some German-speaking regions.52 Despite changing the dates,

Lester tacitly subscribes to the generally accepted narrative of the evolution of music theory.

Many scholars have concluded that basso continuo was a major contributor to this

Copernican turn from modes to keys and counterpoint to harmony. In his study of compositional theory, Joel Lester outlines that basso continuo “confirms the change from tenor-oriented polyphony of an earlier era to the bass-oriented chordal voice leading of later periods”.53 Brian Hyer explains that the advent of basso continuo “draws attention to chords as discrete musical entities” and that “Western music would be heard as a succession of

51 Susan McClary, "Towards a History of Harmonic Tonality," in Towards Tonality Aspects of Baroque Music Theory, ed. Peter Dejans, Geschriften Van Het Orpheus Instituut/Collected Writings of the Orpheus Institute (Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2007), 92. 52 Joel Lester, Bestween Modes and Keys: German Theory, 1592-1802, vol. 3, Harmonologia Series (Stuyvesant, NY: Pendragon Press, 1989). 53 Joel Lester, Compositional Theory in the Eighteenth Century (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1992). 49-50 14

harmonies rather than collections of simultaneous intervals.”54 Thomas Christensen asserts a similar viewpoint, suggesting that basso continuo highlights our chordal perception of music:

One of the most salient features of thoroughbass is that it asks us to think of music in

terms of a series of successive chords … Through the medium of thoroughbass,

composers and performers alike were accustomed to hear most music as a series of

these chords sutured through appropriate voice leading.55

What is implicit in these scholars’ comments is not just that basso continuo contributed towards the foundation of common practice harmony and key structures, but that these concepts are inherently a part of its structure. Jean-Philippe Rameau’s Traite de Harmonie

(Paris: 1727) is documentary evidence of this change. The effects of Rameau’s theory can be seen in basso continuo treatises from the latter part of the eighteenth century, including works by north German musicians such as Johann Friederich Daube and Daniel Gottlob

Türk.56

While the theoretical bases of some basso continuo traditions reflect Ramellian perspectives, this theoretical system does not accurately represent all those in the entire eighteenth century. Over the past decade, research into partimento by scholars such as Giorgio

Sanguinetti, Robert Gjerdingen and Felix Diergarten has challenged this established perspective of eighteenth-century musical structures and forms.57 These authors provide a

54 Brian Hyer, "Tonality," in The Cambridge History of Western Music Theory, ed. Thomas Christensen (Cambridge University Press, 2002), 738-39. 55 Thomas Christensen, "Thorough Bass as Music Theory," in Partimento and Continuo Playing in Theory and in Practice, ed. Dirk Moelants, Geschriften Van Het Orpheus Instituut/Collected Writings of the Orpheus Institute (Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2010), 10. 56 Johann Friedrich Daube, General-Baß in Drey Accorden (Leipzig: Johann Benjamin Andrae, 1756); Daniel Gottlob Türk, Kurze Anweisung zum Generalbaßspielen (Halle and Leipzig: Schwickert, Hemmerde und Schwetschke, 1791). 57 Robert O. Gjerdingen, Music in the Galant Style (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007); Giorgio Sanguinetti, The Art of Partimento History, Theory and Practice (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012); Felix Diergarten, "'The True Fundamentals of Composition': Haydn's Partimento Counterpoint," Eighteenth Century Music (2011). 15

convincing counter-case in the Italian partimento schools of the eighteenth century, many of which describe composition in terms of contrapuntal principles. Plagal and Authentic Modes as well as Guidonian solmisation also appear to play an important role in these traditions and are examples of other musical concepts that have usually been considered defunct in the harmonic-tonal world of the eighteenth century.58

The rise in partimento research has been paralleled by a similar questioning of the Ramellian paradigm in basso continuo practice. In the entry for ‘Generalbaß’ in the MGG, authors Jörg-

Andreas Bötticher and Jesper Christensen explicitly associate counterpoint with the Italian schools of basso continuo practice. They explain that in the Italian national style “The conception of the General-Bass was based more on knowledge of counterpoint and the general study of composition.”59 Numerous manuscripts and treatises, including those by

Lorenzo Penna and Francesco Gasparini, explicitly associate the playing of basso continuo with counterpoint.60

While Christensen highlights knowledge of counterpoint as a defining feature of Italian basso continuo practices, this approach was not foreign to German-speaking musicians.

Through their travels, German musicians imported Italian basso continuo practices back to the city states of their employers. Italian influences were consistently prevalent in the

Catholic south because of shared political, religious and cultural ties. Evidence of Italian basso continuo practices can also be seen in central/north Germany particularly in the writings of Johann David Heinichen, who travelled to Italy and was employed at the

58 See for example, Peter van Tour, Counterpoint and Partimento. Methods of Teaching Composition in Late Eighteenth-Century Naples. (Falun, Sweden: Edita Bobergs, 2015), 86-89, 141. At present, Nicholas Baragawanath is preparing a monograph titled, “The Solfeggio Tradition: A Forgotten Art of Melody in the Long Eighteenth Century”, for more information see: https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/humanities/departments/music/research/research- projects/solfeggi.aspx 59 "Die Auffassung des Generalbasses beruhte mehr auf der Kenntnis des Kontrapunktes und der allgemeinen Kompositionslehre." Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart Online, s.v. "Generalbaß," by Bötticher and Christensen 60 Lorenzo Penna, Li primi albori musicali (Bologna: Forni, 1969), 144; Francesco Gasparini, L'armonico Pratico al cimbalo (Venice: Antonio Bortoli, 1708; Giuseppe Antonio Silvani, Bologna: 1722), 6. Citations refer to the Silvani edition. 16

German court of Dresden. In a study of Heinichen’s Neu erfundene und gründliche Answeisung

(Hamburg: 1711) and Der Generalbass in der Composition (Dresden: 1728), Ludwig Holtmeier illustrates that these treatises have a distinctly Italianate/Corellian contrapuntal approach to basso continuo accompaniment, which stands in contrast to that by Rameau.61

A distinguishing feature of these Italian/German approaches is that they describe the construction of a basso continuo as a combination of intervals and not, as Rameau does, as a series of predefined chordal units. As a result of the contrapuntal approach, Holtmeier further explains, emphasis falls primarily on the “correct voice leading above the thoroughbass”.62 This stands in contrast to our “Ramellian heritage”, which Markus

Neuwirth explains considers voice leading as a secondary consideration to chordal units.63 In this sense, counterpoint refers to voice leading principles in general and, as Felix Diergarten specifies, does not exclusively equate to “strict counterpoint”.64

Similar to methods of instruction in Italian partimento schools, the Salzburg manuals approach basso continuo through a contrapuntal paradigm. In these manuals, focus falls primarily on correct voice leading, often at the expense of the intervals necessary to form a

‘complete’ chord. The chord itself (which the manuals call Griff), furthermore, is described as a collection of rhythmically aligned intervals and not as a predefined entity. This definition of the chord and the primary focus on voice leading are two features of the Salzburg manuals that clearly illustrate their contrapuntal approach to basso continuo accompaniment. Acknowledging this feature of the Salzburg manuals, it is then possible to observe their method of instruction; the underlying theory of which their authors assumed to be self-evident. Through an analysis of these manuals, I attempt to codify this method in

61 Ludwig Holtmeier, "Heinichen, Rameau, and the Italian thoroughbass tradition: Concepts of tonality and chord in the rule of the octave," Journal of Music Theory 51, no. 1 (2007): 10. 62 Ibid. 9 63 Markus Neuwirth, "Fuggir La Cadenza," in What Is a Cadence?, ed. Markus Neuwirth and Pieter Bergé (Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2015), 119. 64 Felix Diergarten, "Counterpoint," in The Cambridge Haydn Encyclopedia, ed. Caryl Leslie Clark and Sarah Day-O'Connell (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019), 74. 17

order to understand the practice of basso continuo accompaniment in church music from late eighteenth-century Salzburg.

1.5 Generating a Salzburg ‘method’

The Salzburg manuals are content dense, but do not contain much textural commentary; they include many practical examples and exercises, but at no point do they explicitly reveal the theory behind these illustrations. So far, there have been few studies explaining their theoretical background. Thomas Christensen has examined one feature of the Salzburg manuals: figured bass patterns that move by step and leap, each provided with a number of possible realisation options. Christensen calls these exercises Fundamentum (plural:

Fundamenta) and traces their origins to organ improvisation manuals by Hans Buchner and

Conrad Paumann, both of whom were active in south Germany in the late fifteenth/early sixteenth centuries.65

In a more recent study, Felix Diergarten examines the cadential structures in Muffat’s

Regulae. These, he argues, are identical to those in the partimenti stemming from the Roman organist Bernardo Pasquini, a contemporary and colleague of Arcangelo Corelli as well as teacher to Muffat during his Italian sabbatical.66 In addition to sharing a similar cadential syntax, the Salzburg manuals and Italian partimento exercises both rely heavily on schemata as part of their methods of instruction. A schema is defined by Robert Gjerdingen as a

“packet of knowledge”. In the galant style, he defines them as short musical patterns with easily recognisable melodic and bass formulas.67 The schemata in the Salzburg manuals, like those Gjerdingen describes, are identifiable by melodic formulas; but because the manuals instruct the practice of basso continuo, which asks organists to improvise from a figured bass, each schema is primarily defined by a particular Griff. I will elaborate on the nature of these Salzburg schemata in Chapter Three.

65 Christensen, "Fundamenta Partiturae: Thorough Bass and Foundations of Eighteenth-Century Composition Pedagogy," 17-23. 66 Diergarten, "Beyond "Harmony" the Cadence in the Partitura Tradition." 67 Gjerdingen, Music in the Galant Style, 11. 18

Current literature has addressed the influences of south German Renaissance organ improvisation and Roman cadential formulas on the Salzburg manuals. Even though these studies allow us to better understand theoretical aspects of the manuals, they do not address how this is applicable to the practice of basso continuo accompaniment. Rather than describing basso continuo accompaniment in exclusively practical or theoretical terms, the method in the Salzburg manuals highlights a symbiotic relationship between these two disciplines. I describe this method in terms of four ‘fundamental principles’ derived from an analysis of the schemata in the Salzburg manuals and an examination of the notation in organ parts written by Salzburg court musicians for their church music compositions.

1.5.1 Fundamental principles

The instructional material and their layout in each of the manuals suggests that basso continuo instruction involves students learning musical patterns and, through replicating these in a series of figured bass exercises, internalising their structures. On completing this study, the student had presumably acquired an inventory of learned patterns that they could recognise from a figured (or unfigured) bass and apply (‘improvise’) their structures accordingly. In other words, learning and playing basso continuo in eighteenth-century

Salzburg meant internalising and replicating musical patterns. As structures that would have been immediately recognisable to musicians, these musical patterns fit Gjerdingen’s definition of schemata. The ability to recognise a schema, Gjerdingen explains further, is determined by a musician or listener’s immediate surroundings, that is the musical patterns that are familiar to them.68 The Salzburg manuals present a corpus of musical patterns that would have been familiar to Salzburg court musicians; these musicians would presumably have heard these musical patterns in the church, and perhaps in other performance settings as well. Because they pervaded a court musician’s everyday life and are foundational to the study of basso continuo, I have formulated the fundamental principles from a structural analysis of these schemata.

68 Ibid., 10-15. 19

I identify two types of fundamental principles: ‘construction’ and ‘style’. The first of these are inferred from a structural analysis of the schemata in the Salzburg manuals. Because these structures are contrapuntal, they cannot be analysed using the same set of conditions that one would for a typical harmonic analysis. Instead of describing these schemata as a progression of chords, the analyses examine these structures as combinations of layers, each of which follows a standardised melodic formula. How the Salzburg organists combined these layers and arranged them above a figured bass is explained in three construction principles, which I call ‘disposition’, ‘exchange’ and ‘punctuation’. Because each of these explains a structural aspect of schemata, they are collectively referred to as ‘construction principles’. The style principle explains the application of the construction principles within a given compositional style and will be addressed in further detail in section 1.5.3 below.

1.5.2 The construction principles: disposition, exchange and punctuation

In Music in the Galant Style, Gjerdingen provides a catalogue of galant schemata and illustrates that their fundamental makeup includes a recognisable melody and bass formula.

The construction of the schemata in the Salzburg manuals share this structural characteristic with those Gjerdingen analyses; their structural foundation is composed of a progression in two-part counterpoint. After illustrating this two-part progression, the organists then demonstrate how the same progression can be expanded to include a third layer of counterpoint and then a fourth layer of counterpoint is added to this. Muffat continues this process through to illustrate how a two-part schema can be expanded to include up to eight parts. Adlgasser uses the Latin terms ‘bicinium’, ‘tricinis’ and quatrocinis’ to distinguish two-, three- and four-part settings in his Fundamenta Compositionis.69 In the Salzburg manuals, these distinctions are indicated with the abbreviations à 2, à 3 and à 4. The Salzburg manuals thus indicate that a schema may be constructed in different numbers of parts. This is an important aspect of the manuals’ method of basso continuo instruction, which, lacking a specific term in the manuals themselves, I label the disposition principle.

69 Anton Cajetan Adlgasser, "Fundamenta Compositionis," (D-Mbs Mus.ms.1695, http://mdz-nbn- resolving.ed/urn:nbn:de:bvb:12-bsb00052847-8). 20

Disposition is an adaption of the Italian term ‘dispositione’ (or ‘disposizione’), an Italian term commonly found in partimento manuals. According to Giorgio Sanguinetti, the term refers to a partimento realised in a polyphonic setting, most often in three or four parts, where each part is written out on its own staff.70 Gjerdingen, on the other hand, explains that dispositione was used more liberally to describe the number of parts within any type of partimento realisation, polyphonic or otherwise.71 While a partimento is written out and a basso continuo is improvised, disposition is a principle that applies to both practices because they require musicians to compose parts above a given bass. I will discuss the disposition principle in further detail in Chapter Four.

The Salzburg manuals demonstrate that when schemata are composed of three or more parts, those parts above the bass are invertible. Each of the upper parts follows a standard melodic contour and can be inverted to create a different series, or recombination, of intervals. This principle of construction is described in the Salzburg manuals as

‘Verwechslung’, meaning ‘exchange’, a term that I adopt to explain the same process.72 The exchange options for various schemata, along with an analysis and derivation of these melodic formulas, are also discussed in Chapter Four.

The corpus of schemata illustrated in the Salzburg manuals includes cadences. A cadence is a type of schema that merits special attention because it acts as closing a formula. While cadences identify a close, the manuals additionally stipulate that different types of cadences elicit various degrees of closure. In other words, cadences exist within a hierarchy. By recognising cadences in a figured bass, organists identify these points of closure in the composition they accompany and thus identify it formal divisions. In his Klavierschule,

Daniel Gottlob Türk describes these formal divisions as ‘interpunktion’, that is

70 Sanguinetti, The Art of Partimento History, Theory and Practice, 50. 71 Robert O. Gjerdingen, Child Composers in the Old Conservatories: How Orphans Became Elite Musicians (New York: Oxford University Press, 2020), 42. 72 See for example, Samber, Manaductio ad Organum, 113, 122 as well as Gugl, Fundamenta Partiturae in Compendio Data, 22. 21

‘punctuation’.73 Because cadences effect different levels of closure, the punctuation principle allows an organist to observe the hierarchical relationships between these divisions and thus perceive the larger structure of a composition. Because it makes this structure salient, organists learnt to use the punctuation principle to construct an accompaniment that reinforces that of the composition they are accompanying. The means by which they did this will be discussed in more detail in Chapter Five.

1.5.3 The style principle

The construction principles, which can be inferred by the Salzburg manuals, provide the student with a number of options with which they can construct a schema. This is an integral aspect of their method of instruction. The disposition of a schema, for example, can be constructed in two, three, four or more parts. The arrangement of a schema’s upper parts, furthermore, may also be exchanged to produce different inversion options. While construction deals with these principles as they appear in the Salzburg manuals, style determines the dispositional and exchange options most appropriate in the accompaniment for a given composition. Regarding this aspect of basso continuo accompaniment, the

Salzburg manuals provide no information; they catalogue schemata and describe their construction without referring to any particular compositional style. In order to derive a principle that explains the conditions determining the construction of schemata within a specific compositional style, I have examined the notational features of manuscript organ parts. From this examination, it is possible to deduce which dispositional and exchange options are most appropriate for constructing an accompaniment in a given style of composition. Even though the manuals do not describe the style principle as such, they provide the construction options one requires to improvise a stylistically appropriate basso continuo accompaniment.

73 See Chapter Six, Part Two, titled "On musical punctuation" ("Von der musikalischen Interpunktion") in Daniel Gottlob Türk, Klavierschule oder Anweisung zum Klavierspielen für Lehrer und Lernende Faksimile-Reprint der 1. Ausgabe 1789 (Germany: Bärenreiter, 1997), 340-47. 22

Although not explicitly outlined in Austrian primary sources, the style of a composition defines the construction of its accompaniment. Because scholars are continuously reviewing the meaning of style in the late eighteenth century, it is necessary here to define how this term is used in this study. An assessment of fifty years of literature on the topic suggests that studies on style are shifting from formalist readings of compositions to broad examinations of their historical environments. Formalist readings are typified by Rosen’s The Classical

Style, which examines the language of this style through the compositions of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven.74 While Rosen’s text remains highly influential, it appears dated in comparison to Leonard Ratner, who searched for an understanding of style within the context of the “history of ideas”.75

In Classic Music Expression, Form and Style, Ratner presents Topic Theory, which describes compositions as containing a series of ‘topics’, which are “subjects for musical discourse.”76 It was Ratner’s contextualisation of music within a broader historical sphere, and not specifically Topic Theory itself, however, which led to Daniel Heartz placing the ‘classical’ style in ‘galant’ Europe. In his introduction to Music in European Capitals, Heartz explains that it was philosophical, social and artistic currents that led to him labelling European music, covering the time span 1720-80, as galant.77

While these studies have revaluated how musicologists theorise and analyse the stylistic qualities of late eighteenth-century music, they do not engage with the effects that musical style has on basso continuo performance practices. Rather than denoting chronological periods, eighteenth-century dictionaries by Sébastien de Brossard, Johann Gottfried

Walther/Mattheson, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and John Hoyl unanimously define “style in music” as manners of “composition, execution and instruction”.78 In this definition, musical

74 Rosen, The Classical Style Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven. 75 Leonard G. Ratner, "Approaches to Musical Historiography in the 18th Century," Current Musicology 9, (1969), 155. 76 Leonard G. Ratner, Classic Music Expression, Form and Style (USA: Schirmer Books, 1985), 9. 77 Daniel Heartz, Music in European Capitals: The Galant Style, 1720-1780 (U.S.A.: Norton and Norton, 2003), 16-24. 78 Dictionaire de Musique, s.v. “Stile,” by Sebastiene de Brossard, (Amsterdam: Estienne Roger, 1708), (no pagination); Musicalisches Lexicon, oder Musicalische Bibliothec, s.v. "Stylus," by Johann 23

style refers just as much to the act of performance and the audience’s response to it as it does the manner of composition itself. Compositional style, conversely, indicates to the performer a certain manner of execution. Because they relate musical style to active events (playing, composing, listening), these definitions discuss style as part of a living tradition. Musicians in the eighteenth-century lived this tradition and were probably well aware of the stylistic connection between composition and execution. As is outlined in the following discussion, this includes the performance of basso continuo.

Rather than understanding style as a chronological phenomenon, eighteenth-century professional musicians distinguished musical styles on the basis of the compositional forms they were acquainted with. These musicians adapted their manner of basso continuo accompaniment to suite the different styles of composition they recognised. These manners of accompaniment are adequately described in contemporaneous sources so that modern scholars are able to describe and codify their key attributes. For instance, Gregory Johnston’s study of basso continuo in the period covering the late sixteenth to early seventeenth centuries notes that Italian and German musicians describe two methods of accompaniment to cover the respective attributes of the polyphonic and monodic styles of compositions common at that time.79 Stylistic distinctions continued into the eighteenth century. Jesper

Christensen, for example, notes that Italian and German musicians had a similar approach to the accompaniment of recitative, which they distinguish from other compositional styles.80 In a more recent study, David Schulenberg highlights the style of accompaniment that Carl

Phillip Emanuel Bach and Johann Joachim Quantz describe for the galant trio. Popular in mid-century Berlin, he explains that this mode of accompaniment was constructed in such a

Mattheson, ed. J.G. Walther (Leipzig: Wolffgang Deer, 1732), 584-85; Dictionnaire de musique, par J.-J. Rousseau, s.v. “Style,” by Jean-Jacques Rousseau, (Paris: Chez la veuve Duchesne, 1768), 462-63; Dictionarium musica, s.v. “Style” by John Hoyle, (London: S. Crowder, 1770), 96-98. 79 Gregory S. Johnston, "Polyphonic Accompaniemnt in the Early Baroque: An Alternative to Basso Continuo," Early Music 26, no. 1 (1998). 80 Christensen, 18th Century Continuo Playing: A Historical Guide to the Basics, 139 – 43. 24

way that it brought the trio’s expressive appoggiaturas and clear three-part structure into relief.81

By assigning to different compositional styles a particular and distinct mode of realising a basso continuo, seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Italian and German musicians demonstrated that they understood a connection between composition and execution. These musicians appear to be reflecting the meaning of style in music as defined by contemporary dictionaries.82 Conversely, this also implies that the definitions of style in those dictionaries refer not only to concerted music but to basso continuo as well. If both eighteenth-century

Italian and German musicians applied this definition of style to basso continuo accompaniment, then there is little reason to suspect their Salzburg contemporaries did not. I describe how Salzburg organists realised this in performance under the heading of the ‘style principle’, one of the four fundamental principles I identified as part of the Salzburg method of basso continuo accompaniment.

The style principle illustrates the way that Salzburg organists applied the construction principles within a particular stylistic context. It demonstrates that the construction options organists choose to improvise their accompaniment are those that reinforce the style of the composition they are accompanying. Austrian musicians distinguished two different styles of church composition, which they labelled Stylus Alla Capella and Stylus Mixtus.83 These two styles were distinguishable from one another on their different modes of construction.

Johann Joseph Fux and Meinrad Spiess, for example, define compositions in the Alla Capella

81 David Schulenberg, "'Towards the Most Elegant Taste': Developments in Keyboard Accompaniment from J.S. To C.P.E. Bach," in The Keyboard in Baroque Europe, ed. Christopher Hogwood (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003). 82 The dictionaries quoted above are from the eighteenth century, but their definitions of style adopt that by Athanasius Kircher in Musurgia Universalis (Rome: 1650). For more details on Kircher’s definition and its relationship to that by Mattheson, see Claude V. Palisca, "The Genesis of Mattheson's Style Classification" in New Mattheson Studies, ed. George J. Buelow and H.J. Marx (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983). 83 See, for example, Jones, “Haydn’s Missa sunt bona mixta malis and the a capella tradition,” Music in Eighteenth-Century Austria, 89-111; Erick Arenas, "Johann Michael Haydn and the Orchestral Solemn Mass in Eighteenth-Century Vienna and Salzburg" (PhD diss., Stanford University, 2013), 31-57. 25

style as those that are fugal and use ‘learned’ devices such as imitation and canon.84 This is separated from the Stylus Mixtus, which includes non-fugal choruses and arias.85

While Austrian musicians provide detailed descriptions of these styles, there are very few written descriptions of how these affect basso continuo accompaniment. Without detailed written source information, I derive the style principle from an analysis of the notation in manuscript organ parts. Notational symbols include clefs, figuring and written out fugal entries. These often indicate the style of the composition and, moreover, provide the organist with information about its construction. More than just descriptive indications, these symbols, I argue, prescribe the way in which the organist ought to construct their accompaniment. This argument will be elaborated further in Chapter Six.

1.6 Conclusion

It has long been understood that a system of harmonic tonality, which conceptualises music as a series of chordal entities aiming at reaching a tonic goal, guided the theory and practice of eighteenth-century basso continuo accompaniment. While this may have been the case in some European musical centres, this system of harmony does not adequately explain the way in which basso continuo was practised by Salzburg court organists in the late eighteenth century. The Salzburg manuals, instead, describe this practice through a contrapuntal paradigm. This paradigm continues a tradition of basso continuo accompaniment that predates the harmonic theories espoused by Jean-Phillipe Rameau. Therefore, we must

84 Neither Fux, nor Spiess use the label ‘stilo antico’ to describe fugal composition or fugues in general. 85 See "De Stylo à Capella" in Johann Joseph Fux, Gradus ad Parnassum (Vienna: Joannis Petri Van Ghelen, 1725), Exercitii V. Lectio VII, 243-73; Meinrad Spiess, Tractatus musicus compositorio-practicus. Das ist, Musicalischer Tractat, in welchem alle gute und sichere Fundamenta zur Musicalischen Composition aus denen alt- und neuesten besten Autoribus herausgezogen, zusammen getragen, gegen einander gehalten, erkläret, und mit untersetzen Exemplen, dermassen klar und deutlich erläutert werden, daß ein zur Musique geartetes, und edlen Musicalischen Composition begieriges Subjectum oder angehender Componist alles zur Praxin gehöriges finden, leichtlich, und ohne mündliche Instruction begreiffen, erlernen, und selbst mit vollkommenem Vergnügen zur würcklichen Ausübung schreiten könne, und därffe. Samt einem Anhang in welchem fast alle, sowohl in diesem Werck, als auch in andern Musicalischen Schrifften in Griechisch- Lateinisch- Welsch- Frantzösisch- und Teutscher Sprach gebräuchliche Kunst- und andere gewöhnlich- vorkommende Wörter nach Ordnung des Alphabets gesetzt, und erkläret werden. (Augsburg: Johann Jacob Lotters seel. Erben, 1745), 161. 26

approach the performance of basso continuo within this paradigm in mind in order to understand that practice.

As important as the Salzburg manuals are, inasmuch as they attest to a contrapuntal approach, they do not explicitly define a method for improvising a basso continuo accompaniment. This appears to suggest that these manuals were purely theoretical. Yet, they were expressly written to instruct their readers in playing a partitura and frequently refer to performance at the organ and harpsichord. I attempt to reconstruct this method and its theoretical basis, which the authors of the manuals assumed to be self-evident. This reconstruction is based on an analysis of schemata illustrated in the Salzburg manuals. The four fundamental principles I derive from the manuals underpin this method, which was taught with remarkable consistency in Salzburg from the time of Muffat to Wolfgang

Mozart. In the following chapter, I begin with an examination of this tradition of instruction and use this as a foundation to examine the content of the Salzburg manuals.

27

2. The Salzburg manuals

In the previous chapter, I pointed out that researchers have acknowledged the importance of the manuals that stem from Federhofer’s Salzburg Group; however, these have not been examined as instructional documents. From an examination of the manuals’ contents, I detail the method of instruction Salzburg organists from the period used to teach students basso continuo accompaniment. This examination demonstrates that Salzburg organists broke down the study of partitura into a series of interrelated subjects, which are: interval, Griff (a chord-like structure), cadence and Fundamentum (figured bass solutions to given bass lines).

Studying each of these subjects in isolation not only shines light on the organists’ pedagogical method, but also highlights that they perceived basso continuo as composed of schematic structures. In Chapter Three, I will outline the process of deriving the construction principles through an examination of these structures. In addition to identifying and distinguishing the four subjects in the manuals, an examination of their instructional method demonstrates that the study of partitura in Salzburg was highly formalised. The sense of order portrayed in this method of instruction gives the impression that a partitura played correctly and well was a refined and nuanced improvisation.

2.1 Pedagogical purpose of the manuals

Written documentation highlights that all the organists in the Salzburg Group actively engaged in instructing music. Court employment records specify that some of these organists taught in the Salzburg Capellhaus, whereas unofficial reports and accounts describe others as experienced music teachers without making explicit reference to the

Capellhaus itself. So, while there is nothing in the manuals themselves that explicitly states for whom they were written, the circumstantial evidence strongly suggests that the organists from the Salzburg Group used these documents for pedagogical purposes.

The Salzburg Capellhaus, as it was known in the late eighteenth century, was established by

28

Prince-Archbishop Max Gandolf von Kuenburg in 1677.86 The anonymous author of the

“Report on the present state of the Musical Establishment … of Salzburg” informs us that by the middle of the eighteenth century the institution housed fifteen Capellknaben (choir boys), who were “Instructed by the best masters from the princely chapel at the Court’s expense, in the singing of figural- and plainsong, the organ, the violin, and also the Italian language”.87 It was perhaps during their organ studies that the Capellknaben received instruction in basso continuo and it may have been for this study that the Salzburg organists compiled documents to aid teaching it.

Considering that court records indicate that Adlgasser and Haydn were charged with the boys’ keyboard instruction, it is difficult to suggest another reason for why these two organists bothered to compile a set of instructions concerning basso continuo accompaniment.88 On the other hand, neither Samber nor Gugl were Capellhaus instructors as far as extant documentation indicates. Nevertheless, both claimed to be experienced teachers.89 In the letter to the reader that introduces his Manaductio, Samber states that he had taught over 300 students by the time of its publication.90 A series of approbations follow this letter, the first of which is by Heinrich Franz von Biber, Capellmeister of the Salzburg

Hofcapel and violin instructor to the Capellknaben at that time. Biber claims that it is

“especially youths” (“sonderlich die Jugend”) who will profit from reading the Manaductio,

86 The origins of the institution in Salzburg extends back to the Middle Ages, for more on Capellhaus history see Johannes Peregrinus, "Geschichte der Salzburgischen Dom-Sangerknaben̈ oder Schlechthin des Kapellhauses," Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft für Salzburger Landeskunde 29, (1889) and Josef Bogensberger, "Das Salzburger Kapellhaus. Reflexionen zur Geschichte Sowie Musikpädagogische und Juristische Überlegungen zur Wiedererrichtung des Kapellhauses Angesichts Musikalischer Bildung im Kirchlichen Österreich Heute" (Diss., Universität Mozarteum, Salzburg, 2003). 87 "Sie werden auch von den besten Meistern der Hochfürstl. Capelle auf Kosten des Hofes im figural= und Choralgesang, auf der Orgel, der Violine und auch in der welschen Sprache unterwiesen". Mozart, "Nachricht von dem gegenwärtigen Zustande der Musik Sr. Hochfürstl. Gnaden des Erzbischoffs zu Salzburg im Jahr 1757," 194. Translation based on Zaslaw’s in Mozart's Symphonies, Appendix C, 555. 88 For information outlining these organists' courtly duties, see Hintermaier, "Die Salzburger Hofkapelle von 1700 Bis 1806: Organisation und Personal," 3, 66. 89 Gugl makes passing reference to his "many students" in the opening letter to his "Fundamenta Partiturae", addressed to the "willing reader", see Gugl, Fundamenta Partiturae in Compendio Data, (no pagination, see front matter). 90 Samber, Manaductio ad Organum, "Ad Lectorem Philomusum", (no pagination, see front matter). 29

from which they will easily learn to play a basso continuo.91 Thus, while Samber was not a

Capellhaus instructor as such, his Manaductio fulfils a pedagogical function and Biber’s

“Approbatio” suggests that it was aimed at students within a similar age bracket as the

Capellknaben.

To my knowledge, official court records make no comment on either Muffat’s or Eberlin’s employment as music pedagogues; however, Samber does claim to have been a student of

Muffat’s92 and, according to the aforementioned anonymous “Report”, Adlgasser learned both composition and accompaniment “at the keyboard” (“auf dem Flügel”) with Eberlin.93

While this does not directly confirm that the Regulae or Eberlin’s Fundamenta Partitura were written for Capellknaben, it does highlight that these organists, like the others from the

Salzburg Group, were pedagogues active within the Salzburg court sphere. Their extant manuals on basso continuo at least represent aspects of their method for instructing this practice.

While the target audience of the Salzburg manuals cannot be unequivocally demonstrated in all cases, the teaching duties of the Salzburg organists suggests that they were instructional and that some of these were probably used for teaching in the Capellhaus. It might be argued that, being written for instructing youths, the organists presented only a simplified version of their basso continuo knowledge in the manuals or perhaps catered for an amateur readership; however, this is unlikely. Because most of the manuals remained in manuscript during their respective authors’ lifetimes, the organists are likely to have used these documents within Salzburg, either at the Capellhaus or similar institutions that aimed at instructing primarily the young in music. If, therefore, Salzburg court organists wrote these manuals as aids in training future professional musicians, their content provides insights into basso continuo as practised professionally; however, much of this practice remains hidden because organists wrote these manuals for their own teaching and crucial details,

91 Ibid., "Approbatio", (no pagination, see front matter). 92 Samber, Continuatio ad Manuductionem Organicam, 160. 93 Mozart, "Nachricht von dem Gegenwärtigen Zustande der Musik Sr. Hochfürstl. Gnaden des Erzbischoffs zu Salzburg im Jahr 1757," 187. 30

which may have appeared self-evident at the time, may consequently have been omitted. In the following section, the choir boys’ basso continuo instruction, and music training more broadly, is examined in order to better understand the pedagogical value of the Salzburg manuals.

2.2 The practical nature of education

In addition to receiving musical instruction, the choir boys were active members of the

Salzburg Hofcapel. Court documents, as well as eye-witness accounts, specify that the choir boys sang regularly at St. Peter’s alongside the older Chorvikaren as well as in other city parish churches, played Taflmusique during court festivities and participated in the yearly

Schuldrama.94 These activities and their ordinary daily tasks were regimented within a strict routine and highlights that performance was an integral aspect of the boys’ musical studies.95

Their highly active performance routines throws light on the pedagogical aims of the

Salzburg manuals. In addition to providing students with theoretical knowledge, it suggests that the manuals imparted practical skills that enabled them to apply this knowledge to the act of accompaniment itself.

Neither the manuals nor extant documentation from the Capellhaus outline the process instructors took to achieve this pedagogical goal; however, a series of letters from Leopold

Mozart to his son detail his method of teaching basso continuo accompaniment to his daughter, Maria Anna (“Nannerl”), and provides some possible insights into this process. As far as I am aware, these letters present the most detailed surviving descriptions of the manner of basso continuo instruction in eighteenth-century Salzburg. They reveal that this involved the student accompanying actual compositions on a consistent, daily basis.

94 Hintermaier, "Die Salzburger Hofkapelle von 1700 Bis 1806: Organisation und Personal," xxvii-xviii. 95 Walterskirchen, ""Kein Vergleichbares Institut im Bereich der Österreichischen Monarchie". Zur Geschichte der Kapellknaben und des Kapellhauses," 72. 31

Nannerl’s training, Leopold explains, happened daily “between six and eight o’clock”.96

During that time she would accompany, “arias, sinfonias, masses, vespers” and other pieces with Leopold playing the violin.97 Occasionally, Ceccarelli, the court castrato, joined in singing arias and motets.98 Leopold praises Nannerl’s progress, explaining that with diligent practice, she will soon “accompany everything, be it figured or unfigured, it may be in the easiest or most difficult keys, and it may pass through the most unexpected modulations”.99

On April 6, after approximately six months of training with her father, Nannerl could accompany “like a Capellmeister”.100 She had the opportunity to display these skills at the harpsichord in a dilettante orchestra organised by Count Czernin. In the concert, Leopold reports that Nannerl “accompanied all the sinfonias, then Ceccarelli sang an aria … she accompanied him as well”.101 From this description we see that Nannerl’s study of basso continuo was not just an academic pursuit; the ultimate goal of her training was performance. While these letters refer to private lessons between father and daughter, there is no reason to think that Leopold’s method would have been different from that of the organ instructors in the Salzburg Capellhaus especially considering that he himself taught keyboard there between May of 1781 and May 1782.102

2.3 Practising partitura

Perhaps in response to these letters, Wolfgang cautioned Nannerl to continue playing

96 Leopold Mozart to his wife and son, February 25 and 26, 1778 Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Briefe und Aufzeichnungen: Gesamtausgabe, ed. Wilhelm A. Bauer, et al., Erw. Ausg. mit einer Einführung und Ergänzungen / herausgegeben von Ulrich Konrad. ed. (Kassel: Bärenreiter, 2005), 300. 97 Leopold Mozart to his wife and son, February 25 and 26, 1778, ibid. 98 Leopold Mozart to his wife and son, April 12, 1778, ibid., 337 99 "So wird die Nannerl alles accompagnieren, es mag beziffert oder ohnbeziffert - es mag die leichteste oder allerschwereste Tonart seyn, und es mögen die allerunvermuthesten ausweichungen vorkommen". Leopold Mozart to his wife and son, November 17, 1777, ibid., 128. 100 "die Nannerl accompagniert wie ein ieder Capellmeister". Leopold Mozart to his son, April 6, 1778, ibid., 337. 101 "Die Nannerl accompagnierte alle Sinfonien, und da der Ceccarelli ... eine Aria Sang so accompagnierte sie ihm auch." Leopold Mozart to his wife and son, April 12, 1778 ibid., 338. 102 Schuler, "Die Salzburger Domsingknaben, ihre Instruktoren und Präfekten des hochfürstlichen Kapellhauses im Zeitlater des Barock und des Rokoko," 128. 32

‘galanterie’ so as not to diminish her ‘precision’ in playing solo music. From Mannheim in

March 1778, he writes:

You are now rightly busy, and don’t forget your galanterie playing, whilst also

practising the Partitur, so that I won’t be made a liar when people hear you, amongst

whom I have praised you so much, as I have always said that you play with more

precision than I do.103

Through a detailed study of published music in the mid eighteenth-century, Mark Radice explains that the term ‘galanterie’ was a label composers from the period used to refer to solo keyboard pieces.104 Playing these will maintain Nannerl’s sensitivities at the keyboard,

Wolfgang believes, whilst she is busy practising ‘Partitur’. What, then, was Partitur? In modern German, the term means score, which may explain why Ferguson translated Partitur in the quotation above as “score reading”;105 however, Austrian musicians throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries used this term interchangeably with basso continuo and General-Bass. This suggests that they were not referring to a score when using the term

Partitur. The Salzburg manuals frequently use all three terms, but it is partitura that appears in all of their individual titles.

In light of this, Wolfgang perhaps wrote the above-quoted letter to his sister in response to those his father sent him detailing the course of her basso continuo instruction. This letter suggests that like other Austrian musicians from the time, the Mozart family discussed partitura within the context of basso continuo. As the following discussion determines, the

103 “Sey nur recht fleissig, und vergesse durch das Partiturschlagen dein galanterie spiellen nicht, damit ich nicht zum lügner werde, wenn dich die leüte hören, bey den [sic] ich dich so gelobt habe. denn ich habe allzeit gesagt, daß du mit mehr Præcision spiellst als ich”. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart to his father, postcript to his sister, March 7, 1778, Mozart, Briefe und Aufzeichnungen: Gesamtausgabe, 320. 104 Mark A. Radice, "The Nature of the "Style Galant": Evidence from the Repertoire," The Musical Quarterly 83, no. 4 (1999): 615. Considering that most keyboard music carrying this label were published in both Augsburg and Nuremberg, cities within Salzburg’s locality, it may be such pieces that Mozart was referring to in this letter to his sister. 105 Ferguson, ""Col Basso" and "Generalbass" in Mozart's Keyboard Concertos: Notation, Performance Theory, and Practice," 33, fn. 62. 33

use of the term relates specifically to the practice of accompaniment. Samber’s definition of the term, furthermore, outlines that it is both similar to, but distinct from the meanings of the related terms basso continuo and General-Bass. Specifying the meaning of partitura defines the pedagogical scope of the Salzburg manuals as documents that instruct improvising an accompaniment at the keyboard from a given (figured) bass.

Following Italian nomenclature, Austrian musicians in the early seventeenth century referred to the organ parts (usually with a figured bass) of monodic songs as partitura,106 yet it was not until 1676 that an Austrian musician first provided a definition for this term. This appears in Alessandro Poglietti’s Compendium Musicum, which the author wrote during his tenure as organist to the Habsburg Hofcapel in Vienna. In the section of the Compendium describing basso continuo, Poglietti begins by writing that, “About eighty years ago the

Partitur, which is also called Bassus continuus or General Bass to play with notes and numbers was invented by Ludovico Vidana [sic]”.107 The significance of Poglietti’s description lies not so much in his historical reference to Viadana, but in that it implies the meanings of Partitur,

Bassus continuus and General Bass are synonymous. Furthermore, Poglietti discusses all these terms in relation to figured bass improvisation.

Samber mirrors the implied associations between these three terms in his Manaductio, in which he defines Bassus Generalis, Bassus Continuus and Partitura side-by-side. Unlike

Poglietti, however, Samber distinguishes these terms on the basis of their structural attributes. The description of Partitura suggests that it refers to an active musical practice, whereas the other two terms appear more conceptual in comparison. After describing the

106 Examples can be seen in the organ part from the collection of motets Raccolta Di Gio. Battista Bonometti Bergamasco. - Parnassus Musicus Ferdinandaeus in Quo Musici Nobilissimi, Quà Suavitate, Quà Arte Prorsus Admirabili & Diuina Ludunt: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Vocum. A Joanne Baptista Bonometti Bergomate Serenissimi Ferdinandi Archiducis Austriae, &C. Musico Congestus, Eidemque Serenissimo in Grati Animi Symbolum Dicatus, & Consecratus. Cum Privilegio., ed. Giovanni Battista Bonometti (Venice: Giacomo Vincenti, 1615); as well as those for Paul Peuerl and Isaac Posch, Neue Paduanen, 1611 Weltspiegel, 1613. Ganz Neue Paduanen, 1625, ed. Karl Geiringer, vol. 70, Denkmäler der Tonkunst in Österreich (Graz: Akademische Druck- u. Verlagsanstalt, 1960). 107 "Ungefehr vor achtzig Jahren ist die Partitur, welche auch genennet wird Bassus continuus oder General Baß mit Notten und Ziffern zu schlagen von Ludovico Vidana [sic] erfunden worden." Poglietti, Compendium: oder kurzer Begriff und Einführung zur Musica, sonderlich einem Organisten dienlich, 1676, 53. 34

history of the “General-Bass, Partiturâ or Basso Continuo”, Samber continues to define each of these terms in more explicit detail:

It is also called Bassus Generalis because it contains all, and especially

the fundamental voices of each song. It is called Bassus Continuus because it goes

through the song from beginning to end without large breaks and continues. It is,

therefore, called Partitura because each and every voice originates in the General

Bass and the very same, as it were, gives birth to them.108

Samber’s description of Bassus Continuus points out that the bass is generally present throughout the course of a composition.109 The General-Bass, on the other hand, carries the fundamental parts of a composition, encoded with figures. Partitura refers to realising these parts from the information provided in the General-Bass. Samber’s description makes it sound as if the partitura is the result of one unpacking or laying out the parts encoded in the

Bassus Generalis.

Thus, according to Samber’s terminology, when the Salzburg manuals offer instruction in partitura, what they are providing readers with is the information required to decode a

General-Bass and unpack its fundamental parts, which are then reconstructed as a partitura.

This is a practice executed at the organ, as Samber and Gugl specify. Muffat also refers to the

108 “Bassus Generalis wird er also genennet / weil solcher alle / und sonderlich die Fundamental- Stimmen eines jeden Gesangs in sich begreifft. Bassus Continuus wird er genennet / weilen er von Anfang biß zum End deß Gesangs ohne grosse Pausen fort gehet/und continuirt. Partitura, wird es darumben genennet/an weilen jede/und alle Stimmen von dem General Bass entspringen/und gleichsamb von selbigen gebohren werden.” Many thanks to Associate Professor, Dr. Goetz Richter, who helped me refine the translation of this very poetic text in Samber, Manaductio ad Organum, 99. 109 Compare Samber's definition with that in a near contemporary north German publication by Friederich Erhardt Niedt, in which the author writes that "these days" ("heutiges Tages") the Basso Continuo often pauses, "especially in operas and ... secular compositions” (“sonderlich in Opern und … weltlichen Sachen), in Friederich Erhardt Niedt, Musicalische Handleitung oder: Gründlicher Unterricht. Vermittelst welchen ein Liebhaber der edlen Music in kurzer Zeit sich so weit perfectioniren kan, dass er nicht allein den General-Bass nach denen gesetzten deutlichen und wenigen Regeln fertig spielen, sondern auch folglich allerley Sachen selbst componiren und ein rechtschaffener Organist und Musicus heissen könne., Erster Theil: Handelt vom General-Bass, denselben schlechtweg zu spielen (Hamburg: Benjamin Schillern, 1700, 2/1710/R), Chapter One, (no pagination). 35

organ, and the harpsichord as well, in partitura examples from the Regulae. Regional sources published in Augsburg from later in the eighteenth century also specify that partitura is a form of accompaniment improvised from a figured bass at the organ. These include Johann

Franz Peter Deysinger’s Compendium Musicum and Ignaz Franz Xaver Kürtzinger’s Getreuer

Unterricht.110 Together, the relevant passages in these sources provide a strong case that suggests south German and Austrian musicians throughout the eighteenth century collectively understood partitura as a reference to basso continuo accompaniment.

2.4 The nature of partitura instruction

As has already been noted, because the authors of the Salzburg manuals appear to have used these documents themselves for teaching, they do not explain their own methods for instructing partitura improvisation in explicit detail. In this section, this method is outlined in a summary of the manuals’ content; specifically, the way in which the authors arrange and order the information therein. Although the published manuals by Samber and Gugl explain concepts more thoroughly than those in manuscript, they are nevertheless not especially more explicit in detailing their methods of instruction. Both make clear, nevertheless, that the basis of correct partitura playing involves learning a set of rules, which they, the authors, provide. Below is Samber’s heading to section four of the Manaductio, which addresses basso continuo, and the full title of Gugl’s Fundamenta Partiturae. Notice the emphasis that both place on the rules component of instruction:

Samber: “On the General-Bass, Partiturâ, or Basso Continuo, which may be learned well

and correctly according to the order of their rules.”111

Gugl: “FVNDAMENTA PARTITVRA IN COMPENDIO DATA. That is: shorter and

110 Ignaz Franz Xaver Kürtzinger, “Partitura” in the “Alphabetische Anhang” from Getreuer Unterricht zum Singen mit Manieren, und die Violine zu Spielen, (five editions, Augsburg: between 1763 – 1821), 86. Citations refer to the third edition (Augsburg: Johann Jacob Lotter und Sohn, 1793), D-Mbs Mus.th.1826 o, http://mdz-nbn-resolving.ed/urn:nbn:de:bvb:12-bsb11011676-3; Deysinger, Compendium Musicum oder Fundamenta Partiturae, 25. 111 “Von dem General-Bass, Partiturâ, oder Basso Continuo, wie solcher wohl / und recht nach Ordnung deren Reglen möge erlernet werden”. Samber, Manaductio ad Organum, 99. 36

more thorough instruction to learn to play the General-Bass or Partitur

correctly and well according to the rules.”112

By following the rules Samber and Gugl provide in their publications, readers may learn to play a partitura correctly (‘recht’) and well (‘wohl’). Yet, in order to understand the method of instruction in the manuals, the rules alone are insufficient. It is, moreover, the manner and order in which these rules are presented and compartmentalised that both illustrates this method and suggests how within it is contained a systematic procedure for constructing a partitura.

The following examination of the Salzburg manuals illustrates this by firstly demonstrating that partitura instruction is clearly divided into four subjects and that each of these is interrelated. Secondly, rules and concepts introduced in one subject are developed and expanded in that which follows. The order of these subjects and the general arrangement of materials is thus also significant, outlining a systematic process for learning. More striking, perhaps, is that the rules in these sources remained consistent across all manuals. Although the manuals sometimes arrange the order of materials slightly differently, this suggests that the conception of a partitura played correctly and well changed very little, if at all, throughout the generations from Muffat to Michael Haydn.

2.5 The arrangement of subjects in the manuals

The four subjects into which the Salzburg manuals divide the study of partitura are: interval,

Griff, cadence and Fundamentum. Before proceeding to discuss the significance of these subjects, brief definitions of the unfamiliar terms Griff and Fundamentum are provided here.

A Griff (plural Griffe), is a combination of three or more vertically-aligned intervals extracted from a contrapuntal progression. In the Salzburg manuals, Griffe are identified by a central

112 “FVNDAMENTA PARTITVRA IN COMPENDIO DATA. Das ist: Kurzer und grüdlicher Unterricht, den General-Bass, oder die Partitur nach den Regln recht und wohl schlagen zu lernen”. Gugl, Fundamenta Partiturae in Compendio Data, title page. 37

core interval, which determines those that may be combined with it. Fundamentum (plural

Fundamenta), are short bass patterns, moving by step or leap and may consist of two to eight notes. Each Fundamenta implies within it a variety of different partitura solutions, which the authors indicate with a figured General-Bass. The manuals group Fundamenta according to their range of motion (ambitus) and direction of movement (step/leap or ascending/descending).

Muffat, Samber and Gugl treat the subjects separately, addressing each individually in different sections of their respective manuals. Eberlin as well as Adlgasser and Haydn, on the other hand, incorporate cadence and Fundamentum into the study of Griff. All the manuals divide the study of Griff as well as cadences and Fundamentum (where applicable) into chapters. Each chapter consists of a progressively more complex series of schematic structures, illustrated in music notation with accompanying commentary. The arrangement of the subjects and schemata illustrations demonstrate an internal logic within the manuals, in which each section builds on the information in that which precedes it. The foundations of this method are here presented, from which I will derive the fundamental principles for improvising partitura outlined in in Chapter One.

2.5.1 The foundational role of intervals

The manuals describe the structures of Griff, cadence and Fundamentum not, as we might expect from Ramellian sources in relation to chords and the connections between them, but in terms of intervals. Intervals are thus foundational to the study of partitura and it is most probably for this reason that the manuals address them first. It is striking that the method for defining intervals in the Salzburg manuals does not explicitly refer to a system of twenty- four Major and Minor keys. In fact, Samber is the only organist to describe any kind of tonal organisation. His description of the Modes and their transpositions, which follows the section of the Manaductio instructing partitura, appears almost like an afterthought.113 This implies, that Modes played a minor role in Samber’s partitura instruction or any of the other

113 Samber, Manaductio ad Organum, 157-77. 38

organists’ methods for that matter who provide neither descriptions of them nor a system of twenty-four keys in their manuals.114

Instead of referring to Modes or keys, the manuals calculate intervals as combinations of tones and semitones. In order to differentiate interval qualities, the manuals begin the study of intervals by defining two types of semitone: The Major semitone (M.st.) and the Minor semitone (m.st.). Minor semitones are defined as two notes that share the same letter name, where one is raised/lowered chromatically. In the Major semitone, the two notes stand one letter name apart. The structure of the whole tone (T.), consequently, is composed of a Minor plus a Major semitone (or vice versa). Table 2.1 below shows the Latin nomenclature of interval qualities, terms which all the Salzburg manuals consistently use. Alongside these are their modern equivalents and their distances, as calculated by all the authors of the manuals, in terms of tones and Major/Minor semitones.

Table 2.1 Interval calculations in Tones and Major/Minor semitones. M.st. = Major semitone, m.st. = Minor semitone, T. = Tone.

Interval Quality Modern equivalent Calculated distance Secunda Minor Minor second M.st. Major Major second M.st. + m.st. Superflua Augmented second T. + m.st. Terz Minor Minor third T. + M.st. Major Major third 2 x T. Quart Consonans and Perfect fourth 2 x T. + M.st. Dissonans Falsa Augmented fourth 3 x T. Minuta Diminished fourth - Quinta Perfectum Perfect fifth 3 x T. + M.st. Falsa Diminished fifth 2 x T. + 2 x M.st. Superflua Augmented fifth 4 x T. Sext Minor Minor sixth 3 x T. + 2 x M.st. Major Major sixth 4 x T. + M.st.

114 Like Samber, Adlgasser and Haydn include a list of scales at the end of their partitura instruction. This, however, includes no further commentary and appears in just one copy of the “Partiturfundament” (A-Ssp, Hay 2120.5) and could likely be an addition from the early nineteenth century, see Adlgasser and Haydn, “Partiturfundament,” 41-42. 39

Superflua Augmented sixth 4 x T. + M.st. + m.st. Sept Minor Minor seventh 4 x T. + 2 x M.st. Major Major seventh 5 x T. + M.st. Falsa Diminished seventh 3 x T. + 3 x M.st. Octav Perfect Perfect octave 5 x T. + 2 x M.st. Minuta/Superflua Diminished/Augmented 8ve -/+ m.st. Octave Non Minor Minor ninth Doubled Minor second Major Major ninth Doubled Major second

Samber catalogues each interval’s compound form and the exercises throughout the manuals include figures up to and including 12. While compound intervals beyond the ninth specify the voice leading above a figured General-Bass, they do not affect the contrapuntal structure of a partitura. So, whether a figured bass includes 3 or 10, for example, the same rules of counterpoint apply; however, 2 and its compound form 9 behave differently in a contrapuntal setting. Because the second is a dissonance in the bass, the intervals it combines with to form a Griff are different to those that are added to the ninth, which is a dissonance above the bass. Furthermore, while the intervals 2 and 9 are both dissonances in themselves, other intervals become consonant or dissonant depending on the intervals they combine with in a Griff. The interval 4, for example, is consonant in the combination 6/4 but dissonant in the Griff 5/4. This will be described in the following outline of the Griff and elaborated in further detail in Chapter Four.

The information in the manuals suggests that Salzburg organists taught intervals by counting out tones and semitones from a fundamental note. Major and Minor keys are conspicuously absent in this discussion. At times, furthermore, the manuals analyse intervals using the six-syllable method of Guidonian solmisation. Samber goes as far as to state that anyone wishing to learn the “General- or organ bass” must be fluent solmising in all clefs.115

No other organists make such a claim in the Salzburg manuals, though it is likely they held

115 Samber, Manaductio ad Organum, 52. 40

similar opinions, considering that Austrian musicians incorporated the six-syllable solmisation system into their methods of musical instruction till well into the nineteenth century.116

2.5.2 Griff

One frequently encounters the term Griff (plural: Griffe) in German-language historical documents instructing on basso continuo practice that stem from the region covering Bavaria and Habsburg Austria.117 These basso continuo manuals use this term to refer to chordal structures; less commonly encountered is the term ‘Accordo’, or its German equivalent,

‘Accord’. The Salzburg documents describe the structure of a Griff as a combination of intervals. An interval at the centre, or core, of a Griff define its type and distinguish it from others. Adding auxiliary intervals to this core forms a three- or four-part Griff. Because various combinatory options are available, each Griff type has a variety of possible forms. As such, Griffe are not quite the same as the common practice chord because they are the result of intervallic combinations and do not exist as predefined structures. The exception to this is the 5/3, the Perfect-Griff or ‘Concentus Ordinarius’, which, reflecting the theories of Gioseffo

Zarlino and Johannes Lippius, the Salzburg manuals identify as an independent entity.118

116 See for example, Johann Joseph Fux, Singfundament, Johann Joseph Fux Sämtliche Werke (Graz: Akademische Druk- u. Verlagsanstalt, 1993). The following pedagogical sources reference Guidonian solmisation to various extents: Leopold Mozart, Versuch einer Gründlichen Violinschule (Augsburg: Johann Jacob Lotter, 1756), 22, 42; Joseph Preindl, Gesang-Lehre (Vienna: S. A. Steiner und Comp., 1830), 7 – 15. Music scholarship is yet to address the meaning this holds for basso continuo performance specifically, and conceptions of tonality in general. While it may turn out to hold some significance for continuo practice, it goes beyond the scope of the present study and as such, must be left for future research. 117 Examples can be found outside of the region, however, such as in Georg Philipp Telemann, Singe- Spiel-, und Generalbass-Übungen, ed. Günter Fleischhauer (Leipzig: Zentralantiquariat der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik, 1983), see commentary to number 39, "Toback", Telemann references dissonant chords as "dissonirender grif". 118 Grove Music Online, s.v. "Zarlino, Gioseffo," by Claude V. Palisca, accessed Feb. 10, 2020, https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo- 9781561592630-e-0000030858; Grove Music Online, s.v. "Lippius, Johannes," by George J. Buelow, accessed Feb. 10, 2020, https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo- 9781561592630-e-0000016735. 41

Samber, Gugl and Eberlin divide the Griff in their manuals into clearly separated parts labelled chapter (‘Capitel’) or article (‘articulus’). Muffat as well as Adlgasser and Haydn use more informal means of distinguishing this information; while they frequently use titles, sometimes it is only a page break that separates discussion of one type of Griff from the next.

Each of the Salzburg manuals addresses the Perfect-Griff first. Each successive chapter from there focuses on the remaining Griffe, categorised on the basis of their respective core intervals, of which there are six: 2-Griff, 4-Griff, 5-Griff, 6-Griff, 7-Griff and 9-Griff. The structure of each Griff type includes subtypes. These are distinguished from one another on the basis of the quality of their core interval, so there are distinctions, for example, between the Griffe of the minor-, major- and superflua-second, all of which are subtypes of the main 2-

Griff type. Each interval quality identified in table 2.1 is the core of one particular subtype of

Griff. In the Salzburg manuals, Griffe subtypes are addressed within the chapters that deal with their main interval type. A chapter on the 4-Griff, for example, will include a discussion of all 4-Griff subtypes, which are the consonans-, dissonans-, minuta- and falsa-fourth. Table

2.2, below, catalogues the Griff chapters in each of the Salzburg manuals. Beside each Griff type is the chapter name and number showing where they can be found in each of the six

Salzburg manuals.

42

Table 2.2. Arrangement of Griff chapters in the Salzburg manuals.

Manuals Muffat Samber Gugl Eberlin Adlgasser and (horizontal): Haydn

Core Interval (vertical): Concentus [Chapter 1] Chapter 10: Von der Chapter 4: Vom Articulus I: [no [Chapter 2:] De Ordinarius Quintâ oder Concento Ordinario title] concentu ordinario Diapente oder Perfect-Streich 2 [Chapter 3:] Von Chpater 6: Von der Chapter 6: Von der Articulus II: Von [Chapter 3:] Von der Quart and Secunda Secund der Secund der Intervallen [Chapter 4:] Von der Secund oder Non [Chapter 8:] Von der falschen Secund 3 [N/A] Chapter 7: Von der Chapter 7: Von der [N/A] [Chapter 4: no title] Tertia Terz 4 [Chapter 3:] Von Chapter 8: Von der Chapter 8: Von der Articulus III: Von [Chapter 5: no title] der Quart Quartâ Quart der Quart [Chapter 7:] Von Chapter 9: Von der der falschen Quart falschen Quart, oder Tritono 5 [see Concentus Chapter 9: Von der Articulus IV: Von [Chapter 6:] Von Ordinarius above] Quinta der Quint der Quint

43

[Chapter 6:] Von Chapter 11: Von der etlichen falschen falschen Quint, oder

Dissonanzen. Semidiapento Von der falschen Quint. 6 [Chapter 2] Chapter 12: Von der Chapter 10: Von der Articulus V: Von [Chapter 7:] Die [Chapter 10:] Von Sextâ Sext der Sext Sext der falschen großen [superflua] Sext 7 [Chapter 5:] Von Chapter 13: Von der Chapter 11: Von der Articulus VI: Von [Chapter 8:] Die der Septima Septimâ Sept der Sept Sept [Chapter 9:] Von der falschen Septima 8 [N/A] Chapter 14: Von der Chapter 12: Von der [N/A] [Chapter 9:] Die Octavâ oder Octav Octav Diapason 9 [Chapter 4:] Von Chapter 15: Von der Chapter 13: Von der Articulus VII: Von [Chapter 10:] Die der Secund oder Nona Non der Non Non Non

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The chapters catalogue all the types of Griff generated from a core interval and illustrate the schemata that most commonly incorporate the Griff in question. Figure 2.1 includes an example in which Adlgasser and Haydn illustrate the 7-Griff in a schema that is composed of a bass ascending a fifth (from G to D) and then cadencing on G. The 7-Griffe fall on the downbeats of the second to fifth bars. This schema acts as an exercise in practising the 7-Griff and comes from the eighth chapter of the Partiturfundament, titled “Die Sept”.

Figure 2.1. The 7-Griff illustrated in a schema from Adlgasser and Haydn’s Partiturfundament.119

Beginning with Samber's Manaductio (1704), the manuals order the Griff chapters numerically from the second to the ninth. The division of material is somewhat different in the Regulae, in which Muffat groups Griffe (which he also calls ‘Concenten’) on the qualities of their core intervals. Thus, Chapters One to Five deal with both consonant and dissonant intervals that are less chromatic than Chapters Six through Ten, which focus on Griffe that incorporate superflua and minuta intervals. These later chapters are collectively titled “on some false dissonances”.120

In itself, the ordering of the Griff chapters appears to be nothing more than a convenient way of organising material. However, it highlights how Salzburg organists approached the study of Griffe from a contrapuntal standpoint. Each chapter contains Griffe that relate to one another on the basis of a shared core interval, not a chordal root. As such, Griffe are not invertible, nor are they reducible to a primary chordal structure. Rather, each Griff is

119 Adlgasser and Haydn, “Partiturfundament”, 29. 120 "Von etlichen falschen Dissonanzen." Federhofer, Georg Muffat, 58. Even more foreign (‘vrembde’) types of Griffe follow these, introduced with the title “On the chromatic Grieffen or Concenten, and firstly on mi against fa.” ("Von denen chromatischen Grieffen oder Concenten, und erstens von mi contra fa"). Federhofer, Ibid, 65.

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generated from an interval, which defines its type and determines the other intervals that can be combined with it.

2.5.3 Cadences

Like the schemata in the Griff chapters, the manuals define cadences by their intervallic contents and the Griffe that result from the combinations of these intervals. While cadences too are schematic, inasmuch as they are patterns that contain recognisable structural features, they are distinguishable from other schemata because they always function as closing formulas. The Salzburg manuals identify three cadential types – major, minor and minima – and each contains a number of subtypes. The structure of each of these cadence types is discussed by Muffat, Samber and Gugl separately from Griffe and includes exercises in reproducing these cadential formulas from a figured bass. Eberlin as well as Adlgasser and Haydn also include exercises that contain the major, minor and minima cadences but these are subsumed into the Griff chapters.

Muffat, Samber and Gugl divide the subject of cadences into three chapters, each of which focuses on a particular cadential type, which is defined by the final two note movement of its bass. The bass movement of the major cadence ascends a fourth/descends a fifth, that of the minor, conversely, ascends a fifth/descends a fourth, whereas the minima ascends/descends a semitone or descends a tone. The cadences are initially presented in their simplex form, which are in simple note-against-note consonant counterpoint in three parts. Each simplex cadential type has a distinct soprano motion, which suggests that cadences have a dyadic structure with identifiable (schematic) soprano-bass melodic contours. Manipulating either the bass or the soprano of these three simplex cadential types with syncopations produces dissonances, which generate ligata cadential subtypes.

2.5.3 Fundamentum

The final subject the manuals address is Fundamentum, which includes figured bass solutions to bass lines that ascend or descend by step or leap. This section is divided into chapters,

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each of which contains the various possible solutions to a bass line restricted to a specific ambitus. This ambitus expands in each subsequent chapter. Ultimately, these chapters together cover bass progressions that range from a semitone through to the octave by step and from the third to the seventh by leap, both ascending and descending. Figure 2.2 includes three examples of Fundamenta that “descend six notes” from Gugl’s Fundamenta

Partitura. The first begins on C and is set in four parts in the tenor clef, the second, meanwhile is in three parts beginning on F and in the bass clef and finally, the third example begins on Bb, descends six tones to D and closes with a cadence. Note, that each six-note descent is accompanied by different Griffe.

Figure 2.2. Three examples of Fundamenta that descend six notes from Gugl’s Fundamenta Partitura.121

Gugl claims that he can provide “no specific rule” (“keine gewisse Regul”) that summarise the contrapuntal solutions that a bass progression can have and that in addition to the twenty-two pages of examples he provides, many more options are possible.122 This may explain why Samber, perhaps in an attempt to account for all these possibilities, catalogues over 106 pages of Fundamenta in his Continuatio.123

Following the Fundamentum is a final exercise that contains a composite of the total knowledge that the manuals provide in the four subjects that constitute partitura improvisation. These exercises end the manuals, a mastery of which provides students with the rules for improvising a partitura correctly and well – the first step to making an

121 Gugl, Fundamenta Partiturae in Compendio Data, 45. 122 Ibid., 44. 123 Samber, Continuatio ad Manuductionem Organicam, 1-106.

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accomplished (and employable) Salzburg organist. Table 2.3 summarises the content of each of the manuals, indicating the number of chapters contained within each subject.

Table 2.3. Number of chapters the Salzburg manuals dedicate to each topic.

Manual Muffat Samber* Gugl Eberlin Adlgasser and Haydn Subject no. of chapters in each manual Interval [N/A] 2 2 1 1 Griff 10 10 9 7 9 Cadence 3 1 1** [N/A] [N/A] Fundamentum 20 ‘Exemplum’ 18 18 [N/A] [N/A]

The table demonstrates that Griff is the only subject that each manual addresses independently. While the number of Fundamentum chapters exceed that of Griff, most of the analytical discussion in the Salzburg manuals lies in the Griff and cadence subjects. It is for this reason that the schemata illustrations in these two subjects are the focal point of my analysis in the derivation of the construction principles.

Across the Griff chapters, the Salzburg manuals are equally as detailed in their illustrations and explanations of the schemata they present in each chapter. Regarding cadences, on the other hand, it is Muffat who provides by far the most detailed description of their construction and form. As such, the derivation of the punctuation principle in Chapter Five refers mainly to Muffat’s Regulae to explain the construction of cadences. Why both Eberlin as well as Adlgasser and Haydn omit discussing cadences separately to the other subjects is unclear, but perhaps it is because these two later manuals are far more succinct overall than those preceding them.

The method of partitura instruction in the Salzburg manuals thus involves introducing students to schematic structures and providing exercises in order for them to practise and

* The number of chapters for each subject refers to Samber’s Manaductio, except for Fundamentum, which is dealt with, and thus refers to, the Continuatio. ** This chapter contains three internal divisions

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internalise these. The subjects in the Salzburg manuals associate each of these schemata with a particular type of Griff, cadence or a standardised Fundamentum. Model solutions of these schemata are illustrated by the authors of the manuals either as a carefully figured bass or in partitura. The exercises that follow these, notated only as a figured bass, require the student to replicate these model solutions. If learning partitura meant identifying schemata and replicating their structures, then improvising a partitura in practice would, presumably, follow a similar process.

To do this coherently, the student would have also internalised a set of rules for constructing these schemata correctly and well. The manner in which the manuals explain these rules exhibits an approach to basso continuo that more closely follows contrapuntal principles than a Ramellian-based system of harmony. This is evident in their descriptions of Griffe as combinations of intervals and not pre-defined, invertible entities that are reducible to a primary chord. Because Griffe cannot be reduced to a 5/3- or 7-chord, they do not function harmonically in the sense that (neo-) Ramellian theories describe. Even in their descriptions of schemata and cadences, the Salzburg manuals provide an interval- and not chord-focused explanation of their structures.

2.6 The partitura tradition

Federhofer, Diergarten and Christensen have noted the unified approach to partitura instruction that the Salzburg manuals exhibit. Diergarten’s assessment of the Salzburg manuals has led him to label their instruction of partitura as part of a tradition. He explains that the similarities amongst the manuals are symptomatic of knowledge being “handed down in an almost dynastic line of teachers, students and successors.”124 Federhofer points out, however, that the formation and development of this tradition relied just as much on foreign influences as it did local practice.125 This is reflected in Muffat’s Regulae and Samber’s

124 Diergarten, "Beyond "Harmony" the Cadence in the Partitura Tradition," 62. 125 Federhofer, "Ein Salzburger Theoretikerkreis," 57, 66.

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Manaductio, which borrow extensively from contemporary Italian theories.126 The later generations of organists were no less accustomed to engaging with Italian musicians.

Leopold Mozart, for example, had a particular interest in the Paduan violin school of

Giuseppe Tartini. Both Adlgasser and the Mozarts, furthermore, were in contact with Padre

Martini in Bologna, and the former spent an extended period of time under his tutelage at

Archbishop Schrattenbach’s expense.127

Exposed mostly to Italian musical practices, the members of the Salzburg Group maintained a well-established connection that Harry White characterises as the “Austro-Italian

Baroque”.128 While the evidence suggests that these connections were maintained, the

Salzburg manuals do not reflect theoretical innovations that took place in Italy throughout the mid to late eighteenth century. Both Tartini and Martini, for example, penned theories of harmony that refer to chordal inversion and other concepts that are contrary to Salzburg’s contrapuntal approach to partitura instruction. A letter by Leopold Mozart to his wife and son in 1778 indicates that he was also aware of the compositional theories of the Mannheim musician Georg Joseph Vogler, which also refers to chordal inversion.129 In light of

Salzburg’s musical connections with these musicians, it is striking that the partitura tradition did not undergo a transformation leaving behind its contrapuntal past and adopting new theoretical models. Instead, Salzburg organists continued to base their instruction of basso continuo accompaniment on a late seventeenth-century method laid down by Muffat.

The reason for this has probably less to do with actively attempting to conserve a tradition

126 Boomgaarden and Nelson, "Johann Baptist Samber's (1654–1717) Manuductio ad Organum: The First Modern Discussion of Fugue in German," 95. 127 Grove Music Online, s.v. "Adlgasser, Anton Cajetan," by Christine de Catanzaro, accessed Feb. 14, 2020, https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo- 9781561592630-e-0000000207. 128 Harry White, Johann Joseph Fux and the Music of the Austro-Italian Baroque, ed. Harry White (Aldershot, Hants, England: Scolar Press; Brookfield, Vt., USA Ashgate Pub. Co., c.1992). 129 See Leopold Mozart's enquiry after Vogler's "Gründe der kurpfälzischen Tonschule" (Mannheim, 1778) in his letter to his wife and son, June 11, 1778, Mozart, Briefe und Aufzeichnungen: Gesamtausgabe, 374.

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and more to do with practicality. The purpose of the Salzburg manuals was to instruct students in a practice and not to espouse or prove a theory. Such historical documents provide knowledge that eighteenth-century musicians understood as musical practice130 and as such, Ian Bent defines these as ‘manuals’.131 Music theory, on the other hand, was restricted at the time to a “rarefied science of interval calculations and tuning”.132 Harmonic theories break with this tradition by attempting to impose a scientific explanation on empirical musical practices. The extent to which musicians at the time actively engaged with such theories to explain the performance of basso continuo appears to be limited. Rameau himself, for example, stated that the theory of renversement is of little use in the act of accompaniment.133 While new harmonic theories may have garnered interest amongst

Salzburg court organists, they may have considered these too impractical for instructing choir boys in playing a partitura.

2.7 Conclusion

The Salzburg organists’ manner of instructing partitura is only partially illustrated in the manuals they wrote, in which they also assume many of this practice’s minutiae to be self- evident. These manuals, however, also highlight significant aspects of their method for improvising a partitura. Primarily, that they understood this practice in contrapuntal terms.

This is evident in their structural descriptions of Griffe, schemata, cadences and

Fundamentum, which the organists explain in terms of interval combinations and not predefined chordal entities. In order to understand this method on these organists’ terms, one must then analyse these structures from within the contrapuntal paradigm. In the following chapter, I will further demonstrate that the schemata in the manuals’ Griffe and cadence chapters are constructed contrapuntally. Furthermore, I will show that the Salzburg

130 Robert W. Wason, "Musica Practica: Music Theory as Pedagogy Robert W. Wason," in The Cambridge History of Western Music Theory, ed. Thomas Christensen (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 53-57. 131 Ian Bent, "Steps to Parnassus: Contrapuntal Theory in 1725 Precursors and Successors," Ibid., ed. Thomas Christensen, 554. 132 Thomas Christensen, "Introduction," Ibid., ed. Thomas Christensen (2002), 9. 133 Jean Philippe Rameau, Treatise on Harmony (New York: Dover Publications, 1971), 395.

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organists’ method for improvising a partitura can be reconstructed through a structural analysis of these schemata.

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3. Fundamental principles

According to my analyses of the schemata in the Salzburg manuals and an examination of manuscript organ parts, I propose that the Salzburg method for improvising a partitura is reducible to four principles – disposition, exchange, punctuation and style. I call the first of these three ‘construction’ principles and the fourth forms its own category. Together, I refer to these two categories as ‘fundamental principles’, which contain those concepts that are foundational to improvising a partitura methodically. With these concepts, an organist possesses the necessary skills to decode the information given in a General-Bass. The disposition and exchange principles each generate several options. By choosing between these, one can construct a partitura in different dispositions and using different voice- leading formulas. The style principle addresses which construction options are the most appropriate to apply in a given set of circumstances. As style is not derived directly from the

Salzburg manuals and instead must be inferred from surviving organ parts, this principle is treated separately from construction.

In addition to the connection between construction and style, there are relationships within the construction principles themselves. The range of melodic motion that each individual part has (exchange), for example, is regulated by the number of parts in an accompaniment

(disposition). The exchange option organists choose, furthermore, is regulated by the punctuation principle, which, through cadential analysis, makes salient the form of the composition they accompany. The nature of these relationships is elaborated further in

Chapters Four and Five. The most significant aspect of the fundamental principles, however, is that they provide a perspective of basso continuo accompaniment from the position of the

Salzburg manuals. From this perspective, it seems that a part of improvising a partitura correctly and well involves replicating schematic structures. As such, improvisation is less concerned with creative flair and more about the accuracy of this replication. To define this concept, I use the expression ‘spontaneous replication’, the significance of which will be explored over the following chapters.

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3.1 Construction principles

The construction principles – disposition, exchange and punctuation – include foundational concepts that an organist needs to decode the data in a General-Bass in order to produce a coherently structured partitura improvisation. Yet the Salzburg manuals describe none of these principles in any amount of significant detail. In fact, exchange is the only one of the principles that the manuals explicitly mention by name. If the manuals devote so little attention to describing these three principles, what is it then, that makes them so foundational?

Even though it is unstated in the Salzburg manuals themselves, their main purpose was instructional; the unpublished manuals provided organists with teaching materials for their instruction at the Capellhaus, whereas those published brought this information to a wider readership. Despite their different target audiences, both published and unpublished manuals follow a similar method of instruction, which was highly systematised. The arrangement and order of the materials in the Salzburg manuals attests to this highly ordered and structured method. While the manuals allude to this method, however, none of their authors explicitly expound the minutiae of this pedagogical process. As a result, the

Salzburg method of partitura playing appears vague, or even esoteric, to the modern reader.

In order to reconstruct their method of instruction and thus, shine light on the foundational principles of partitura playing, we must look beyond the written words in the manuals and to their musical illustrations of schemata.

The Salzburg manuals instruct partitura playing by familiarising their readers with a corpus of schemata. They describe the structure of schemata in terms of intervals and Griffe; however, the manuals do not explain in words the way in which schemata are built. The lack of explicit details is problematic because an integral component of partitura improvisation involved organists recognising schemata in a General-Bass and replicating their structures. By demonstrating that schemata are composed of layers of melodic formulas, the disposition and exchange principles shine light on both the structure of schemata as well as the process Salzburg organists followed to construct them.

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Most schemata in the Salzburg manuals are illustrated in the Griff chapters; exceptions include cadences, which Muffat, Samber and Gugl present in their manuals’ cadence chapters. Because schemata are associated with a particular type of Griff, it may initially appear that the Salzburg organists constructed schemata as a progression of chords. This interpretation, however, focuses too much on chordal entities and is not entirely correct.

While Griffe are present in schemata, the manuals demonstrate that schemata are primarily composed of layers of counterpoint. Noteworthy amongst these illustrations are those that demonstrate the manner in which this layering occurs; in these instances, the manuals clearly show the process of constructing a schema from first principles. It is from an analysis of this process, that I derive the disposition and exchange principles.

3.2 Disposition principle

The dispositional principle describes the underlying method for constructing schemata in different numbers of parts. A schema constructed in three-parts, for example, is defined as having a three-part disposition. Constructing schemata in various numbers of parts is a foundational principle of partitura playing, which the Salzburg manuals address in each

Griff chapter.

3.2.1 Constructing schemata in three- and four-part dispositions

Although the manuals frequently illustrate schemata in different numbers of parts, they do not explicitly explain how these various dispositions are constructed. An analysis of partitura solutions by Samber from the 2-Griff chapter in his Manaductio illustrates that these are generated contrapuntally. Beginning with a progression in two-part counterpoint, he demonstrates that three- and four-part dispositions are generated by adding layers of counterpoint to this initial progression of intervals. Figures 3.1 – 3.4 outline this process.

Because the schemata in these figures are from the chapter on the 2-Griff, I refer to these as 2-

Griff schemata. Figure 3.1 is an illustration of a 2-Griff schema as a General-Bass and figure

3.2 is Samber’s partitura solution to this bass in two parts.

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Figure 3.1. A 2-Griff schema notated as a General-Bass in Samber’s Manaductio.134

Figure 3.2. Samber’s two-part partitura solution of the 2-Griff schema in figure 3.1 notated in partitura with the General-Bass below.135

Samber constructs this solution by adding a single layer above the given bass and thus produces a two-part disposition in fourth species counterpoint. The General-Bass below the partitura encodes the intervals this counterpoint creates with figures. To generate a three- part disposition for this same schema, Samber simply adds a third layer of counterpoint above this two-part progression, an illustration of which is provided in figure 3.3.

134 Samber, Manaductio ad Organum, Figure ii, no pagination. 135 Ibid.

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Figure 3.3. Samber’s three-part disposition of the 2-Griff schema in figure 3.1.136

Samber does not include an illustration of the schemata in figures 3.1 – 3.3 in four parts.

Rather, he provides an example of a shorter 2-Griff schema, which, instead of forming a chain of seconds, returns to its initial starting tone (see figure 3.4). Samber’s failure to exhaustively illustrate the schema above in every possible disposition does not necessarily suggest that he thought it could not be realised in four parts. Perhaps Samber, and the other organists for that matter, believed that the illustrations they did provide would give their readers sufficient information to realise similar examples themselves. Such abbreviated examples, in any case, are common throughout all the manuals; the schema in figure 3.4, for instance, was only illustrated by Samber in a four-part disposition.

Figure 3.4. Samber’s four-part disposition of a 2-Griff schema.137

136 Ibid. 137 Ibid.

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The General-Bass in figure 3.4 shows that the intervals in Samber’s two-part solution (see figure 3.1) lie in the tenor, the fourth layer of counterpoint was added in the soprano above the third layer (see figure 3.2), which now sits in the alto. This contrapuntal process of generating different dispositional options is not unique to the Manaductio but is evident throughout the Salzburg manuals. I carry out a more in-depth analysis of this process in

Chapter Four in order to explain not just the dispositional structure of schemata but also other fundamental elements of construction, such as dissonance treatment, melodic motion and interval combinations.

3.2.2 The number of parts in a schema

While the manuals most commonly illustrate schemata in three and four parts, there are more options than these. Muffat, for example, provides detailed illustrations of accompaniment in more than four parts. On the organ, these include five- and six-part dispositions, whereas the harpsichord is “allowed” to accompany in structures fuller even than these.138 Both Lars Ulrik Mortensen and Jesper Bøje Christensen describe Muffat’s ‘full- voiced’ (‘vollstimmig’) accompaniment as part of a larger stylistic trend around the turn of the eighteenth century.139 While they provide strong evidence to suggest that this may have been the case, the Salzburg manuals after Muffat’s pay very little attention to accompaniment in more than four parts.140 Because they appear to be less of a standard feature of partitura construction in the late eighteenth century, an analysis of Muffat’s full- voiced dispositions is excluded from this study. Instead, focus falls on two-, three- and four- part construction

138 Federhofer, Georg Muffat, 109. Muffat writes: "In Cembalo erlaubt". 139 Christensen, 18th Century Continuo Playing: A Historical Guide to the Basics, 132; Mortensen, "'Unerringly Tasteful'?: Harpsichord Continuo in Corelli's Op.5 Sonatas." 140 Gugl does provide a short description of accompaniment in more than four parts. Hardly comprehensive, he makes general remarks about adding fifths and octaves in the left hand or parallel thirds/sixths against the bass. See Gugl, Fundamenta Partiturae in Compendio Data, 26.

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Of all the manuals, Eberlin’s is exceptional in that it describes Griffe and schemata exclusively in four parts. This does not mean, however, that Eberlin’s partitura instruction and practice focused solely on four-part accompaniment. Appended to the main body of his

Fundamenta Proambulandi, a manual on improvising preludes, is a section titled “Exercitia

Partitura”, which includes numerous descriptions and illustrations of two- and three-part accompaniment. Because this section is essentially a summary of Gugl’s Fundamenta

Partiturae, and thus provides no new information, an examination of its contents is not included in the present study. The summary, nevertheless, indicates that Eberlin acknowledged that various dispositions are possible in partitura practice.141 Furthermore, as

I will discuss in Chapter Six, organ parts for Eberlin’s compositions require organists to apply a variety of dispositional options in the construction of their partiturae.

3.2.3 The dispositional structure of Griffe

By definition, a Griff must contain at least three notes; that is, its central ‘core’ interval, which defines the Griff ‘type’, and another interval that combines with it. The schemata in figures 3.3 and 3.4 include examples of the 2-Griff à 3 and à 4, respectively. In three parts, the interval 4 is added to the second, making 4/2 and, à 4, the intervals 6 and 4 combine with 2 to make 6/4/2. The illustrated examples in figures 3.3 and 3.4 are noteworthy because they demonstrate that these combinations arise contrapuntally. Rather than existing as predefined chordal entities, the 2-Griff combinations were formed by adding layers of counterpoint to a two-part progression. As I will discuss further in this section, Griffe combinations are collections of intervals that have been extracted from a schema. As such, the structure of a Griff is determined by the schema from which it was abstracted.

In addition to those illustrated in figures 3.3 and 3.4, the manuals offer other interval combinations for the 2-Griff. Figures 3.5 and 3.6 include Gugl as well as Adlgasser and

Haydn’s catalogue of three- and four-part 2-Griff options. The interval combinations in figure 3.6 are highlighted with yellow boxes.

141 Johann Ernst Eberlin, "Fundamentum seu Cantus Firmus Proambulandi," in Rottenbucher Orgelbuch, 1760, (D-Mbs, Mus.ms. 261).

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Figure 3.5. Three- and four-part options for the 2-Griff catalogued by Gugl.142

Figure 3.6. Three- and four-part options for the 2-Griff catalogued by Adlgasser and Haydn.143

The three-part combinatory options for the 2-Griff that both Gugl as well as Adlgasser and

Haydn provide include 4/2, 2/4, 6/2 and 2/6. The fifth option Gugl includes, but Adlgasser and Haydn do not document, is the combination 2/2, which he calls a doubled second. The four-part options that both manuals have in common appear more conventional and include

6/4/2, 2/6/4 and 4/2/6. Figure 3.7 demonstrates how these inverted exchanges arise within the context of a 2-Griff schema repeated three times with each beginning on a different pitch.

The first on C includes the combination 6/4/2 (indicated with a blue rectangle), which is recombined in the next schema on G as 2/6/4 (in the green rectangle) and, lastly, on the final iteration of this schema, beginning on D, is the recombination 4/2/6 (enclosed in the red rectangle).

142 Gugl, Fundamenta Partiturae in Compendio Data, 9. 143 Adlgasser and Haydn, “Partiturfundament,” 8.

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Figure 3.7. Three types of exchanged 2-Griff within the context of schemata.144

Gugl includes four more options in which some of the intervals 2, 4 and 6 are “doubled”

(“Verdoppelte”) (see the second group of figures on the left of figure 3.5). In addition to these combinations, both authors include the option of combining the interval 2 with 5. Gugl catalogues these options on a separate page to that preproduced in figure 3.5; these combinations agree with those by Adlgasser and Haydn and include 2/5/2 and 5/2/5.

It is not only the combinations here that are noteworthy but also the language the authors use to describe them. Both Gugl as well as Adlgasser and Haydn use the German verb

‘nehmen’, that is ‘to take’, to explain the process of combining intervals. This suggests that the construction of Griffe, which involves an interval ‘taking’ others, is similar to that for constructing three- and four-part schemata, in which a two-part progression takes additional lines of counterpoint. The similarity of these two processes suggests that Griffe and schemata are structurally related. The nature of this relationship highlights that even within the contrapuntal paradigm, there are both vertical and horizontal aspects involved in constructing a partitura. The practical effects this has on construction will be examined further in the following chapter.

3.3 Exchange principle

The exchange principle examines the process of arranging the upper parts in a schema and addresses the problem of voice leading in partitura construction. Like disposition, the

144 Gugl, Fundamenta Partiturae in Compendio Data, 10.

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exchange principle generates a number of options. Griff combinations in the manuals, examples of which were demonstrated in figures 3.5 and 3.6, illustrate the fundamental principle of exchange, which involves recombining the intervals above the bass by inverting them. In those examples above, the three-part combination 2/4 is an exchange of 4/2 and 2/6 an inversion of 6/2. In four-part schemata, the combinations 6/4/2, 2/6/4 and 4/2/6 are all exchanges of one another; each of these combinations contain the same intervals arranged differently. The order of arrangement is inconsequential when examining the Griff as an isolated entity. Samber describes these various arrangements as an “exchange of the numbers” (“verwechslung der Zahlen”).145 Whilst the exchanged intervals are iterations of the same Griff type, they also outline the various possible positions that the intervals could take within a schematic structure.

The manuals’ catalogues of Griffe combinations illustrate interval arrangements that have been extracted from schemata. As such, they do not demonstrate the exchange principle within the context of a schema itself, in which entire layers of counterpoint are inverted and not just isolated intervals. Figure 3.8 illustrates Gugl’s ‘three manners’ of exchanging the individual layers of counterpoint that constitute the structure of a major ligata cadence (a cadential schema) set in four parts. Unlike the Griffe catalogues, this illustration demonstrates that exchange involves inverting entire layers of a schema’s upper parts. The text on the left of the example specifies that these three exchanges contain “the natural, or the minor third” (“der natürlichen, oder Terz minor”), which refers to the quality of the over the first bass note in each cadence.

145 Samber, Manaductio ad Organum, 113, 122.

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Figure 3.8. Gugl’s illustrated example of three manners of exchanging intervals in a four-part major ligata cadence.146

The process of exchange in figure 3.8 involves arranging the same three layers of counterpoint above the bass in three different ‘manners’. The layer of counterpoint 3 – 5 – ♯3 lies in the soprano in the “First Manner” (“Erste Manier”), the alto in the “Other Manner”

(“Andere Manier”) and the tenor in the “Third Manner” (“Dritte Manier”). The layer of counterpoint 8 – 4-♯3 – 8 sits first in the alto, then in the tenor and lastly in the soprano. The layer of counterpoint 5 – 8 – 5 is first in the tenor, then in the soprano and finally the alto.

The Salzburg manuals provide their readers with ample opportunity to practise these types of exchanges in exercises that are set in both three and four parts. Exchanges are not always as simple as those in figure 3.8, however, as the counterpoint in a schema’s upper parts is not always invertible. The parallel fourths between two of the upper parts in a fauxbourdon

(a series of parallel 6/3s), for example, would become fifths if these parts were to be exchanged. Circumventing this problem requires modifying the melodic formulas of at least one of these layers of counterpoint, which, in turn, generates more exchange options and voice leading possibilities for the schema in question.

146 Gugl, Fundamenta Partiturae in Compendio Data, 22.

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3.3.1 The structural significance of melodic parts

These modifications may suggest that each schema has an infinite number of exchangeable melodic formulas. While this may be the case in theory, the Salzburg manuals limit the number of melodic voice-leading formulas that may be combined to a schema’s bass. In fact, the illustrations in the Salzburg manuals suggest that there are usually three exchange options, at most, for each four-part schema. With their melodic formulas so standardised, schemata are just as recognisable by their upper parts as they are their basses. Through repeated practice of the exercises in the Salzburg manuals, it is likely that students may have internalised the melodic formulas as integral components to the identity of the various schemata they encountered. Thus, Wolfgang Mozart, for example, was able to construct a partitura from a single melodic line alone. An article in the Gazzetta di Mantova (January 19,

1770) recalls a concert in which he demonstrated this skill in both the performance of an aria and a symphony:

He sang a whole aria extempore, on new words never before seen by him, adding

the proper accompaniments … He accompanied a whole symphony with all the

parts from a single violin part submitted to him on the spot … and all these

performances were on the harpsichord.147

The fact that Mozart could add the ‘proper accompaniments’ to an aria he improvised is impressive. To do the same for a symphony he did not compose (and prima vista), on the other hand, appears even more remarkable. Without further information, it is not possible to assert with certainty that the exchange principle accounts for Mozart’s ability to successfully accomplish these feats; however, it does provide a plausible explanation if one recognises that Mozart understood the violin part not just as a melody, but as a string of recognisable soprano patterns that implied a logical partitura solution.

147 Translated in Cliff Eisen and Stewart Spencer, Mozart a Life in Letters (Great Britain: Penguin Books, 2006), 91, fn.5.

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Historical records of such displays of musical mastery were not demonstrated by only

Wolfgang Mozart. In a letter to his wife and son, Leopold recounts that Nannerl possessed a similar ability, composing a bass to a violin solo written by the Salzburg court castrato,

Ceccarelli:

Nannerl has since then exercised astoundingly in gallanterie, taste, expression and in

accompaniment. Ceccarelli, who greets you, and travels on the 18th, had a violin solo

without bass brought to me, to which I should write one for him. Since I was away

from the house once before midday, she [Nannerl] had written the bass to it, now she

should do this for me more often.148

Unlike the instance regarding her brother, Nannerl had the opportunity to work out her accompaniment on paper. Her achievement, nevertheless, is no less revealing. It suggests that, like her brother, Nannerl understood a melody as implying a logical contrapuntal solution. As such, she was able to compose a bass, that is a second part, to a given soprano.

While Ceccarelli was not able to complete this task, Leopold’s statement that Nannerl

“should do this for me more often” suggests that well-trained Salzburg musicians were able to compose/improvise not just bass up, but soprano down as well.

It is certainly possible that students acquired this skill from a formal study of composition, rather than from exercises in partitura. The study of species counterpoint in Fux’s Gradus, for example, would provide one with the ability to compose from a cantus firmus that lies in any part within a contrapuntal texture. While there is no evidence indicating that the study of composition in eighteenth-century Salzburg included the Gradus, the curriculum there may have involved similar exercises.149 The Salzburg manuals, on the other hand, only refer

148 “Die Nannerl hat sich seit der zeit in gallanterie, gusto, expression und im accompag: erstaunlich exerciert. Ceccarelli, der sich empfehlt, und den 18 abreiset, hat ein Violinsolo ohne Baß hergebracht, ich sollte ihm solchen dazu schreiben. als ich einmal vormittag nicht zu hauß war, hat sie den Baß dazu geschrieben. nun muß sie mir solches öfter thun.” Leopold Mozart to his wife and son, April 29, 1778, Mozart, Briefe und Aufzeichnungen: Gesamtausgabe. 149 For more information about the Mozart children's early musical training see Ulrich Kaiser, Die Notenbücher der Mozarts als Grundlage der Analyse von W. A. Mozarts Kompositionen 1761-1767 (Kassel: Bärenreiter-Verlag, 2007). Two extant sources stemming from the Salzburg Group that discuss

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to the structural importance of melody in passing. Muffat, for example, advocates for a shapely soprano part. He admonishes examples of partiturae in which he considers it to be too “boring” (“langweile”).150 Melodic construction appears to have both structural and aesthetic value in partitura construction. The analysis of schemata in the following chapter demonstrates that melodic formulas are an integral part of their structure. As such, it provides a possible explanation for how Wolfgang Mozart was able to accompany a symphony from a violin part alone.

3.4 The punctuation principle

In order to understand punctuation, one must be able to recognise and identify cadences, which according to a number of eighteenth-century theorists, divide a composition into a series of contiguous sections.151 Recognising these divisions, organists arrange the voice leading in their partitura so that it reinforces the form of the composition they accompany.

3.4.1 Cadences and punctuation

Because they act as closing formulas, cadences define the form of a composition by dividing it into a series of sections. Furthermore, they also define the relationships between these sections because cadences exist within a hierarchy. This means that different cadences elicit varying degrees of closure; the ‘stronger’ the cadence, the stronger the sense of closure one senses. More than just heightening a listener’s perception of form, cadential hierarchy also helps us group the sections of a composition together. A strong cadence, for example,

composition include Adlgasser, Fundamenta Compositionis, as well as Samber, Continuatio ad Manuductionem Organicam, 161-239. 150 Federhofer, Georg Muffat, 124. Muffat continually references melodic motion with comments such as "Schönes Cantez", "Etwas Hart", "Lautet besser als...", "Schlechte Manier, so nichts Arioses" and "Andere schöne cantable Manier". 151 See for example, in the writings of Johann Mattheson, Der vollkommene Capellmeister, Das ist Gründliche Anzeige aller derjenigen Sachen, die einer wissen, können, und vollkommen inne haben muß, der einer Capelle mit Ehren und Nutzen vorstehen will: Zum Versuch entworffen (Hamburg: Christian Herold, 1739); Spiess, Tractatus musicus; Mozart, Versuch einer gründlichen Violinschule and Türk, Klavierschule oder Anweisung zum Klavierspielen für Lehrer und Lernende Faksimile-Reprint der 1. Ausgabe 1789. These four texts will be discussed in further detail in Chapter Five.

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defines a section that may include other cadences that are ‘weak’. One of those weak cadences, furthermore, may define a section in which exist ‘weaker’ cadences. In other words, cadential hierarchy highlights a composition’s recursive structure.

Even though recursion has only recently been introduced into modern musical analysis,152 the concept can be seen in eighteenth-century analyses by Johann Mattheson and Meinrad

Spiess. These composers describe the recursive structure of a composition in terms of grammatical punctuation. They liken the larger sections within a composition, which are marked by stronger cadences, to a ‘paragraph’ (‘Abschnitt’). The smaller sections within an

Abschnitt, on the other hand, they refer to as ‘incisions’ (‘Einschnitte’) and these are defined by weaker cadences.153 According to these eighteenth-century musicians, a composition is divisible into paragraphs, each of which contains weaker grammatical incisions. It is by recognising cadences and identifying their hierarchical strength, they explain, that a musician can identify these paragraphs and incisions within a composition.

3.4.2 Recursion and partitura improvisation

An integral component of the Salzburg method involves organists recognising schemata in the General-Bass and realising their structures in the partitura. Even if an organist were to realise each schema within the General-Bass with the correct voice-leading formulas, it may still be possible that their partitura would have no structural cohesion. This may be because the said organist treated each schema as an independent entity and not as part of a composite whole. While all the Salzburg manuals clearly illustrate the correct voice leading of each schema individually, they do not adequately address the fact that schemata in a

General-Bass exist contiguously. This is where the punctuation principle can provide a solution because it helps to organise, through cadential analysis, the General-Bass into

Abschnitte and Einschnitte. Cadences, in this case, clearly distinguish these grammatical sections from one another and thus, show organists the points of punctuation in the composition they are accompanying. If organists realise a schema as part of an incision or

152 Most notably in Lerdahl and Jackendoff, A Generative Theory of Tonal Music. 153 Mattheson, Der vollkommene Capellmeister, 224-25; Spiess, Tractatus Musicus, 132.

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paragraph, then their partitura would be more coherent than if they were to accompany schema-by-schema. This is because they would have to plan their voice leading in a way that considers the connections between schemata within a larger structural whole.

The following analysis of the opening eight bars of the final exercise in Gugl’s Fundamenta

Partiturae serves as an illustrative example of how the punctuation principle works. The orange square brackets below the bass in example 3.1 indicate the Einschnitte within the excerpt. Their lengths are determined by the cadences that distinguish each of these incisions from one another. The red square brackets indicate the schemata that constitute both Einschnitte in the excerpt.

Example 3.1. The opening eight bars of the final exercise in Gugl’s Fundamenta Partiturae. Orange brackets divide the excerpt into two Einschnitte punctuated by cadences.154

The cadences that mark the endings of both orange brackets divide the information in these eight bars into two incisions. A third incision would begin on the final crotchet beat of bar 8, that is, after the cadence that precedes it. Within each incision is two schemata (enclosed by red square brackets). By choosing exchange options based on these grammatical incisions, an organists realises these schemata as part of a larger structural unit and not as isolated independent entities. This lends their partitura a sense of structural cohesion, which reflects the points of punctuation in the composition it accompanies.

154 Gugl, Fundamenta Partiturae in Compendio Data, 50.

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In addition to analysing the structural identity of cadences, the punctuation principle also examines their hierarchical significance. An organist trained in playing a partitura from the

Salzburg manuals would know, for instance, that the cadence demarcating the first square incision in example 3.1 (a minima tenorizans) is weaker than that proceeding it (a minima ligata descendens). By identifying the hierarchical status of cadences in a General-Bass, organists observe not only the general form of the composition they are accompanying, but also its recursive structure. This provides them with a finer sense of the composition’s form, which may then lead them to improvising a more structurally sophisticated partitura.

3.5 The style principle

In the introduction to L’Armonico pratico, Gasparini writes that, “Accompaniment demands not only a grasp of all the valid rules of counterpoint, but also good taste, naturalness, and a ready recognition of the style of a composition”.155 In Chapter One, I outlined the style principle through a review of studies of basso continuo research. The authors of these studies demonstrated that compositional style informed the way in which seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Italian and German musicians improvised an accompaniment from a basso continuo. Gasparini’s statement succinctly encapsulates this phenomenon, which continued to guide basso continuo practices throughout the eighteenth century. It can be seen reflected, for example, in the following description of accompaniment in Carl Philipp

Emanuel Bach’s Versuch, in which the author states:

As regards performers of thorough bass, we are worse off now than we used to be.

The cause of this is the refinement of modern music. No one can be content any

longer with an accompanist who merely reads and plays the figures in the manner of

155 “Per accompagnare non solo è necessario il possesso di tutte le buone regole del Contrapunto, ma un buon gusto, naturalezza, e franchezza di conoscer all’improviso la qualità della Composizione.” Gasparini, L'armonico Pratico al cimbalo, 6; translated in Francesco Gasparini, The Practical Harmonist at the Harpsichord, ed. David L. Burrows, Da Capo Press Music Reprint Series (New York: Da Capo Press, 1980, c1963).

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a born pedant, one who memorises all of the rules and follows them mechanically.

Something more is required.156

Even though Bach was writing in Berlin almost sixty years after the first publication of

L’Armonico pratico, he considers musical style to be as significant as Gasparini does. For

Bach, a new style, ‘modern music’ (that is, the galant style) means that traditional practices required modification, that is ‘something more’. Bach explains the details of this something more throughout the part two of his Versuch and while, unfortunately, no such detailed descriptions from Austria survive, manuscript organ parts from Salzburg clearly indicate that Salzburg organists were also well aware of the significance of musical style in basso continuo accompaniment. The following discussion of the style principle thus examines the relationship between musical style and partitura playing in late eighteenth-century

Salzburg. As with the discussion of the construction principles, this examination highlights the fact that style was a foundational aspect of correct partitura playing.

3.5.1 Austrian styles of church music

Fux and Spiess provide the most detailed descriptions about compositional style in eighteenth-century Austria. Their writings draw attention to the fact that Austrian musicians identified two style of church music: Alla Capella and Mixtus. The Alla Capella style

(or Stylo à Capella) epitomises an ‘old’ style of composition, which Fux models on the compositions of Pierluigi Palestrina (Fux bases the character of Aloysius in the dialogue of the Gradus on Palestrina).157 This includes compositional forms that include fugues, cannons

156 “Wir sehen also, daß wir heut zu Tage wegen der Generalbaßspieler eckler sind, als vor dem. Nichts, als die Feinigkeiten der jetzigen Musik, sind hieran Schuld. Man ist nicht mehr zufrieden, einer Accompagnisten zu haben, der als ein wahrer musicalischer Pedant weiter nichts als Ziffern gesehen und gespielet hat; der die dazu gehörigen Regeln auswendig weiß und sie bloß mechanisch ausübt. Man verlangt etwas mehreres.” Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, Versuch Über die Wahre Art das Clavier zu Spielen: Faksimile-Reprint der Ausgaben von Tiel I, Berlin 1753 (mit den Ergänzungen der Auflage Leipzig 1787) und Tiel II, Berlin 1762 (mit den Ergänzungen der Auflage Leipzig 1797), ed. Wolfgang Horn (Kassel: Bärenreiter, 1994), II, 3; translation from Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, Essay on the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments, ed. William J. Mitchell (New York, London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1944), 173. 157 Jen-Yen Chen, "Palestrina and the Influence of "Old" Style in Eighteenth-Century Vienna," Journal of Musicological Research 22, (2003).

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and other such ‘learned’ techniques. The Stylus Mixtus (or Stylo mixto), on the other hand, includes arias as well as choruses that are not in the Alla Capella style. Also included in this category are compositions that mix aria, homophonic chorus and the Alla Capella style all in one movement.

Musicians in Austria were accustomed to these styles of church music and could recognise them by their formal characteristics. A well-trained musician, furthermore, would expect certain movements in a sacred composition to be set to one of the styles. The “Pignus” movement from the Vespers, for example, was usually composed in the Alla Capella style whereas the “Sancta Maria” would be a Stylus Mixtus aria.

3.5.2 Style and partitura playing

After identifying the style of composition he was accompanying, an eighteenth-century

Salzburg organist would construct his partitura so that it reinforced its structural attributes.

He would do so by reproducing the schemata he identified in the General-Bass with disposition and exchange options that best suited the particular style in question. Thus, the partitura would be not only structurally correct but also stylish. By constructing the partitura stylishly, an organist is practising the style principle.

A stylish partitura does not negate the importance of rules but informs the way they are applied. As Gasparini advises us, accompaniment includes both “a grasp of all the valid rules of counterpoint” as well as the ability to recognise the style of composition. As such, rules and style are connected in basso continuo accompaniment. The style principle demonstrates this connection by explaining that organists apply the construction options that best compliment the style of the composition they were accompanying. Thus, the style of a composition determines the construction of the partitura that accompanies it.

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3.5.3 The derivation of the style principle

Although the style principle cannot be derived from the Salzburg manuals, these sources do describe the rules of construction, which, in turn, are the foundations of a stylish partitura accompaniment. In order to derive the style principle, I turn, instead, to examining the notation of organ parts written to accompany compositions in the Alla Capella and Mixtus styles. Between these two styles, the way in which composers notate organ parts varies significantly. Conversely, notational practices are consistent within the Alla Capella and

Mixtus styles, which implies that there were standardised ways in which organists constructed an Alla Capella partitura versus one in the Stylo Mixto.

Standard notational features in the Alla Capella style include written out fugal expositions and frequently changing clefs. Whereas in the Stylo Mixto, one commonly encounters well- figured basses that precisely encode a three-part contrapuntal structure with a melodious soprano. These notational practices, I argue in Chapter Six, communicate the stylistic construction of the partitura to the organ accompanist. The examination undertaken in that chapter will demonstrate that these constructions are standardised within either style of composition.

3.6 Conclusion

The fundamental principles illustrate that Salzburg organists had a highly structured method for improvising a partitura. The Salzburg manuals’ illustrations of schemata reflect the inherent structure of this method. Even though these are not always comprehensively catalogued, the illustrations demonstrate how schemata are constructed in different dispositions with their upper parts exchanged in different inversions. This sense of order is not only reflected within the individual principles themselves but moreover, by their interconnectedness. While disposition and exchange each contribute to the correct construction of schemata, the application of these principles is in turn regulated by punctuation and style. These two latter principles dictate to organists the most structurally cohesive way in which to construct the schemata they identify in the General-Bass. As such,

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the Salzburg method for improvising a partitura involves not only realising schemata correctly, but also doing so in a manner appropriate to the structural and stylistic attributes of the composition it accompanies.

In the following chapters, I examine these principles in further detail and highlight the important connections between them. Some of these have already been introduced, such as the effects that style has on disposition and the structural significance that punctuation holds for exchange and voice leading in general. These will be elaborated further in the chapters that deal respectively with style and punctuation. In Chapter Four, however, I describe the specific structural relationship between disposition and exchange by examining how the number of parts in a schema regulates the melodic range of motion in its upper parts.

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4. The disposition and exchange principles

A salient feature of the Salzburg manuals’ schemata is that they are illustrated in different numbers of parts with a variety of voice leading options. Respectively, the disposition and exchange principles demonstrate that these variables are generated from two-part contrapuntal progressions. I will show this process through structural analyses of the 2-Griff schema in the Salzburg manuals. Because realising schemata from a General-Bass is an elementary aspect of partitura improvisation, the disposition and exchange principles are integral components of the Salzburg organists’ method. Before punctuation and style can be discussed, principles that each regulate the application of disposition and exchange options, it is essential to examine these two primary principles of partitura improvisation.

In the process of deriving the disposition and exchange principles, it becomes apparent that the contrapuntal paradigm has tangible effects on partitura construction. These effects are evident in the manuals’ treatment of dissonance within the structure of Griffe; however, they are more clearly visible when examining the structural attributes of schemata. Part of this examination includes defining the length of schemata, which I will analyse through the contrapuntal framework of the Rule of the Octave. The contrapuntal paradigm, furthermore, affects larger scale structural concepts as well; it defines the interrelationships between the disposition and exchange principles, determining how they regulate one another to produce coherently-structured schemata. In order to demonstrate this relationship between the two principles, I have realised two partitura solutions from a General-Bass in a short aria from

Eberlin’s Fundamenta Partitura. Moreover, these examples act as illustrations for the highly structural and procedural method Salzburg organists used to improvise a partitura. The method behind this procedure can be in part explained by the disposition and exchange principles, which, when adhered to, produce a partitura that is at once structurally coherent and spontaneous.

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4.1 The disposition principle

The Salzburg manuals present students with a large catalogue of schemata. These are composed of a variable number of independent parts, each of which follows a distinct melodic formula. Using illustrations of the 2-Griff schema in the Salzburg manuals as a model, I will demonstrate that schemata are constructed by layering these parts onto a framework (or core) progression in two-part counterpoint. Thus, in order to construct a schema à 3 or à 4, organists combine one or two respective layers of counterpoint to this core progression. I have chosen the 2-Griff schema as the subject of analysis because all the manuals illustrate this with an unusual amount of detail; however, this does not mean that the manuals’ procedure for constructing other types of schemata is any different. Through my own partitura solutions, I will demonstrate that the dispositional structures of all schemata in the Salzburg manuals are the same as that of the 2-Griff schema.

At the centre of each schema sits a progression in two-part counterpoint, the lower part of which is its bass. These central parts act as a schema’s framework or core. In order to augment a schema’s disposition, additional layers of counterpoint are combined to this progression. The Salzburg manuals clearly describe and illustrate the formation of this two- part framework in the 2-Griff schema, in which the lower part of the progression is syncopated against the upper part moving on the beat. The syncopation causes a dissonance on the second half of the syncopated bass note, which, as the dissonant note in the progression, falls a semitone. Figure 4.1 is Samber’s illustration of this progression.

Figure 4.1. Samber’s three-step process illustrating dissonance preparation and resolution.158

158 Samber, Manaductio ad Organum, 112.

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The progression demonstrates the commonplace law for dissonance treatment; a classic case of Fuxian fourth-species counterpoint. As figure 4.1 illustrates, Samber indicates that the three steps in this process include consonant preparation (“Præparatio Vorbereitung und

Consonans”), dissonance (“Dissonantia”) and resolution (“Resolutio”). The illustration also includes two types of syncopation: Open (Offen) and Hidden (Verborgen). The former type involves a syncopation over the bar that may include a tie, whereas the latter occurs within the bar as a metric displacement of the beat.

The second and third bars in figure 4.2, from Gugl’s Fundamenta Partiturae, contains a

General-Bass that encodes the two-part framework of the 2-Griff with figures. These two bars include the same schema but each begins on a different note; the first starts on C on the second crotchet beat of bar 2 and the second begins with the G on the second quaver beat in bar 3. Both follow Samber’s three-step process and illustrate, in General-Bass notation, the two ways in which one may construct the two-part framework of a 2-Griff schema. The figures in the second bar show the first way, in which the upper part begins with a consonant third (step one), this prepares the dissonant second (step two), which forces the C to resolve to B (step three). Bar three shows the second way of constructing the framework parts. This follows the same three-step process beginning on G. In this case, however, the figures indicate that the upper part approaches the dissonant second from the consonant octave.

Figure 4.2. Gugl encoding the upper framework part of the 2-Griff using figures.159

The figures in bars 2 and 3 of figure 4.2 illustrate that the upper part in the 2-Griff framework progression approaches the dissonant second from either the third (3-2) or the octave (8-2).

159 Gugl, Fundamenta Partiturae in Compendio Data, 9.

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The lower part, following the rules of counterpoint, reacts to this dissonance by resolving down a step. The resolution of the dissonant second in this progression results in the consonant interval of a third (3). Gugl does not indicate this in the figures but the resolution of the bass suggests that this would be the most logical solution. Example 4.1 is a two-part partitura solution for bars 2 and 3 in figure 4.2. It reconstructs the two-part core progression of the 2-Griff schema based on the information Samber and Gugl provide in their manuals.

Example 4.1. A two-part disposition of the 2-Griff, showing the outline of its two framework parts.

This reconstruction illustrates two options for constructing the framework parts of the 2-

Griff schema. The first, in bar 1 on C, moves 3 – 2 – 3 against the bass and the second, in bar 2 on G, moves 8 – 2 – 3 against the bass. The three- and four-part dispositional options of this schema illustrated in the Salzburg manuals develop from either core progression. I demonstrate this procedure in the following analyses. These analyses, furthermore, highlight that vertical interval combinations for the 2-Griff, prescribed in the Salzburg manuals, arise from this procedure. This suggests that Griffe are not primary constructs but exist as isolated units extrapolated from a contrapuntal progression of independent parts.

Exercises from Gugl’s Fundamenta clearly demonstrate the process of augmenting a schema from its two-part framework or core progression. Figure 4.3 provides two models for analysis of the 2-Griff schema in three parts, followed by its solution in partitura in example

4.2.

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Figure 4.3. A three-part 2-Griff schema, notated as a General-Bass in Gugl, Fundamenta Partiturae.160

Example 4.2. Partitura à 3 for the 2-Griff schemata in figure 4.3.

The red rectangles in figure 4.3 enclose the figures 3 – 2 – 3 – 3 and 3 – 2 – 3 – 8. These outline the two-part framework progression of the 2-Griff schema as illustrated in figure 4.2 and example 4.1. The core progression lies first between the bass and the alto then the bass and soprano. Added to this framework is a third layer of counterpoint. This compliments the two-part progression to form a three-part structure. The blue vertical rectangles isolate the interval combinations that form the composites 4/2 and 2/4, which are two types of combination that the Salzburg manuals prescribe for the three-part 2-Griff.

As was discussed in the previous chapter, each Griff is defined by a core interval that combines with others. The core interval of a 2-Griff is the interval 2. In the instance of figure

4.3, the auxiliary interval that combines to 2 is the interval 4, which sits in the third layer of counterpoint in this three-part example of the 2-Griff schema. The combinations 4/2 and 2/4 result from combining this third layer of counterpoint to the two-part core progression of

160 Ibid., 10.

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the 2-Griff schema. As will be demonstrated later in this chapter, the auxiliary interval in a

Griff combination is variable. The combinations 4/2 and 2/4 are just two of many possible three-part 2-Griff combinations that the Salzburg manuals offer.

Continuing with Gugl’s exercises, figure 4.4 is a figured bass that provides a model 2-Griff schema in four parts, followed by its solution in partitura in example 4.3.

Figure 4.4. The four-part 2-Griff schema in Gugl’s Fundamenta Partiturae.161

Example 4.3. Four-part disposition of Gugl's 2-Griff schema in partitura

The intervallic progression 3 – 2 – 3 – 1 against the bass, outlined with the red rectangle in figure 4.4, is one of the two possible upper parts for the two-part framework of the 2-Griff

(see figure 4.2 and example 4.1). In figure 4.4, this upper part lies in the tenor and Gugl combines this with two other strands of counterpoint. The alto strand, running 5 – 4 – 5 – 3 against the bass, is the auxiliary layer Gugl combined with the two framework parts in figure 4.3. The green rectangle surrounding the soprano line of figures outlines the fourth layer of counterpoint, which moves 8 – 6 – 6 – 5 against the bass. This fourth part

161 Ibid.

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supplements the three-part disposition illustrated in figure 4.3. The blue vertical rectangle isolates the interval combination that results from the layering of these three parts above the bass. These intervals are 6, 4 and 2, which is one of the possible four-part 2-Griff combinations that the Salzburg manuals provide.

The three illustrations in figures 4.2 – 4.4 demonstrate the manuals’ method for constructing a schema in different dispositions. This method shows that three- and four-part dispositions of a schema are generated by adding one or two respective layers of counterpoint to a two- part core progression. This process is similar to a contrapuntal procedure used in baroque composition and improvisation that Johannes Menke has recently defined as an ‘ex-centro’.

The procedure involves expanding a dyadic structure through the addition of extra parts.

Similar to the construction of schemata in the Salzburg manuals, this two-part structure acts as a framework; however, Menke specifies that this framework lies in the outermost parts. 162

In the Salzburg manuals, on the other hand, the upper part in the two-part framework can shift between any one of the schema’s layers above the bass.

4.1.1 The nature of Griffe: dissonance treatment

Through an analysis of partitura solutions in the Salzburg manuals, one observes an ex- centro process underpinning the expansion of schemata from a two-part framework to a four-part structure. The disposition principle attempts to clarify this method, which the

Salzburg organists presumably understood as self-evident. The analyses also bring to light that Griffe are not predefined entities but are vertical extractions from schemata in three and four parts. The Griff, nevertheless, plays a significant role in partitura instruction, at least as a mnemonic device that familiarises organists with hand formations. The term itself was probably derived from the German noun that translates to ‘grip’ or ‘handle’, which suggests that the Griff refers to musical practice rather than representing a theoretical concept. A closer examination of the Griff shines light on how the manuals define dissonances within a

162 Johannes Menke, "“Ex Centro” Improvisation - Sketches for a Theory of Sound Progressions in the Early Baroque," in Improvising Early Music, ed. Dirk Moelants, Geschriften Van Het Orpheus Instituut/Collected Writings of the Orpheus Institute (Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2014), 70.

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multi-voiced structure. As the following discussion demonstrates, the parameters that the contrapuntal paradigm uses to classify intervals as consonant or dissonant are different from those in Ramellian theory.

In Ramellian theory, dissonances are identified from either the chordal root of the 7/5/3- chord, or as suspended chord tones. Johann Philipp Kirnberger classifies these two dissonance types as ‘essential’ and ‘non-essential’, respectively.163 In the Salzburg manuals, no such differentiation exists; dissonances are primarily defined by interval combinations within a Griff. Table 4.1 is a complete catalogue of Griff types found across all the manuals.

The leftmost column identifies the core interval of each Griff, whereas its possible three- and four-part combinations are listed in the two remaining columns on the right:

Table 4.1. Catalogue of Griffe combinations in the Salzburg manuals.

Core interval Three-part combination (à 3) Four-part combination (à 4)

Perfect-Griff 5 8 8 3 3 5 3 ‘Major’ 2 4 6 2 5 [4]* 2 2 4 6 5 5 2 2 2 2 [3] 4 6 2 2 5 2 2 2 4 6 2 2 ‘Minor’ (♭)2 [as above, except no doubled [as above, except no doubled ♭2] ♭2] ‘Superflua’ (♯)2 [as above, except no doubled [as above, except no doubled ♯2] ♯2]

‘Consonans’ 4 6 8 6 8 8 4 4 6 4 6 4 8 4 ‘Dissonans’ 4 5 8 4 5 4

163 For a succinct description of Kirnberger's distinction between "essential" (“wesentlich”) and "inessential" (“zufällig”) dissonances see Ewald Demeyere, Johann Sebastian Bach's Art of Fugue: Performance Practice Based on German Eighteenth-Century Theory (Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2013), 59-62.

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‘Minuta’ 4 6 6 4 6 4 ‘False’ (♯)4 ♯4 6 6 [6] 2 ♯4 ♯4 [♯4] 2 [3] ‘Dissonans’ 5 6 6 5 5 3 ‘False’ (♭)5 6 ♭5 6 ♭5 3 ♭5 3 ‘Superflua’ (♯)5 ♯5 8 3 ♯5 3 ‘Minor’ 6 6 8 [6]+ 8 6 6 [6] 3 6 [5] 6 6 3 [5] 3 3 3 [3] ‘Major’ 6 6 8 8 6 3 6 6 3 3 3 ‘Superflua’ (♯)6 6 6 6 6 3 5 3 5 3 3 ‘Minor’ 7 7 7 7 5 3 5 3 ‘Major’ 7 7 7 7 7 7 5 3 2 5 4 3 2 9 9 9 9 9 5 5 3 5 5 7 11 4 3 3 9 2

Of the seventeen types of Griff, ten contain dissonances: three types of 2-Griff, two types of 4-

Griff, two types of 5-Griff as well as the two 7-Griffe and the 9-Griff. An apparent difference between Ramellian theory and the Salzburg manuals is that the latter classify the intervals of

 The manuals seldom discuss the combination 6/4/3. Adlgasser, who provides the most detailed explanation of its structure, describes the third as replacing the second in the ♯4-Griff 6/♯4/2. See in Adlgasser, "Fundamenta Compositionis," 6. + Gugl as well as Adlgasser and Haydn consider the combination 6/5 a 6-Griff, as opposed to Samber and Eberlin, both of whom list the 6/5 as a 5-Griff. See Samber, 126; Gugl, 16; Eberlin, 23 and Adlgasser and Haydn 24.

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the fourth and fifth as both consonant and dissonant. Hence, there is the Griff of the 4- consonans and 4-dissonans. Likewise, the fifth is dissonant in the Griffe 5-dissonans and

‘quinta falsa’ (♭5) but consonant in the Perfect-Griff. The third is another interval that has a dual quality; while it is mostly consonant it is considered a dissonance in the combination

6/4/3.

In his examination of the “Thoroughbass” section in part two of C.P.E. Bach’s Versuch, Joel

Lester calls attention to Bach’s apparently inconsistent approach to assigning certain intervals both consonant and dissonant qualities. Like the Salzburg manuals, Bach too classifies the fifth, fourth and third as both consonances and dissonances. Lester dismisses these dual interval qualities as representing an inefficient theoretical model, but this judgement is only fair when viewed from a Ramellian perspective.164

In Ramellian theory, intervals are defined as consonant or dissonant through the concept of inversion. This concept is not applicable to the Salzburg manuals because the root of a chord, in effect, does not exist in the contrapuntal paradigm. Instead, the manuals classify intervals as consonances or dissonances on the basis of those they are paired with within a specific Griff combination. In the Griff combination 6/5, for example, the fifth is dissonant because it forms a second with the sixth, whereas in the Perfect-Griff, 5 lies a third apart from 3 and, thus, is consonant. Likewise, because it forms a second against the fifth, 4 is dissonant in the Griff combination 5/4; however, it is consonant in 6/4 because these two intervals lie a third apart. The same reasoning explains why the third is dissonant in 4/3 but consonant in every other Griff combination. Therefore, the fifth, fourth and third are not dissonant as isolated intervals, but become so when they form a second against an upper note in the aforementioned combinations. The second itself, on the other hand, is always a dissonance. It is possibly for this reason that all the Salzburg manuals outline the formation of the second, in relation to the 2-Griff, in so much detail. If students can grasp the concept of dissonance in this progression, then they can apply this to understanding dissonance preparation and resolution in other contexts.

164 Lester, Compositional Theory, 61-62.

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Like the second, the seventh and the ninth are always dissonant; the former is considered inherently so and the latter consequently also as a doubled second. Yet, the manuals treat the 2- and 9-Griffe separately and each has its own respective interval combinations. Muffat determines the distinction between these two types of dissonances by whether they lie above the bass or in the bass itself. This distinction determines the intervals that combine with these two types of dissonances. According to Muffat, the ninth is a dissonance prepared with a syncopation above the bass and labels it “supersÿncopata” and the second

(a dissonance prepared in the bass) as “subsÿncopata”.165 The placement of these dissonances as either above or in the bass differentiates the 9-Griff from the 2-Griff, which in turn defines those intervals that combine with the core of either of these separate types of

Griffe (see table 4.1).

4.1.2 Griffe and schemata dispositions

The Salzburg manuals catalogue Griff combinations and illustrate schemata in three and four parts, which suggests that these dispositions were the most commonly used in accompaniment. An organist may, however, at times have to construct his partitura in two parts. In addition to illustrations of the 2-Griff schema in all the manuals, a few examples of two-part accompaniment appear in Muffat’s Regulae and Samber’s Manaductio. While many of these are not explicitly illustrated in the manuals, it is possible to reconstruct what some of these two-part schemata may have looked like by stripping away the auxiliary third and fourth layers of counterpoint added to their core progressions. The fact that each schema is constructed ex-centro means that it will contain a core two-part progression that can act as a model for two-part accompaniment. It is unclear why the manuals place so little emphasis on constructing schemata in two parts. Perhaps it is because when a two-part disposition is required in the partitura, the notation in the General-Bass is so specific that organists could construct their accompaniment with this information alone.

165 Federhofer, Georg Muffat, 51-52.

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While they address three dispositional options (to varying degrees), the Salzburg manuals do not explicitly define how many parts a schema requires. They do, however, clearly indicate that the structure of a Griff requires at least three parts and that an auxiliary interval adds to this to create a four-part structure. According to Holtmeier, contrapuntal and

Ramellian theories had differing points of view on the number of parts required to make a compositional structure complete. From a contrapuntal perspective, he explains that, “a four-voice texture was considered a three-voice texture supplemented by the presence of an added voice (ad libitum), which could easily be missing”. The situation is the reverse in

Ramellian theory where “a three-voice texture is an idealized four-voice texture missing one voice”.166

The ex-centro process of augmenting schemata and the fact that Griffe are catalogued à 3 and

à 4 both suggest that the Salzburg manuals reflect Holtmeier’s assessment of the contrapuntal approach to disposition. This means that a schema’s fundamental disposition is in three parts and that this may be supplemented with “an added voice (ad libitum)” to create a four-part structure. A two-part schema, on the other hand, contains no Griffe. This is because the structural definition of a Griff requires three parts. The two-part schema, on the other hand, is simply a progression of intervals. In practice, this means that the accompaniment need not always be constructed in four parts; an organist may choose to play in three and produce a complete structure or simply accompany with intervals in two parts. Structural factors determine this decision, one of which is exchange. The following section outlines the derivation of the exchange principle and focuses on its relationship with disposition.

4.2 The exchange principle

Like the disposition principle, the derivation of the exchange principle results from an analysis of schemata and Griffe in the Salzburg manuals. From an analysis of schemata illustrations in the Salzburg manuals, it is apparent that each of the parts within a schema

166 Holtmeier, "Heinichen, Rameau, and the Italian thoroughbass tradition: Concepts of tonality and chord in the rule of the octave," 9.

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follows distinct voice-leading formulas. This is evident in the General-Bass representations of the 2-Griff schema quoted above. While these voice-leading formulas are subject to variation, they are similar across the manuals, which suggests that they were understood as standardised solutions for this particular type of schema. The manuals demonstrate that those layers of counterpoint that lie above a schema’s bass can be arranged in any order to produce different voice-leading solutions for the same schema. These various solutions are the exchange options an organist has to choose from when constructing a partitura. The number of options is subject to change depending on dispositional setting, which can also have an effect on voice leading. The following analyses demonstrate the process of exchange and its relationship to disposition, beginning with the above-quoted 2-Griff schema.

Figure 4.5 below, a reproduction of figure 4.3, demonstrates the standardised voice-leading solutions for the 2-Griff schema in three parts. In figure 4.2, the upper part of this schema’s dyadic framework moves 3 – 2 – 3 – 3 (8 – 2 – 3 – 8 is an alternative possibility) and its accompanying third part 5 – 4 – 5 – 5. Figure 4.5 shows two manners of arranging these voice-leading formulas above the bass.

Figure 4.5. Common voice-leading solutions for the 2-Griff in three parts.

In the first schema on C, the framework parts are between the alto and bass and the third part in the soprano. Whereas in the iteration of the same schema on G, the voice-leading patterns are exchanged. Neither option affects the structural integrity of the schema as both solutions contain correct voice leading and valid Griff combinations. This musical example, and others quoted later in this chapter, demonstrates the simplicity of exchange in three parts. This involves inverting the two voice-leading patterns above the bass, which produces

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two exchange options. The option chosen does not affect the integrity of the schema’s structure.

Exchanges in four parts, on the other hand, may require some modifications to a schema’s voice-leading formulas. The addition of a fourth part to the texture means that the counterpoint above the bass is not so simply invertible. In figure 4.6 are two four-part 2-Griff schema solutions by Adlgasser and Haydn:

Figure 4.6. Two partitura solutions of the 2-Griff schema in Adlgasser and Haydn, Partiturfundament. The figured basses in the left half of the image represent these in a shorthand General-Bass.167

In the first solution on the left (marked with a red cross), the framework parts are between the soprano and bass, the alto moves 5 – 6 – 6 – 5 and the tenor 3 – 4 – 5 – 3. Exchanging the soprano part with the tenor in this solution of the schema, whilst maintaining the voice- leading pattern in the alto, would result in parallel fifths between the tenor and alto (C – G,

D – A). In order to avoid this error, the solution on the right (marked with a yellow cross) modifies the voice-leading formulas so that the framework part in the alto approaches the second from the third, the soprano moves 5 – 4 – 5 – 3 and the tenor 8 – 6 – 5 – 5. The voice- leading patterns in this ‘modified’ schema are similar to Gugl’s four-part solution in figure

4.4.

Because its disposition is augmented with an added part, the four-part 2-Griff schema provides a wider number of exchange options and generates more voice-leading variables

167 Adlgasser and Haydn, "Partiturfundament," 8.

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than one in three parts. While accompanying in four parts provides more dispositional possibilities than a three-part setting, it can place a number of restrictions on melodic movement. This sets up an opposition between melody and harmony, which the following section addresses under the concept of Fux’s ‘compromise’.

4.2.1 Fux’s ‘compromise’

In the later lessons on species counterpoint in the Gradus ad Paranssum, Fux addresses what he sees as the issue of balancing “fullness of harmony” with the “nature, order and variety” of melody. In his study of the Gradus, Ian Bent observes both the significance of these elements and the opposition Fux creates between them in the study of composition.168 For

Fux, this opposition is inextricably linked with disposition and the question of balance comes to the fore in his description of four-part composition, in which the “discreet composer” (“prudenti compositoris”) must “judge” (“judicio”) whether to focus on “more harmony, or more grace, or more variety”.169 This statement outlines Fux’s belief that the composer must compromise between harmonic fullness with melodic variety (a combination of steps and leaps) and grace (smooth voice leading). I refer to this concept as Fux’s

‘compromise’.

The following examples use a schema from Adlgasser and Haydn’s manual exercising the 4-

Griff170 to demonstrate the balance between harmony and melody in the construction of a partitura. They illustrate that melodic variety is easily achievable in a three-part disposition but somewhat forced with the addition of a fourth part. This demonstrates an interrelationship between the disposition and exchange principles that reflects Fux’s compromise. In example 4.4, the schema is set in three parts with the voice-leading formulas derived from Muffat’s illustration of a similar schematic structure.171 Example 4.5 inverts the upper parts in 4.4, demonstrating another exchange option for this schema:

168 Bent, "Steps to Parnassus: Contrapuntal Theory in 1725 Precursors and Successors," 569. 169 Fux, Gradus ad Parnassum, 168-69. Translation by Bent, Ibid. 170 Adlgasser and Haydn, "Partiturfundament," 16. 171 Federhofer, Georg Muffat, 91-92.

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Example 4.4. A 4-Griff schema in three parts with voice-leading based on a model by Muffat.

Example 4.5. Exchanged version of example 4.2.

Both the soprano and alto parts in the examples above display order (following the rules of dissonance and adhering to prescribed Griffe combinations) and variety (by moving with a combination of steps and leaps). These structural attributes take advantage of the three-part setting, which allows for a wide melodic range. The compromise this disposition incurs, on the other hand, is the lack of harmonic richness possible in a four-part construction.

Example 4.6 uses different melodic formulas to construct a four-part setting of the same schema. The range of melodic motion is more restricted here than in the example above.

There is a greater sense of harmonic fullness, on the other hand, because the smaller melodic range results in the parts being more closely packed together. Example 4.7 illustrates the two other exchange options generated from the voice-leading model in example 4.6:

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Example 4.6. The 4-Griff schema with voice leading modified to suit a four-part setting.

Example 4.7. Two exchange options generated from example 4.4.

While it would have been structurally possible to supplement example 4.4 with a fourth part in the tenor, the voice-leading models in examples 4.6 and 4.7 are preferable solutions because they better highlight the harmonic fullness that a four-part disposition offers.

Adding a fourth part to examples 4.4 and 4.5, on the other hand, results in sparsely-voiced

Perfect Griffe. The leaps in the soprano would make the interval combination for the Griffe in the even-numbered bars 8/3/8, as the following example demonstrates:

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Example 4.8. Less ideal four-part solution for the 4-Griff schema. Note the ‘empty’ 8/3/8 combinations for two of the three Perfect-Griffe.

While this is not incorrect, the combination 8/5/3 would take more advantage of the possibilities that this dispositional setting provides. Another problem arises regarding exchange. Because the melodic formulas in example 4.4 and 4.5 leap in fourths, exchange in four parts would result in structural disorder. The parts would cross too frequently because of the leaps and become indistinguishable from one another. For these two reasons, examples 4.6 and 4.7 provide better voice-leading solutions for this schema.

Fux’s compromise highlights that a schema’s dispositional setting regulates the number of exchange options an organist has at their diposal. As such, it brings to light an implicit structural connection between disposition and exchange. Moreover, Fux’s compromise also suggests that organists may have realised a partitura using different dispositional settings.

Responding to the construction of the composition itself, they may have realised the

General-Bass à 4 when the Griffe indicated harmonic fullness. Whereas where the harmony was less complex and more consonant, organists may have chosen to accompany à 3 or even

à 2 in order to lend their parts more melodic interest. I will expand on the reasons why organists varied the disposition of their partiturae in more detail in Chapter Six as this specifically relates to the style principle.

4.3 The application of the disposition and exchange principles

Because the Salzburg manuals instruct the principles of partitura playing through schemata, which students would practice in a series of exercises, it is likely that organists were quick to

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recognise these structures in a General-Bass. Improvising a partitura meant reconstructing these schemata using the disposition and exchange options organists practised during the course of their training. I provide two partitura solutions to an aria by Eberlin, for solo voice and basso continuo, at the end of this chapter to demonstrate the application of these principles. Eberlin composed the aria specifically to exercise 5-Griffe and it appears at the end of that chapter in his manual. Before providing my solutions, I will address the question of how Salzburg organists identified schemata in a General-Bass; specifically, by examining the factors that define the structural bounds of a schema, that is, its beginning and end points. This examination demonstrates that the length of a schema is identified by the relative stability of the intervallic combinations in its outlying Griffe, a concept I explain through Markus Jans’ theory of the ‘P-i-P principle’.172 Furthermore, this examination illustrates that schemata are expandable through self-replication. This latter aspect touches on the concept of recursion, which will be examined in further detail in Chapter Five.

4.3.1 The nature of schemata: ‘Perfect-imperfect-Perfect’, or the ‘P-i-P-principle’

The ‘Perfect-imperfect-Perfect’ principle (or ‘P-i-P-principle’) was developed by Markus Jans to explain the contrapuntal origins of the Rule of the Octave (RO). The RO (illustration by

Gaspaini given in figure 4.7) refers to:

A simplified system of harmony in which each note of a diatonic scale (ascending

and descending an octave) considered as a bass part can be assumed to have its own

chord above … the idea is a practical one.173

As a clearly recognisable pattern (though subject to variation), the RO is an example of a schema. In the history of music theory, it could be considered the most significant of all

172 Markus Jans, "Towards a History of the Origin and Development of the Rule of the Octave," in Towards Tonality Aspects of Baroque Music Theory, ed. Peter Dejans, Geschriften Van Het Orpheus Instituut/Collected Writings of the Orpheus Institute (Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2007). 173 Grove Music Online, s.v. "Regola Dell'ottava," by Peter Williams, accessed 12 Mar. 2020, https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo- 9781561592630-e-0000023084.

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schemata; Rameau, at least in part, derived his theory of harmonic function from the RO, primarily through his observation that the chords in the rule progress in fifths by root motion.174 Though some theorists accept the rule as a microcosm for harmonic tonality, Jans observes contrapuntal features common to all of the various rules of the octave.

Jans’ analysis observes that perfect intervals define relative points of stability in the RO, whereas sections of movement include mainly unstable imperfect intervals and/or even dissonances. Moreover, Jans points out that the perfect intervals bookend those of the less stable imperfect and dissonant intervals. From this, he proposes the P-i-P-principle, where unstable imperfect intervals (i) are enclosed by perfect consonances (P). This principle, he states, accounts for contrapuntal movements in music from “Machaut to Mahler”.175 Figure

4.7 below presents two of Jans’ analyses of Gasparini’s rules of the octave. From these, and an analysis of others, he observes that, “Beginning notes as well as (intermediary and final) goal notes are to be played with 3-5 chords; all the ones in between, however, with 3-6 chords”.176 Adopting Salzburg terminology to explain Jans’ analysis, the Perfect-Griffe define the stable points in the schemata and moments of movement by 6-Griffe. In the first of the two models, the octave is divided at the fourth, that is from G to C and D to G, and the second example at the fifth, from G to D and D to G.

Figure 4.7. Rule of the Octave by Gasparini/Jans.177

174 For a detailed description of this phenomenon, see Christensen, "Thorough Bass as Music Theory." 175 Jans, "Towards a History of the Origin and Development of the Rule of the Octave," 130. 176 Ibid., 120-22. 177 Ibid., 121.

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The significance of the P-i-P-principle is that it contrasts the stability of the fifth against the relative unstable sixth; the former interval represents a point of rest and the latter, motion.

Jans highlights this opposition with his own ex-centro analyses of some RO. Until Rameau’s development of basse fondamentale, this opposition was an unquestioned axiom of contrapuntal theory. By generating the first inversion (6/3) from the root position (5/3) chord and placing these in opposition to the 7/5/3, Holtmeier explains that Rameau “wiped the centuries-old and autonomous theory of intervallic qualities off the table.”178

The method of partitura instruction in the Salzburg manuals continues the older tradition by maintaining the contrapuntal opposition between the fifth and sixth. This will be made evident in the analyses below of various RO by Salzburg organists. Meanwhile, Muffat’s structural description of the 6-Griff provides a stark example. Here, Muffat explains that the sixth replaces the fifth in the Perfect-Griff to form the core interval of the 6-Griff. As such, the sixth modifies the Perfect-Griff to create an entirely separate Griff type.179 Fux’s explanation of the 6/3 in the Gradus highlights a similar type of opposition between the fifth and sixth.

Again, this is discussed in relation to the 5/3, which Fux refers to as the trias armonica. When demonstrating the various exchange options for the 5/3, Fux inverts the bass with one of the upper parts and forms the combination 6/3.180 While Joel Lester sees this as Fux accepting the theory of triadic inversion, Ian Bent points out that Fux explains the 6/3 as the trias armonica

“abandoned”.181 In doing so, Fux separates the structural entity of the 6/3 from the relatively more stable 5/3.

Because the P-i-P-principle approaches the construction of the RO in very much the same way as the manuals do schemata, the principle is used here to define the beginning and end points of a schema. By defining the length of individual schemata, these patterns become

178 Holtmeier, "Heinichen, Rameau, and the Italian thoroughbass tradition: Concepts of tonality and chord in the rule of the octave," 22. 179 Federhofer, Georg Muffat, 41. 180 Fux, Gradus ad Parnassum, 82-83. 181 Lester, Compositional Theory, 42; Bent, "Steps to Parnassus: Contrapuntal Theory in 1725 Precursors and Successors," 570.

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easily recognisable in a General-Bass. If improvising a partitura means reproducing the structure of schemata, then the ability to distinguish these from one another is essential to constructing a cohesive accompaniment. Following the P-i-P-principle, the Griffe that bookend a schema ought to have relatively stable core intervals. An analysis of figures 4.8 –

4.10 demonstrates these are almost always the Perfect-Griff. This analysis begins with examples of the RO by Samber, Gugl as well as Adlgasser and Haydn. All three begin and end with Perfect-Griffe, which stabilise the octave and define its structural boundaries as a self-contained schema.

Figure 4.8. Samber, “Von acht auffsteigenden Noten”, Continuatio.182

Figure 4.9. Gugl, “Von acht auffsteigenden Noten”.183

182 Samber, Continuatio ad Manuductionem Organicam, 58. 183 Gugl, Fundamenta Partiturae in Compendio Data, 38.

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Figure 4.10. Exercise in the 6-Griff by Adlgasser and Haydn.184

Each schema carries a different contrapuntal solution, and this impacts the sense of motion it conveys. According to the P-i-P-principle, Samber’s rule is the most stable of the three because it applies the Perfect-Griff most frequently. Nevertheless, the 6/5-Griffe on C in the first octave and G in the second do provide a strong sense of motion, which elicits a feeling of rest on the Perfect-Griffe that respectively follow these tones. These Perfect-Griffe function as intermediary closes within the octave (much like Gasparini’s rule in figure 4.7 above). The exchange on A in the three-part option of the rule (right-hand side, set in the tenor clef) reinforces that the division of the octave is in fact on the fifth and not on any of the other

Perfect-Griffe therein, such as on E or B. The example by Gugl closely resembles the RO most commonly quoted in academic literature except for the perfect-Griff on the second scale degree, which is usually accompanied by a 6/3. By using more 6-Griffe than Samber, Gugl’s octave is comparatively less stable. Adlgasser and Haydn’s solution to the rule is the least stable of all. Composed solely of 6-Griffe between the beginning and end of the octave ascent and descent, it follows a classic fauxbourdon formula in four parts.

The examples above present three different contrapuntal solutions to the same bass line, each of which represents a closed structural unit. According to the P-i-P-principle, the

Perfect-Griffe that flank these units define their length by providing points of relative stability. In Samber and Gugl’s rules of the octave, this comprises an eight-note ascent. In the

Adlgasser and Haydn version, on the other hand, the last note of the octave ascent carries a

6-Griff. As such, this example of the rule includes both a full octave ascending and descending. While the fauxbourdon was a common pattern in late eighteenth-century

Salzburg compositions, it is unlikely an organist would encounter this pattern as it appears

184 Adlgasser and Haydn, "Partiturfundament," 24.

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in figure 4.10.185 Rather than covering an entire octave, as it does in Adlgasser and Haydn’s

RO, the ambitus of the fauxbourdon is typically between three to five bass notes. The RO in figure 4.10, then, appears to function as an exercise in practising this pattern à 4 and does not necessarily represent how the fauxbourdon was typically used in compositional practice.186

Because a General-Bass is composed of a series of schemata, Perfect-Griffe (or their associated intervals) can help organists define schemata and distinguish these from one another. In this regard, the P-i-P-principle makes salient the structure of the composition an organist accompanies as it demarcates its constituent parts. Identifying these parts, an organist then constructs a partitura as a series of schemata. While the Salzburg manuals provide a comprehensive catalogue of these, they do not fully account for the various types of melodic and bass variations that composers use in composition. I will not enter into an exhaustive examination of the ways in which composers vary the structure of schemata here, as this would require a separate study focusing on composition.187 Nevertheless, it is important to note that the expansion of schemata through sequential repetition is one type of variation technique that one commonly encounters in the Salzburg manuals’ exercises. In lieu of an explanation in the manuals, I will discuss this technique in the following section.

Using the P-i-P-principle as the foundation of this examination, I will demonstrate that

Salzburg organists understood larger structural units as a series of smaller schemata.

4.3.2 Expanding schemata

The two examples below present schemata that are the result of a simple unit replicating itself to form a larger, more complex, structure. Example 4.9 is taken from Adlgasser and

Haydn’s “Partiturfundament” and consists of four smaller units nestled within a larger

185 Wolfgang Hoffmann, "Terz-Sext-Klangreihen bei Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Zur Behandlung einesmittelalterlichen Klangverfahrens im Tonsatz Mozarts," Archiv für Musikwissenschaft 2, (1996). 186 An exceptional case includes bars 197-199 in the first movement of Wolfgang Mozart’s Sinfonia in A (K.201), in which a scale descending a ninth in the bass is accompanied with a fauxbourdon à 3. 187 Gjerdingen’s examination of the ‘Ponte’, as described by the south German musician Joseph Riepel (1709 – 1782), provides an illustrative example of the exhaustive possibilities for varying a schema’s melodic and bass patterns, see Gjerdingen, Music in the Galant Style, 197-205.

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schematic structure followed by a cadence. A yellow square bracket marks the bounds of this schema, which, according to the conditions of the P-i-P-principle, is defined by two perfect-Griffe. The schema is composed of a four-note ascending pattern repeated three times, each time beginning one tone higher than that previously. Red square brackets indicate these smaller units, which in themselves are also defined by two flanking Perfect-

Griffe. The P-i-P-principle thus operates here on both a lower and higher structural level.

Example 4.9. Three schemata nestled within a larger unit.188

By practising such schemata repeatedly, organists could come to recognise them from a

(figured) bass. The analysis of the example above, furthermore, suggests that these organists perceived schemata on both lower and higher structural levels; that is, as small units or, as a series of smaller units that make a larger structure. The practical implications of this aspect of schemata is a highly structured partitura. By perceiving a figured bass as a series of schemata, each of which has a predefined structure, then the act of improvising a partitura involves replicating these structures as cohesively as possible. This ‘spontaneous replication’ is facilitated if one is able to recognise patterns on a larger structural level, whilst also being aware of the smaller parts that make up the whole.

Example 4.10 includes bars 15 to 18 extracted from the organ staff of the score from the

“Laudate Pueri” in Wolfgang Mozart’s Vesperae de Dominica (K.321). It serves to demonstrate the application of this concept in an actual scenario where an organist would improvise a partitura from the information provided in the organ staff alone. The excerpt begins in the bass clef before moving to the tenor clef on the second minim beat of bar 15. The General-

188 Adlgasser and Haydn, "Partiturfundament," 24.

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Bass then reverts back to the bass clef on the second minim beat of bar 16. The movement is set in F Major, though the key signature is only indicated in the first system of the score.

Example 4.10. Bars 15 to 18 from the “Laudate Pueri from W.A. Mozart’s Vesperae de Dominica (K. 321).189

Observing this excerpt, an organist firstly recognises that it is composed of a schema (very similar to that in example 4.9) and a cadence. Both are marked with yellow square brackets, specifying their length. The schema, furthermore, is itself composed of two smaller units repeated sequentially, indicated with red brackets. Because improvising a partitura involves replicating structures, the organist then applies the correct voice-leading formulas to the schema and cadence identified in the excerpt. The figuring in the schema is explicit enough that it determines the organist’s exchange option, which includes a passing 4/2 on the last note in the first of the schema’s two constituent units. Because the two units within the schema are sequential, the exchange option of the first may be replicated in the second. The notation in this excerpt is unusually specific with regard to disposition; it indicates that the first unit in the schema is constructed à 3 and the second à 4. Having practised the schema using both dispositions, the Salzburg organist recalls his training and reconstructs the schematic solutions ‘spontaneously’.

This scenario highlights the process of spontaneous replication. By identifying schemata from a figured bass, which they would have practised as a part of their training, organists would have been able to improvise the remainder of these structures. Improvisation, in this

189 Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, "Laudate Pueri" from Vesperae De Dominica (K.321), (manuscript copy by Leopold Mozart, F-Pn, MS 217).

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context, thus refers to replicating schematic constructs in a way that it is appropriately adapted to the musical context. A significant procedural aspect of partitura improvisation therefore is schemata recognition. By extension, so is counterpoint because its laws underpin the construction of schemata, which I demonstrated in my descriptions of the disposition and exchange principles. The disposition and exchange principles indicate how a partitura is constructed contrapuntally; that is, as layers of predefined melodic formulas.

The procedure for improvising a partitura can then be summarised as constructing layers of melodic formulas over a schematic bass. This stands in contrast to received harmonic approaches in two ways. Firstly, the data given in an organ part (the General-Bass) is understood as a series of schemata. The P-i-P-principle, a contrapuntally-derived theory, helps distinguish schemata from each other. From a (neo-) Ramellian perspective, on the other hand, phrase structures and chord relationships are primarily defined by harmonic function. Secondly, the construction of schemata focuses on voice-leading formulas, and chordal entities only secondarily. This procedure of construction is essentially the reverse of

(neo-) Ramellian theory. In the following section of this chapter, I will demonstrate the practical effects of applying a contrapuntal approach to partitura construction in the context of a complete composition – an aria by Eberlin from his Partitura Fundamenta.

4.3.3 Sample partitura solutions

The two partitura solutions I propose to Eberlin’s aria (see example 4.11) demonstrate the application of the disposition and exchange principles. The first of these is composed à 3, the second à 4. The process of construction follows a two-step procedure: identifying schemata and constructing them coherently. The first step follows the procedure outlined in section

4.1, drawing on the catalogue of schemata in Eberlin’s Partitur Fundament to identify schemata. The exchange options used to construct the remaining parts for these schemata are determined by those provided by Eberlin in Fundamenta Partitura.

The exchange options used for the partiturae were chosen so as to articulate the form of the aria. This means that the voice leading at cadences was constructed to end on perfect

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intervals, which elicit a sense of closure according to the P-i-P-principle. The purpose of the two partiturae is to demonstrate construction in different dispositional settings. In addition to showing a variety of possible Griff combinations (refer to table 4.1), the different dispositional settings highlight the effects of Fux’s compromise on partitura construction; the partitura à 3 has a much wider range of melodic movement compared to that à 4, which is far more harmonically full and rich.

The aria is an exercise in practising types of 5-Griff. Consequently, the partiturae include many ♭5- and 5-dissonans Griffe. Nevertheless, the aria includes other Griff types as well, which provides the opportunity to demonstrate their construction. All schemata are indicated with square brackets and are referenced with page numbers indicating where they can be found in Eberlin’s manual. This illustrates that the structure of a General-Bass is composed of a series of contiguous schemata, the structural solutions of which are provided in the Salzburg manuals’ exercises. A copy of the aria from his Fundamenta Partitura is reproduced in Appendix A.190 Finally, I have indicated schemata that have been varied through bass/melodic variations with an asterisk (*); these variations are explained in further detail in the analysis that follows example 4.11. In this aria, these frequently constitute a 5-Griff schema elided with a cadence. While cadences will be described further in the following chapter, their formal names are given here following terminology used in the Salzburg manuals.

190 Eberlin, "Fundamenta Partitura," 26-27.

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Example 4.11. Proposed partitura solutions to an unnamed aria by Eberlin, from Fundamenta Partitura.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

(f) (g) (h) (i) (j)

Analysis of the schemata:

(a) ♭5-Griff schema;191 (b)* 6/5-Griff schema with E♯ chromatic alteration;192 (c) ♭5-Griff schema;193 (d) cadenza minima stabilis;194 (e) cadenza majoris perfectis;195 (f) ♭5-Griff schema;196

191 Ibid., 25. 192 Ibid. 193 Ibid., Example VIII, 24. 194 Federhofer, Georg Muffat, 125. 195 Ibid., 105. 196 Eberlin, "Fundamenta Partitura," Example V, 24.

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(g)* mi-fa schema followed by two Perfect-Griffe;197 (h) 6/5-Griff schema;198 (i) cadenza minima simplex;199 (j) cadenza majoris perfectis.200

The schematic analysis of Eberlin’s aria indicates that the constitution of a General-Bass contains a series of predefined structures. Each of these structures, furthermore, contain

Griffe, that is intervallic combinations, encoded into a figured bass. These figures communicate to the organist the structure of schemata, each of which contains layers of voice-leading formulas. Realising these structures, an organist improvises a partitura from the General-Bass, which encodes these schemata in a shorthand system of notation.

The two partiturae I have provided in example 4.11 realise the General-Bass à 3 and à 4, respectively, and illustrate the different ways in which their upper parts may be exchanged.

In addition to illustrating these different disposition and exchange options, the solutions demonstrate the relationship between these two fundamental principles. Because of its dispositional setting, for example, the partitura à 3 lacks some of the harmonic richness in that à 4. In bars 1 and 3, this means that the 6/5-Griffe on both A♯ and C♯ use the combination

5/3 and do not include the sixth. On the other hand, the three-part disposition means that both of the two upper parts have more freedom of movement. The contour of the soprano, for instance, descends a sixth over the course of schemata (a) and (b). The partitura à 4, conversely, only descends a fourth. At the same time, however, its Griffe are more harmonically rich and full; all 6/5-Griffe in this partitura, for instance, use the combination

6/5/3.

As this examination indicates, an organist’s choice of disposition affects not only the types of

Griffe combinations they use but also determines their exchange options. This directly corresponds to the concept of Fux’s compromise, which highlights the structural implications that disposition has for melody and harmony. While I will discuss the

197 Ibid., Example III, 29. 198 Ibid., 25. 199 Federhofer, Georg Muffat, 120-21. 200 Ibid., 125.

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dispositional options organists chose to construct a partitura under the style principle, Fux’s compromise provides a point of discussion that directly relates to Eberlin’s aria. Some of the schemata in this aria, such as (a), (c) and (j) contain harmonically richer Griffe than others.

Because a four-part construction enriches harmony, it is entirely possible that an organist used this dispositional setting to construct the partitura in these schemata. On the other hand, a four-part disposition would contribute little to schemata that are less harmonically complex (such as (d), (g) and (i)). Instead, in these situations, a three-part construction would better serve the partitura by lending it a sense of melodic variety. It is entirely possible, then, that an organist would alternate between these two dispositions within the same composition. Depending on whether schemata implied a harmonically full or melodically varied partitura, organists could have alternated the dispositions they used in their accompaniment to suit their structural attributes.201

4.4 Conclusion

The Salzburg manuals meticulously catalogue Griffe combinations and provide their readers with ample exercises to practise realising schemata. The ubiquity of these two structural units in the manuals attests to their importance in the Salzburg organists’ method of partitura improvisation. Furthermore, they highlight the procedural logic that underlies this method, an understanding of which shapes our conception of improvisation in partitura practice. The composition of a schema, for instance, includes layers of voice-leading formulas generated from a progression in two-part counterpoint. Recognising its bass in a

General-Bass, an organist reconstructs this schema in the partitura using a desired dispositional setting with the upper parts exchanged into a particular arrangement. This process of improvisation requires the organist to both memorise the structure of a schema and faithfully replicate it.

201 By this statement, I do not wish to imply that Salzburg organists played their partiturae using so- called ‘micro dynamics’, a technique in which the keyboardist varied the number of parts in a chord to elicit a sense of beat hierarchy. Besides the fact that there is no evidence of such a practice in the Salzburg manuals, this technique would damage the structural integrity of the voice leading in a schema.

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Improvisation, therefore, involves the organist recognising a string of schemata in the

General-Bass and realising these appropriately. While this process does not have the artistic flair we may like to associate with improvisation, it is still a spontaneous and creative act.

The fact that the organist constructs a structurally coherent accompaniment from the

General-Bass, drawing on their memory to do so, means that improvising a partitura is both inventive and ordered. I summarise this concept in the expression ‘spontaneous replication’.

In addition to the disposition and exchange principles, I will demonstrate that this idea is also visible in the punctuation and style principles as well.

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5. The punctuation principle

The disposition and exchange principles describe how Salzburg organists constructed schemata and illustrate that there are a number of alternative ways in which they can be structured. My analyses of the schemata in the Griff chapters from the Salzburg manuals point to the fact that these two principles are of primary significance to the Salzburg method of improvising a partitura. In addition to Griffe, the manuals by Muffat, Samber and Gugl each include several chapters that focus exclusively on the study of cadences. While all three authors agree on the definition, structure and nomenclature of cadences, it is Muffat’s

Regulae that most exhaustively describes their construction.

While Muffat provides a comprehensive catalogue and description of cadential structures, neither he nor any of the other manuals’ authors explicitly illustrate how knowledge of these structures contributes to improvising a partitura. Nevertheless, eighteenth-century musicians such as Mattheson, Spiess, Leopold Mozart and Türk iterate the importance that cadence has to musical comprehension. In addition to defining closure, these authors explain that cadences punctuate compositions into a series of groups.202 Although Mattheson and Türk were north Germans, their observations on musical form are similar to those by

Spiess and Mozart. I will demonstrate that their theoretical observations of form are not only similar but make salient the practical consequences that cadences have on the construction of a partitura. I refer to this concept as the punctuation principle.

The punctuation principle describes structure on two levels. Primarily, it accounts for the conditions that organise schemata into a series of groups. Furthermore, it also defines the macro relationships between these groups and demonstrates that the nature of eighteenth- century composition is recursive. I will begin by demonstrating that by acting as closing formulas, cadences divide a composition into a series of interrelated groups. Then, through an examination of their hierarchical nature, I explain the structural relationships between these groups and illustrate that these make salient a composition’s recursive form. More

202 Mattheson, Der vollkommene Capellmeister, 224-25; Spiess, Tractatus Musicus, 132; Mozart, Versuch einer Gründlichen Violinschule, 107; Türk, Klavierschule oder Anweisung zum Klavierspielen für Lehrer und Lernende Faksimile-Reprint der 1. Ausgabe 1789, 340-47.

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than just an analytical device, the punctuation principle is an integral aspect of the Salzburg organists’ method for improvising a partitura. The points of punctuation an organist identifies in a General-Bass determine his choice of exchange options, which then produce a partitura that articulates the form of the composition it accompanies.

5.1 Definition and function of cadences

Part of Samber’s partitura instruction in the Manaductio includes a description of cadences, which he begins with the following definition:

What is cadence? The cadence is an artful and pleasant combination to sensitive ears,

also the conclusion to either a part of, or an entire melody. It is threefold: Cadentia

major, the largest. Minor, the smaller. Minima, the smallest or worst.203

While Samber’s definition is brief, it distinguishes two structural features of cadences that define the punctuation principle. Firstly, it indicates that cadences signify a close, which may occur both during and at the end of a composition. As such, cadences reveal the form of a composition by distinguishing its sections from one another. Secondly, his description hints at a distinct hierarchy of cadence in which the major is the strongest, the minor less so and the minima the worst. Cadences then also define the structural importance of the sections they articulate within a composition. By distinguishing these sections and defining their structural importance, cadences provide organists with a road map of the composition they are accompanying. This, in turn, allows them to improvise a partitura that reflects this form and as such, it contains a sense of order and structural coherence.

Cadences are not the only structures that contribute to improvising a structurally coherent partitura. In Chapter Four, I demonstrated that a General-Bass is composed of a series of

203 “Was ist Cadenz? Die Cadenz ist eine künstliche / und denen zarten Ohren ein angenehme zusammen fügung auch der endliche Schluß/eintweders eines Theils/oder gantzen Gesangs. Ist dreyfach/ als Cadentia major die Grössere. Minor die kleinere. Minima die kleinest= oder schlechtiste”. Samber, Manaductio ad Organum, 154.

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schemata; the structural bounds of which, according to the P-i-P-principle, are defined by

Perfect-Griffe. By distinguishing these schemata from one another, an organist realises their implicit structures with fluency and accuracy even in the spontaneous act of improvisation.

This structural conception of the General-Bass reflects Gjerdingen’s observation of the form of galant compositions, which he likens to beads along a thread. A bead represents an

‘event’, which incorporates a predefined schema. A “cognitive thread” binds these events together. Gjerdingen adopts this analogy from Leopold Mozart, who refers to “the thread”

(“Il filo”) as a metaphor for the arrangement of materials in good composition.204 Figure 5.1 is Gjerdingen’s own illustration of a string diagram.

Figure 5.1. A 'Gjerdingen string'.205

This illustration represents a galant composition as a series of contiguous events held together along a thread and demonstrates how sowing small units together creates a larger structure. Cadences further refine an organist’s conception of this structure. Because they function as closing formulas, they group these events together to form larger sections. Thus, with a knowledge of cadences, organists understand the thread in a General-Bass as a series of sections that each contains a group of schemata. In the Tractatus Musicus, Spiess likens these sections to grammar and points of punctuation. Instead of a thread, he describes a composition as a paragraph containing smaller grammatical incisions, each of which is punctuated by a particular type of cadence.

204 Gjerdingen, Music in the Galant Style, 369-75. 205 Ibid., 376.

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5.1.1 Cadence and grammar

In his Tractatus Musicus, Meinrad Spiess devotes a chapter to musical punctuation under the heading “Von der Ab= und Einschnitten”. He collectively defines the grammatical devices that punctuate text as Diastolica and explains how composers represent these in composition with specific cadential constructions.206 Spiess defines the construction of these cadences using the theory of ‘clausula formalis’. According to this theory, cadences are derived from a standard model in four-part counterpoint, in which the bass descends a fifth. Spiess calls this cadential model the ‘Cadentia perfectissima’, or “wholly perfect cadence” (“gantz vollkommene Cadenz”), an illustration of which is given in figure 5.2:

Figure 5.2. The Cadentia Perfectissima or “gantz vollkommene Cadenz” in Spiess's Tractatus

Musicus.207

The combination of the four parts in this cadence and their individual motions are what make it the “most complete”.208 To make less perfect cadences, one exchanges any of the upper three parts with the bass. The resulting cadential structure is no longer perfectissima because the individual parts do not retain the voice leading patterns of this model. Spiess

206 Spiess, Tractatus musicus, 131-32. 207 Ibid., 96. 208 Gjerdingen translates perfectissima as "most complete" in Music in the Galant Style, 139.

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relabels these exchanged cadences according to the part that assumes the role of the bass.

Were the cantus moved to the bass, the cadence becomes cantizans, the alto altizans and the tenor tenorizans.209

All cadence types generated from the Cadentia Perfectissima signify a close (“Schluß”). Spiess specifies, however, that the type of close composers choose to apply depends on the punctuation of the text they have to set to music. A composer uses a “full close”

(“gäntzlichen Schluß”) at the end of a paragraph (“Abschnitt”) and a “formal … but not complete close” (“förmlich Schluß … aber nicht gäntzlich”) for a ‘period’.210 Smaller grammatical incisions (“Einschnitte”) require weaker cadence types; colons are indicated by a ‘clausulam disederantem’, whereas commas are indicated by a simple descent or

‘Stimm=Fall’.211 This analogy that Spiess provides serves to illustrate that while cadences have the same function, they do not elicit an equal sense of closure. The amount of closure a cadence provides determines its place within a hierarchy that defines its relative strength or weakness.

Like Spiess’s description of cadences, those in the Salzburg manuals catalogue a variety of different cadential types that exist within a hierarchy. The structure, categorisation and nomenclature of these cadential types, however, are dissimilar to the cadences generated from the Cadentia Perfectissima because the Salzburg manuals do not follow the theory of clausula formalis. Less common in the Catholic south, this theory is more typically found in north German descriptions of cadences.212 As a south German source then, Spiess’s Tractatus

Musicus is rather exceptional. It is possibly through his connections with Mizler’s Societät der

209 Spiess, Tractatus musicus, 95-96. 210 The term “period” is a translation of Spiess’ “Periodus”, which he uses to mean a complete sentence. In punctuation, it is equivalent to a full stop in British/Australian English, what in American English is called a period. See Spiess, Tractatus musicus, 132. A similar definition of the German equivalent of the term ‘Periode’ can be found in Allgemeine Theorie der Schönen Künste, Zweyter Theil, s.v. "Periode," by Johann George Sulzer, (Leipzig: M. G. Weidmanns Erben und Reich, 1774), 886-90. 211 Spiess, Tractatus musicus, 132. 212 Caleb Michael Mutch, "Studies in the History of the Cadence" (PhD diss., Columbia University, 2015), 169-70. Note, however, that Spiess’s cadences differ slightly to standard north German models, typical examples of which can be found by Johann Gottfried Walther in Praecepta der Musicalischen Composition (Leipzig: VEB Breitkopf und Härtel Musikverlag, 1955), 161-62.

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Musikalischen Wissenschaften in Leipzig (of which he became a member in 1743) that Spiess adopted this theory.213

Instead, for the purpose of instructing partitura at least, the Salzburg manuals primarily distinguish cadences from one another by bass motion. From this, they identify three cadential types – major, minor and minima. Each has its own pair of upper parts, which are rhythmically altered to generate cadential subtypes. In the following section, I demonstrate that these structures constitute a cadential grammar commonly understood by eighteenth- century Salzburg organists. By applying this grammar to their basso continuo practice, they could improvise a partitura that is not only structurally coherent in itself but also reflects the form of the composition they were accompanying.

5.2 The structure of cadences in the Salzburg manuals

While Muffat, Samber and Gugl each provide a formal description of cadences, it is Muffat’s that is the most comprehensive and detailed. For this reason, I will primarily analyse the structure of cadences through the descriptions and partitura illustrations he provides in the

Regulae. From this analysis, I will demonstrate that the cadential structures Muffat identifies are reflected in Samber’s and Gugl’s manuals. Moreover, they can also be seen in the exercises that Eberlin as well as Adlgasser and Haydn provide in theirs. I will illustrate, furthermore, that Muffat’s taxonomy is visible not only in these latter eighteenth-century manuals but also in Wolfgang Mozart’s “Kyrie” from the Spaur Messe (K.258). This suggests that Mozart, like other late eighteenth-century Salzburg organists, understood a cadential syntax similar to Muffat’s.

Additionally, it serves to illustrate that a knowledge of cadences enables an organist to recognise points of punctuation in a composition. I will demonstrate this through a cadential analysis of the “Kyrie” (K.258) conducted from the General-Bass and not from a full score.

213 Grove Music Online, s.v. “Meinrad Spiess”, by George J. Buelow, https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo- 9781561592630-e-0000026413. Accessed 11 July, 2020.

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Surviving performance materials from eighteenth-century Salzburg indicate that, in most circumstances, compositions were rarely arranged into score. Organists, as well as the ‘time beater’ (‘battuta’) who directed the ensemble, had only a figured General-Bass at their disposal.214 As such, analysis from a General-Bass would better reflect the performance situation of eighteenth-century organists.

Muffat groups cadences into two main categories: “true” (“Wahr”) and “deceptive”

(“Betrieglich”).215 He identifies three types of true cadences – major, minor and minima – and each of these contains various subtypes.216 For clarity of expression, Muffat’s three true cadence types are referred to here as ‘constructs’ and their subtypes as ‘constituents’. These are terms borrowed from linguistic theory, in which constituents are the structural components that together comprise the construct of a sentence.217 The analogy is apt because of the close ties eighteenth-century musicians saw between cadences and grammar. Figure

5.3 presents these cadential constructs and constituents in a tree diagram structure. This shows that in Muffat’s catalogue there are three major cadence constituents, two minor cadence constituents and four minima cadence constituents. The structure of each of these cadential constructs and constituents will be described further in this section of the chapter.

It is noteworthy that neither the Regulae nor any of the other manuals describe deceptive cadences. These will be discussed briefly in section 5.2.4, drawing on descriptions in related sources.

214 Manuscript copies of performance parts titled ‘organo’ and ‘battuta’/’direcotrium’ are catalogued in Eva Neumayr and Lars E. Laubhold, Dommusikarchiv Salzburg (A-Sd) Thematischer Katalog der musikalischen Quellen, Reihe A, ed. Ernst Hintermaier, vol. 17, Schriftenreihe des Archivs der Erzdiözese Salzburg (Vienna: Hollitzer Verlag, 2018). 215 This term includes, but is not restricted to, the harmonic progression V-vi/VI, commonly identified as ‘interrupted’ in British/Australian usage. 216 Federhofer, Georg Muffat, 103-27. 217 Peter Collins and Carmella Hollo, English Grammar an Introduction (Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS and 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10010: Palgrave, 2000), 9-10.

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Figure 5.3. Muffat’s cadential catalogue represented as a tree diagram. Letters (a), (b) and (c) identify the major, minor and minima cadences as ‘true’ cadential constructs. Lower case roman numerals indicate their respective constituents.

Cadences

A. Wahr (true) B. Betrieglich (deceptive)

a. Major b. Minor c. Minima ? i. simplex ii. ligata iii. perfectis i. simplex ii. ligata iii. tenorizans iv. stabilis

i. simplex ii. ligata

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As I will demonstrate in the following examination, Muffat’s description of a cadence’s structure is similar to those of regular schemata in the Salzburg manuals. Cadences have an essential three-part disposition and are made of layers of voice-leading formulas, the upper parts of which are exchangeable. These formulas can also be analysed as a series of Griffe and Muffat sometimes refers to these, although he mostly encodes the voice leading with figures. Muffat’s categorisation of cadences says much about their structural attributes.

Cadential constructs are distinguished from one another by the motion of the final two notes in their basses and, as such, form different cadential types. Each construct has a unique pair of voice-leading formulas in its upper parts, each of which can be rhythmically manipulated to form its own subset of subsidiary constituents. The identity of a cadence, then, is defined by a three-part structure which includes a pair of melodic formulas following a specific rhythmic arrangement, paired with a final two-note descent in its accompanying bass line.

5.2.1 The major cadence

Figures 5.4 – 5.7 present three-part partiturae of major cadences from Muffat’s Regulae, including both simple (figure 5.4) and ligata (figures 5.5 – 5.7) constituents. All four cadential constituents of the major cadence construct consist of the same voice-leading formulas. Their rhythms, on the other hand, vary and this aspect of their construction distinguishes the ligata constituent from the simplex. All simplex cadences move in first-species counterpoint; that is, all the parts progress in rhythmic unison and consist solely of consonances. Ligata cadences, on the other hand, contain ‘ligatures’ or ties.218 These create syncopations in the upper parts, which result in dissonances. These are seen encoded in the figures in figures 5.5 – 5.7 and

Muffat goes as far as to specify the Griffe that ensue from these dissonant relationships.

Figure 5.5, for instance, contains the ‘quarta dissonans’ (5/4); figure 5.6 uses the ‘semisextilis’

(6/5) and figure 5.7 includes both of these Griffe.

Muffat explains that it is from the bass that one recognises the major cadence, which descends a fifth or ascends a fourth. This description accounts for the major cadence as a

218 The manuals use the Latin term ligata and its German equivalent, ‘gebunden’, synonymously to refer to a tie.

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construct in the broad sense, but not for the structure of its constituents. These are defined by the rhythmic arrangement of the pair of melodic formulas in their upper parts.

Figure 5.4. The simple major cadence (“Cadentia major simplex”).219

Figure 5.5. Ligata or ‘gebunden’ major cadences using the Griff of the ‘quarta dissonans’ (5/4).220

Figure 5.6. Another ligata cadence with the 6/5-Griff or ‘semisextilis’.221

219 Muffat, Hoffmann, and Lorenzetti, Regulae Concentuum Partiturae: 1699, 93. 220 Ibid., 94. 221 Ibid.

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Figure 5.7. Major ligata cadences “with the semisextilis and quart dissonans”.222

Figure 5.8 extracts the upper parts from each of the cadential structures presented in figures

5.4 – 5.7. Examining these in isolation, it becomes evident that an integral aspect of a cadential construct’s identity is the melodic formulas of its upper parts and, furthermore, that the rhythmic arrangement of these parts defines the identities of its constituents.

Figure 5.8. Melodic pairings of the major cadences in figures 5.2 – 5.5. Note that all follow the same contour but with altered rhythms.

While Muffat initially states that the major cadence is recognised by a descending fifth/ascending fourth, the models in figures 5.4 – 5.7 indicate that a cadential bass is composed of more than just two notes. The notes preceding the final fifth descent in these examples are variable and perhaps, serve simply as contrapuntal solutions against the structurally more significant upper parts in the cadential complex. Because these variations do not alter the final fifth descent, they may change the Griffe in the cadence but not the identity of its construct. In L’armonico pratico, Gasparini describes variations in the bass as

“diminutions”; these are ornamental and, he specifies, do not indicate a change of cadential

222 Ibid., 95.

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constituent.223

This analysis of the major simplex and ligata cadences demonstrates two important aspects of cadential structure. Firstly, that melodic formulas are an integral and defining aspect of a cadence’s structural identity. Secondly, that a cadential construct is recognisable by the final two notes in its bass. Its constituent, however, is identifiable by whether or not there are dissonances in the diminutions that precede this final descent. In order to identify a cadential construct and constituent from a General-Bass, knowledge of these two elements of a cadence’s structure is integral for organists. By becoming familiar with the possible variations these basses are subject to, organists would have been able to recognise cadences from the General-Bass alone. After recognising the cadential construct and constituent, they are able to apply the correct voice-leading formulas in their partitura to complete its structure. Because voice-leading formulas are so integral to a cadence’s identity, replicating these is essential to maintaining structural coherence in the partitura.

Figures 5.9 and 5.10 are exercises from the Salzburg manuals, the first by Eberlin and the latter by Adlgasser and Haydn. Both end with a major ligata cadence, which the well-trained organist would identify from the figures and the motion of the bass line itself. Orange square brackets mark the lengths of these cadences:

Figure 5.9. An exercise in using the 6/5-Griff from Eberlin’s “Fundamenta Partitura”, ending with a major ligata cadence.224

223 Gasparini, L'armonico Pratico al cimbalo. 29-34 224 Eberlin, "Fundamenta Partitura," 25.

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Figure 5.10. An exercise from Adlgasser and Haydn’s “Partiturfundament”, ending with a major ligata cadence. The major ligata cadences in both figures 5.9 and 5.10 use the same pattern of Griffe.225

The figures in these exercises do not specify the voice leading of the upper parts, but this is not necessary if the student practising them understands the structure of these cadence types. For performers today not privileged enough to have Eberlin, Adlgasser or Haydn as a teacher, Muffat’s illustrations provide a perfect model. In fact, the voice-leading formulas in figures 5.5 and 5.6 are directly applicable to the examples above. This demonstrates that as with schemata, organists can spontaneously replicate the structure of cadences by following the rules and examples set out in the Salzburg manuals. It also highlights, furthermore, that

Muffat’s cadential syntax remained relevant for generations after his Regulae up to and including the time of Michael Haydn.

The last constituent of the major cadence Muffat describes is the major perfectis or “complete cadence” (“Gantze Cadenz”). Its adjective descriptions as ‘perfect’ or ‘complete’ suggests that Muffat considered this cadence as the strongest of the three major constituents. Figures

5.11 and 5.12 include Muffat’s two models for the major perfectis.

Figure 5.11. The ‘complete’ (‘Gantz’) major cadence from Muffat’s Regulae.226

225 Adlgasser and Haydn, "Partiturfundament," 35. 226 Muffat, Hoffmann, and Lorenzetti, Regulae Concentuum Partiturae: 1699, 95.

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Figure 5.12. Other examples, which include illustrations of exchange options for the major perfectis

cadence.227

Because their basses descend a fifth, both models are identifiable as major cadence constructs. The soprano and alto voice-leading formulas in the major perfectis are the feature that distinguish it from the simplex and ligata constituents. These not only syncopate the voice leading formulas of the major simplex cadence (indicated with red square brackets) but expand them.

Both types of major perfectis were integral to partitura training in the late eighteenth century, evident in their continued appearance in the manuals of Eberlin as well as Adlgasser and

Haydn.228 While Diergarten argues that the major perfectis was limited to conservative-styled church compositions by this time,229 its presence is ubiquitous if one takes the concept of bass diminution into account. Like the other major cadence constituents, the major perfectis is defined by its pair of voice-leading patterns. The identity of the cadence is retained even though the bass is elaborated with diminutions, so long as the final two notes descend a fifth. If these conditions apply to all types of major constituents, then the square brackets in figure 5.13 below would indicate a major perfectis.

227 Ibid. 228 See, for example, the eighth exercise for the "Quinta Falsa" in Eberlin, "Fundamenta Partitura," 26. as well as the first exercise from the chapter, "Von der Quint" in Adlgasser and Haydn, "Partiturfundament," 20. 229 Diergarten, "Beyond "Harmony" the Cadence in the Partitura Tradition," 67-68.

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Figure 5.13. The major perfectis illustrated as a General-Bass in an exercise by Adlgasser and

Haydn.230

The square brackets above the bass indicate the length of the proposed major perfectis. It is considered so because the soprano model in the third bar of figure 5.12 combines with this cadential bass and compromises neither its contrapuntal structure, nor the Griff combinations. Example 5.1 below includes three- and four-part partitura solutions for this cadence in the context of the entire exercise.

Example 5.1. The major perfectis illustrated as a General-Bass in an exercise by Adlgasser and

Haydn.

Note that because of the bass diminutions, the alto pattern in figure 5.12 had to be altered slightly to accommodate the partitura à 3 in example 5.1. Such variations are permissible, however, considering that Muffat takes such liberties himself in the Regulae.231 If the identity of a cadence is determined by both its melodic and bass parts, late eighteenth-century church compositions are replete with the major perfectis cadence subtype. This will become

230 Adlgasser and Haydn, "Partiturfundament," 17. 231 See, for example, the modification of the voice leading in the soprano and alto parts where the bass undergoes elaborate diminutions under the heading “Unterschiedliche Cadenzen” (“various cadences”) in Federhofer, Georg Muffat, 111-16.

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evident in the cadential analysis of the “Kyrie” presented later in this chapter.

5.2.2 The minor cadence

The minor cadence is an inversion of the major cadence; its bass descends a fourth/ascends a fifth and its upper parts move in contrary motion to those in the major cadence. Figure 5.14 below is a model minor simplex from Muffat’s Regulae:

Figure 5.14. “Cadentia minor simplex ungebunden”, with Muffat’s comments: “tender” (“zierlich”) and “another way” (“anderst”).232

Figures 5.15 – 5.17 include examples of the minor ligata. These contain bass diminutions, which require variations to the melodic formulas in the upper parts.

Figure 5.15. The minor cadence “Bound with the second or ninth”.Figure 5.12233

232 Muffat, Hoffmann, and Lorenzetti, Regulae Concentuum Partiturae: 1699, 109. 233 Ibid., 110.

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Figure 5.16. The minor cadence “Bound with the fourth, second or ninth”.234

Figure 5.17. “Minor cadence bound with the seventh”.235

From the perspective of functional harmony, it is difficult to ascertain the tonal identity of the minor cadence. Unlike the major cadence, which is akin to the ‘perfect cadence’, the minor cadence could represent the equivalent of either an ‘imperfect’ or a ‘plagal’ cadence.

Without further indications, it appears that Muffat does not differentiate between the two, assuming that he perceived a distinction between these modern cadential types at all. Gugl explicitly associates the use of the minor cadence with the “fourth and seventh Psalm tone” and Samber makes similar references.236 Figure 5.18 contains four illustrations of the minor cadence by Gugl, the last of which elaborates the final bass note with a ♯7-Griff.

234 Ibid. 235 Ibid., 109. 236 “Diese Cadenz ist in quarto und septimo Tono secundum Psalmos im Gebrauch.” Gugl, Fundamenta Partiturae in Compendio Data, 25; Samber, Manaductio ad Organum, 175-76.

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Figure 5.18. Gugl’s examples of minor cadences used in compositions set in the fourth and seventh Psalm tones.237

Although neither organist continues to explain why this is the case, Samber and Gugl’s association between the minor cadence and the Psalm tones is insightful as it is a rare example of the Salzburg manuals referencing a concrete theoretical concept. This does not, however, suggest much in the way of partitura improvisation. It is more important to note that mode is not a primary factor for cadential codification in Muffat’s catalogue. It appears that whether the minor cadence functions as either an ‘imperfect’ or ‘plagal’ equivalent is not important. Rather, minor cadential constituents are primarily defined as part of a single construction by virtue of the fact that they share the same bass endings and similar voice- leading patterns. It is a combination of intervals and melodic formulas that define cadential construction and categorisation.

5.2.3 The minima cadence

While the rhythmic arrangement of voice-leading formulas defines a cadential constituent, the respective bass motions of the major and minor cadential constructions primarily define and distinguish these cadence types from one another. This defining feature of Muffat’s cadential catalogue shares similarities with Italian sources, such as Bartolomeo Bismantova’s

Compendio Musicale (1677) and Gasparini in L’Armonico Pratico.238 This connection with the latter is significant because both Muffat and Gasparini were students of Bernardo Pasquini,

237 Gugl, Fundamenta Partiturae in Compendio Data, 25. 238 Bartolomeo Bismantova, “Compendio Musicale,” in Violon méthodes, traités, ouvrages généraux, ed. Alessandro Moccia (Courlay, France: Editions Fuzeau, 2002), (no pagination) see section titled, "Regole; per suonare il Basso Continuo"; Gasparini, L'armonico Pratico al cimbalo, 29-35.

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a founding member of the Roman partimento school.239 This suggests that the origins of the cadential syntax in the Salzburg manuals are from models established in late seventeenth- century Rome. Felix Diergarten points out that the construction of Muffat’s major and minor cadences attests to Salzburg’s debt to Rome. His conclusion that “cadences are exactly the same in the partimento and partitura tradition”, however, requires revision.240 While terminological differences between Gasparini and Salzburg do not suggest much in themselves,241 Muffat’s description of minima cadences refers to the north German tradition of clausula formalis, which Romans from Pasquini’s circle did not document.242

The conditions defining the structure of the major and minor constituents apply to minima constituents only up to a point because these include three types of bass motions: a stepwise descent (descendens), a major semitone ascent (tenorizans) and a fixed tone (stabilis). The descendens, “which is the most used and ordinary”, has both a simplex and ligata construction; the disposition of the latter syncopates that of the former.243

Figure 5.19. Muffat’s examples of the simplex minima cadence.244

Muffat includes a descending semitone in this category as well, illustrated in figure 5.20.

239 Sanguinetti, The Art of Partimento History, Theory and Practice, 11. 240 Diergarten, "Beyond "Harmony" the Cadence in the Partitura Tradition," 69. 241 As Neuwrith and Bergé outline, cadential terminology in the eighteenth century was unstandardised and subject to variation, see Markus Neuwirth and Pieter Bergé, "Introduction: What Is a Cadence? Nine Perspectives," ibid., ed. Markus Neuwirth and Pieter Bergé, 7. 242 Caleb Michael Mutch, "Studies in the History of the Cadence" (PhD diss., Columbia University, 2015), 169-70. 243 “Cadentia minima … descendens, welche die gebräuchlichste und ordinary ist”. Federhofer, Georg Muffat, 120. 244 Muffat, Hoffmann, and Lorenzetti, Regulae Concentuum Partiturae: 1699, 115.

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Figure 5.20. Examples of the cadence “bound with the seventh” (“gebunden mit der Septima”).245

The simplex-ligata relationship in the minima descendens is similar to those in major and minor cadences because the voice-leading formulas of the ligata constituent are a rhythmic alteration of those in the simplex. Moreover, like those cadences, the minima descendens is identifiable by its dispositions and the final interval of the bass. It is concerning the minima descendens that Muffat makes an explicit statement on both voice leading and bass motion.

“The major sixth,” he writes, “which is taken in the penultimate note, shall always ascend to the octave when it is in the uppermost voice”.246 The bass, on the other hand, has considerably more freedom and “may go where he wills”.247

Concerning both its bass and soprano, Muffat’s conditions for the minima descendens directly apply to figure 5.21. The final two notes of the bass descend a semitone, whereas to the penultimate note, the bass leaps down a fifth, going where ‘he wills’. The A♯ in the soprano on the penultimate bass note C (indicated by the figure ♯6) makes an augmented, not a major, sixth and rises to the octave, B, above the final bass note. The figuring in figure 5.21, which is one of Eberlin’s exercises in the chapter on 7-Griffe, demonstrates Muffat’s voice- leading directive for the minima descendens applied to a cadential schema. This is just one

245 Ibid. 246“Die Sext major, so in der vorlezten Noten genommen wird, soll in der obern Stimm allzeit zu der Octav aufsteigen.” Federhofer, Georg Muffat, 121. 247“Der Baß … zu der vorletzten [Noten] aber mag er gehen wie er will.” Ibid., 120.

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example that highlights the consistent approach towards cadential construction found throughout the Salzburg manuals.

Figure 5.21. An example of the a minima ligata cadence in Eberlin’s Fundamenta Partitura. Note the figuring, which follows Muffat’s directive concerning the voice leading of the major sixth ascending to the octave.248

The bass of the minima ascendens, also called tenorizans, rises a semitone and is “commonly struck with the subsÿncopata second”.249 The construction of this cadence type follows the standard form of the 2-Griff schema. Figure 5.22 includes Muffat’s examples from the

Regulae, which encode this cadence’s construction in a figured bass.

Figure 5.22. Examples of the minima ascendens, or tenorizans in Muffat’s Regulae.250

The tenorizans is an outlier in Muffat’s cadential catalogue in that it introduces the theory of clausula formalis to an otherwise Roman approach to describing cadential structure. This is not how Muffat usually describes cadential construction in the Regulae, at least not for the major and minor cadences, which, after the Roman tradition, are primarily identified by bass motion. The construction of the minima tenorizans, on the other hand, is a result of exchanging the soprano and bass parts of the minima descendens (see figures 5.19 and 5.20) to

248 Eberlin, "Fundamenta Partitura," 32. 249 "Cadentia minima tenorizans oder ascendens ... wird gemeiniglich mit der Secunda subsÿncopata geschlagen." Federhofer, Georg Muffat, 124. 250 Muffat, Hoffmann, and Lorenzetti, Regulae Concentuum Partiturae: 1699, 119.

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produce those cadences in figure 5.22. The term tenorizans, which is also referred to as

“tenor-like” (“tenorweis”), may have been Muffat nodding to the tradition of clausula formalis. A well-trained north German musician, however, would have relabelled Muffat’s tenorizans as cantizans. In figure 5.23 is an example of the cadenza cantizans as illustrated by

Spiess; its bass is the soprano from the clausula perfectissima model.

Figure 5.23. Spiess’s illustration of the cadenza cantizans, identical in construction to Muffat’s cadentia tenorizans.251

Does Muffat’s mislabelling of this term make him a bad theorist? Perhaps, but the Salzburg manuals are not theory textbooks. Rather, their primary concern is to illustrate an effective means of cadential construction that concerns basso continuo accompaniment. In this context, they are instructing readers on recognising cadences based on how they appear in the bass, that is, in the General-Bass. An effective strategy to achieve this is to categorise cadences based on bass motion, rather than from the ‘most perfect’ model.

Like the minor cadence, Samber and Gugl explain that the minima cadence appears in the fourth and seventh Psalm tones. Because of its intervallic combinations (‘Concenten’),

251 Johann Gottfried Walther, Praecepta der Musicalischen Composition (Leipzig: VEB Breitkopf und Härtel Musikverlag, 1955), 162.

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Muffat writes that minima stabilis “sounds much like the minor cadence”.252 The figures over the bass notes in the first system of figure 5.24 encode some of the various voice-leading formulas of the minima stabilis cadence (à 3) that Muffat provides in the Regulae.

Figure 5.24. Examples of the minima stabilis from Muffat’s Regulae illustrated in both General- Bass and partitura.253

Muffat categorises the stabilis as a constituent of the minima cadential construction, despite the voice leading and modal affinities that this constituent shares with the minor cadence.

The reason for this may be that the stationary bass of the stabilis is more akin to the small intervallic movement of the other minima constituents than that of the minor cadence. One frequently encounters the minima stabilis in exercises by Eberlin as well as Adlgasser and

Haydn. The figuring in figures 5.25 and 5.26 follow Muffat’s General-Bass models in 5.24.

Figure 5.25. Adlgasser and Haydn, exercises from the chapter on the 5-Griff that include the minima stabilis. This version of the cadence contains the Griffe: 5/3-6/4-5/3.254

252 “Lautet fast wie die Cadenz minor.” Federhofer, Georg Muffat, 125. 253 Muffat, Hoffmann, and Lorenzetti, Regulae Concentuum Partiturae: 1699, 120. 254 Adlgasser and Haydn, "Partiturfundament," 14.

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Figure 5.26. An exercise in the 7-Griff from Eberlin, which is also a model minima stabilis. This example is composed of the Griffe: 8/5/3-7/4/2-8/5/3.255

5.2.4 Deceptive cadences

The Salzburg manuals neither discuss nor illustrate examples of deceptive cadences. Beyond

Muffat’s reference to them in the Regulae, in fact, they are not mentioned at all. It would be unlikely that this lack of documentation meant that Salzburg musicians did not recognise deceptive cadences, a cadential type acknowledged in many eighteenth-century theoretical traditions including the Roman partimento school. If cadences in the Salzburg manuals are similar to those in this school, as Diergarten pointed out, then the deceptive cadences

Gasparini illustrates in L’armonico pratico may be similar to those Muffat mentions in the

Regulae. Gasparini’s cadences, then, could provide a model of deceptive cadences that

Salzburg court organists would have recognised. Figure 5.27 includes the illustrations of deceptive cadences Gasparini provides in L’armonico pratico.

255 Eberlin, "Fundamenta Partitura," 32.

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Figure 5.27. Gasparini’s examples of deceptive cadences.256

Gasparini marks the deceptive cadences in his examples with the symbol and explains that:

Deceptive cadences [Le Cadenze finte] are formed in different ways. They are called

deceptive when the composition containing the cadence does not terminate on the

usual notes, but moves in an unexpected way to another unanticipated chord or

tone. A cadence is also called deceptive when the resolution is minor instead of

major; this, however, would be indicated in the figures or in the upper composed

part.257

Gasparini’s description indicates that changes to a cadence’s ordinary intervallic content and/or bass motion are what make it deceptive. Both flattened thirds over the major cadence’s penultimate bass note and final bass leaps to unexpected tones, as seen in figure

256 Gasparini, L'armonico Pratico al cimbalo, 34. 257 “Le Cadenze finte si fanno in diversi modi, e si chiamano finte, quando la Composizione formata, che hà la Cadenza non termina nelle corde solite, ma inganna, portandosi in alira corda, o nota inaspettata. Chiama si Cadenza finta ancora, quando la risoluzione in vece di maggiore si fa minore. Questo però verrà dimostrato da i segni de’numeri, o dalla parte superiore composta” in Gasparini, Ibid., 35. Translated in Gasparini, The Practical Harmonist at the Harpsichord, 46.

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5.27, are clear examples of the types of structural alterations Gasparini mentions. A similar demonstration of deceptive cadences can also be found in Fux’s Gradus.258

5.2.5 Cadential analysis

An examination of cadential structures in all the manuals demonstrates that eighteenth- century Salzburg organists collectively understood a common cadential grammar. This includes major, minor and minima constructions and their subsidiary constituents. Because these structures can be found embedded in many of the manuals’ exercises, they appear to form an essential component of a Salzburg organists’ repertory of schemata. Like the schemata in the Griff chapters, the fundamental composition of cadences comprises a three- part disposition with recognisable melodic formulas. The following analysis of the organ part from Mozart’s “Kyrie” (K.258) (see example 5.2) will demonstrate that these structures, also like regular schemata, are identifiable in a figured General-Bass. Because they act as closing formulas, however, these cadences enable organists to recognise points of punctuation in the composition they accompany. In the analysis, I identify the cadences that affect these points of punctuation with red square brackets. Below the brackets, I classify the particular cadential construction and constituent along with further commentary on their structures if necessary.

258 Fux, Gradus ad Parnassum, 247.

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Example 5.2. Cadential analysis of the “Kyrie” from W.A. Mozart’s Spaur Messe (K.258).

Page 1: bars 1 to 9

(a): Bars 1 to 3: Major simplex (b): Bars 5 to 8: Majoris perfectis.

followed by three notes ascending in the bass.

Page 2: bars 10 to 16

(c): Bars 13 to 16: Minima tenorizans, or a minor ligata (G-D)

with bass division, which nestles a minima tenorizans within it.

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Page 3: bars 17 to 25

(d) and (e): Bars eighteen and 20: Two minor simplex cadences

Page 4: bars 26 to 35

(f): Bars 25 to 28: Majoris perfectis with bass diminutions. (g): Last quaver of bar 35 to 38:

Majoris perfectis with bass

diminutions

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Page 5: bars 35 to 46

(h): Bars 38 to 39: (i): Bars 40 to 42: (j): Bars 43 to 46: Minima tenorizans/minor ligata, as per (c).

Minima ligata. Minima ligata plus

minor ligata composite.

Page 6: bars 47 to 56

(k): Bars 51 to 54: Majoris perfectis. (l): Bar 56: Minor simplex.

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Page 7: bars 57 to 65 (bars 58 to 62 crossed out, scribe directs the reader to the following page)

(m): Bar 58: Minor simplex. (n): Bars 63 to downbeat of 66: Majoris perfectis cadence,

with bass diminutions.

Page 8: bars 66 to 68 (plus bars 57 to 60)

(o) and (p): Second quaver of bar 66 to downbeat of bar 67 and second quaver of bar 67 to bar 68: Two major ligata cadences.

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Because cadences act as closing formulas, those identified in the analysis in example 5.2 define sections within the “Kyrie” (K.258). These divide the structure of the composition into its constituent parts, which Spiess likens to the various types of grammatical incisions

(Einschnitte) that make up a paragraph (Abschnitt) (see section 5.1.1). In bars 1 to 19 in the

“Kyrie” (K.258), the cadences identified with the letters (a), (b), (c) and (d) define four such sections or incisions in the General-Bass. Example 5.3 represents these incisions on a string diagram, modelled on that Gjerdingen uses to define events in a galant composition (see example 5.1):

Example 5.3. String diagram representing the four incisions between bars 1 to 19 in the "Kyrie" (K.258).

(a) (d) (b) (c)

These incisions, represented by letters (a), (b), (c) and (d), enable organists to parse the information in bars 1 to 17 into four distinguishable sections. This not only highlights the punctuation of the composition they accompany but also makes salient its structure. By understanding its structure, an organist may then arrange the voice leading in the partitura so that it reinforces the punctuation of the composition it accompanies. This means that by identifying cadences in a composition, an organist may then choose the most appropriate exchange options to reconstruct the schemata they observe in the General-Bass.

In order to do this, however, they must be able not only to recognise cadences but also understand their hierarchical status. While cadences define incisions and paragraphs, their hierarchy determines the formal relationships between these grammatical sections.

Understanding these relationships provides an organist with a clear sense of a composition’s

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overall form. This ensures that the voice leading in the partitura punctuates both a composition’s internal incisions as well as its larger paragraphs.

5.3 Cadential hierarchy and recursion

In his explanation of musical punctuation, Spiess describes the concept of cadential hierarchy in relation to Diastolica. In this context, he likens the Cadentia Perfectissima to the paragraph (Abschnitt), whereas less complete cadences signify its constituent incisions

(Einschnitte). In this description of cadential hierarchy, Spiess alludes to recursive division, a concept that views large structures as constituting progressively smaller and smaller units.

This process is clearly illustrated in an analysis of a minuet by Mattheson in Der vollkommene

Capellmeister. While Fux and Spiess did have theoretical disagreements with Mattheson on the topics of modal transposition and Guidonian solmisation,259 there does not appear to have been any major theoretical differences about form between north German and Austrian musicians. In fact, the grammatical analogies Mattheson uses to analyse the structural divisions of the minuet are similar to Spiess’s discussion on Diastolica in musical composition. Thus, his analysis of the minuet would not be theoretically incongruous to contemporary Austrian conceptions of form.

Figure 5.28 contains the minuet from Der Vollkommene Capellmeister with Mattheson’s analytical indications. A brief summary follows, in which Mattheson analyses the punctuation of the composition. This analysis designates the minuet as a complete Abschnitt.

Mattheson points out the various Einschnitte within the minuet and demonstrates their hierarchical interrelationships.

259 See, for example, the heated exchange of letters between Mattheson and Fux translated by, and discussed in Joel Lester, "The Fux-Mattheson Correspondence: An Annotated Translation," Current Musicology, no. 24 (1977) and Spiess, Ibid., 34.

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Figure 5.28. Minuet from Der Vollkomene Capellmeister with Mattheson’s grammatical analysis.260

The minuet-paragraph is composed of two periods, which are indicated by the mark: .

Including the da capo of the first period, indicated by “Von vorn.”, the entire Abschnitt is twenty-four bars long without repeats. Each period divides into two parts, the first of which is indicated by a cross: at the ends of bars 4 and 12. Mattheson describes the first of these two divisions as analogous to a semicolon, also marked at the ends of bars 4 and 12. The second of these divisions terminate each period. Commas divide semicolon divisions, which are marked at the ends of bars 2, 6 and 10. The emphases that divide the comma divisions are marked with a star: , which one sees at the ends of bars 1 and 5. Between bars 13 to 16,

Mattheson does not indicate any emphases; perhaps because the melody here is sequential, a break would affect an unecessary interruption before the final cadence in bar 16. Within the emphases, Mattheson marks smaller divisions with poetic feet, highlighting the rhythmic divisions of each bar.261

The concept of recursion appears not only in eighteenth-century composition treatises, but in those on performance as well. In his Klavierschule, Daniel Gottlob Türk translates the concept of recursion to the placement and weight of accentuation in musical practice. The plus signs in figure 5.29 below indicate an accent; the more signs appearing consecutively, the stronger the accentuation:

260 Mattheson, Der Vollkommene Capellmeister, 224. 261Ibid., 224-25.

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Figure 5.29. Melody marked with accentuation symbols by Türk in Klavierschule.262

If performers were to follow Türk’s accentuation in figure 5.29, they would mark its recursive structure. The downbeats of bars 1 and 9 “are accented more strongly” (“stärker markirt werden”), Türk explains, because these tones begin musical periods that come after

“full closes” (“völligen Tonschlusse”). The smaller the division within the period, the less strongly the downbeat of the bar is accentuated. The downbeat of bar 5, for example, receives a less marked emphasis than 1, because this begins a four-bar division within the larger eight-bar period.263 By reflecting its hierarchical-recursive structure with accentuation, figure 5.29 appears to translate Mattheson’s minuet analysis into a tangible performance practice.

Mattheson’s analysis and Türk’s illustration of accentuation indicate that north German musicians understood the structure of composition as recursive. Both musicians draw on the concept of Diastolica, furthermore, in order to demonstrate this recursive structure in both composition and performance. Although the connection between recursion and grammar is also evident in Spiess, it could be argued that he adopted this analogy through his connections with the Leipzig Societät.264 Nevertheless, the fact that Leopold Mozart also refers to Diastolica as a means of explaining musical practice suggests that Salzburg

262 Türk, Klavierschule oder Anweisung zum Klavierspielen für Lehrer und Lernende Faksimile-Reprint der 1. Ausgabe 1789, 336. 263 Ibid. 264 Although neither Mattheson nor Türk were members of Mizler’s Societät, Spiess quotes extensively from the writings of north German musicians, such as Mattheson and Johann David Heinichen. It is possibly through his membership with the Societät that he had access to these sources. Spiess, Tractatus Musicus, 34-39.

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musicians, too, understood a close link between grammar and performance. In his

Violinschule, he refers to grammatical punctuation as a means of describing the proper use of the bow:

It goes against nature if one is constantly interrupting and changing … a sensible

singer will never make a break unless some special kind of expression, or the

paragraphs or incisions demand one.265 [my italics]

Because it draws on the analogy between music and grammar, this passage suggests that

Leopold Mozart understood a close correspondence between Diastolica and musical form.

The fact that it appears in the Violinschule suggests that Salzburg musicians, and not only north Germans, used the concept of Diastolica to describe the structure and form in music.

By drawing on the concept of Diastolica to explain musical practice, Türk and Mozart illustrate that it is a musician’s responsibility to actualise the punctuation of a composition.

This is not inherently evident to the listener but must be made obvious by musicians through specific performance techniques. For Mozart, this means articulating a composition’s incisions through the correct use of the bow. In the case of Türk, the keyboardist makes clear the punctuation of a composition through appropriate accentuation. The Salzburg manuals give no such clear directives for practising punctuation when improvising a partitura, however, the study of cadences implies that it is possible for an organist to highlight the structure of a composition in the construction of their partitura.

In section 5.3.1, I show that by choosing appropriate exchange options, an organist can reflect the structure of the composition they accompany in their partitura. This is demonstrated through an analysis of two Einschnitte from the “Kyrie” (K.258).

265 “Ja, es laüst wider das Natürliche, wenn man immer absetzet und ändert … ein vernünftiger Singer wird niemal einen Absatz Machen, wenn es nicht eine besondere Ausdrückung, oder die Abschnitte und Einschnitte erfordern”. Mozart, Versuch einer Gründlichen Violinschule, 107, footnote (c).

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5.3.1 Recursion and the exchange principle

Through an understanding of the particular hierarchical status of cadences, an organist observes the overall structure of the compositions they accompany. They may make these observations from the General-Bass alone. From this encoded reduction of the composition they are accompanying, organists observe its thread as an interrelated series of Einschnitte grouped together to form larger Abschnitte. More than just giving the foundations for theoretical analysis, the concept of recursion guides organists in choosing exchange options that most clearly reflect the punctuation of the composition they are accompanying. By reflecting these points of punctuation, the partitura gains a sense of overall form and order in addition to reinforcing that of the composition it accompanies.

In the following analyses of bars 1 to 8 and 13 to 19, two Einschnitte from the “Kyrie” (K.258),

I demonstrate that the concept of recursion prioritises the use of particular exchange options over others. By selecting exchange options that elicit a sense of closure equal to the incisions in a composition, the partitura reinforces the punctuation of the composition it accompanies.

This illustrates, furthermore, that an improvised partitura can exhibit a sense of form and overall cohesion that matches that of a concerted composition.

Example 5.5 includes these two incisions from the “Kyrie”. The first, labelled (A), contains bars 1 to 8, which comprises the two smaller incisions marked (a) and (b). The second, labelled (B), contains bars 13 to 19 and comprises the incisions (c) and (d). All of the smaller incisions, that is (a) through to (d), are also cadences in themselves, which I identified in my cadential analysis of the “Kyrie” (K.258) (see example 5.3). Letters (A) and (B), on the other hand, define larger incisions because they are punctuated by structurally stronger cadences.

In (A), this is the majoris perfectis (square bracket labelled (b)) and in (B) the minor simplex

(square bracket labelled (d)).

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Example 5.4. Bars 1 to 8 and 13 to 19 divided into two larger sections, (A) and (B).

(a) (b)

(A)

(c) (d) (B)

While (b) and (d) can be isolated and identified as individual types of cadences, they also function as points of punctuation that respectively define the larger incisions (A) and (B).

Although Samber does not account for the hierarchical relationships between cadential constituents, the majoris perfectis at (b) is implicitly stronger than the simplex at (a). This is because it contains more dissonant Griffe, which, according to the P-i-P-principle, provide a stronger sense of the resolution on the final Perfect-Griff that terminates this cadence.

Furthermore, the feeling of closure in the opening simplex is significantly weakened because its final note, C, immediately ascends a third where it comes to rest with a 6-Griff on E. The 6 in this Griff, which is its core interval, is considerably less stable than the Perfect-Griff and thus, does not provide a degree of closure that is equal to the following majoris perfectis.

Bars 13 to 19 contain two cadences, a minima tenorizans (or ligata ascendens) (c) and two minor simplex cadences (d). In this case, (B) is defined by the minor simplex because it is structurally stronger than the preceding minima cadence, which is, according to Samber, the weakest or worst of the three cadential constructs. Because neither cadence is major, these bars do not represent a period.

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For an organist required to improvise a partitura from a General-Bass, cadential hierarchy not only defines the structural relationships between incisions but also determines exchange options. Because stronger cadences terminate larger incisions and/or paragraphs in a composition, the voice leading an organist chooses to reconstruct these cadences in the partitura should reflect their punctuational significance. This involves an organist choosing an exchange option for the cadence that reinforces this sense of closure. According to the P-i-

P-principle, this would mean ending the cadence with the octave in the soprano.

Conversely, weaker cadences provide a less final point of closure and, as such, may end on the third or the fifth.

In the partitura solutions for bars 1 to 8 (A) (see example 5.6), I decided to reflect the punctuation of the majoris perfectis by ending the cadence with the octave in the soprano.

This decision, furthermore, determines the exchange option I use to construct the preceding major simplex. I provide a more detailed explanation of my process for constructing these partiturae in the commentary below the example. The two solutions demonstrate the dispositional construction of this excerpt à 3 and à 4. The purpose of providing these two dispositional solutions is to illustrate that it is not only cadence, but also Fux’s compromise that affects voice leading in the partitura.

Example 5.5. Two partitura so lutions, à 3 and à 4, for excerpt (A).

Regarding (A), one has the option of beginning the incision (a) with the third, fifth or octave in the soprano. I decided on the third, based on the most desirable exchange option for (b),

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which is structurally more important as it contains the cadence that punctuates the excerpt.

According to the figuring, (b) would best be constructed with the sixth in the soprano of the

6/5-Griff on F. This ensures that the fifth lies in the soprano above G in the Perfect-Griff on the downbeat of bar 6. In order to arrive at this voice-leading solution, the 6-Griff on the third beat of bar 3, which follows the major simplex that defines (a), should end with the third or octave in the soprano. Because of the larger range of melodic movement in three parts, the soprano in the partitura à 3 moves in parallel thirds with the bass in bar 3. I then began bar 5 with the third in the soprano before leaping down to the sixth over the 6/5-Griff on F♯. While this means that the sixth is omitted in the 6/5-Griff on F, the melodic grace of the soprano makes up for the lack of harmony. Working back further, it appears that the third in the soprano is the optimum disposition with which to begin incision (a). From there, the parts flow seamlessly without unnecessary part crossing so that the fifth lands on the G in bar six.

Through these exchange options, the partitura articulates the punctuation of the composition. By ending (a) with the third in the soprano and (b) with the octave, a real sense of closure is achieved at the end of (A). In this way, the partitura reinforces the punctuation inherent in the composition it accompanies. A similar narrative explains the voice-leading solutions an organist may adopt for (B) (see example 5.7). Because B represents a smaller incision than a period, as it is punctuated by a minor simplex cadence, the partitura should not end with the octave in the soprano. Instead, it would be better to terminate on the fifth as this is less stable than the octave but more than third. The third would be reserved for an even weaker incision, such as the minima tenorizans that punctuates (c). As such, I have begun (c) on the octave in both partitura solutions. In the partitura à 4 this results in the soprano and alto parts crossing between the last Griff of (c) and the first of (d). While this would be undesirable within a schema, the fact that it occurs between incisions may in fact serve to better punctuate (c) from (d).

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Example 5.6. Partitura solutions, à 3 and à 4, for section (B).

Partitura à 4

Partitura à 3

By defining the structural paragraphs and incisions of a composition, that is its Ab- and

Einschnitte, cadential hierarchy provides organists with an overview of a composition’s

recursive form. When improvising their partitura, furthermore, this guides them to choose

exchange options that reflect the punctuation of the composition they are accompanying. As

such, constructing a partitura involves practising the concept of Diastolica in improvisation;

that is, applying the analytical concepts of grammar to ensure structure, form and order in

improvisation.

5.3.2 Two partitura solutions

The hierarchical-recursive analysis in figure 5.29 serves as the basis for two proposed

partitura solutions of the cadences that punctuate the Ab- and Einschnitte in the Kyrie

(K.258). These illustrate that applying the punctuation principle to a musical structure

clarifies which of the possible exchange options available is the most ideal in articulating the

structure of a composition. As such, the partiturae also demonstrate that punctuation, while

primarily an analytical principle, ultimately contributes to the practical construction of a

partitura. Furthermore, it provides a partitura with a sophisticated sense of cohesion that

may otherwise be absent.

By narrowing down the number of exchange options, the punctuation principle extends the

findings of the previous chapter by accounting for a certain level of predictability in the

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spontaneous act of improvisation. While some readers may perceive this as restrictive and contrary to the ‘spirit’ of improvisation, the effects are quite the opposite. By reducing the number of available possibilities to a small number of ideal options, the improviser may focus on creating a sophisticated structure at that very moment without being burdened by too many choices.

The two partiturae that follow (see example 5.8) are ideal solutions that take both these practical and cognitive factors into account. In addition to punctuation, they incorporate aspects of the disposition and exchange principles discussed in the previous chapter. In order to highlight the practical effects of Fux’s compromise, a partitura with realisations in both three and four parts is provided. As such, the partitura à 3 includes melodic variety and that à 4 focuses more on harmonic fullness. Where not specifically indicated in the figures, the P-i-P-principle was used to determine the intervals that lay in the soprano at the end of each cadence. For this reason, the first major ligata cadence in the coda ends with the third in the uppermost part and the octave in the second. Neither partitura is superior to the other. Like the solutions to Eberlin’s aria in the previous chapter, both take advantage of their respective dispositions.

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Example 5.7. Three- and four-part partitura solutions of cadences in the “Kyrie” from W.A. Mozart’s Spaur Messe (K.258).

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5.4 Conclusion

As structures that define musical punctuation, cadences were an essential part of a Salzburg musician’s partitura training. This is because by identifying cadential constructs in the

General-Bass and recognising their hierarchical status, organists were able to construct a structurally coherent partitura. This coherence stems from the punctuation principle, which facilitated organists in dividing the General-Bass into recursively interrelated Einschnitte that group together into Abschnitte. As such, musical punctuation is not only a useful analytical device. To a Salzburg court organist, it ensured that his accompaniment was both structurally coherent in itself and reinforced that of the composition it accompanied.

While it is difficult to ascertain this information from the Salzburg manuals alone, it is evident that eighteenth-century German-speaking musicians were well aware of musical punctuation. As such, it can be assumed to have been part of a Salzburg organist’s conception of musical form. Leopold Mozart attests to the likelihood of this claim. In his

Violinschule, he makes direct reference to Diastolica and states that such information is essential not just for the “grammarian, rhetorician and poet”, but for practising musicians as well.266 If Mozart was writing for an amateur readership, then it would appear at least probable that such knowledge would have been commonplace amongst his colleagues, the

Hofcapel organists.

In addition to providing insights into the Salzburg organists’ method of improvising a partitura, the punctuation principle further defines the conception of spontaneous replication. It asserts that an organist’s choice of exchange options was deliberate and systematic. This decision was not based on a whim but was determined by compositional form. Thus, the structure and coherence of an improvised partitura comes not simply by reconstructing schemata but by selecting the most appropriate construction options with

266 Mozart, Ibid.

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which to replicate them. I further refine and discuss this concept in the following chapter on the style principle.

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6. The style principle

My analysis of the exercises in the Salzburg manuals indicates that students learned to play a partitura by practising schemata using different disposition and exchange options. While they illustrate the application of these options in exercises, the manuals do not suggest which of these an organist would use within the context of a composition. Because partitura instruction in Salzburg was largely an aural tradition, it is likely that teachers communicated this information to their students during the course of their lessons. All that remains in the manuals, on the other hand, is a catalogue of schemata. After they internalised this corpus of schemata and began accompanying actual composition, students where perhaps then introduced to the stylistic practices of partitura playing. The style principle examines these practices and demonstrates that Salzburg organists chose construction options according to the style of the composition they were accompanying. Although this information is not documented in contemporary Austrian sources, it is clearly implied in the notation of manuscript organ parts stemming from late eighteenth-century Salzburg. These notational features include changing clefs, written-out fugal entries and precise figuring (often including compound intervals) that specifies voice leading.

In my description of the style principle, I will demonstrate that the two main styles of

Austrian church music – the Alla Capella and Stylus Mixtus – require their own distinct types of partitura construction. This is implied in the notation of the organ part, which is similar within each individual style but different between them. While either style requires its own particular manner of accompaniment, both follow the same overriding precept that the construction of the partitura reinforces that of the composition it accompanies.

6.1 Style definitions in the eighteenth century

Eighteenth-century musicians recognised a variety of styles, which they categorised into three main style groups: church, theatre and chamber. By categorising styles and describing

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their main attributes, composers and theorists were hoping to provide a framework for their readers, whereby they could themselves identify compositional styles.267

From a close study of eighteenth-century dictionary entries for the term ‘style’, it appears that lexicographers adopted both objective and subjective conditions for style categorisation.

For example, the style of a composition is recognisable by both the personal mannerisms of its ‘author’ as well as the specific circumstances of his or her context. These two conditions are clearly visible in Johann Mattheson’s definition of “Style in music”, which appeared in

Johann Gottfried Walther’s Musicalisches Lexicon (Leipzig: 1732):

Style … is the particular art and manner in which one has to compose, to execute and

to instruct; and all of this is very distinct according to the genius of the author, the

nation and people and after these the materials, the place, the time, the subjects, the

expressions, etcetera.268

Mattheson’s definition accounts for the influences that shape variety in musical styles. The first of these, “the genius of the author”, is a subjective condition and likely to change depending on a composer’s particular circumstances; however, influences that are more tangible act as objective conditions and shape this genius. These include the author’s immediate surroundings (nation, people as well as place and time) and their tools for composition (materials, subjects and expressions). Mattheson fashioned his definition of style after that by Sébastien de Brossard in the Dictionnaire de Musique, which was published only twenty-five years before Walther’s Lexicon in Paris.269

267 Ratner, Classic Music Expression, Form and Style, 1. 268 “Stylus … wird in der Music von der Art und Weise verstanden, welche eine jede Person besonders vor sich zu componiren, zu executiren, und zu informiren hat; und alles dieses ist sehr unterschieden, nach Maßgebung des Genii der Verfasser, des Landes und des Volckes, nachdem die Materien, der Ort, die Zeit, die Subjecta, die Expressiones &c.” Musicalisches Lexicon, oder Musicalische Bibliothec, s.v. “Stylus,” by Johann Mattheson, ed. J.G. Walther (Leipzig: Wolffgang Deer, 1732), 584. 269 Dictionaire de Musique, s.v. “Stile,” by Brossard (Amsterdam: Estienne Roger), no pagination.

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6.1.1 Austrian concepts of style: A matter of ‘taste’

Definitions from later in the eighteenth century also resemble that by Mattheson.270 Amongst these is that by the Bavarian Meinrad Spiess, which, like Mattheson’s definition sets up a contrast between a subjective personalised style and one defined by objective formalised conditions. While personalised styles are acknowledged, Spiess gives priority to formalised categorical styles. This is because personalised styles can ultimately find their places within broader categorical definitions.

The labels Impressus and Expressus define this contrast in Spiess’s definition. The impressed style is essentially an elaboration of Mattheson’s reference to the genius of the author, which

Spiess says is “the natural inclination and sympathy of the spirit to this or that manner, and depends on each person’s natural temperament.”271 This personal style is particular to each composer and, therefore, varies from person to person. Nevertheless, Spiess attempts to specify objective conditions for these variations: the “genius of the author, their country and people”272 – the same criteria nominated by Mattheson. He writes that a composition by a talented composer is recognisable simply by the impressed style. Nevertheless, this style,

Spiess explains, can also indicate to the listener whether the piece is composed in the French,

Italian or German manner. While the impressed style is personal, individualism can only go so far. Spiess believes that a composer will eventually reveal whether they are French, Italian or German because nationality is one of the contextual factors that guide the author’s genius.

Standing in opposition to the impressed style, which is personalised to an extent, is the expressed style. It is with the expressed style that, “one judges and says, which style this or that piece is in”.273 Spiess writes that it has “manifold divisions”, but all these styles are

270 See, for example Rousseau, "Style," 462 – 62 as well as Hoyle, "Style," 96 – 97. 271“Der eingedruckte Stylus ist die natürliche Inclination und Zuneigung des Gesmüths zu dieser oder jener Art, und dependiret von jedes Menschen natürlichem Temperament.” Spiess, Tractatus musicus, 161. 272 “Auch ist dieser Stylus Impressus sehr unterschieden nach Maaßgebung des Genii deren Verfasseren des Lands und des Volcks.” Ibid. 273 “Stylus Expressus … woraus man judiciren und sagen kan, wessen Styli dieses oder jenes Stuck sey.” Ibid.

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reducible to the three so-called “head styles”: church, chamber and theatre.274 The rest of

Spiess’s chapter on style explains the features particular to the different expressed styles.

While there appear to be idiosyncratic manners of composition that one can recognise as belonging to a particular person (impressed style), personal mannerisms are expressed within a standardised corpus of recognisable styles (expressed style).

In his Gradus, Fux does not distinguish between an impressed and expressed style as Spiess does but explains style within a broader discussion of the concept of taste.275 “If only it were as easy to define taste as it is to declare that it exists!” Fux exclaims as an introduction into his discourse.276 He concludes that while there are a wide number of individual tastes that different people express, this does not mean that that such people possess taste. By way of example, Fux recounts the story of a man who preferred the sound of frogs croaking to the song of nightingales. When asked by Aloysius whether this man’s taste is acceptable,

Josephus understatedly replies that, “it not undeservedly calls for some criticism”.277 The wry reply shows the wittier side of Fux the pedagogue. Moreover, however, it indicates

Fux’s belief that taste is objective.

While Fux concedes that good taste lies in part in the “genius and talent of a particular composer”,278 it is the rules of counterpoint that are at its foundations. There are a number of ways in which the composer may apply these rules tastefully, each of which Fux distinguishes as a style in itself. Like Spiess, Fux identifies two styles of church music composition, the Alla Capella style and Stylus Mixtus. Each of these styles requires its own distinct mode of applying the rules of counterpoint, which Fux defines through descriptions and observations of his own compositions. As I will discuss in the following section, Fux’s

274 “Es seynd zwar des Styli Expressi mannigfältige Divisiones, oder Einthelungen; Es können aber alle Neben= Arten auf diese 3. Haupt=Stylos, sc. Ecclesiasticum, Cameralem, Theatralem reducirt werden.” Ibid. 275 In this chapter, all translations of Fux’s Gradus are by Susan Wollenberg in “‘Gradus ad Parnassum’ (1725): Concluding Chapters,” Music Analysis 2, no. 3 (1992). 276 “Utinam eadem facilitas effet Gustûs definiendi, quæ est affirmandi.” Ibid., 215. 277 “Haud immeritò in judicium vocari posse existimo.” Ibid. 278 “Non inficias ivero, permagnam boni Gustûs partem à cujusvis Compositoris genio, atque talento dependere”. Ibid., 217.

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explanations of the Alla Capella and Mixtus styles are similar to those Spiess gives in the

Tractatus Musicus. This suggests that there was a common understanding of church style compositions amongst German speakers in the Catholic south and Habsburg Austria. This includes Salzburg organists, who, when accompanying Alla Capella and Mixtus compositions, constructed their partiturae to reflect the respective structural attributes of these two styles.

6.1.2 The Stylus Alla Capella and Stylus Mixtus

Both Fux and Spiess describe the church style of composition as the most important of all.

Fux writes because “sacred things are above worldly ones in dignity”, the church style is

“much nobler than other music”.279 The church style, according to Spiess, “undisputedly takes the first place and priority” amongst others.280 The authors explain that there are two manners of church style: Alla Capella (or à Capella) and Stylus Mixtus (or Modo Mixto). Due to its antiquity, Fux holds the Alla Capella style in higher esteem. Spiess, too, highlights the antiquity of this style and traces its origins to “chapels of great lords, popes, emperors and kings”.281 The following examination involves studying the partitura constructions most typical for these two styles of church music as defined by eighteenth-century Austrian composers.

6.2 Partitura construction in the Stylus Alla Capella

Fux and Spiess identify two types of Alla Capella-style compositions. Spiess labels these ligatus and solutus. The ligatus, as its name suggests, is ‘bound’ by a given cantus firmus, whereas in the solutus manner the composer “invents” subjects and melodies. Fux’s distinction, on the other hand, is between Alla Capella compositions written for voices alone

279 “Quemadmodum Sacra dignitate profana antecellunt, ità Musicam cultui Divino mancipatam, æternùmque duraturam, longè nobilitate principem obtinere locum, præcipuamque propterea huic operam navandam esse, nemini in dubium venturum existimo.” Ibid., 217. 280“Unter diesen 3. Stylis gebühret undisputirlich der erste Rang und Vorzug dem Stylo Ecclesiastico, oder Kirchen=Styl.” Spiess, Tractatus musicus, 161. 281 “Die Wort à Capella haben ursprünglich ihren Namen her von den Oratoriis, oder Capellen grosser Herren, Päpst, Kaysern, Konigen &c.” Ibid.

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and those composed with organ and other accompanying instruments. The unaccompanied style, similar to Spiess’ ligatus manner, observes a stricter adherence to the rules of counterpoint than the accompanied style. In an Alla Capella composition with accompanying instrument, on the other hand, dissonances may be unprepared, and their resolutions delayed. Despite these variations, Fux describes the Alla Capella style as one in which composers generally make use of polyphonic techniques, such as fugues, canons and other imitative devices. Exemplary use of these techniques in the Alla Capella style, Aloysius explains to Josephus in the Gradus, are evident in the compositions of “Pierluigi Palestrina, that light of music, whom I advise you again and again to imitate.”282

Eighteenth-century Austrian composers frequently employed the instrumental type of Alla

Capella style, as described by Fux, when writing for the church. This mock-Palestrina manner of composition was a standardised mode of expressing religious devotion. To a Salzburg congregation attending a concerted mass, this style would have been immediately recognisable. Salzburg court organists, who would also have been experienced composing in this style, could identify accompanied Alla Capella compositions by the way their organ parts were notated. After identifying a composition as being written in this style, they would construct their partiturae accordingly by realising the General-Bass using appropriate dispositional and exchange options. While undocumented in primary sources, an examination of the notation in these organ parts indicates that the General-Bass clearly communicates these construction options to the organist. Realising these in the partitura, an organist would have been able to construct an accompaniment that reflected the structural features of the composition it accompanies.

6.2.1 Disposition

As the following examples will illustrate, a standard notational feature of Alla Capella organ parts includes frequently changing clefs. Clefs specify to organists the dispositional option in which to construct their partitura. In much the same way as a basso seguente, clefs indicate

282 “Cujus Styli extra conversiam Princeps est Aloysius Prænestinus, illud Musicæ lumen, quem tibi imitandum.” Wollenberg, "'Gradus ad Parnassum' (1725): Concluding Chapters," 219.

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which of the concerted voices is acting as the structural bass and provides the organist with a road map of a fugal exposition. Figure 6.1, from Poglietti’s Compendium, illustrates how composers typically notate organ parts in a fugal exposition. The subject appears written in the treble/violin g-clef as well as the alto and tenor c-clefs:

Figure 6.1. Poglietti’s illustration and accompanying description about how to play fugues.

Poglietti writes out the primary and secondary entries, as well as the primary countersubject in the g-clef. The third entry is written in the alto clef and the fourth in the tenor. Poglietti explains that these data communicate to organists the number of parts in which they construct their accompaniment. He writes: “This is the manner in which one plays fugues.

N.B. as long as the initial subject goes, one plays with one finger only, when the next comes, with two, the third, with three”.283 Poglietti’s explanation highlights that the disposition of the partitura frequently changes in a fugue. The example indicates that clefs determine the dispositions in a partitura and, furthermore, that these reflect the number of parts active in the fugue itself.

Like Poglietti, the author of the Kurtzgefaßte Generalbaß-Schule284 indicates that clefs in basso continuo denote specific dispositions. Although written more than 140 years after the

283 "Dis ist die Manier, wie man die Fugen soll schlagen. NB. so lang das Subiectum anfangs gehet, soll man mit ainem Finger allein schlagen, wan die ander kombt, mit zweÿen, die dritte mit dreÿen." Poglietti, Compendium: oder kurzer Begriff und Einfuührung zur Musica, sonderlich einem Organisten dienlich, 1676, 75. 284 The full title of this manual, Kurtzgefaßte Generalbaß-Schule von W.A. Mozart, stipulates that its author is Wolfgang Mozart; however, scholars have yet to verify its authenticity. For more details, see Hellmut Federhofer, Review of Neue Ausgabe sämtlicher Werke. Serie X: Supplement. Werkgruppe 30, Band 1: Thomas Attwoods Theorie- und Kompositions-studien bei Mozart by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Erich Hertzmann, Cecil B. Oldman, Daniel Heartz and Alfred Mann, Die Musikforschung 24, 2 (1971): 236. Subsequent references to its spurious authenticity are cited in Christensen, “Fundamenta

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Compendium, the author similarly stipulates that the alto and tenor c-clefs respectively indicate a two- and three-part accompaniment. “When they are figured”, the author writes,

“one plays in three parts above the tenor, and mostly in two above the alto.”285 As far as I am aware, the Kurtzgefaßte Generalbaß-Schule is the only Austrian source other than Poglietti’s that clarifies the practical significance of clefs in basso continuo. Beyond the fact that both authors address the question of disposition in basso continuo, they indicate that it is a particular type of clef that specifies the number of parts in the accompaniment. This suggest that Austrian organists from Poglietti’s time till the beginning of the nineteenth century understood clefs as denoting a particular disposition. As the following examinations of manuscript organ parts shows, Salzburg organists used a variety of different clefs when notating the General-Bass for an Alla Capella composition. Like Poglietti and the Generalbaß-

Schule stipulate, these are not simply notation conventions but communicate a particular dispositional setting to the organist improvising a partitura.

While the Salzburg manuals demand that organists must be able to read fluently in all clefs, they do not provide reasons that explain their significance in playing a partitura. Yet, changing clefs are common in Salzburg organ parts. While this can be observed in the Stylus

Mixtus, they are more a standard feature in organ parts that accompany the Alla Capella chorus. Figures 6.2 to 6.4 include excerpts from Alla Capella compositions by Salzburg musicians Leopold Mozart, Michael Haydn and Wolfgang Mozart. Each example contains the opening exposition of a fugue. Notice that, like Poglietti’s illustration in figure 6.1, the first two subjects are written in the organ staff verbatim. The third and fourth entries, on the other hand, are written as a figured bass in either the tenor or bass clef (depending on which voice enters first).

Partiturae,” 25 as well as Diergarten, “Beyond ‘Harmony’,” 63. For the latest research regarding the authenticity of the Kurtzgefaßte Generalbaß-Schule, see Wolfgang Grandjean, Mozart als Theoretiker der Harmonielehrer (Hildesheim u.a.: Olms, 2006). 285 "Über dem Tenor spielt man ohnehin nur dreistimmig, und über dem Alt meisten Theils zweistimmig, wen sie beziffert sind." Anonymous, Kurtzgefaßte Generalbaß-Schule von W.A. Mozart (Vienna: Steiner, 1817), 37.

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Figure 6.2. “Et vitam” from the “Credo” in Leopold Mozart’s Missa in A Major (IA3).286

Figure 6.3. “Pignus” from Michael Haydn’s Litaniae de Venerabili Sacramento (MH 288).287

Figure 6.4. “Et in Saecula” from Wolfgang Mozart’s Dixit Dominus (KV6 193 (186g)).288

286 Leopold Mozart, "Credo," in Mass in a Major (A-Sd, A 450). 287 Michael Haydn, "Pignus," in Litaniae De Venerabili Sacramento (A-Sd, A 555). 288 Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, "Dixit Dominus und Magnificat," (A-Sd, A 1125).

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Following Poglietti’s prescriptions, an organist would accompany the first two entries of the fugal subject as they appear written in the organ part. This means that the partitura would contain no further notes than these. In figures 6.2 and 6.3, the tenor clef follows, which, in addition to the appearance of figures, indicates a three-part partitura. Finally, the General-

Bass is set in the bass clef, which means the partitura is constructed à 4. The reverse is the case in figure 6.4, where the bass clef precedes the tenor.

While both Poglietti and the Kurtzgefaßte Generalbaß-Schule point out that specific clefs indicate a particular disposition, neither provides reasons as to why this is the case.

Although not explicitly stated, both sources appear to be implying that the disposition of the partitura must match that of the composition it accompanies. Because organists accompanied from a General-Bass and, as such, could not refer to a full score, a primary way the composer could communicate this information to them was through clefs. By signifying which of the concerted voices acts as the structural bass, clefs could thus indicate to organists the number of parts actively participating in a composition at any given moment.

Like the expositions noted in examples 6.2 to 6.4, that in example 6.5 uses clefs to communicate to organists the number of parts they are accompanying in a fugue. The illustration shows the organ staff from a manuscript score of Mozart’s Laudate Pueri, a composition in the Alla Capella style. The notation in this organ part stands out in comparison to others examined in this chapter because it provides unusually specific information about disposition. In addition to changing clefs, the indications à trè and à 4 explicitly clarify that the partitura is in three parts when the General-Bass is set in the tenor clef and in four parts when in the bass clef:

Figure 6.5. Opening of the “Laudate Pueri” from W.A. Mozart’s Vesperae Solennes de Dominica (K.321).289

289 "Laudate Pueri," in Vesperae Solennes De Dominica (F-Pn, MS 217).

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These dispositional indications are included in each fugal exposition of this composition.

They indicate, as the Kurtzgefaßte Generalbaß-Schule stipulates, that clefs indicate the partitura’s disposition. Reflecting the specifications given in this manual, the organ part indicates that the partitura is played à 3 above the tenor and à 4 above the bass. In doing so, the organist improvises a partitura that matches the disposition of the fugue it accompanies.

If clefs sufficiently communicate to an organist the number of parts in a composition, however, then why do these further dispositional indicators appear in the organ staff of this score? While it cannot be proven unequivocally, these indications could have been additions by Leopold Mozart, who frequently figured the organ parts of his son’s compositions.290

Considering that Leopold instructed Nannerl in accompaniment during the winter of 1777, it is entirely possible that he included these indications as part of her training.291 If this is the case, then the dispositional markings were not intended for professional organists, who would have understood these from the clefs. Rather, they indicate a common performance practice to a student learning the fundamentals of partitura playing.

An underlying assumption regarding clefs as dispositional indicators is that the highest sounding part is always the soprano and that the additional parts (alto, tenor and bass) lie sequentially below it. While this is frequently the case, it is not always so. In Wolfgang

Mozart’s “Et in Saecula” (see figure 6.4), for instance, it is the bass (not the tenor) that enters the fugue in third place. Thus, the third entry is indicated in the bass clef. While the bass clef indicates a four-part partitura, there are only three parts active in the composition itself. It could be argued that because the bass is the third part to enter into the fugue it would be obvious to the organist that, despite the clef, the disposition of the composition is à 3. While this may be the case in figure 6.4, the context is not always so clear. As I will indicate in the

290 David Moris Carlson, "The Vocal Music of Leopold Mozart (1719-1787): Authenticity, Chronology and Thematic Catalog" (PhD diss., The University of Michigan, 1976), 65. The scribe responsible for arranging the Vespers (K.321) into score is still unknown, see Vespern und Vesperpsalmen, Serie I Geistliche Gesangwerke, Werkgruppe 2: Litaneien, Vespern, Band 2, ed. Karl Gustav Fellerer and Felix Schroeder, Neue Mozart Ausgabe (Germany: Bärenreiter, 1959/R 1988), VII-VIII. 291 For the details of her training, documented in a series of letters, see Chapter Two, section 2.2.

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following illustrations, there are circumstances in which clefs cannot sufficiently indicate the disposition of a composition. In these situations, composers use other notational features that modify the dispositional indications that clefs ordinarily signify.

Because the parts enter in sequential order from soprano to bass in figures 6.2, 6.3 and 6.5, the clefs in the General-Bass effectively indicate the dispositions of these fugal exposition.

This would not be the case were the voices to enter in any other order. Were the bass to begin a fugue, for example, an organist could misinterpret the bass clef announcing its entry as an indication to accompany à 4. In order to circumvent such problems, Salzburg composers placed strokes or the figure 1 over or under notes in the General-Bass. These negate the dispositional implications that clefs usually signify and indicate a one-part or tasto solo accompaniment.292 According to the Kurtzgefaßte Generalbaß-Schule, the author explains that, “When one sees such straight lines over the notes, these notes are played with one hand alone without accompaniment, regardless of the indicated clef.”293 Such strokes can be seen in figures 6.6 and 6.7, which include the openings of fugal expositions by

Wolfgang Mozart and Adlgasser. Note that Mozart indicates the compositional style with the marking “alla Capella” and Adlgasser with “a Capella moderna”.

Figure 6.6. Bass entry marked with vertical strokes, indicating no accompaniment, in the opening of the “Et in Saecula” from W.A. Mozart’s Magnificat (KV6 193 (186g)).294

292 Hellmut Federhofer, "Striche in der Bedeutung von „Tasto Solo“ oder der Ziffer „1“ Bei Unisonostellen in Continuostimmen.," Zeitschrift des Historischen Vereins für Schwaben 62/63 (1962). 293 "Wenn man aber dergleichen gerarde Striche über den Noten sieht, so werden diese Noten mit einer Hand allein ohne Begleitung abgefertiget, es mag was immer für ein Schlüssel vorgezeichnet seyn." Anonymous, Kurtzgefaßte Generalbaß-Schule von W.A. Mozart, 37. 294 Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, "Et in Saecula," in Dixit Dominus und Magnificat (A-Sd, A 1125).

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Figure 6.7. A similar scenario in the opening of the fugue “Quam Olim Abrahae” from Adlgasser’s Requiem in C Major (CatAd 2.01).295

The strokes over the bass notes, according to Kurtzgefaßte Generalbaß-Schule, indicate to the organist not to accompany à 4, as the bass clef usually indicates in the Alla Capella style. In addition to a performance directive, however, the strokes are also a structural indication; in figures 6.6 and 6.7, they show that the bass is the first concerted voice to enter the fugue. As such, the disposition of the partitura accompanying these fugues is, correspondingly, in one part. By playing only the notated bass, without the addition of further parts, the partitura again reflects the structure of the composition it accompanies. Thus, strokes nullify the dispositional settings that clefs ordinarily signify. Like clefs, however, they are symbols that composers use to communicate to organists the dispositional structure of the composition they are accompanying.

6.2.2 Exchange

In the previous chapter, I demonstrated that cadences determine the general voice-leading of a partitura, which highlights the interconnectedness between the exchange and punctuation principles. The situation remains so in the Alla Capella style, except that one must also take the voice leading of fugal expositions into consideration. In fugues, an organist plays the first two entries of the exposition as they appear in the organ part, that is colla parte.

Ordinarily, composers indicate the third and fourth entries in the appropriate clefs and these are accompanied with figures. The following examples demonstrate that the notation of the figuring directs the organist to use exchange options that replicate the voice leading of the concerted voices. More than simply a shorthand that indicate Griffe, the figuring in the Alla

Capella style encodes the voice leading of a fugal exposition in the form of a General-Bass.

295 Anton Cajetan Adlgasser, "Quam Olim Abrahae," in Requiem (A-Sd, A 4).

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Figure 6.8 provides a typical example of the manner in which composers figured organ parts in the Alla Capella style. The excerpt is taken from the second half of the opening fugal exposition of the “Quam Olim Abrahae” from Adlgasser’s Requiem (CatAd 2.01), in which the alto and soprano voices enter into the fugue:

Figure 6.8. Bars 13 to 17 from the “Quam Olim Abrahae” (CatAd 2.01).296

At this point, the bass and tenor have made their entries into the fugue and have cadenced to the octave on the downbeat of bar 13. The figures 3 – 3 – 3 after the down beat indicate that one of the parts moves in parallel thirds with the bass. The ♭5-Griff in bar 14 confirms that the fugue is now à 3 and specifies that the ‘quinta falsa’ lies in the uppermost part of the partitura. As detailed as this figuring is, it does not adequately specify which of the upper parts the parallel thirds in bar 13 are referring to. Working with the available data in the

General-Bass, example 6.1 is a partitura solution I propose for this short fugal excerpt by

Adlgasser.

Example 6.1. Partitura solution to figure 6.8.

296 Ibid.

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In this solution, I have placed the parallel thirds in bar 13 in the tenor. If the ‘quinta falsa’ in bar 14 is in the upper part, then it requires preparation as a dissonance, which is indicated by the figure 6 on the bass note A preceding the 6/5-Griff on B. I have understood the figure

5 on the downbeat of bar 14, furthermore, as announcing the entry of the alto into the fugue.

A similar technique is used in bar 17, where the soprano enters. Here, however, the bass drops out of the fugue, the tenor becomes the lower sounding part and thus, the disposition of the partitura is à 3.

A similar method of notation can be observed in figure 6.9, which includes the minim upbeat of bar 12 through to the downbeat of 17 in Wolfgang Mozart’s “Laudate Pueri” from the Vesperae Solennes de Dominica (KV 321). Like the excerpt by Adlgasser, the first two parts to enter into Mozart’s fugue are the bass and tenor. These are written out verbatim in the organ staff after which, the counterpoint is encoded with the figures 10 – 10 – 6. Below figure

6.9 is my partitura solution of the excerpt in example 6.2. Following the example is an explanation of how I constructed this partitura from the information given in the General-

Bass.

Figure 6.9. Upbeat of bar 12 through to the downbeat of 17 in of Mozart’s “Laudate Pueri” from the Vesperae Solennes de Dominica (KV 321).297

297 Mozart, "Laudate Pueri."

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Example 6.2. Partitura solution to figure 6.9.

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In my solution, I have placed the intervallic progression 10 – 10 – 6 in the alto; not only because it is more plausible that the B-natural in bar 14 to ascend to C (the sixth above the bass note E) but also as the figures in this bar encode the third entry into the fugue.

Considering that the bass and tenor have already entered, and with the order of voices entering from lowest to highest, it would logically follow that these figured refer to the alto.

Finally, the soprano enters on the last minim beat of bar 13 and the double-digit figure 6/4 on the last crotchet beat of that bar implies that the disposition now includes three parts. The three-part disposition continues when the tenor becomes the structural bass on the second minim beat of bar 14. With the final bass entry on the second minim beat of bar 15, the disposition of the partitura becomes à 4 and continues to be so till the final major ligata cadence at the end of the excerpt.

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When compared with the full score, the partitura solution in example 6.2 essentially accompanies the four vocal parts colla parte.298 This is the result of observing the dispositional indications suggested by the clefs and the voice-leading specifications shown in the figures and does not require the organist to view the full score. The example thus demonstrates that the notation in the General-Bass guides organists to construct a partitura that reflects the structure of the composition it accompanies. This colla parte manner of accompaniment appears to be a standard feature of partitura playing in the Alla Capella style.

Although the General-Bass is clearly figured, such precision is not always present in organ parts for Alla Capella compositions. Figure 6.10 below is an excerpt from Eberlin’s motet

“Universi qui te exspectant” in which the figuring includes only essential information:

Figure 6.10. Bars 49 to 58 of Eberlin’s Motet “Universi qui te exspectant” (NeueE163).299

The major perfectis between bars 54 to 55 punctuates bars 51 to 55 as an Einschnitt. Aside from the cadence and the figuring, it is the F on the last crotchet beat of bar 55 that indicates the most appropriate voice-leading solution for this excerpt. Because it appears with the symbol

‘i’ (used synonymously with the figure 1 or the stroke), it is played alone without accompaniment. Proceeding from the alto E♭ over C (resolution of the majoris perfectis cadence in bar 55), the F becomes the fifth on the B♭ in the following bar (also indicated by the lone figure 5 over the quaver rest on the downbeat of bar 56). Taking both the

298 See Appendix B: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, "Vespern und Vesperpsalmen," in Neue Ausgabe sämtlicher Werke. Ser. I, Geistliche Gesangswerke. Werkgruppe 2, Litaneien, Vespern / Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart ; Bd. 1, ed. Karl Gustav Fellere and Felix Schroder (Kassel: Bärenreiter, 1959), 72-73. 299 Johann Ernst Eberlin, "Universi Qui Te Exspectant " (A-Sd, A 284).

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punctuation principle as well as the voice leading encoded in the figuring, I propose a partitura solution to this excerpt by Eberlin in example 6.3. By following the counterpoint indicated in the General-Bass, my partitura solution outlines the voice leading of the concerted voices in this excerpt.

Example 6.3. Partitura solution for bars 51 – 56 of Eberlin’s “Universi”.

51 52 53 54 55 56 2 2 2 2 2

In my solution, the majoris perfectis in bars 55 to 56 ends with the octave in the soprano of the partitura and the third in its alto, making the combination 8/[♭]3 over C. The combination

[♭]3/8 is less ideal because this would result in the alto and tenor crossing parts. The slur in the alto in bar 55 of the partitura highlights that the third at the end of the cadence moves to the F, which in this context acts as a kind of voice leading cue. Concerning disposition, the tenor clef in bars 51 – 55 implies a three-part accompaniment and the bass clef in bar 56 signifies a disposition à 4. The figuring in bar 56, however, indicates that the fifth above the bass (F) lies in the uppermost part. This suggests that the highest part is the alto, and as such, despite the change of clef, the disposition remains in three parts.

By following the voice-leading indications in organ parts, the partiturae solutions I constructed for the excerpts above frequently double the concerted voices in the compositions they accompany. Franz Karl Prassl has already noted this aspect of basso continuo in the ‘Viennese classical’ church style, which he states “stands in the tradition of old colla parte accompaniment”.300 My solutions and analyses support Prassl’s observation, at least in relation to Alla Capella partitura construction. Without an intimate knowledge of the

300 Prassl, "Zur Generalbasspraxis in der Kirchenmusik des späten 18. Jahrhunderts," 222-24.

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learned techniques that characterise the Alla Capella, however, it is difficult to assess the extent to which this was the case.

While General-Bass notation suggest that organists constructed a colla parte partitura in the

Alla Capella style, it cannot unmistakably prove that this was the case. In addition to this, an organist would need to be intimately aware of the nuanced complexities and formal procedures for composing an Alla Capella fugue. Because the focus of my research falls primarily on partitura improvisation, it is not within the scope of this thesis to provide an investigation of polyphonic compositional techniques. Nevertheless, it is possible to assert that Salzburg organists were experienced in both playing and composing in the Alla Capella style.301 This experience perhaps enabled them to pre-empt the manner in which a fugal subject would be elaborated. In partitura accompaniment, this could have been facilitated by the fact that Alla Capella organ parts included both the subject entries as well as the initial countersubject of a fugue. Using this information, it is entirely possible that a Salzburg organist could replicate the composed fugue in his partitura. In order to properly substantiate this claim, however, a separate study on the expression of the Alla Capella style in Salzburg and its representation in a General-Bass would be required.

6.3 The Stylus Mixtus: Arias

On the Stylus Mixtus, Fux writes that, “since it is heard commonly and very frequently I do not think I need say much about it or show it by examples of compositions.”302 Spiess, on the other hand, explains that such compositions include “1, 2, 3, 4 or more voices and concerted instruments.”303 Another compositional form that falls within the Stylus Mixtus is the arias

(which Spiess calls “Ariosè”), which can be mixed with “counterpoint, fugues, etcetera.”304

Thus, according to Spiess’ descriptions, the Stylus Mixtus includes the compositional forms

301 For analyses of fugal procedures in late eighteenth-century Salzburg see Manfred Hermann Schmid, Mozart und die Salzburger Tradition (Tutzing: H. Schneider, 1976), 46-75. 302 Wollenberg, "'Gradus ad Parnassum' (1725): Concluding Chapters," 237. 303 Spiess, Tractatus musicus, 161. 304 Ibid.

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of aria and chorus. Through an assessment of organ parts for standalone arias, I examine below the partitura construction appropriate for this type of Stylus Mixtus composition.

These organ parts are taken from two settings of the “Sancta Maria”, from litanies composed by Leopold and Wolfgang Mozart, and the first movement of the Offertorium, “Ave Maria”, by Adlgasser. From my own observations of Salzburg organ parts, these typify the common notational features one encounters in a Stylus Mixtus aria. Furthermore, because modern editors have arranged these compositions into score, it is easier to assess the relationsips between the partitura and the composition itself. From this comparison, I will demonstrate that a partitura accompanies the Stylus Mixtus aria by reproducing its three-part contrapuntal framework.

6.3.1 Disposition

Figuring is the only notational device in organ parts that provides some indication of partitura disposition and voice leading for arias in the Stylus Mixtus. The following examination of this figuring demonstrates that, in addition to other concerted instruments, arias were typically accompanied with a three-part partitura and melodically variegated upper parts. Figure 6.11 provides an illustrative example of the usual type of figuring one encounters in the General-Bass that accompanies a Stylus Mixtus aria. This excerpt is taken from an aria for soprano solo from the first part of the Offertorium, “Ave Maria”, by

Adlgasser:

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Figure 6.11. Bars 14 to 23 of the aria “Ave Maria” from the Offertorium (CatAd 5.11) by Adlgasser.305

The two-digit figuring in this excerpt is common in Stylus Mixtus arias. A similar example can be seen in the first thirteen bars of the aria “Sancta Maria”, from W.A. Mozart’s Litanie

(KV6 109 (74e)). The Griff combinations that these figures form in figures 6.11 and 6.12 are identical to some of the combinatory options provided in the Salzburg manuals. The figures

4/2 in bar 14 of figure 6.11, for instance, encode three-part combination for the ♯7-Griff. The combination 7/5 in bar 16, on the other hand, is one of the options à 3 for the 7-Griff. As such, the two-digit figuring is not necessarily a shorthand for a four-part accompaniment but represents complete Griff combinations à 3. Thus, the figuring in this excerpt and that in the

“Sancta Maria” (figure 6.12) imply that the standard disposition for the Stylus Mixtus aria is in three parts.

Figure 6.12. Bars 1 – 13 of the aria “Sancta Maria” from the Litaniae Lauretanae B.M.V. by W.A. Mozart’s (KV6 109 (74e)).306

305 Anton Cajetan Adlgasser, "Ave Maria Gratia Plena," in Offertorium (A-Sd, A 17). 306 Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, "Sancta Maria," in Litanies (A-Sd, A 1124).

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6.3.2: Exchange

Precision in indicating voice leading is another idiosyncratic feature of figuring notation in arias. It may not be coincidental, furthermore, that this is especially the case at cadences.

Considering that punctuation determines the most structurally coherent voice leading solution for a partitura, well-figured cadences would best guide an organist’s choice of exchange options. Using both the data in the General-Bass, as well as the punctuation principle, example 6.4 is a proposed partitura solution, set in three parts, for the organ part in figure 6.12.

In order to respect the voice leading of the minima tenorizans cadence in bars 3 to 4, the partitura begins with the octave in the soprano and the third in the alto. The octave moves to the third over C in bar 2 so that the seventh on E in bar 3 is approachable by step. The alto moves from the third in bar 1 to the fifth over C in bar 2. This then leaps up to the quinta falsa over E in the following bar. A similar process guides the construction of the partitura for the following six bars, also punctuated by a minima tenorizans cadence. The leaps in the soprano between bars 8 and 9 take advantage of the melodic variety and freedom that a three-part disposition offers.

Example 6.4. Partitura solution to figure 6.12. 1 4

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Constructing a partitura in three parts is a stylistic feature that relates not only to figuring, but also to the compositional structure of arias themselves. The dispositions of the arias examined in this chapter are all in three parts, as is the case with most arias from late eighteenth-century Salzburg. The most commonly used instrumentation includes a string trio consisting of two violins and bass, which Manfred Hermann Schmid refers to as the

Salzburger Kirchentrio.307 Thus, constructing a partitura for an aria in three parts respects not only the notation of the figures, but also reflects the disposition of the composition it accompanies. Furthermore, this disposition affords the partitura a degree of melodic variety which compliments the stylistic aesthetic of arias themselves.

Example 6.5 applies the dispositional features typical of a partitura for an aria to the organ part in figure 6.13 from the “Sancta Maria” in Leopold Mozart’s Liataniae Laurentanae:

Figure 6.13. Bars 6 – 11 of the “Sancta Maria” from Leopold Mozart’s Litaniae Laurentanae (IB3).308

Example 6.5. Partitura solution to bars 7 – 11 in figure 6.13.

307 Schmid, Mozart und die Salzburger Tradition 255; Senn, "Mozarts Kirchenmusik und die Literatur," 216. 308 Leopold Mozart, "Sancta Maria," in Litaniae Laurentanae (A-Sd, A 454).

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By using a three-part disposition, this solution follows a partitura construction that is stylistically appropriate for arias. Furthermore, it illustrates that melodic variety is an achievable feature of partiturae constructed using this dispositional option. For example, by applying the specified three-part Griff combination 10/8-8/6-7/5 in bar nine, the upper parts of the partitura flow melodically; throughout the entire excerpt, they almost always gymel in thirds. By following Leopold’s figures, the partitura clearly highlights the minima tenorizans cadence at the end of the excerpt. The melodic contour of the soprano and alto, furthermore, outlines the basic counterpoint of the violins in the Kirchentrio. The first two bars present a similar case, even though the figuring is less specific. By assuming the given figuring as indicating the motion of the soprano, the partitura in these bars also outlines the contrapuntal motions of the composition itself.

The three organ parts used as examples in this section highlight that precise, two-digit figuring is the common manner of notating the General-Bass in Stylus Mixtus arias. By constructing a partitura in three parts, the accompaniment respects the disposition of the composition it accompanies, which most often follows the Kirchentrio setting. Respecting the voice leading encoded in the figures, furthermore, the partitura also outlines the contrapuntal motion of the composition as well. Appendices C309, D310 and E311 reproduce the corresponding excerpts in full scores for figures 6.11, 6.12 and 6.13. These illustrate that there is a strong correlation between the counterpoint in the concerted parts of these arias and the figured basses in their respective organ parts. As such, it appears that the partitura for the aria, like that for the Alla Capella style, replicates the dispositional and voice leading aspects of the composition it accompanies.

309 Anton Cajetan Adlgasser, "Offertorium: Ave Maria, gratia plena," in Salzburger Kirchenkomponisten: eine Messe, sechs Motetten, ed. Carl A. Rosenthal, Constantin Schneider, and Hans Gál, Denkmäler der Tonkunst in Österreich ; Bd. 80 (Graz: Akademische Druck- u. Verlagsanstalt, 1960). 310 Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, "Litaneien," in Neue Ausgabe sämtlicher Werke. Ser. I, Geistliche Gesangswerke. Werkgruppe 2, Litaneien, Vespern / Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart ; Bd. 1, ed. Hellmut Federhofer and Renate Federhofer-Königs (Kassel: Bärenreiter, 1969). 311 Leopold Mozart, "Litaniae Lauretanae B.M.V," in Neue Ausgabe sämtlicher Werke / Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ser. 10, Supplement, Werkgruppe 28: Bearbeitungen, Ergänzungen und Übertragungen fremder Werke, Abt. 3-5: Sonstige Bearbeitungen, Ergänzungen, Übertragungen ; Bd. 1a, ed. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Ernst Hintermaier (Kassel: Bärenreiter, 1990).

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6.4 Stylus Mixtus: Choruses

Spiess’ definition of the Stylus Mixtus chorus appears to distinguish between two types.

There is a less specifically defined genre, which he broadly describes as consisting of multiple voices and instruments. The second type includes a mixture of solo passages

(“Ariosè”) with choral sections, which may allude to the Alla Capella style (“fugues”), all in the same movement.312 The following section examines partitura constructions appropriate to the stylistic attributes of both types of chorus. The first type of chorus is understood as movements composed in a simple, four-part homophonic setting. The latter involves what

Ratner describes as composers introducing different styles as topics within a single movement.313 Combining style-topics was a common compositional practice in late eighteenth-century Salzburg, which served as a way of dividing sections of sacred text within the same movement.314

6.4.1 Homophonic choruses

The organ parts for homophonic choruses are characterised by sparse figuring. Figure 6.14 includes the beginning of the “Allegro” section from the “Kyrie” in Leopold Mozart’s Litanie

Laurentanae (IB3). Figures often include one digit alone and specify neither disposition nor voice leading:

Figure 6.14. The opening ten bars of the “Kyrie”, a movement including a homophonic chorus in Stylus Mixtus, from Leopold Mozart’s Litaniae Laurentanae.315

312 Spiess, Tractatus musicus, 161. 313 Ratner, Classic Music Expression, Form and Style, 9. 314 Christine D. de Catanzaro, "Sacred Music in Mozart's Salzburg: Authenticity, Chronology, and Style in the Church Works of Cajetan Adlgasser" (PhD diss., University of North Carolina, 1990), 126. 315 Leopold Mozart, "Kyrie," in Litaniae Laurentanae (A-Sd, A 454).

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The first four bars are an instrumental opening that announces the choir’s entry in bar 5, which is indicated as tutti with “T:”. From the figures alone, it is difficult to suggest the number of parts and the exchange options that would constitute a stylistically appropriate partitura construction. The punctuation principle, however, clarifies aspects of voice leading in this example (note the major perfectis cadences in bars 4 to 5 and 8 to 9), but this does not solve the question of disposition.

Conclusions from the analyses in the previous sections outlined that the construction of a partitura replicates the construction of the composition it accompanies. Unless some specific feature of the notation in the organ part suggests otherwise, a partitura accompanying a homophonic four-part chorus would therefore be set in four parts. This disposition would best suit this style of composition because it would reinforce its harmonic richness. Example

6.6 takes both punctuation and dispositional factors into account to construct a stylistically appropriate partitura for bars 1 to 5 of the “Allegro”:

Example 6.6. Partitura solution for figure 6.14.

While not melodically variegated, the partitura takes full advantage of its four-part disposition by packing the notes within the Griffe close together. Regarding disposition and punctuation, the four-note descent in the soprano at the major perfectis in bars 4 to 5 clearly punctuates the first compositional incision from the next.

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6.4.2 Mixed choruses

Notational features clearly distinguish style-topics from one another in organ parts belonging to compositions in the mixed chorus style. Figure 6.15 demonstrates an instance in which Haydn introduces the Alla Capella style within a generally homophonic chorus:

Figure 6.15. Bars 29 to 40 of the “Kyrie” from Michael Haydn’s Litaniae de Venerabili Sacramento (MH 288).316

The indication “tutt[i]:” at the beginning of the example signifies the participation of the full chorus. A fugal passage ensues shortly afterwards on the third crotchet beat of bar 30. The organ part clearly communicates this with notational features distinct to the Alla Capella style. These include changing clefs, the principle and secondary subjects written out verbatim and the symbol “i” written successively over the entry of the primary subject in the bass. The Alla Capella section ends at bar 38, in which simple homophony resumes.

The notation in figure 6.15 suggests that the construct of a partitura reacts to the introduction of a new style-topic within the mixed chorus. In this case, the organist would construct an Alla Capella partitura for bars 31 to 37, before reverting to a simpler four-part accompaniment. Figure 6.16 presents a similar example in the Spaur Messe, in which a solo section is followed by an Alla Capella passage:

316 Haydn, "Kyrie."

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Figure 6.16. bars 17 to 24 of the “Kyrie” from the Spaur Messe (KV 258).317

The same notational features Haydn uses in figure 6.15 to announce the Alla Capella style can be seen in bar 20 of figure 6.16, where Mozart introduces a fugue into an otherwise homophonic chorus. The changing clefs and written-out fugal subject entries clearly delineate the Alla Capella style from the Stylus Mixtus aria that precedes it. The indications

“for[te]:” and “Tutti:” also show the end of a solo section and the resumption of the chorus.

Understanding the significance these indications hold for accompanist, Salzburg organists could have been expected to have modified the construction of their partiturae in response to the mixed style-topics in the Stylus Mixtus chorus.

Figures 6.17 and 6.18 show excerpts that include solos within a mixed chorus. The first is the

“Kyrie” from Michael Haydn’s Litaniae (MH 288) and the second, the first movement of

Adlgasser’s Requiem (CatAd 2.01).

Figure 6.17. Bars 17 to 23 of the “Kyrie” (MH 288).318

317 Mozart, "Spaur Messe." 318 Haydn, "Kyrie."

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Figure 6.18. Bars 6 to 20 of the “Kyrie” from Adlgasser’s Requiem (CatAd 2.01).319

The introduction of solo passages into the mixed chorus is indicated by “Sol:[o]” and/or simply “pia:[no]”. These indications appear together at the beginning of both figures 6.17 and 6.18; the markings “tutti” or “T:”, on the other hand, show the re-entry of the chorus.

Style-topic changes in the composition are communicated to organists through such markings and require them to modify the construct of their partitura. In solo passages, like the Stylus Mixtus aria, this means organists construct their partiturae à 3 and following the voice leading specified in the figures. With the return of the chorus, signalled by

“Tutti”/”T:” and “for:[te]”, organists change the disposition of their partitura so that it is set in four parts. Doing so, the organist reacts to the style-topics the composer introduces by reinforcing its structural attributes in their partitura.

During the eighteenth century, orchestral performances at St. Peter’s Cathedral included the participation of between two and three organists. Each organist accompanied a group of musicians, placed in balconies and by the altar in the cathedral. One of these groups included the ensemble’s soloists, whose organ accompanist played throughout the composition. In solo passages, including standalone arias, the ripieno organist attached to the chorus group by the altar ceased accompanying.320 In addition to showing the beginning of a solo, the markings “S:”/”Sol:” and “pia:” were also an ensemble indication directing the ripieno organist/s to drop out.

319 Adlgasser, "Requiem." 320 Mozart, "Nachricht von dem Gegenwärtigen Zustande der Musik Sr. Hochfürstl. Gnaden des Erzbischoffs zu Salzburg im Jahr 1757," 188.

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6.5 Conclusion

Because compositional style defines the construction of an accompaniment, Salzburg organists were aware of realising a partitura from a General-Bass in several ways. While the intricacies of these manners of accompaniment are not described in words, they are apparent in the notation of manuscript organ parts from late eighteenth-century Salzburg. From an analysis of this notation, it becomes evident that a partitura does not actively participate in modifying the structure of a composition (for example, by filling in notes ‘missing’ in the harmony) but simply reinforces its content. The partitura thus highlights what is already in the concerted composition itself.

Without understanding the dispositional and exchange options that notational symbols denote, it is difficult to observe how a partitura can fulfil this function. In order to understand the style principle, therefore, it is necessary to modify the way in which we engage with musical notation and understand its meaning. An eighteenth-century Salzburg organist, for instance, understood the value of continuously changing clefs as symbols denoting different dispositions. In contrast, authoritative editions, such as the NMA and

Bärenreiter organ realisations, have replaced the original c-clefs in organ staves to include only bass, treble and the suboctave treble clefs. In a genuine effort to aid performers, modern editors have removed a notational symbol that indicates a very significant aspect of basso continuo performance.

The wider ramifications of this issue become evident, however, regarding the interpretation and realisation of figures. Understanding figures as strictly theoretical symbols, the meaning of a partitura changes from an accompaniment device to an exercise in harmony. This problem is augmented if (neo-) Ramellian harmonic theories influence the harmonic system used to realise these figures. Such theories are not only at odds with the contrapuntal paradigm but also result in realisations that do not respect the style principle. This is because many of the disposition and exchange options available in the contrapuntal paradigm are theoretically invalid in the neo-Ramellian system. These theoretical systems favour a uniform four-part disposition and an inflexible approach to interval combinations

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within chords. As such, they do not contain a broad enough vocabulary to accommodate constructing partiturae that reinforce the structural nuances of the Alla Capella and Mixtus styles.

In contrast, the variations that are present in the partitura solutions I have proposed are the result of reading figures from within the contrapuntal paradigm. As such, dispositions in two-, three- and four-parts are all possible and valid options. The various dispositions consequently give rise to different voice-leading characteristics. Moreover, these variations are not based in the need for variety itself but are determined by compositional style; a tangible concept that lies at the foundation of the style principle.

Concerning the style principle itself, the various examples of partitura constructions I have illustrated are bound together by a common set of contrapuntal laws embodied in the construction principles. Regardless of whether a composition is written in the Alla Capella style or one of the varieties of the Stylus Mixtus, the construction of a partitura uses the same pool of disposition and exchange options. From this perspective, the Salzburg manuals are invaluable historical documents as the sources from which these principles are derived. This makes the manuals somewhat comparable to Fux’s Gradus, which Jen-Yen Chen explains contains “timeless” and “universal” laws that are widely applicable regardless of style.321

The concept is attractive, as it suggests that the Salzburg manuals are a kind of Rosetta Stone from which the improvisational practices of organists such as Mozart can be better understood. Further research is required, however, in order to understand the historical significance of these manuals. I address some of these future research possibilities and the conclusions they may yield in the following chapter.

321 Chen, "Palestrina and the Influence of "Old" Style in Eighteenth-Century Vienna," 8.

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7. Conclusion

At the beginning of the fifth chapter of his Neu Erfundene und Gründlicher Anweisung, Johann

David Heinichen writes:

If a beginner now asks here what he is still lacking in the acquisition of basso continuo

– answer: nothing and everything. Nothing, or at least little, because the entire

science or theory of basso continuo is based on the few rules given till this point … He

is lacking everything; because simply the theory of any art without the practice which

is required means nothing at all … Without such practice no one is capable, even if he

is the best theorist, of playing two or 3 lines of basso continuo extemporaneously, which

indeed is required.322

Heinichen defines theory or science as a knowledge of rules, which will leave a musician wishing to understand basso continuo lacking very little. In other words, Heinichen considers rules, theory or science to be of significant value to the study of basso continuo accompaniment. Nevertheless, he clarifies that a knowledge of theory alone, that is without the experience of applying it in practice, is worthless; it “means nothing at all”.

Although Heinichen was not a Salzburger, and it is entirely possible that his Anweisung was unknown amongst Salzburg’s court musicians, the relationship between theory and practice he defines reflects that in the Salzburg manuals. I argued that at the heart of the Salzburg manuals lies a symbiotic relationship between theory and practice.323 This relationship highlights that rules are foundational to partitura playing; in order to play, one must know the rules. Conversely, the rules that the Salzburg organists purportedly used in teaching students how to play were themselves derived from established practices.

322 Johann David Heinichen, Johann David Heinichen Neu Erfundene und Gründliche Anweisung ... zu Vollkommener Erlernung des General-Bass Reprint der Ausgabe Hamburg 1711, vol. 40, Documente Musicologica (Kassel: Bärenreiter-Verlag Karl Vötterle GmbH & Co. KG, 2000), 104. 323 See Chapter Two, Section 2.6.

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Holtmeier points out that it is because of this symbiotic relationship between theory and practice that it is difficult to observe an overarching method defining Heinichen’s basso continuo rules.324 We encounter a similar problem in relation to the Salzburg manuals. These manuals refer to concrete ‘theoretical’ concepts such as counterpoint, Guidonian solmisation and the modes; but never do they explicitly document how these concepts play an active role in defining the rules for improvising a partitura. As is the case with Heinichen, the theory in the Salzburg manuals is not immediately apparent to the modern reader; but this does not immediately imply that it is absent. On the contrary, the fundamental principles, which describe the Salzburg organists’ method, are shaped by contrapuntal theory. Thus, in order to play a partitura ‘correctly and well’, Salzburg organists at least tacitly engaged with theoretical concepts.

7.1 Method – theory, practice, and order

Deriving the fundamental principles required structural analyses of schemata and references to theories about the Rule of the Octave and recursive form in composition. Such overtly theoretical concepts, when abstracted from the practice of basso continuo accompaniment, may have been considered meaningless by Heinichen. If so, then would not an examination of such concepts be contrary to the practice-based methods of eighteenth-century musicians such as Heinichen and the Salzburg organists? I would argue the opposite, that such examinations are necessary if we wish not to impose anachronistic ideas of harmony and counterpoint onto those expounded in the Salzburg manuals.325 This is particularly important when analysing the Salzburg manuals because their method of partitura playing, based on contrapuntal principles, varies significantly from the (neo-) Ramellian theories that have come to dominate our understanding of eighteenth-century music.

324 Holtmeier, "Heinichen, Rameau, and the Italian thoroughbass tradition: Concepts of tonality and chord in the rule of the octave." 325 Marina Lobanova brings up a similar problem concerning historiographical studies of non-Western cultures and musical traditions that fall outside or sit on the fringe of the Western musical canon, see Marina Lobanova, Musical Style and Genre: History and Modernity, First edition. ed. (London: Taylor and Francis, 2013), 6-7.

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While analysis was not an integral part of eighteenth-century basso continuo instruction, it provides us with different theoretical frameworks. Through these, we can distinguish and observe the contrasting modes in which basso continuo was practised. The contrapuntal paradigm, for instance, involves stacking predefined layers of melodic formulas over the

General-Bass; emphasis falls on the melodic integrity of each of the parts. This stands in contrast to Ramellian theory, in which voice leading is a secondary consideration and importance is placed on the proper construction of chords. Thus, theoretical frameworks and, in turn, the methods that reflect them, help us to understand not just how different theories affect practice, but why. In this capacity, method links the subjects of theory and practice and demonstrates that in basso continuo each is as important as the other. By linking theory with practice, method, furthermore, highlights an implicit order in basso continuo playing. I will discuss this order and its relationship with improvisation in further detail in section 7.3.

7.2 A sense of ‘direction’ or ‘motion’? – theory and practice in basso continuo research

In his examination of the deceptive cadence in the late eighteenth century, Markus Neuwirth begins by establishing the notion that music from the period is “goal directed”. He describes this phenomenon further, stating that:

A musical “phrase” may be considered the smallest building block expressing goal-

directedness, as it articulates a tonal motion towards a final sonority (either the tonic

or the dominant) that is usually established by means of a cadential progression.326

The idea of a phrase being goal-oriented has been considered a central axiom of tonal music at least since the time of Heinrich Schenker.327 Recently, however, this concept has come under increased scrutiny. In Music in the Galant Style, for example, Gjerdingen speaks of

326 Neuwirth, "Fuggir La Cadenza," 117. 327 For an overview of this history, see Oliver Schwab-Felisch, "The Butterfly and the Artillery: Models of Listening in Schenker and Gjerdingen," Music Theory and Analysis 1, no. 1-2, October 2014 (2014).

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goal-oriented phrasing as being guided by the “invisible hand of tonality”, which he relates to the “quasi-magical properties of harmonically tonal forces”. These late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century concepts, he argues, are foreign anachronisms in the galant style.328

If tonality’s invisible hand was not magically guiding the musical phrase to its tonic or dominant goal, then what is it that governed the direction of tones in the galant style to their natural conclusions?

An alternative explanation lies in the concept of tendere, a term from the fourteenth century that Markus Jans describes as “the ‘moving tendency’ of imperfect consonances toward a perfect one, often enhanced by Musica Ficta”.329 In opposition to those intervals that provide tendere are the stable perfect intervals that are motionless. Jans uses the concept of tendere as a means of explaining his P-i-P-principle, which underscores the tension-resolution relationship of intervals in the RO and compositions in general.330 As opposed to goal- directedness, which attempts to explain the deterministic behaviour of tones across an entire composition, the P-i-P-principle uses intervals to describe the movement of tones on a much smaller scale. Rather than interpreting the progression V7-I as the dominant finally reaching its tonic goal, it reinterprets the dominant-seventh as eliciting a strong sense of motion because of the unstable intervals it contains. The ‘resolution’ we hear on the subsequent tonic is the result of these unstable intervals coming to rest onto comparatively motionless intervals. The P-i-P-principle provides an alternative to the ‘quasi-magical’ forces of tonality by simply asking us to hear tonal music as a constant interplay of motion and stability.

Such theoretical abstractions appear far removed from improvising a partitura; it is unlikely that a Salzburg organist would have been thinking about tendere mid-improvisation. Indeed, this concept does not explain the practice of basso continuo; however, it provides a theoretical framework through which we can examine practice in a way that does not draw on anachronistic ideas of tonality. Such examinations were inessential for an eighteenth-

328 Gjerdingen, Music in the Galant Style, 16, 370. 329 Jans, "Towards a History of the Origin and Development of the Rule of the Octave," 122, fn. 5. 330 For a closer description of the P-i-P-principle and its relationship to the RO, see Chapter Four, Section 4.3.1.

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century reader, who lived and practised the tonal language of his or her own particular time and place. For music historians, on the other hand, attempting to reconstruct practices that have been lost to or obscured by history, such as contrapuntal basso continuo accompaniment, theoretical examinations are essential.

The importance of theoretical study in creating frameworks for investigation is especially evident in the study of basso continuo, where the connection between theory and practice is particularly noticeable. The Salzburg method for improvising a partitura that I have proposed, for instance, bespeaks a practice of basso continuo that is shaped by the contrapuntal paradigm. A very different interpretation of this practice would result, on the other hand, if one were to interpret the Salzburg manuals through a Ramellian perspective.

This is because these two frameworks understand basso continuo from fundamentally differing viewpoints; the former adds layers of counterpoint to a bass, the latter stacks chords onto it.

This duality of interpretations serves to illustrate the point that different theoretical frameworks can arrive at contrasting analytical conclusions even when the subject of study is the same. Michiel Leezenberg makes a similar observation regarding theories in the fields of social sciences and the humanities in which, he states, they “define their own terms and hence, in an important sense, create the kinds of objects they are about”.331 In terms of basso continuo, Leezenberg’s statement means that the type of theoretical framework through which we study it will ultimately define its meaning. As such, theory is integral to examining basso continuo because it shines light on how musicians conceptualised it, which ultimately helps us understand its historical practices.

7.3 Practice – ‘Spontaneous replication’ and improvisation

Perhaps one of the most intriguing aspects of basso continuo to modern researchers is that it was improvised. Its notation with numbers and symbols and the lack of detailed

331 Michiel Leezenberg, History and Philosophy of the Humanities: An Introduction (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press B.V., 2018), 110.

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information that historical authors provide on its interpretation makes basso continuo appear somewhat enigmatic and esoteric to the modern researcher. More interesting even than this is how our understanding of improvisation has shaped the way we interpret the historical practices of basso continuo. In her study of Italian basso continuo, for example,

Giulia Nuti equates improvisation with creativity. Thus, when a composer specifies to the keyboardist the manner in which they construct their basso continuo accompaniment, Nuti views this as a restriction of the accompanist’s inventiveness. The final chapter of her book details what she sees as an increasingly prescriptive mode of basso continuo accompaniment emerging in Italy post 1750, which she titles “The End of Basso Continuo Creativity”.332 Joel

Lester also equates a more prescriptive approach to improvising basso continuo as a factor that determined its demise in the late eighteenth century.333 According to these scholars, improvisation is understood as the performer determining their own decisions in constructing a basso continuo from the information given in a figured bass. Less choice, it appears, means less improvisation, an emerging trait mid century that led to the end of basso continuo accompaniment.

A recent study by Elam Rotem into the basso continuo practices of Emilio d’Cavalieri, however, indicates that composers applied strict prescriptions to the performance of basso continuo in the early seventeenth century as well.334 In light of this, the somewhat deterministic approach to history underscored in Lester and Nuti’s comments about basso continuo requires revision. The Salzburg method, furthermore, challenges their assumptions that choice and freedom are concepts that eighteenth-century musicians equated with improvisation. The style principle, for example, determines the construction options an organist chooses to improvise their partitura. Here, the organist still chooses how to construct the partitura but these choices are influenced by an external factor (compositional style). In addition to style, another factor to consider is the structure of schemata themselves.

If constructing a partitura involves realising the implicit structures of schemata, which the

332 Giulia Nuti, The Performance of Italian Basso Continuo; Style in Keyboard Accompaniment in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (UK: Ashgate, 2007), 127-31. 333 Lester, Compositional Theory, 52. 334 Elam Rotem, "Early Basso Continuo Practice: Implicit Evidence in the Music of Emilio De’ Cavalieri" (Diss., Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg, 2015).

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organist identifies in the General-Bass, then these structures too restrict an organist’s improvisatory ‘freedoms’.

Rather than viewing these prescriptions as creative restrictions, I described them as factors that contribute to a sense of method; a concept I expressed as spontaneous replication. This concept acknowledges that basso continuo accompaniment is ex tempore while also indicating that it is implicitly structured and ordered. The idea of order is at the crux of the

Salzburg method that I have proposed. It encapsulates the idea of ‘the rules’ (Muffat’s

‘Regulae’ or Samber and Gugl’s ‘Reglen’) as well as their most appropriate application in performance. The fundamental principles that I derived encapsulate this idea of order in basso continuo improvisation. The construction principles, on the one hand, contain the rules for replicating the structures of schemata and the style principle, on the other, describes their judicious application. It is these two principles – construction and style – that reflect order and are foundational to the method for playing a partitura both ‘correctly and well’.

7.4 Recommendations

The following section outlines the practical significance of the research by proposing ways in which scholars and performers may apply its findings to real life scenarios. Additionally, it suggests that these findings lead to new avenues of research. Because my method of research uses theoretical analysis to understand practice, these recommendations concern scholarship in the fields of Historical Performance Practice, theory and musicology.

7.4.1 Practical applications

In addition to describing the Salzburg method of partitura improvisation, the fundamental principles provide practical guidelines for practising basso continuo accompaniment. As such, they may be of interest to keyboard players who, required to accompany from a figured bass in compositions by musicians such as Leopold and Wolfgang Mozart as well as

Michael Haydn, wish for their accompaniment to be ‘historically informed’. Additionally,

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editors writing organ parts for these compositions may wish to use the information the fundamental principles provide when composing their realisations. Such realisations could be valuable to those keyboardists interested in historical performance practices but are less comfortable reading a figured bass.

For half a decade now, historical theory, particularly the study of partimento, has become more commonplace in universities and conservatoria throughout Europe and the United

States.335 With our understanding of this broad topic quickly evolving, these study programs require constant modification in order to remain up-to-date with the research. While the

Salzburg method describes the practice of basso continuo, my analyses touch on theoretical concepts that could contribute to these programs. The cadential analysis of the Spaur Messe

“Kyrie” (K.258), for instance, is an illustration of how the punctuation principle is applicable to analysing compositional form through an historically-informed lens. Additionally, analysis of the structural components of schemata could be informed by the disposition and exchange principles. These analytical tools, furthermore, need not be restricted to music theory; instructors of basso continuo in tertiary institutions could also consider incorporating them into their curricula.336

7.4.2 Future research

While the contrapuntal paradigm provides a theoretical framework through which to reconstruct the Salzburg method of partitura improvisation, it could also serve as a basis for better understanding compositional process. According to Adlgasser’s Fundamenta

Compositionis, this process mirrors that of partitura instruction in the Salzburg manuals.

335 David Lodewyckx and Pieter Bergé, "Partimento, Waer Bestu Bleven?," International Journal of the Dutch-Flemish Society for Music Theory 1, no. 1 and 2 (2014). The Sydney Conservatorium of Music (SCM) recently approved an historical analysis course titled, ‘Harmony as Counterpoint’, which Mr. Lewis Cornwell and I proposed and designed. Unfortunately, the course, which was scheduled to run in Semester One, 2020, was cancelled due to unforeseen funding cuts caused by the Covid-19 outbreak in late 2019. Hopefully, when circumstances improve, the SCM will include studies in historical analysis as a part of its curriculum in the future. 336 A model of such an approach is available in Markus Schwenkreis, Compendium Improvisation: Fantasieren nach Historischen Quellen des 17. und 18. Jahrhunderts (Basel: Schwabe Verlag, 2018).

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Here, like in the manuals, the primary means of instruction involves learning schemata.

Adlgasser constructs these following the same processes as those in the Salzburg manuals; that is, the disposition and exchange principles account for the method he uses to construct these schemata. If Adlgasser’s method can be seen as reflecting a common compositional practice in late eighteenth-century Salzburg, then it could suggest that this practice, like partitura playing, is explicable through the contrapuntal paradigm. Consequently, if this proves to be the case, it could ask future researchers to incorporate the fundamental principles into their methods of analysing Salzburg compositions from this period.

The findings of this research could, in turn, affect not only the way we analyse this music, but also our mode of executing it in performance. Like the Salzburg manuals, the

Fundamenta Compositionis does not address the question of compositional style. Thus, it could account for the method Salzburg musicians used to compose church, theatre or chamber music. If it can be proven that all of these styles of music were composed using the same method of construction, then this research possibly provides us with insights into

Salzburg basso continuo practices for all three compositional genres. This is because it would demonstrate that all compositions, regardless of style, were constructed using the same principles. As such, the basic construction of the partitura that accompanies them would, also follow these same principles. If such a claim is proven, then an examination into how these principles would be applied according to compositional style would follow.

Assessing the effects of the contrapuntal paradigm on compositional styles outside church music could begin with a re-examination of basso continuo practices in the recitative and

Mozart’s keyboard concertos from within the contrapuntal paradigm. It could also contribute insights into the more contentious topic of basso continuo in the late eighteenth- century Austrian symphony. While Webster and others have inferred that the Austrian symphony did not include a keyboard accompanist, accounts from the region prove otherwise. Leopold Mozart explains, for instance, that Count Czernin’s orchestra included

Nannerl accompanying ‘sinfonias’ at the harpsichord. In Vienna, Dr. Charles Burney recounts hearing a mass at St. Stephen’s Cathedral in 1773 that included “several

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symphonies for instruments only”, composed by Capellmeister Leopold Hofmann (1738 –

1793), performed with organ accompaniment.337

Examining how the symphonies Burney witnessed in Vienna were accompanied may also call into question how widely applicable the Salzburg method is. Because the Salzburg organists’ descriptions of partitura are similar to those documented by other Austrian musicians such as Fux and Albrechtsberger and Bavarians like Deysinger, it is possible that their method could account for practices in the region more broadly. Nevertheless, a more thorough investigation into primary source materials is necessary before such a claim can be made. While Austrian basso continuo practices were largely influenced by the Italianate- contrapuntal approach, there is also evidence of Ramellian theory infiltrating Vienna late in the eighteenth century. Examples can be seen in the theoretical writings of Daube338 and references to the basse fondamentale are made in Thomas Attwood’s composition lessons with

Mozart.339 An 1823 publication of Johann Georg Albrechtsberger’s method of basso continuo playing, furthermore, mentions chordal inversions; however, considering that this does not appear in the original Viennese publication of 1792, it is entirely possible that this was a later addition by Iganz Seyfried von Ritter, the editor of this publication.340 By examining these alternative approaches, we may come to better understand basso continuo accompaniment

337 Charles Burney, The Present State of Music in Germany, the Netherlands, and United Provinces. Or, the Journal of a Tour through Those Countries, Undertaken to Collect Materials for a General History of Music., 2 vols., vol. 1 (London: T. Becket and Co., 1773), 322. The performance of symphonies during mass appears to have been a common church practice in eighteenth-century Austria; for more details see Neal Zaslaw, "Mozart, Haydn and the Sinfonia Da Chiesa," The Journal of Musicology 1, no. 1 (1982). 338 Johann Friederich Daube, Der Musikalische Dilettant: eine Abhandlung der Komposition, welche nicht allein die neuesten Setzarten der zwo- drey- und mehrstimmigen Sachen: sondern auch die meisten künstlichen Gattungen der alten Kanons: der einfachen und Doppelfugen, deutlich vorträgt, und durch ausgesuchte Beyspiele erkläret. (Vienna: Johann Thomas von Trattner, 1773). 339 Thomas Attwood, "Thomas Attwoods Theorie- und Kompositionsstudien bei Mozart," in Neue Ausgabe sämtlicher Werke / Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Ser. 10, Supplement, Werkgruppe 30 ; Bd. 1, ed. Erich Hertzmann and Cecil B. Oldman (Kassel: Bärenreiter, 1965). Although, it has been argued that Mozart subsumes Ramellian theory within an approach to composition that is primarily contrapuntal, see Rosalie Athol Schellhous, "Key and Modulation in Mozart's Instructions in Figured Bass for Thomas Attwood" (PhD diss., University of California, Santa Barbara, 1978), 17-21. 340 Johann Albrechtsberger and Ignaz Seyfried von Ritter, J.G. Albrechtsberger sämtliche Schriften uber Generalbass, Harmonie-Lehre und Tonsetzkunst zum Selbstunterrichte systematisch geordnet, mit zahlreichen aus dessen mündlichen Mittheilungen geschöpften Erläuterungs-Beyspielen und einer kurzen Anleitung zum Partitur-Spiel (Kassel, Germany: Bärenreiter, 1975).

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practices in late eighteenth-century Austria. Moreover, they may also help us to trace the ultimate demise of the contrapuntal paradigm and the rise of neo-Ramellian theories; theories that, until recently, would define our conceptions of eighteenth-century music through the deceptively homogenising lens of ‘common practice tonality’.

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Appendix A: Johann Ernst Eberlin, “Exercitium in denen Quinten”, from Fundamenta Partitura

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Appendix B: Wolfgang Mozart, “Laudate Pueri” from the

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208

Appendix C: Anton Cajetan Adlgasser, “Ave Maria”, from the Offertorium (CatAd 5.11), bars 11 – 26

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Appendix D: Wolfgang Mozart, “Sancta Maria” from the

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Appendix E: Leopold Mozart, “Sancta Maria” from Litaniae

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Amadeus Mozart

211