Migration of Sri Lankan Transnational Domestic Workers and Families Left Behind: Economic Benefits Vs

Migration of Sri Lankan transnational domestic workers and families left behind: economic benefits vs. social costs

XXVII IUSSP International Population Conference Busan, Republic of Korea, 26-31 August 2013

Dr. Swarna Ukwatta Head and Senior Lecturer Department of Demography University of Colombo, Sri Lanka

Presentation will focus on:

1 • Why this study was done?

2 • How it was done?

3 • What are the findings?

Why this study was done?

. Improvement in socio-economic level of Sri Lankan women Gap between male and female literacy is narrowing down Women have surpassed men in their educational achievement Increasing participation of women in the labour force

. Demographic aspect Declining sex ratio Life expectancy favourable for women since the 1960s . Increasing involvement of women in international migration Departures for foreign employment by sex, 1986-2010

300000

250000

200000

150000 Male Female Total

Numberdepartures of 100000

50000

1991

1993

2001 2010

1987

1995

1997

1992

1988

1986 1994

1989 1998

1990

1996

1999

2003

2005

2007

2002

2004

2008

2000

2006 2009 Year

5 . Growing numbers of domestic workers in overseas employment

Departures for foreign employment by manpower level and sex, 2007

120000

100000

80000

Male 60000 Female

40000

20000 Number Number of depatrtures 0 Professional M iddle level Clerical and Skilled Semi skilled unskilled Housemaid level related

Manpower level

Source: SLBFE 2008:4, 5 . Contribution of migrant remittances to the Sri Lankan economy and households

The share of garments, private remittances and other  In 2007, migrant workers’ earnings to the total export earnings, 1990-2007 remittances to Sri Lanka reached US$ 2.6 billion.

 58 per cent of these 900000 remittances were from the 800000 workers in the Middle East 700000 where the majority of 600000 females are employed 500000

400000 Private remittances 300000 Other

200000 Total(Rs. million)earnings

100000 Garment

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Year

Source: SLBFE (2008:121) The share of garments, private remittances and other earnings to the total export earnings, 1990-2010

1000000

900000

800000

700000

600000

500000

400000

300000

200000

100000

Garment Private remittances Other

. Increasing attention of scholars and policy makers on the issue of the families and children left-behind by migrant women Economic benefits of migration Social costs of migration Government faces a dilemma

. Requirement for further investigations on this issue

How this study was done?

Primary data - Survey of 400 migrant households 200 migrants returned during the 10 years preceding the survey 200 family members when the migrant was still away at the time of the survey - Four focus group discussions – FGDs

Secondary data - Sri Lanka Bureau of Foreign Employment (SLBFE) - Department of Census and Statistics - Other published reports

25 administrative districts

Colombo district Kurunegala district

Colombo Hanwella Kurunegala Mawatagama DS Division DS Division DS Division DS Division

GN Divisions GN Divisions GN Divisions GN Divisions Bloemendhal Kiriwandala Kurunegala Bandaragala Grandpass North West Delpaddana South Koodaluvila Malkaduwawa Ihala Mattakkuliya Puwakpitiya North weligepola Sammantrana South Malkaduwawa Ilukewela pura Tunnana West South North Walawwatta Weherabenda Paragahadeniya Weragolla Sinhapura

Female Migrant Female Migrant Female Migrant Female Migrant households households households households

Research questions

Positivist/ Paradigm Constructivist/ Pragmatism Post-positivist Interpretivist

Ontology Internal reality/ Internal reality/ External reality socially socially/construc constructed ted reality + reality external reality

Objectivism Epistemology Subjectivism Subjectivism + objectivism

Survey research Methodolog y

Face-to-face Methods/ Focus Group interviews techniques Discussions using a structured questionnaire Methodological Methodological Quantitative approach Qualitative approach

Mixed methodologic al approach Departures for foreign employment by district and sex, 2006

What are the findings?

Reason for moving Number Percentage

Poverty 147 36.7

Reasons Limited employment opportunities in SL 4 1.0 for Husband did not have a permanent job 30 7.5 migration To repay debts 8 2.0 94 per cent To buy a land 22 5.5

To built a house 145 36.3

Family obligation 20 5.0

For children’ education 9 2.3

To recover husbands illness 4 1.0

To live away from husband 11 2.7

Total 400 100.0 Mainly responsible person for the decision to work overseas

1% Migrant 1%

10% Migrant's husband 7%

Both the migrant and her huband Migrant's parents 81% Other relatives

Destination countries of Sri Lankan domestic workers

Destination Number Percentage

Kuwait 165 41.3 71 per cent Saudi Arabia 119 29.7

United Arab Emirates 40 10.0

Lebanon 32 8.0

Qatar 13 3.2

Jordan 8 2.0

Cyprus 7 1.7

Oman 7 1.7

Bahrain 6 1.5

Malaysia 1 0.3

Singapore 1 0.3

Maldives 1 0.3

Total 400 100.0 Economic impacts Before migration

. Almost three quarters of the women (72.3 percent) had not worked in Sri Lanka before going to work overseas

This indicates that they have not been contributing to the family income before migration and their migration offered a chance to improve the economic circumstances of the family.

. Women who worked in Sri Lanka before migration stopped working because their monthly salary was not enough for their daily expenses.

. Moreover, their husbands have less prestigious and low-income generating jobs.

. More than 90 per cent reported that the migrants’ husbands have been employed prior to their departure.

However, - A little less than half of them worked as labourers. - Only about 3 per cent had a government job and another 5.8 per cent worked abroad. - Having the majority engaged in low- status and low- income jobs, their average monthly income was less than US$ 100 with the median of about US$ 80.

. Migration abroad has become one of the alternatives for many women to improve their family income whether it is short- term or long-term.

. But, a larger proportion of them had difficulties in financing their foreign employment

. Sri Lankan migrant domestic workers come from low- income and middle-income families and have financial difficulties in supporting their families.

. This fact is further reflected in the response to a question about the sufficiency of the household’s income to meet their needs before the migration of the housemaids.

. In only 7.5 percent of cases (30 respondents), it was reported that the family’s income before migration was sufficient. After migration  The number who reported that their monthly income was sufficient has increased from 7.5 per cent (30 respondents) to 26.8 per cent (107 respondents).

 Moreover, with the migration, their monthly average income has increased to SLRs. 16454.21 (approximately US$ 145) with the median income of SLRs. 15,000 (approximately US$ 132). Ownership of major items before and after migration

Percentage

Ownership House Land Vehicle Washing Radio Refri Tele- Comp machine gerator vision uter

Had before migration and no 46.5 0.5 0.5 0.3 45.8 2.5 26.8 0.0 improvement

Had before migration but 23.0 72.5 1.0 0.3 15.8 3.8 10.8 0.0 now improved

Purchased after migration 20.0 13.0 7.0 4.3 25.8 22.5 44.8 1.0

Do not still own 10.5 14.0 91.5 95.3 12.8 71.3 17.8 99.0

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100 100.0 100.0 100.0 N=100 N=100 N=100 N=100 N=100 N=100 N=100 N=100 Household opinion of the impact of migration on the household

Impact Aspect of household economy (Percentage) Monetary Housing Living Facilities condition condition Large impact 7.3 24.3 9.0 8.8

Significant impact 55.3 39.8 59.8 47.5

Same 29.5 33.0 29.0 41.5

Worse 8.0 3.0 2.3 2.3

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0  Majority of the migrants (94.5 per cent) in this study sample sent their full salary or a portion of it to their family members at home while she was away.  Husband was the recipient for 59 per cent of the migrants.  About 39 per cent of the migrants did not send money to their husbands. They did so because, - they were divorced/widowed/separate (49 per cent) - husband works abroad (9 per cent) - husband’s alcoholism (17.4 per cent) - the lack of finance management of husband (9.7 per cent) - other reasons (14.8 per cent). Social impacts

Number and percentage distribution of children of migrant women by sector

15 Percentage ofmothers

0 One child Two children Three children Four children Five children Six children

Number of children and sector

Urban Rural Estate

Average number of children is 2.3 The nature of work of domestic workers overseas

Nature of work Number Percentage

Childcare 5 1.3

Childcare and other work 230 60.1 73.1 per cent Childcare, age care and other work 45 11.7 Age care and other work 18 4.7 Other work 85 22.2 Total 383 100.0 Transnational motherhood

The organisational reconstitution and rearrangement of motherhood to accommodate the temporal and spatial separations forced by migration to explain how women are mothering their children from a distance.

Hondagneu-Sotelo and Avila (1997:548) Mainly responsible person for child care in the absence of mother by sector

Person mainly responsible Sector (Percentage) Total for child care Urban Rural Estate Percentage Husband Number 85 157 26 268 Percentage 68.0 68.3 66.7 68.0 Parents Number 26 54 13 93 Percentage 20.8 23.5 33.3 23.6 Other relatives Number 8 15 0 23 Percentage 6.4 6.5 0.0 5.8 Eldest child Number 5 4 0 9 Percentage 4.0 1.7 0.0 2.3 Institution Number 1 0 0 1 Percentage 0.8 0.0 0.0 0.3 Total Number 125 230 39 394 Percentage 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Respondent opinion of the happiness of children with caregivers

100% 90% 30.8 80% 51.1 47.2 46.2 70% 60% 50% 40% 69.2 Percentage 30% 48.9 52.8 53.8 20% 10% 0% Very Happy Moderately Happy Not happy at happy all Level of happiness w ith casre takers

Returned migrants Family members Impacts of mothers' earnings on children's education

19%

5% Positively affected Negatively affected No effect at all

76% Proportion of households reported a change in the behaviour in children

100% 90% 80% 70% 60% No 50% 40% Yes

Percentage 30% 20% 10%

Rural child

Less years

10-14

Urban than2

Estate Eldest

Parents

15years

Husband 2-4years 5-9years

Relations andmore Sector Mainly resposible Total duration work/worked person for childcare abroad  80 per cent of the respondents identified more than one behavioural change among children

Changes in the behaviour of children in the absence of mother Whether the behaviour of children Behavioural change Number Percentage was affected by mother's migration Increased problems at school 106 42.9 Percentage Health related behaviour 16 6.5 Yes No Moodiness – temper tantrums 34 13.8 Sector Number Disobedience 60 24.3 Urban 60 40 125 Isolation from the other 3 1.2 Rural 64 36 236 Joining gangs 16 6.5 Use of alcohol and drugs 12 4.8 Estate 67 33 39 Total 247 100.0 Total 63 37 400 Respondents who reported an illness of children and type of illness

Whether the children suffered from any Type of illness illness? 15 5 Yes, 122

102

No, 273 Physical illness Mental illness 1 2 Mental and physical illness

Whether it is an effect of mothers' migration? Type of illness

22 6

5 100

Mental illness An effect of migration Physical illness 3 4 Not an effect of migration Both mental and physical illness Mode of communication with family members by sector

Mode of communication Sector (Percentage) Total

Urban Rural Estate Percentage

Air mail – 71.0 Air mail 8.8 21.6 10.3 16.5 Higher in Estate Land phones – 65.3 Land phone 21.6 21.2 12.8 20.5 Higher in Urban Air mail and land phone 43.2 33.1 51.3 38.0 Mobile phones – 20.5

Mobile phone 2.4 5.5 0.0 4.0 Higher in Urban

Air mail and mobile phone 9.6 12.3 23.1 12.5 Land phone and mobile phone 7.2 0.8 0.0 2.8

Air mail, land and mobile phone 4.8 4.2 0.0 4.0

No contact at all 2.4 1.3 2.6 1.8

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Marital status – current and at the time of migration

90 80 70 60 50 40

30 Percentage 20 10 0 Never married Currently Divorced Widowed Seperated married Marital status

Currently At the time of migration Involvement of women in decision making on financial matters and household activities

25 Before migration

20 Percentage After migration 15

Parents Parents

Migrant Relative Migrant Relative

Husband Husband

Eldestchild Eldestchild

Migrantandhusband Migrantand husband Financial matters Household activities Opinion of the respondents on the skills acquired – 85 per cent

Skills - Speak Arabic language Management of household activities efficiently Possibility of working any work anywhere

Opinion of the respondents on personal development 40.8 per cent

 88.6 per cent of the returned migrants had a plan before they migrated: 30.9 per cent - followed in full 54.9 per cent - followed to come extent 14.4 per cent - not followed at all

 221 respondents had an idea about the government’s proposal on banning migration: 81.9 per cent reported that they support the proposal Policy implications

 If the government will not allow women to migrate?  If women continue migrating? Migration of women has challenged their gender ideology as they are involved in three-tier activities simultaneously.

• Firstly, they have to perform household and care activities for the family of their employers.

• Secondly, they mother their children and look after their families from afar without abandoning them.

• Thirdly, women become the breadwinners.

(Fresnoza-Flot, 2009; Asis, 2004)

In the absence of men,

• Families do well

• Women adjust well taking the whole responsibility of household chores including childcare

• The involvement of other family members in household management is low since woman is the most responsible person in household management. The situation is different when women migrate:

• Roles that are assigned by their employers

• Enhancing ability to earn

• Women have been able to look after their own families from a distance – due to the development of transnational communication system

• Spouses assume certain roles and responsibilities in addition to their role as a breadwinner of the family

Not all the men who are left behind take responsibilities of household activities since they are involved in income earning activities outside home

• In such situations, they depend on other extended family members, especially females, in household and childcare activities

The provision of quick communication facilities will enable migrant women to contact their families at least once a week since many of them do not contact their family members regularly.

It will also make it easier to express their emotions, and to repress their emotional strains, especially when these women leave their children in the care of other family members.

Thank you