Canadian Military History
Volume 20 Issue 4 Article 5
2011
Simple Shelters?: Monitoring Radioactive Fallout Across Canada, 1959–63
Andrew Burtch Canadian War Museum, [email protected]
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Recommended Citation Burtch, Andrew "Simple Shelters?: Monitoring Radioactive Fallout Across Canada, 1959–63." Canadian Military History 20, 4 (2011)
This Canadian War Museum is brought to you for free and open access by Scholars Commons @ Laurier. It has been accepted for inclusion in Canadian Military History by an authorized editor of Scholars Commons @ Laurier. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Burtch: Simple Shelters?
Simple Shelters? Monitoring Radioactive Fallout Across Canada, 1959-63
Andrew Burtch
uring the early Cold War, the Hiroshima and Nagasaki and that safety was both simple and Dthreat of nuclear war drove postwar nuclear tests, leads to a reasonably affordable. The price, many governments around the world prolonged breakdown of the body, nearly 10 percent of the average to urge their citizens to build fallout characterized by nausea, bleeding Canadian income, was beyond the shelters in which they could wait gums, internal haemorrhaging, hair means of most Canadians, however. out the deadliest period following loss, painful radiation burns, fever, The federal government, for its an attack. A thermonuclear bomb, delirium, and death.2 In the postwar part, firmly stood by a position that detonating at ground level, would period, civilian and military planners it could not afford to get into the scatter intensely radioactive particles hoped that the population would be business of building fallout shelters hundreds of kilometres downwind of able to limit their exposure to the most for millions of Canadians. the explosion. Numerous explosions lethal doses of radioactivity after an Yet at the same time, the federal would blanket southern Canada with attack by taking shelter underground. government became the largest fallout, which would kill millions With fallout shelters, citizens could builder of fallout shelters in the of citizens. Herman Kahn, the possibly survive an attack, even if country, investing millions of dollars RAND Corporation analyst whose they emerged to a destroyed world, in a secret crash program between outspoken views formed the genesis where increased risks of cancer, 1959 and 1963. Some aspects of this of Stanley Kubrick’s doomsday movie birth defects, and widespread illness project were controversial, such as the Dr. Strangelove, drily commented in would be the norm.3 blast shelter in Carp, Ontario, meant his 1960 dissection of thermonuclear Some governments, most notably to house military and government war that “the radiation from fallout Sweden, invested large amounts of officials. A Toronto reporter who has curious and frightening effects.”1 money to dig massive communal Ultimately, a high dose of radiation, shelters to house tens of thousands Résumé : Au début de la guerre froide, as observed by doctors and military of citizens, and forced the housing le gouvernement canadien a informé la officials following the attacks on industry to include shelters in population qu’elle pouvait construire every new building. The Canadian à faible coût des abris antinucléaires Abstract: During the early Cold War, government took a much less dans leur maison afin de protéger the Canadian government advised the leur famille d’éventuelles retombées public that they could cheaply build interventionist route. In the late 1950s nucléaires après une guerre nucléaire. fallout shelters in their homes to protect and early 1960s, Prime Minister John Publiquement, le gouvernement s’est their families from radiation after a Diefenbaker, provincial premiers, tenu à l’écart de la construction de ces nuclear war. Publicly, the government and local officials unsuccessfully abris en affirmant que le coût aurait été stayed out of the shelter-building advised homeowners to build shelters trop élevé pour lui. Cependant, de 1959 business, citing that the cost was too au milieu des années 1960, l’Armée high. However, from 1959 to the mid- at their own expense. The Emergency canadienne a secrètement construit 1960s, the Canadian Army secretly Measures Organization widely un réseau de 2 000 abris antinucléaires constructed a network of 2,000 fallout distributed blueprints for a shelter dans des immeubles gouvernementaux shelters in government buildings: that homeowners could construct for : le Nuclear Detonation and Fallout the Nuclear Detonation and Fallout a cost of $500 (approximately $4,000 Reporting System (système de Reporting System. This article explores déclaration de détonation nucléaire et the origins of this network and the today). The accompanying designs d’abris). Cet article explore les origines reasons for its decline. were meant to create the impression de ce réseau et les raisons de son déclin.
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discovered the bunker and cinderblock, of the during its construction desperation of efforts gave it the nickname to survive the Cold “Diefenbunker.” Much War. to the embarrassment The Canadian of the prime minister, military first entered the nickname stuck.4 the shelter-building Shelters like the business as a result Diefenbunker and of two factors: the similar provincial rapid progress of the sites were intended to Cold War arms race, provide for continuity and the inability of of government federal, provincial, and authority during a local civilian defence national crisis, but agencies to keep pace drew much public with the changing criticism as evidence threat to Canada. of a government’s Thermonuclear or willingness to pursue hydrogen bombs, self-preservation rather developed by the than national survival. superpowers in the One Vancouver couple early 1950s, nullified expressed their anger the plans of civil about government defence agencies shelters in a scathing tasked with defending letter to Diefenbaker in life and infrastructure. response to a televised Planners in Canada, civil defence exercise the United States, in the spring of 1961: and the United “We sincerely hope Kingdom previously that neither you nor developed strategies any Civil Servants with that incorporated fire- access to Government fighting and rescue The nuclear attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki (above) ushered in a principles tested shelters will be found new era in civil defence. The destructive potential of atomic weapons dead, trampled in the forced the Canadian government to address the issue of protecting its during Second World rush to the entrance citizens in a manner that had previously never been considered. War bombing raids. to the shelters, when Atomic weapons were those who got there first emerge in unprepared for the complexity and powerful enough to destroy parts of two weeks to mourn and bury the difficulty of a project as seemingly cities, but thermonuclear weapons rest of us.”5 simple as installing cinder-block threatened to wipe out entire cities Less well-known than the shelters in basements. The project in a flash. The only solution civil Diefenbunker, but essential to the took three years, at a cost of over $3 defence planners suggested was not government’s post-attack planning, million, but even so the final results to be there when the bomb went off.6 was the Nuclear Detonation and were significantly less substantial By 1954, Canadian officials began Fallout Reporting System (NDFRS). than the military had originally hoped to plan for the evacuation of major This network comprised more than to achieve. The NDFRS provides target cities within three hours of 2,000 fallout shelters modelled on the an interesting case study of the receiving an attack warning. These blueprints distributed to Canadian challenges of emergency planning in arrangements included arrangements families, and installed secretly peacetime and the politics of shelter- to control traffic movement, allay in government buildings across building in Canada. Remnants of public panic, billet and care for the country. The Canadian Army the NDFRS are present in hundreds evacuees, but tended to ignore the hoped to have the network in place of communities across southern lethal effects of radioactive fallout. quickly. The military was, however, Canada, a material record, in mortar Without shelter, evacuees would
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survive the bomb but die from open to different parts of the country report suspicious aircraft movements radiation illness in the countryside. during the opening stages of a war. over the United Kingdom.9 In the The mushroom cloud resulting Provincial and municipal shelters United States, different military and from a thermonuclear explosion were linked in to this network, government agencies at the federal, would spread irradiated ash and dust as were key military facilities in state, and local levels had some in the upper atmosphere, poisoning Canada and the United States. The capability for radiation reporting. the environment for hundreds trouble with the system as it was The Office of Civil Defence and of kilometres downwind of the originally devised was that, once Mobilization (OCDM) had, however, explosion. Even if, as some planners in the shelters, government officials proposed the creation of a Fixed believed, the country escaped direct would be cut off from the outside Federal Monitoring Network, where attack, nuclear detonations in the world. Without reliable reports fully automated, remotely-monitored United States would still threaten about local conditions, emergency radiation sensors would be installed national survival. The Canadian measures officials would be unable on approximately 6,000 federal military recognized the risks posed to advise the public about when it government buildings to transmit by thermonuclear weapons by was safe to emerge from their home data from which OCDM could 1954, but Canadian civilian defence fallout shelters and commence the determine fallout patterns.10 agencies, chronically underfunded arduous process of rebuilding. The The Canadian study group, and divided among three levels of Nuclear Detonation and Fallout observing the technological and government, fumbled for years to Reporting System (NDFRS) was financial challenges posed by find an effective solution before designed to serve as the eyes and ears developing an automated system settling on the family fallout shelter of the country. from scratch, looked to create as the best of the few options available Efforts to create the NDFRS something closer to the British model that might save lives. The situation began in earnest in August 1959, of shelters manned by volunteers. prompted a national review of civil shortly after the Cabinet Committee They proposed two types of fallout defence planning by retired chief on Emergency Plans (CCEP) shelters. The first, nuclear detonation of the general staff Lieutenant- approved the army’s plans for a reporting posts, would be established General Howard Graham, who National Survival Attack Warning around Canada’s main target cities: recommended in late 1958 that the System, the network of air raid sirens Victoria, Vancouver, Calgary, armed forces should assume primary installed across the country. The Edmonton, Winnipeg, Windsor, responsibility for coordinating Royal Canadian Air Force, the service London, Niagara Falls, Hamilton, national survival efforts, supported that was originally responsible for Toronto, Ottawa, Montreal, Québec, by other government departments. radiation monitoring, developed Saint John, Halifax, and St. John’s. In May 1959, the federal cabinet the original plans for the system Each city would be ringed with three passed a Privy Council order that before the transfer of responsibility or more fallout shelters equipped with incorporated many of Graham’s to the army.8 The army worked specialized equipment to determine recommendations. Among other with a study group composed of the location and height of blasts, and challenging tasks, the Canadian representatives of the navy, air force, the approximate destructive power of Army was assigned the responsibility Defence Research Board, and other each bomb detonated over Canadian to create and maintain an attack government agencies to develop territory.11 This information would warning system, detect nuclear recommendations for Cabinet. This assist planners to determine the explosions, and monitor levels of group looked at what the United extent of immediate casualties and radioactive fallout over Canadian Kingdom and the United States had begin to predict fallout coverage. territory.7 These responsibilities done to create a radiation monitoring The second, far more numerous type eventually brought the military network. By early 1960, the British of shelter, was the fallout reporting into the business of building fallout had settled on plans to develop a post. shelters across the country. grid of 1,500 hardened fallout shelters A Defence Research Board study Large government blast shelters equipped with Geiger counters and in 1956 had investigated the projected such as the Diefenbunker served two telephone lines that could report shape of fallout clouds that would purposes – to house key government radiation levels to the Home Office. form downwind after explosions officials in order to ensure continuity This system would be operated by in Canada and the United States. of government through an attack, and volunteer staffs and members of the It determined approximately 2,000 to house a military communications Ground Observer Corps, a volunteer posts would be required to effectively network capable of keeping links organization that had been created to monitor radiation intensity on the
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ground. The posts would need to be forwarded its recommendations to completion, to have all nuclear situated in a grid south of the 55th the CCEP, which gave approval in detonation posts operational by 1 July parallel, with posts 15 miles apart principle on 29 June 1960.14 Then and all fallout posts ready to report on the north-south axis and 45 miles began the slow and difficult task of by 31 December 1961.15 apart from east to west. The RCAF actually building the system. Area commands reported back had adopted these findings as the The work to move from the to Army Headquarters with their foundation for the national network concept to actually breaking results that spring. Each command in its early planning work in 1959.12 ground on shelters took nearly two carried out map studies to determine The Canadian Army built on these years. Approval from the CCEP suitable locations for fallout shelters assumptions when finalizing plans did not immediately bring funds throughout their areas, using for the system. from the Treasury Board to pay for existing federal buildings as much To save money and speed construction and materials. More as possible. The process of mapping completion of the network, the Army important, Cabinet approval did not out where the shelters would go also recommended to Cabinet that shelters guarantee participation by provincial resulted in greater scrutiny of the could be installed in Department of or municipal government agencies, possible weaknesses of the system. National Defence Major-General facilities, Royal John Rockingham, Canadian Mounted NUDET and FRP report to Filter Centre or direct to provincial commander of Police detachments, bunkers Quebec Command, Department of noted that most Transport weather of the proposed Filter Centres collate data from outposts, send reports stations, provincial to federal and provincial emergency government bunkers shelters would use police stations and existing civilian Lands and Forests communications departments, as Emergency government headquarters staff plot lines. Most of nuclear detonations and fallout patterns well as in railway these ran through stations.13 A brief Montreal’s survey had revealed Air raid sirens and emergency radio broadcasts inform main exchange. that using these public when to emerge from shelter or evacuate Montreal’s sites alone could destruction would account for nearly therefore cripple three-quarters of Figure 1: Nuclear Detonation and Fallout Reporting fallout reporting the national grid, System (NDFRS) Communications and national covering everything survival efforts from the urban core of target areas to let alone outside partners like the in Quebec. Even if Montreal was the sparsely populated countryside. national rail systems, whose support spared the direct effects of attack, The detonation and fallout had to be solicited. Most ready to no provision had been made to reporting posts would communicate cooperate was the military. The provide fallout shelters for their findings to filter centres, fallout- newly-formed Directorate of Survival civilian switchboard operators, so protected regional facilities located Operations and Plans presented the communications would still be non- in federal properties, which would concept to the area commanders existent. Resolving this problem verify post reports and forward them responsible for the Army’s operations would require the introduction of to the federal and provincial bunkers within Canada in the late summer of military communications outlets in for analysis. In an emergency, the 1960. In January 1961, Lieutenant- many proposed sites. government would use the data to General S.F. Clark, the chief of the Rockingham also indicated that advise families about relative levels general staff, directed each command federal buildings could only house of safety across the country, prepare to begin investigating possible shelter a fraction of the shelters required for evacuation orders for areas facing locations and to open discussions effective reporting in the province. lethal levels of fallout, and advise with provincial agencies and deliver Provincial or private agencies, such homeowners by radio broadcast an early report about proposed as the national railways, forestry about when the most lethal period locations in their areas of jurisdiction. companies, or power generating following an attack ended. (See The directive contained what proved firms, would need to be brought in Figure 1.) The Army’s study group to be an optimistic schedule for to the project. Success depended
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on these private firms’ NDFRS sites, to purchase interest in committing and install air raid sirens to their facilities and staff expand the attack warning members to the NDFRS network, and needed system. Work on nuclear nearly $4 million worth detonation reporting posts of radiation detection appeared to have been equipment. Clark proposed simpler because the military to use existing stocks to could in most cases use supply FRPs with radiation its own installations near detection equipment as target cities. soon as possible, so that
Finally, Rockingham Museum 19710261-6423 Canadian War the system could obtain identified the system’s “a limited capability in largest flaw. What if about two weeks.” Of the shelters were built, course, doing so meant but nobody decided to stripping radiacmeters volunteer to report from from the Militia and them during an emergency? Regular units tasked with Rockingham noted that “it is re-entering bombed cities unrealistic to expect a man to rescue civilians, until to operate in a fallout shelter new equipment could be for 14 days if his family is procured. 20 Taking Clark’s also not supplied with a advice to Cabinet, Harkness shelter. Hence these [FRPs] also requested greater should be large enough to autonomy for the Army’s accommodate the operator Area Commands so that and his family.”16 they could award contracts, Obtaining assistance authorize overtime, and take from external agencies other measures to ensure would be key to meeting Major-General John Rockingham that the NDFRS shelters painted in 1958 by Brenda Bury the system’s schedule for could be built quickly. The completion. However, the Cabinet uneasily agreed military did not have authority increase its military readiness and to back the American position over to contact the Canadian National accelerated all of its national survival Berlin, and acted on Harkness’s and Pacific Railways, or begin projects. suggestions and a range of other preparations for shelters at provincial Diefenbaker’s Cabinet met five exceptional measures to accelerate sites until July 1961.17 The pace times in late August to approve military and civilian planning for changed in August, as superpower measures that would underscore nuclear war. 21 confrontation over access to Berlin Canada’s moral and military support Soon after the Cabinet meeting, threatened imminent nuclear war. As for the United States and Berlin. At Treasury Board officials gave the crisis reached its peak, the United these meetings, defence minister advance approval of the military’s States persuaded its allies to increase Douglas Harkness recommended the expenditures to purchase equipment, their general military preparedness immediate dispersal of food rations, and, more importantly, allowed and funding for civil defence.18 As military vehicle stocks, and emergency the army headquarters to delegate US secretary of state Dean Rusk clothing from central warehouses to authority for construction to the area explained to nervous allies at the depots outside Canadian target commanders.22 As a result, general North Atlantic Council, the measures areas. A significant number of officers commanding received were not meant “to rattle the saber, Harkness’s recommendations dealt permission to spend as much as we propose to show how quickly with the NDFRS system. Before the $15,500 to build a Filter Centre, it can be drawn from the scabbard Cabinet meetings, General Clark had $6,000 to build a nuclear reporting in defence of our obligations and informed Harkness that the Army post (NUDET), and $700 for each rights.”19 As the crisis deepened, the required immediate Treasury Board basic basement shelter built for use Canadian government scrambled to approval to start construction at as a fallout reporting post (FRP),
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This map shows all the planned locations of fallout reporting posts in Manitoba. Each post was assigned a number based on its geographical reference location.
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considerably more than the $500 the railways and the RCMP. These be the case in fallout reporting.”25 Canadian civilians were told would organizations had outposts in far- After consultation with the unions, be sufficient to build a basement flung locations with access to national the major rail networks agreed in shelter.23 Within these limits, the area communications networks that, with October to begin building shelters in commanders had significant freedom some adjustment, could be linked in their stations under army supervision to use civilian contract labourers to to the military signals system. In early and at federal expense.26 build the shelters, install equipment, September, Major-General Arthur Cooperation with other and purchase needed shelter stocks Wrinch, DSO&P’s chief planner, met government departments, including locally. The goal of this new “crash with the regional heads of Canadian the RCMP, proved more difficult to program” was to expand the system National, Canadian Pacific, Ontario arrange than the railway agreement.
A partial map of the fallout reporting posts completed as of 1963 near Regina, Saskatchewan. Map developed by author.
as quickly as possible, with the Northland Railway, and Quebec As his colleagues reached out to the objective of completing the NDFRS North Shore and Labrador Railway railways, Lieutenant-Colonel Edward by January 1962.24 to gain their cooperation. The rail Churchill, the engineering officer Armed with discretionary executives were concerned about who masterminded construction of spending powers and additional staff, having to pay “overtime” costs the Diefenbunker and other major the Canadian Army reached out for associated with manning shelters projects, worked with federal and cooperation from other national and in their stations during a nuclear provincial partners to develop a clear provincial agencies. In August 1961, war, but were otherwise supportive. division of responsibility for building the Directorate of Survival Operations They noted that unionized staff and maintaining the shelters. The and Planning (DSO&P) contacted members would probably sign on to army would specify which buildings key government and private sector staff the fallout shelters because “the required shelters, and what type to partners to brief them on the NDFRS unions had previously cooperated in build, and would work with local project and obtain their assistance. aircraft spotting, and took it on with agencies to find contractors to build Two groups were crucial to the enthusiasm in spite of the fact that it the shelters. After construction was success of the building program: involved rather more effort than will complete, the local agency would
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Militia recruits practice rescue skills during a course at the Lakeview Armoury in September 1961.
look after the shelter’s maintenance undertakes this responsibility far government had agreed to cooperate and would be responsible for staffing outweigh any inconveniences.”27 with the NDFRS building program, it the shelter in wartime. Churchill Soon after Churchill laid out had not passed on information to its suggested that reluctant employees his plans, work to complete the responsible departments. The Army could be persuaded to volunteer NDFRS quickly began to founder would have to negotiate with each as radiation monitors because on the rocks of intergovernmental department separately to access their they would be able to bring their and departmental disputes. Central buildings and make arrangements families into the fallout shelter, and Command staff officers reported for local construction, with resulting “the advantages provided to the to headquarters in late October months of delay.28 The situation was individual and his family when he that, while the Ontario provincial not much better in Quebec Command.
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In Rockingham’s headquarters, the command engineer complained to Ottawa that the January deadline could not be met:
These [local arrangements] involve so many agencies and the associated communication problems are so complex that considerable negotiating and discussion must take place before construction can
begin. These, together with the Courtesy Photography Metabolic of inherent delays imposed by winter construction and the inevitable loss of time during the Christmas period, are bound to slow down the programme.29
Even where federal agencies such The fallout reporting post built beneath a post office in Leduc, Alberta as the RCMP had agreed to cooperate was disassembled to make room for this work room. fully with the Army and build fallout shelters in its detachment houses, getting the cooperation of headquarters that “real interference who could build the shelter at each the detachments themselves proved must be apparent before denying site.33 Approximately 2,000 sites had difficult. In some cases, shelters could the use of space,” the army engineers to be assessed across the country, a not be constructed at all. In Western encountered resistance from local large burden on the area command Command, most of the RCMP detachments where construction staff personnel. Despite substantial detachments in Alberta operated would temporarily disrupt work or efforts by engineering staffs to from leased private homes. Their otherwise inconvenience employees.32 complete their site surveys quickly, standing orders were to undertake The problems with getting the they were too few to visit every only short-term rental arrangements. NDFRS underway were not entirely site. In Ontario, arranging visits to The Army would therefore need to the result of disagreements with local some locations proved very difficult, reach agreement with the property agencies. In most cases, construction especially in northern parts of the owners and obtain reasonable stalled because of faulty assumptions province. As Major-General H.A. assurances that the shelter could be made in area headquarters during the Sparling, GOC Central Command, staffed in wartime.30 initial planning for NDFRS sites in explained to the quartermaster- Not all obstacles to construction the spring of 1961. At that time, area general: “It has not been physically were so reasonable. Major A.J. commands did their planning from a possible to date to complete the Arcand, the officer commanding 12 map reconnaissance, armed with lists preliminary staff reconnaissance. Works Company, RCE, reported to of DND, government, and railway To this date, approximately 75% of Western Command that he had run properties, to create their rough 45 x these have been carried out. The main into substantial opposition from F 15 mile grid of fallout reporting posts. problem has been in the northern Division RCMP detachments. The Once the funds for construction areas…where many of the recces local Mounties objected to shelter began to flow from Treasury Board, have been carried out by air and in construction in their detachments, area command engineers directed the case of the railways by handcar.” Arcand explained, “in most buildings personnel to conduct hundreds of site Sparling accurately predicted that this area is already used or it is visits, and negotiate with local staff. less than half of the FRPs in his area intended to use it for workshop area, These military engineers assessed could be completed by the January storage, exhibit room, clothesdrying the facilities identified in the map 1962 deadline.34 lines or recreation area. The RCMP reconnaissance, sent back sketch In some cases, once engineers are not prepared to give up these plans to help HQ produce blueprints arrived on-site, their assessment facilities to provide space for a and manufacturing specifications, revealed that many building shelter.”31 Despite orders from RCMP and identified lists of local contractors basements were unsuitable to house
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shelters, either due to lack of space into some sites by helicopter. Labour Where shelters could be built, the or poor building condition. As a and materials would also need to be costs varied widely depending on the result, new sites would have to be airlifted to these sites, where winter state of the building and cost of local selected, or the building would construction was impossible, leading labour. Some basement shelters could require an above-ground shelter Eastern Command to cancel or defer be built for less than $100-200, as was at additional cost. In Nova Scotia construction of 68 FRPs in their the case for a shelter at one of the and New Brunswick, many of the region.35 In western Ontario, a number Toronto Area Target Headquarters railway stations required shelters of sites had to be abandoned after the in Newmarket, Ontario, but others located outside the facility. Above- reconnaissance group reported that could be ten times as much. When ground shelters could not be built no communications links existed in Ontario Provincial Police refused to cheaply in winter. In Newfoundland, the building, requiring a new survey build a shelter outside their district reconnaissance parties had to be flown of the area and additional site visits.36 headquarters in Perth, Ontario,
This blueprint shows the design of a standard fallout shelter for use in RCMP detachments. Library and Archives Canada, RG 24 Vol 19436 File 2426-4-2 19436 Vol 24 Canada, RG Library and Archives
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labourers had to excavate a new fiscal year. Fortunately, it appeared fell, and, following a rancorous public basement area underneath a vehicle that the Canadian government and dispute with the governor of the Bank garage, at a cost of $2,200.37 Most the armed forces could afford to of Canada, Diefenbaker devalued the shelters, however, appeared to have proceed at a more leisurely pace. Canadian dollar, and implemented been built for slightly more than the The German Democratic Republic austerity measures to control deficit authorized $700 limit. Each of these (GDR) did much to resolve the spending.43 The Cabinet directed the required additional approval from Berlin crisis in late August 1961 by Department of National Defence to Army headquarters, leading to yet building a wall between East and make cuts in June 1962. Of the $82 longer delays. When Rockingham West Berlin. Though American and million cut from the defence budget, requested blanket permission Soviet tanks had a tense standoff the army’s share totalled $29 million. to authorize the construction of at one of the crossing points into The NDFRS accordingly fell under more expensive shelters in order East Berlin, and the West decried the axe along to avoid wasting time on seeking the GDR’s repressive move, world with case by case approval from Ottawa, leaders privately breathed a sigh of he was curtly (if accurately) told relief. By late 1961, Berlin was no that “small increases in price will longer a flashpoint for conflict. substantially increase total costs.”38 The cost of above-ground fallout The Canadian Army procured shelters was much higher than the thousands of IM-108/PD average basement construction. radiacmeters like this one Above-ground shelters required for National Survival issue. additional fallout protection. One Many were installed in fallout reporting posts. design prepared by the Army Works Service (AWS) estimated that a 60 square foot shelter designed to The Canadian government CWM 19810393-022 house two people would need to be did not completely let down its other surrounded by at least 21 inches of guard, however, as work proceeded national crushed stone to adequately shield on the NDFRS and other, higher- survival the occupants from radiation. The profile national survival programs programs, including work cost of this design was approximately such as the Special Militia Training on the national warning system and $2,900 (nearly $23,000 today).39 In Plan, an effort to temporarily recruit the military communications system Jasper National Park, where shelters 100,000 Canadians into the Militia meant to connect all the government were planned in the wilderness, for a six-week course in rescue and bunkers in wartime. A departmental the cost per shelter sky-rocketed. other civil defence skills.41 A crisis spending review deferred funds to Engineers estimated they would need of a different type did much to construct the 812 remaining FRPs, $14,000 to build three shelters in the derail hopes to complete the NDFRS NUDET stations, and filter centres woods.40 The army solicited bids program in 1962. until another fiscal year.44 from private companies such as the Since assuming power in 1957, Major-General Wrinch in DSO&P Butler Manufacturing Company for John Diefenbaker’s government responded with some incredulity, pre-fabricated shelters that could be endured a significant downturn in noting that the cuts rendered the flown in to remote locations, hoping the Canadian economy. The postwar warning and reporting systems non- for some savings, but the costs were boom slowed in the late 1950s, and by effective, leaving the military unable roughly equivalent to those designed 1961 more than 350,000 Canadians to live up to its responsibilities. by the AWS. were unemployed, approximately Halting construction on the NDFRS, By the time many of these 7.5 per cent of the work force. The he warned, “could lead to a major problems became apparent, the expanding ranks of unemployed increase in loss of life in the event January 1962 deadline had passed. steadily drained the government’s of an attack.”45 The budget cuts Nevertheless, the NDFRS system limited unemployment insurance effectively crippled the NDFRS. slowly began to take shape. By mid- coffers.42 Canada also suffered a Despite intergovernmental confusion 1962, shelters had been installed significant trade deficit with the and slow progress on construction, at many of the surveyed sites, and United States, importing a billion approximately 1,200 FRPs had been plans were in place to continue dollars’ worth of goods more than it built or were near completion at the with additional installations each exported. Confidence in the economy time of the departmental review. In
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order to become operational, however, While the official scales of issue for without significant incident, and the these reporting posts needed secure each FRP and NUDET post called shelters were not manned at any point communications links and equipment for one 5015 set, the records indicate during the standoff in the Caribbean. that could effectively gauge radiation that the hand-held radiacmeters were In the denouement of the crisis, work levels, or, in the case of nuclear the best that volunteer operators ever continued on the NDFRS at a slower detonation posts, the direction and received.49 One of the key attractions pace, even though army officials close intensity of nuclear explosions over of the NDFRS was that volunteers to the program privately argued that Canada. An immediate impact of the could share the shelter with their the urgency to complete the program departmental review was the loss of families, offering some promise of was “greater, not less, than it was the funds to establish communications safety in a post-attack environment. last summer.”52 links from the shelters to filter centres Without the remote-reading meter, By 1963, the Canadian and emergency government bunkers. the risks of contaminating the government and, by extension, Announcing the austerity measures, shelter and killing the occupants the armed forces, had begun to Harkness indicated that “rentals of increased exponentially. Every move away from civil defence and telephone and teleprinter circuits, time the occupant took a reading, national survival preparations. The usually a heavy expenditure, will he or she would have to turn on government shifted responsibility be restricted.”46 If an attack came, the meter, zero it, don protective for emergency measures to the the government’s ability to map and equipment, and then venture outside Department of Defence Production, predict fallout patterns would be the shelter to gauge radiation levels. preferring to focus on plans for almost entirely dependent on existing The army’s revised instructions for natural disasters rather than nuclear communications links: railway fallout reporting using hand-held war. The Army, meanwhile, happily telegraph, commercial telephone, or equipment did not inspire confidence: if quietly divested itself of many of police radio circuits. As Rockingham “One minute, even 30 seconds, is a its domestic responsibilities in favour had pointed out in his original relatively long time, the exposure of conventional war preparations assessment of the NDFRS, because should be reduced to a minimum overseas. The military retained these communications were routed by rehearsing action before going control of the warning sirens, the through exchanges located in major outside…”50 Considering that FRPs Diefenbunker, and other provincial target areas, it was very likely that the were required to report each hour, and regional emergency government entire reporting system could be shut each outing meant increased risks headquarters. The NDFRS did not down in the first stages of an attack of radiation sickness, more water appear to survive this reorganization. on North America. lost to decontaminating equipment The federal government transferred Discussing the effects of the and clothing, and greater risks of control of some shelters to provincial cuts, Harkness also mentioned to contaminating the shelter itself. emergency measures agencies, to the the press that “procurement of The 5015 sets eventually came into railways, or to local authorities who some items would be postponed.”47 the Canadian Army’s inventory, wanted them.53 In 1967, Canadian This referred to the radiation and but records indicate that none were Army personnel toured command blast detection material that the installed in shelters by the end of districts to retrieve communications FRPs and NUDET posts required 1962.51 and radiac equipment from to monitor radiation levels. The By the time of the Cuban the unused shelters, effectively original design requirements of Missile Crisis in the fall of 1962, dismantling the fallout reporting the FRP called for the installation the Canadian Army had built more posts.54 of the IM-5015/TD, a radiacmeter than half of the facilities required From 1959 to 1963, the Canadian that could be safely monitored from for the NDFRS, but these basic Army engaged in a national project within the shelter, linked to a probe shelters lacked essential equipment to build fallout shelters designed to attached outdoors. By the time of or reliable communications. Had a collect and transmit information on the 1961 crisis over Berlin and the war occurred, it is very likely that the fallout that would blanket the crash program, the Canadian Army the shelters might have saved some country following a nuclear attack. had few of these meters. Instead, lives, but their greater value to the The shelter-building experience they distributed stocks of the hand- government of Canada as a tool highlights a central problem that held IM-108/TD radiacmeters as to advise Canadian citizens about plagued both civilian and military “interim meters” until sufficient fallout patterns would have been efforts to improve the country’s 5015s could be purchased to equip severely limited. Fortunately for all passive defences against nuclear war. the far-flung reporting outposts.48 involved, the Cuban crisis passed Interagency and interdepartmental
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bureaucratic confusion slowed the when the CPR station was relocated responsibilities for the NDFRS, but apart from hiring on additional officers to train implementation of policy, even and the building renovated to become Ground Observer Corps volunteers in in an emergency situation, while a diner. An extensive survey would radiation plotting little material progress fiscal support to the project proved be required to determine how many was attained. See LAC RG 24, Accession 83-84/167, Box 343, File 1616-7 pt 1. fleeting. Like the public, the military of the FRPs and other facilities still See also Army Historical Report No.96, was forced to make its preparations survive. The author has uncovered “The Canadian Army’s Role in National with an imperfect and ultimately several shelters scattered through Survival Operations,” 29 October 1962, p. 44 See
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22. Minutes of meeting, 18 August 1961, LAC 39. Plan 05-T94, LAC RG 24 Acc 2000-01321- that could not be reached. In one case, RG 24 Acc 2000-01321-X, box 67, file 5115- X, box 83, file 5341-31/7. the post was located at the bottom of a 91/S48 pt 1. 40. R.G. Robertson to E.B. Armstrong, LAC dam at Barrage Bourques. In another 23. E.H. Armstrong to Williams, 17 October RG 24 Acc 2000-01321-X, box 83, file 5341- case, a shelter located at a pulp mill 1961, LAC RG 24 Acc 2000-01321-X, box 2 pt 2. in Rowanton, Quebec was not visited 83, file 5341-2 pt 1. 41. For more detail about the program to because the mill had burned down two 24. NUDET STOVEPIPE REPORTS, 11 March train 100,000 civilians into special Militia years previously, and the logging roads 1963. LAC RG 24, vol. 19436, file 2426-4-2. rescue units in the fall and winter of 1961- were too hazardous. Most interestingly, 25. A.E. Wrinch to Commands, D Sigs, D 62, see Andrew Burtch, Give Me Shelter: the staff officer responsible remarked Wks, Annex B, 18 September 1961, LAC The Failure of Canada’s Cold War Civil that most shelters that were located RG 24 2000-01321-X, box 83, file 5341-2 pt 1. Defence (Toronto: UBC Press, 2012). outside train stations had been broken 26. Wrinch to Commands, 11 October 42. Donald Fleming, So Very Near: The Political into, so very little equipment remained 1961; Wrinch to Commands, 18 October Memoirs of the Honourable Donald M. to be retrieved. Lieutenant P.R. Bova to 1961; Report of meeting with Railway Fleming, volume 2 (Toronto: McClelland Headquarters, 11 September 1968, LAC Representatives, 26 October 1961, LAC and Stewart, 1985), p.77. RG 24, vol. 22402, file 7810-1. RG 24 Acc 2000-01321-X, box 83, file 5341- 43. Thomas L. Powrie, “Crisis in Canada’s 55. For example, the CPR station-turned local 2 pt 1. Economy,” Challenge 11, no.2 (November museum in Cudworth, Saskatchewan 27. Lieutenant-Colonel E. Churchill to DPW, 1962), pp.22-25. preserved the shelter, even though the DOT, DNR, DOF, DA, DNHQ, DNR, 44. Project Justification, Vote 203 Primary Army stripped it of its contents. The RCMP, Citizenship, 21 September 1961, 81 – September 1962, LAC RG 24 Acc same is true of a former rail station LAC RG 24 2000-01321-X, box 83, file 2000-01321-X, box 67, file 5115-91/S48 pt 1. repurposed as a municipal library in 5341-2 pt 1. 45. A.E. Wrinch to M.G. Rothschild, 27 Eatonia, Saskatchewan. Telephone 28. Graham to Churchill, 24 October 1961, September 1962, LAC RG 24 Acc 2000- interview with Cudworth town office; LAC RG 24 Acc 2000-01321-X, box 83, file 01321-X, box 67, file 5115-91/S48 pt 1. E-mail correspondence with Eatonia 5341-31/7. 46. “Austerity Plan Cripples Survival Town Office. 29. Fleury to R.W. Moncel, 6 November 1961, Program,” Globe and Mail, 28 August 1962. LAC RG 24 Acc 2000-01321-X, box 67, file 47. Ibid. 5115-91/S48 pt 1. 48. Annex B, Wrinch to Commands, 18 30. Westcom to AHQ, 10 January 1962, ibid. September 1961, LAC RG 24 Acc 2000- 31. Major A.J. Arcand, 12 Wks Coy to 01321-X, box 83,file 5341-2 pt 1. Command Engineer, Edmonton, 9 49. Canada. Canadian Army, Director of January 1962, LAC RG 24 Acc 2000-01321- Ordnance Services, Scales of Issue for X, box 83, file 5341-2 pt 2. National Survival Material – CAF S23-300 Dr. Andrew Burtch is the Canadian 32. Chief Superintendent J.H.T. Poudreste April 1963, (Ottawa: Queen’s Printer, War Museum’s historian for the post- to Officer Commanding RCMP, 28 1963), Scales No. 19, 20, and 22. 1945 period, responsible for Gallery 4: November 1961, LAC RG 24, vol.19436, 50. CC 2426-4(G) “Operations under Fallout,” A Violent Peace: The Cold War, file 2426-4-2 pt 3. 26 February 1963, LAC RG 24, vol. 19437, Peacekeeping, and Recent Conflicts. 33. Colonel G.K. Wade to DD Wks Spec, 2 file 2426-4/23/0 pt 4. Dr. Burtch completed his doctorate in October 1961, LAC RG 24, 2000-01321-X, 51. Each Command periodically updated Canadian history at Carleton University box 83, file 5341-2 pt 1. the status of their construction program. in 2009. His research specialty includes 34. Sparling to Moncel, 5 December 1961, The finding above is based on a review of the Cold War home front and nuclear civil LAC RG 24 Acc 2000-01321-X, box 83, file the status of Central Command’s NDFRS defence. He has developed temporary 5341-2 pt 2. outposts as of 1 June 1963 found in file and permanent exhibitions about the 35. Eastern Command to AHQ, 26 January LAC RG 24, vol.19437, file 2426-4/23/0 Canadian mission in Afghanistan, 1962, LAC RG 24 Acc 2000-01321-X, box pt 4. Other commands reported similar peacekeeping in Cyprus, War and 83,file 5341-2 pt 1. results. Medicine, and efforts to resolve the 36. Sparling to Moncel, 29 December 1961, 52. Rothschild to ADM, 11 February 1963, conflict in the former Yugoslavia. His LAC RG 24, Acc 2000-01321-X, box 83, LAC RG 24 Acc 2000-01321-X, box 67, file first book, Give Me Shelter: The Failure of file 5341-2 pt 2. 5115-91/S48 pt 1. Canada’s Nuclear Civil Defence Program, 37. Canarmy to Cencom, 16 January 1962, 53. Patterson to MacDonald, 19 March 1966, is now available from the University of LAC RG 24 Acc 2000-01321-X , box 83, LAC RG 84 A-2a, vol.2097, file U-165-3 British Columbia Press. file 5341-31/7. Plans. Dr. Burtch is also a Research Fellow at 38. Moncel to Rockingham, 6 November 1961, 54. In a memo to headquarters at CFB the University of Waterloo’s Centre on LAC RG 24 Acc 2000-01321-X, box 67, file Montreal, the Western Quebec District Canadian Foreign Policy and Federalism. 5115-91/S48 pt 1. Command noted a number of posts
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