Bull. Ind Inst. Hist Mad. Vol. XXIII, pp. 37 to 48

PHARMACY AND MEDICINE EDUCATION IN ANCIENT EGYPT

SAMIR YAHIA EL-GAMMAL'"

ABSTRACT

The ancient Egyptians knew many of the therapeutical effects of the medicinal plants. This knowledge was taught at home from father to son. So. these houses formed the first primitive pharmacy and medicine schools. Century after century, the ancient Egyptians became mor e and more interested in medical sciences. Temples began to establish medical and pharmaceutical schools. Priests 01 good and honest character with scientific background were chosen to become teachers and professors in these schools. Another medical and pharmaceutical schools teaching all the scientific courses were the Per Ankh or Houses of Life. Special schools were erected inside the Royal palaces for the education of the Royal family children, the nobles and the court officials comprising all sorts of sciences and arts, specially taught in its own Per Ankh, as in Heliopolis and Memphis palaces.

In the pre -dvr.astic periods, the preparations, together with writing ancient Egyptians knew many of the and reading. therapeutical effects of the medicinal plants. This knowledge was taught When writing and reading became at home from father to son and was available to many people, round kept secretly in certain families, who 5000 B C., these physician herbalists became very famous in curing the began to write down all what they sick people with herbs, minerals, knew of sciences in sheets of papyri, parts of animals together with the comprising all the pharmaceutical help of spiritual incantations and prepar atior.s. their methods of uses amulets So. these houses formed and their curative effects and the the first primitive pharmacy and type of diseases each of these reme- medicine schools, in which the sons dies can be used for cure. Copies were taught the art of mixing and of these sheets were handed over preparing of different pharmaceutical to the priests of the Heliopolis temple,

'" Pharmacist. Researcher in the His. orv of Medicine & Phm macv. P.O. No. 136. Maadi. CAIRO; EGYPT. 38 Bul!. Ind. lnst . Hist . Med. Vol. XXIII

who hung them round the columns within its campus, specially in the and on the walls of the temple, so as major capitals of the provinces of the visiting sick people could consult Egypt, and their teachers were them about their diseases and benefit specialised priests with scientific from these informations. By time, background, and began teaching all the temple became so crowded with kind of sciences. Priests of good sick people who considered it as a and honest characters were chosen pilyrimage place. to become teachers and professors in these schools and were obliged to Also, many students came to learn wear a coarse uniform cloths made of from these sheets about the beneficial linen in the form of a long dress, and uses of the herbs and tile different covering their backs with leopard skin and walk with shaven scalp so diagnostic methods, and get use of as to be recognised every where. these informations in their future career of medicine and pharmacy. The students who wish to be educated in these schools were The priests collected these bits of chosen to be least talkative persons, medico-pharmaceutical informations with plenty of courage, great and were collectively named "the patience, being circumcized as a sign book of Ember" or "the Holy Book". of purity, and must have obtained It was often referred to as being a a previous priliminary religious gift of God That and so it came to be education in a temple, for fear of the basis of the medical text books getting mixed up with bad-mannered and convinced the commons that it comrades. was of devine origin and unchan- geable. Also, if one of these students commited a dishonourable mistake, This book of Ember was soon that deeply affects his belonging to monopolised by the temple priests . his supreme institute, received a who kept it very secretly hidden. severe punishment, either imprison-

Century after century r the ancient ment or hanged. This constituted an Egyptians became more and more example for those students wishing interested in medical sciences, and to continue their studies in those forced the priests to simplify the schools, that they have to keep their contents and informations of this purity, good manners and excellent book so as to be more handy to all conduct, due to the strong belief that temples. pharmacists and physicians were honest messengers from God for the These temples began to establish sake of preserving the life of the medical and pharmaceutical schools people. Pharmacy and Medicine Education-El-Gammal 39

The education and studying in in the r.ervice of the terr pies they these institutes was for a limited have graduated from, by treating th e number of years. First, the students poor sick people who come aski;;g get a primary education of the basic for help, all free of cha-qe, before principles of sciences, then the they could start their private career. intelligent students were chosen by their professors so as to proceed in Many out-patient clinics were higher courses and so on. When erected, attached to the rnedical they have fininshed this stage with schools in all the temples, together success, and pass their final examin- with in-patient wards for the cure ations, then the officials of these and treatment of the sick and institutes celebrate this occasion by operable patients. holding a graduation ceremony, in the most holy and sacred place of Also a big pharmacy was erected the temple. There. the professors joining these clinics for the prepara- tion of all the necessary needed and the Government's high officials pharmaceuticals for the use of the attend and the graduates swear an patients. Each temple was supplied oath on medical and pharmaceutical with the medicinal plants for the ethics, which can be briefed in their preparation of the different pharma- promise by the devine God that they ceutical forms, from the annexed will keep in utmost secrecy, all the sciences they were taught so as to botanical garden, which were con- trolled by experienced pharmacists, prevent them from falling into the equipped with laboratories following hands of evil commons, and that they scientific rules of that time. The should do all their best to serve the collection of these valuable medicinal society's welfare and must be plants were done under strict super- sympathetic with the poor patients vision of guards who were priests in and must not reveal any of the patient's secrets .. etc. This oath was origin. copied literally by Hippocrates, and The wealthy families sent their all the medical graduates in ancient children to be educated and study Greece were made to swear it before writing, reading, medicine, pharmacy starting their professional career, and ... etc. in these temples specially the this custom is still in function throughout the whole world The famous ones. original Pharaonic Oath was found The oldest and most famous written in Hearst Papyrus. The newly temple-institute in ancient Egypt was medical and pharmaceutical graduates were obliged to begin their practice that one in the city of Annu by forcibly joininq for a certain time, (Heliopolis) (now a suberb, north of 40 BUll. u.« 1;:5t. Hist . Mea. Vol. X XIII

Cairo), and was considered a sacred cian Asclepios in the 11th century city for the worship of the one and B.C. Also Hecutaeus of Miletus only God Ra. This temple was very (Malta) in 520 B.C., Hecataeus of famous all over the known world to Abdera in 300 B C., Aristophanus, be the highest cultural centre ever Pliny, Xenophonus, Tacitus and many built, and students from all Egypt other Greek and Roman scientists and the neighbouring countries came and philosophers (AI~o Eudoxus in and joined it for higher education in 395 A D.). all sciences. This temple-university was most probably erected before Another famous temple univer- 4000 B C. This temple-university, sity was built in Memphis, south of together with its famous school for Cairo, during the period of the Old herbalists. was highly appreciated for Kingdom (2800 B.C ), when Memphis its highest standard of education. became the unified capital of Egypt Its medical school in the first two (in 3200 B C ). This temple harboured years. gave general medical know- the famous school of pharmacy, and ledge, while in the following years, another for medicine. This latter specialised section for every branch school graduated the famous physi- of medicine accepted students cian Imhotep, which later on, became wishing to specialise in a certain one of its professors and director of branch, such as internal medicine, the temple-institute, and on his ophthalmology, dermatology, surgery, death, it was called Imhotep temple. dentistrv ... etc. Also contained a very famous library.

The pharmacy school used to Also, in the temple of Memphis educate the students, the art of (Sakkara today), there existed a preparing drugs and pharmaceuticals special temple for the treatment of from herbal, mineral or animal sources, psychological diseases, based on with special attention to the ways of music and the help of some sedative cultivation, propagation, preservation herbal preparations ..etc. of the various medicinal plants. A third famous temple-institute Many of the ancient Greek was that of Sais (now called Sa students came to study and learn in AI-He·gar). which was 60 km. south this temple, such as Hippocrates, of the present-day Alexandria, and Pythagoras, Galen, Adox, Solon, became celebrated every where. Plato, Cornelius, Celsus, Serabion Ebers Papyrus ment.oried that its (150 A.D.), Democritus (400 A.D.), writer was graduated from both Epicurus and many others, not to Heliopolis and Sais temples, as a sign forget the very famous Greek phvsi- unci poof of his great • kill in medical Pharmacy and Medicine Education--E! - Gernrnal 47 profession, (this papyrus was con- Every House of l.ife contained a sidered as the text-book for drug division which was culled "House of classification in every branch and Drugs" or Pharmacy Institute, and every human organ). Also a famous was dedicated for the education of School of Midwifery was attached to pharmacy sciences. It necessitated the Sais temple. the study of medicinal herbs, chemi- cals, minerals, animal products. A Strabon mentioned that the city big botanical q arden was annexed, of Heliopolis was the source of the with all the known medicinal herbs ancient Egyptian religion and the cultivated, with ware-houses for its centre of the school which teached storage. Many laboratories were theology, philosophy, medicine, phar- found for the preparation of all known macv ... etc. When King Ptolemios I pharmaceutical preparations. ruled over Egypt in 320 Be, he transferred by force most of the In the Per Ankh, pharmacy and celebrated professors and scientists medicine were taught through books from the Heliopolis temple and explaining them in drawings and annexed them to the Mauseion in sketches, with the use of Hieroglyphic Alexandria. which he made it the and the more simplified Hieratic capital of Eyypt. writinqs. Later on, with the dimini- shed use of the Egyptian Ianquuqe The existence of special pharmacy during the Ptolemaic and Roman schools since the early days of periods, these houses of life stuck ancient Egypt, prior to the dvnasic strongly to this lanquaqe and became era, could not therefore be denied at its protector, hence this was called all, based on all the historical the writing of the house of life. evidences which were found in the medical p apvri and from the works of These houses were usually ancient historians. situated inside the temples, but sometimes they were built outside Another medical and pharmace- utical schools, teaching all the them. They co.nprise d many studying scientific courses, built during the halls and rooms with a big library various dvnastic periods, were the and a statue of the God That, the Per Ankh or Houses of Life. These God of science and knowledge. Also, were exclusive for the education of these houses contained operating children of the Royal family and of rooms for surgery, and adjacent pharmacists and physicians serving clinics for the dentists. in the royal court These Per Ankh were distributed in the major c apit als Each Per Ankh was composed of of the ED\'ptian k iriq dr.rns . 3 number of schools for tile education 42 Bull. Ind. Inst. Hist . Med. Vol. XXiII of pharmacy, medicine, chemistry, Many of the ki nq s of early engineering ..etc, together with theo- dynasties of ancient Egypt were very logical religious studies. When interested in medicine, pharmacy, Thebes became the capital of Egypt surgery, anatomy ..etc. King Athothis, in the f-Jew Kingdom, it was famous the 2nd Pharaoh of the 1st dynasty by being the city of sciences and (c. 3160 B.C.) was a physician and culture, due to the presence of this wrote valuable books on drugs and house of life. anatomy, King Ozaphais (c. 3100 B.C.) made a tremendous develop- Those students who wished to ment in the science of arteries, King learn medical and pharmaceutical Setnis 5th king of the 2nd dynasty sciences in Per Ankh, were obliged made many modifications in the to pass a series of hard examinations medical text-books, King Tosarthoros after completing their primary general 2nd king of the 3rd dynasty was very education. If they pass these tests, skilled in medicaments and his books they gain admittance and begin were dealt with great appreciation studying theology and other religious till the end of the 1st century A.D" sciences for two more years, at the King Senda of the Old Kingdom, was end of which, they have to pass a genious physician. King Narmer another examination. Then they (1st dynasty) grew many p s isonous start studvir q pharmacy or medicine medicinal plants. All these books for 4-5 years When they pass the final examination, they were honoured and many others were copied in a big celebration and swear the and recopied hundred of times graduation oath before practising with continuous modernisation and their profession. developments throughout whole of the Pharaonic periods, and were In late Pharaonic periods. there taught in all pharmacy and medical existed a very famous pharmaceutical schools, while the original volumes school in the city of Sais (Sa were kept hidden in g'eat secrecy in AI-Hagar), which remained active, Imhotep temple in Memphis and carrying the torch of science till it Heliopolis temple. Many of the was ruined during a revolution and Greek students came to these temples reconstructed by orders of the Persian and copied all what they have found invadors of Egypt, (c. 4th century of sciences, with previous permission BC ). During the New Kingdom, of the high priest, and took them Thebes became the centre for the back on their return home, where worship of the God Amon (Amen to they used it in their schools. The the Greeks), and the houses of life management of the temple was a became strictly linked to Amon great honour and was exclusive to temples allover Egypt. the Royal family members. During Pharmacy and Medicine Education-EI--Gammal 43 the Old Kingdom, the eldest pr inc : Other religious education compri- was chosen as the chief priest. while sed memorising of sacred books and during the Middle Empire, certain its rituals, together with civil educa families monopolised this position by tion, because they might chose to heredity. The chief judges were in work in Governmental departments the same time, the chief priests of or in the Royal palace (where the'! the Goddess Maet of justice, while must know the religious songs to be the surgeons were the priests of the performed there). Goddess Sekhrnet. Important temples of the Old Every temple was considered as Kingdom constructed in Upper Egypt a small community, with employees were; in Keft city (for the worship of policemen, prisons, craftsmen .etc. all God Maen, comprising many educa- working for the temple and living tional halls and a big library), in day and night inside, but were not Aswan, Esna, Toud, Edfu (all for the priests. The highly scientific board worship of God Khnoum), in Abydos was composed of 12 persons, and (which was a sacred city before the their duties were to perform religious dynastic periods because it was the ceremonies day and night. Women burial site for all their kings and for enchanters were very essential in the worship of God Osiris, and many every temple, singing during the Egyptians used to pay pilgrimage to religious ceremonies and used to his temple), the Ramessium temple work by day only then leave for and its famous house of life, Hapo their homes at night. Some of them temple, Nefertari temple, Ehnasia were living permanently in the temple temple with a school for the education under the supervision of a woman of the Royal family members as well directress called the sacred wife of as the Governor's children, also in the God. The priests were sons of Assiut and Thebes. King Akhnaton priests and usually started their built his capital Akhetaton (now Tel religious education at the age of five Al-Arnama ) , a great temple with its They were taught Hieroglyphic gram- house of life, wi h several huge mer and writing, memorise the names divisions and other small ones, with of dieties ar:d their pictures together halls for lecturing (Auditoria) and a with their origin, religious stories and big library. festivals, then have to pass an examination at the end. It is worth Other famous temple -u n iversities noting that all religious ceremonies during the Pharaonic periods were were performed in the darkest place founded in Upper Egypt as in Philae, of the temple and the most sacred place, without the presence of the Khonsu temple in Karnak (Thebes), people. That temple in Horrnopo lis. Temples 44 Bull. fnd. tnst . Hist. Med. Vol. XX;II of Nit, Nekhbet. Ptah, Moen in those pupils from the Royal family. Panopolis, in Edfu, and the very higher officials and many Asian celebrated one of Isis in Coptos Kings' children. Also many art city ..etc. schools were established for teaching sculpture. painting ..etc. EDUCATION INSIDE THE ROYAL PALACES: The Royal palace's schools were full of teachers, of highest profes- 1- During the Old Kingdom; Special sional training, directed with a senior schools were erected inside the philosopher. A1:30, there was a Royal palaces for the education of special school for the education of the Royal family children, the the female children of the Royal nobles and the court officials, family, with a special system at both religious and civil types, education and professors. comprising also all sorts of sciences and arts. specially taught Female education was encouraged in its own Per Ankh, as in Helio- throughout all the Pharaonic periods, polis and Memphis palaces. The specially among the princesses and graduates were granted the title females of the court's high officials, of "Royal Scribe" and of "God and some of them became chief of Scribe". the God Amon priestesses and wives of the high chief priests. 2·· During the Middle Empire; The Royal palaces comprised special SCIENTIFIC LIBRARIES: (PER MEZ) schools for the Royal family members' children and its gradua- Attached to each of the major tes were called "Children of the temples, which were distributed education Suite". The schools throughout Egypt during all the were composed of an interior Dynastic periods, were a huge scien- division which was the important tific library, containing all volumes part, headed by a director. while on every branch of knowledge, such the exterior part was occupied by as medicine, pharmacy, chemistry, the employees, clerks, secretaries astronomy, . etc. in the form of huge and guards. papyrus rolls. which were used by all professors and students of different 3- During the New Empire; New schools of the institute in their collective boarding schools were education. Such libraries were in erected and were situated in most Heliopolis temple, Ptah temple, Edfu of the provinces' capitals which temple .etc. ALo there were wall replaced the Royal palace school. paintings (Fresco) and writings on and was accepting as its students, many of the temple walls showing Pharmacy and Medicine Education-EI-Garrmal 45 the various successful ways of temple, walls and columns near the treatment and formulae. physicians' quarters, so as they can copy from these sheets and prescribe Also there were numerous papyri them for treatment of the sick people. in these libraries, each bearing the name of a medicinal plant or drug for Each hospital had specialised the preparation of medicaments. laboratories for the mixing of drugs, preparing mixtures and extracts and Every library had its own staff of straining them through clean sieves scribes, inspectors, directors ..etc. made of linen. They used only boiling Some libraries were exclusive for water in their preparation, while religious sciences while others for wine, beer, milk, oils, honey ..etc. scientific ones. were currently used in specific proportions. Laxatives were prepared Some of these libraries were very with great care from decoctions of famous such as those attached to the different medicinal herbs. Pills were temples of Heliopolis, Memphis, prepared with skill as well as topical Abydos, Bobastes. Tannis, Thebes, ointments ..etc. Ramessium (situated in the main hall of 8 huge pillars), Edfu, Philae ..etc. The medical prescriptions of the ancient Egyptians do not differ All the papyri were kept under greatly from the present ones which strong supervision of well trained are used all over the world, thanks to pharmacists. These medicaments the glorious heritage of the Eqvptians. were prepared in special laboratories These prescriptions used to contain within the campus of the temples and names of the ingredients, with no dispenced through the in-patient and mention of their proportions (for the out-patient cli nics. sake of secrecy) but bears the patient's name and certain symbols, These pharmacists were also through which, the pharmacists were assiqned to prepare many expensive able to prepare them according to perfumes for the exclusive use in this code, known only between them holy places of the temples in spccia I and the physicians. festivals. Every big hospital contained a The ancient Egyptian pharmacists special research division annexed to usedto prepare standard medicaments it, in which both pharmacists and according to certain formulae written physicians could get all the available in prescription forms on papyrus help they required during their daily sheets which were suspended on the practice, in order to solve any problem 46 Bull. Ind. Inst. Hist. Med. Vol. XXIII they faced, through its highly qualified books, were kept separately in research professors. After the pro- completely safe boxes, dipped in blem had been solved, the pharmacist holes on the walls of the libraries of incharge files it separately, so as to the temple-institutes. Many of these be easily found whenever a similar boxes dating to the period of the Old case needed solving. Through this Kingdom, were found to contain fantastic way, each generation added several written papyrus rolls, with full valuable scientific informations to be scientific informations on nearly all used by the next one, all for the known sciences, thus showing how benefit of Egypt. keen the ancient Egyptians were in preserving all sorts of knowledge and These exquisite research text- culture as hard as they could. Pharmacy and Medicine Education-El-Gammal 47

REFERENCES

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3. The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus; by Breasted (1940).

4. The Four Thousand Years of Pharmacy; by Charles H. Lawall;

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6. W. R. Dawson.

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10. Lectures in the Book Of Simple Drugs; by Georgy Soghy.

11. Die Garten Pflanzen im Alten Aegypten; by L. Keimer (1924).

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13. Die Flora das Juden, 5 vols.; by Law (1924).

14. Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries; by Lucas (1948).

15. The Ancient Botany; by P. E. Newberry.

16. Origins and Development of Applied Chemistry; by Partington.

17. The Greek Herbal of Dioscorides; Robert T. Gunther.

18. De La Flora Pharmaceutique; by Schwein Fusth. (1982).

19. Les Vegetaux Antiques; by Victor Loret,

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21. A History of Medicine, by A. Castigloni, (1947).

22. Drugs of Ancient Egypt; by Saber Gabra (1951). 48 Bull. Ind. Inst. Hist. Med. Vol. XXIII

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