CULTURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Information for Parks, Federal Agencies, Indian Tribes, States, Local Governments, and the Private Sector CRMVOLUM E 20 NO. 4 1997

Parks Canada

Archeology and Aboriginal Partners

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR National Park Service Cultural Resources PUBLISHED BY THE CRM CELEBRATING 20 YEARS OF PUBLICATION NATIONAL PARK SERVICE VOLUME 20 NO. 4 1997 To promote and maintain high standards for preserving and managing cultural Contents ISSN 1068-4999 resources

An electronic version of this issue of CRM can be accessed through the CRM homepage at Parks Canada

DIRECTOR Sharing Experiences 3 Tales that Privies Tell 31 Roger G. Kennedy Christina Cameron Karlis Karklins ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR Broadening Horizons 3 How Much Archaeological Inventory Katherine H. Stevenson Katherine Stevenson in Large National Parks is Enough?.. 33 EDITOR Martin Magne Ronald M. Greenberg The Federal Archaeology Office 4 Robert M. Harrold Imperilled Patrimony—Rescuing PRODUCTION MANAGER Threatened Archaeological Resources Karlota M. Koester Is Shared Leadership an Oxymoron?. . 6 in Kluane National Park 37 Susan Hum-Hartley David Arthurs GUEST EDITOR Martin Magne Archaeology—A Crucial Role Threatened Archaeological Sites in the in Ecosystem Management 9 Mountain Parks 39 ADVISORS Martin Magne, Kurtis Lesick, Peter D. Francis David Andrews Peter Francis, Gwyn Editor, NPS Joan Bacharach Langemann, and Life on the Edge—The Cultural Value Museum Registrar. NPS Rod Heitzmann of Disappearing Sites 42 Randall J. Biallas Sharon Thomson Historical Architect, IMPS The Cultural Landscape of Susan Buggey a National Park 12 Early Holocene Archaeology and Director, Historical Services Branch Robert Ferguson Paleoecology on the Northern Parks Canada John A. Bums Northwest Coast 45 Architect. NPS Abandoning the Cult of the Artifact— Daryl Fedje Harry A. Butowsky Cultural Landscape Management on Historian, NPS the Chilkoot Trail 14 Ninstints Pole Conservation Project. . 48 Pratt Cassity David Hems C.J. Taylor Executive Director, National Alliance of Preservation Commissions Muriel Crespi Archaeological Monitoring— Environmental Assessment—A Tool of Cultural Anthropologist, NPS Butchery or Surgery? 17 Cultural Resource Management. ... 50 Craig W Davis Pierre Beaudet Suzanne Richards Archeologist, NPS David Hems Mark R. Edwards NPS Archeology Program 20 Director, Historic Preservation Division, State Historic Preservation Officer, Georgia Frank McManamon Co-operative Management of John Hnedak Archaeological Resources— Architectural Historian, NPS The Threatened Archaeological A New Opportunity 51 Roger E. Kelly Collections Project 21 Martin Magne Archeologist, NPS Helen Dunlop Antoinette J. Lee Suzanne Plousos Aboriginal Land Claims and Cultural Historian, NPS John Poppeliers Resource Management 53 International Liaison Officer Preserving Archaeological Collections Ellen Lee for Cultural Resources, NPS for the Future 23 Brit Allan Storey Jennifer F.A. Hamilton Inuvialuit-Parks Canada Partnerships Historian, Bureau of Reclamation in Heritage 57 Federal Preservation Forum A New Tool for Cultural Resource William Fox CONTRIBUTING EDITORS Management 26 Stephen A. Morris Gary Adams Other People's History— Certified Local Governments (CLG) Coordinator, NPS Commemorating the Cultures Kay D. Weeks York Factory's Octagon— of Yukon First Nations 61 Technical Writer-Editor, NPS A Multi-faceted CRM Challenge ... 28 David Neufeld CONSULTANTS S. Biron Ebell Wm. H. Freeman Gary Adams Design, Imaging, Production-Freeman Publishing Services Cover: Haida poles at the World Heritage Site of Ninstints, Haida Cwaii. Photo by Rolf Bettner. Janice C McCoy Editing-Editorial Notes See map on page SI showing location of sites discussed in this CRM.

Statements of fact and views are the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily reflect an opinion or endorsement on the part of the editors, the CRM advisors and consultants, or the National Park Service. Send articles, news items, and correspondence to the Editor, CRM (2250), U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Cultural Resources, RO. Box 37127,Washington, DC 20013-7127; (202-343-3395, Fax 202-343-5260; email: ).

2 CRM N2 4—1997 Sharing Experiences

t is with great pleasure that I welcome read­ Heritage's archaeological activities into one organiza­ ers of CRM to this issue dedicated to the tion), Parks Canada now provides service beyond the federal Canadian archaeology scene with a boundaries of our National Parks and National I focus on Parks Canada. In these times of Historic Sites. We are now actively providing policy reduced budgets, expanded partnerships, and increas­ advice and on-the-ground assistance to other federal ing interest in what we do, it makes good sense to use government agencies in Canada in the implementation the CRM to share with a wider audience our experi­ of the Canadian Environmental Assessment Act (1992). ences in managing archaeological resources. As well, we have made important advances in working You will see frequent reference to Parks Canada's with First Nations to ensure that aboriginal heritage—a Cultural Resource Management (CRM) Policy in this significant part of the national heritage—receives the volume. This policy is a comprehensive statement of attention it deserves. This volume describes some of the principles, practice and activities we use in manag­ the many varied research and conservation projects ing all types of cultural resources, including—but not that take place in our most highly valued natural and limited to, archaeological resources. The objective of cultural areas. It documents the important role archae­ the policy is "to manage cultural resources adminis­ ology in Canada plays in fostering national awareness tered by Parks Canada in accordance with the princi­ and reflecting the Canadian experience. I invite you to ples of value, public benefit, understanding, respect visit our National Historic Sites and National Parks to and integrity." The policy is our principal reference in see for yourselves the central role of cultural resource evaluating development options or in seeking mitiga­ management in Parks Canada. tion funds; it is our conscience in addressing all mat­ ters relating to cultural resources. —Christina Cameron As a result of the creation of the Federal Director General Archaeology Office within Parks Canada in 1995 National Historic Sites (which consolidated the Department of Canadian Parks Canada

Broadening Horizons

n the early 1990s, my predecessor, Jerry grams in Canada has resulted in a focus on care for Rogers, and Christina Cameron agreed to federal archeological resources and archeological cooperate in the production of CRM. The resources affected by federal actions. We compliment I scope of this cooperative venture was to Parks Canada on this recognition of the special archeo­ range from Canadian authors contributing articles, to logical expertise that it has provided for Canadian joint production of one or more issues each year, to National Parks and its professional ability to provide full issues on Canadian CRM topics—coordinated and programmatic and technical assistance to other edited by Canadian experts. I am pleased to report Canadian federal government agencies. This focus and that we have accomplished all of this. With the publi­ organization are similar to the range of national arche­ cation of "Parks Canada: Archaeology and Aboriginal ological responsibilities carried out by the archeology Partners" we have realized the hope of my Canadian program of the National Park Service. counterpart, Christina Cameron, for U.SVCanadian I look forward to other articles and issues of CRM cooperation on the CRM journal; and Jerry Rogers' devoted to CRM topics of interest to both Canada and wish to "draw more effectively upon Canadian exper­ the U.S. tise ... to augment the technical information avail­ able to preservationists in the U.S." —Katherine Stevenson The National Park Service welcomes this wide- Associate Director ranging and interesting set of articles describing the Cultural Resource Stewardship and Partnerships archeological programs and projects of Parks Canada. National Park Service The recent reorganization of federal archeological pro­

CRM NS 4—1997 3 Robert M. Harrold The Federal Archaeology Office

n 1988, the Government of Canada Archaeological Services Branch, National Historic released a discussion paper titled Sites Directorate, of Parks Canada provided Federal Archaeological Heritage— archaeology-related advice, policy and services to I Protection and Management. The paper Parks Canada land managers including the was a result of previous concerns expressed by the national parks, national historic sites, national archaeological/heritage communities that there was marine conservation areas and historic canals. The no umbrella policy requiring that archaeological Directorate for Archaeological Resource resources under federal jurisdiction be protected Management, Heritage Branch, was located within and managed. Recognizing that much of the the Cultural Development and Heritage sector and responsibility for archaeological heritage in provided advice and policy on archaeological mat­ Canada rested with the provinces, the document ters for all federal lands and waters not managed examined what the federal government was doing by Parks Canada. with respect to the archaeological heritage within A year later, Canada initiated a government its jurisdiction and identified improvements that wide comprehensive Program Review of all federal could be made to its approach in the future. departmental programs and activities in order to In response to the paper, submissions and determine the best, most effective and cost-efficient presentations were received from many interested way of delivering those programs and services that parties: federal agencies, provincial and territorial are appropriate for the federal government. governments, Aboriginal groups, cultural and histor­ Program Review directed that responsibility for ical groups, the academic community and other archaeology within the federal government should members of the interested Canadian public. These reside in one organization to act as the govern­ efforts resulted in the preparation of the ment's focal point on archaeological matters. That Archaeological Heritage Policy Framework (AHPF)ne. w organization—the Federal Archaeology Approved and announced by the Canadian govern­ Office—was to reside in Parks Canada. ment in 1990, the framework states: Role As heritage protection is an essential ele­ The Federal Archaeology Office (FAO) will ment in the affirmation of our Canadian iden­ provide both federal and departmental policy and tity, and as our archaeological heritage is a legislative initiatives and, within DCH, operational source of inspiration and knowledge, it is the services. It will: policy of the Government of Canada to protect • have a federal policy role for the protection and manage archaeological resources. and management of archaeological resources The government also realized that the policy on all lands and waters under federal jurisdic­ had to be developed from the framework and that tion, as well as those under direct responsibil­ legislation to effectively implement it had to be pre­ ity of DCH (national parks, national marine pared and enacted. Federal archaeology legislation conservation areas, national historic sites and based upon further consultations and refinement of historic canals) and those under cost-sharing archaeological heritage concerns was drafted but and cooperative agreements; was eventually put aside for the time being. • advise federal departments and agencies con­ Context cerning the protection and management of In 1993, the Government of Canada estab­ archaeological resources; lished the Department of Canadian Heritage (DCH); • provide expertise in support of the establish­ legislation formally establishing the department was ment of new national parks and new national passed by the Canadian Parliament in the spring of historic sites through research and advice to 1996. Federal government initiatives and responsi­ the National Parks Directorate and to the bilities addressing heritage matters were transferred Historic Sites and Monuments Board of and consolidated into this department. Two of the Canada (the DCH Minister's advisors on his­ major programs included Parks Canada (transferred toric matters); from Environment Canada) and Cultural • represent DCH in providing advice on Development and Heritage (transferred from the Aboriginal heritage issues in land claim and former Department of Communications). The self-government negotiations;

4 CRM N<2 4—1997 • provide services and advice to Parks Canada ment and use of archaeological resources on park and site managers related to the survey, federal lands and waters through the develop­ identification, evaluation, protection and pre­ ment of federal archaeological initiatives, poli­ sentation of archaeological resources; cies and guidelines; develop impact • consult and negotiate with provincial and terri­ assessment strategies and guidelines for torial agencies to harmonize research require­ archaeological/Aboriginal resources; and ments (such as permits) and to assist with the develop policies and direction for heritage development and administration of protection shipwrecks in federal waters. mechanisms for archaeological resources (such • Aboriginal Heritage will develop and co-ordi­ as heritage shipwrecks); nate a national strategy for Aboriginal heritage • interact with, and support stakeholder groups sites on federal lands and waters through the in the wider archaeological community, as well coordination of program requirements in sup­ as with the public, to promote general aware­ port of pre-park establishment initiatives; sup­ ness of archaeological resources and to facili­ port the Historic Sites and Monuments Board tate resource protection and co-operative of Canada for the establishment of new ventures; national historic sites commemorating • provide advice and services for in situ archaeo­ Aboriginal history; develop guidelines for the logical resources, archaeological preparation of commemorative integrity strate­ collections/assemblages (artifacts and records) gies; provide advice to land claim and self-gov­ and data bases; ernment negotiators; and prepare policies on • participate in the development and delivery of Aboriginal/anthropological issues. heritage presentation and public awareness pro­ • Underwater Archaeology, as a centre of grams of DCH; expertise for underwater archaeology, will con­ • participate with national and international tinue to direct, manage and participate in fed­ organizations on improving awareness of eral marine archaeology activities for Parks archaeological issues and developing and pro­ Canada such as surveys, mitigation, monitor­ moting standards and guidelines related to ing, and training; prepare analyses of under­ archaeological heritage management, including water archaeology issues such as heritage information management. shipwrecks and international standards and Outside DCH, the departmental role will be advice; support the Historic Sites and mainly one of advice and guidance, with headquar­ Monuments Board of Canada for the establish­ ters developing national standards and approaches ment of new national historic sites commemo­ based upon consultation and specialist advice. rating underwater cultural resources; and The Canadian Environmental Assessment advise other federal and provincial agencies Agency, which is responsible for the Canadian on underwater archaeology matters. Environmental Assessment Act (CEAA), recognizes Underwater archaeology is a centralized unit DCH as an "expert department" for matters involv­ based in headquarters. ing impact assessment on cultural resources. • Material Culture Research, as a centre of Although the CEAA primarily addresses the bio­ expertise on European-based material culture, physical environment, it also addresses the changes will continue to support Parks Canada's pro­ to the environment that affect cultural resources grams through the preparation of manuals and (archaeological, paleontological, historical and guides, glossaries, curatorial displays, research architectural resources). As an expert department, and training. DCH will provide information and advice to federal • Archaeological Information Management land managers and heritage agencies on the poten­ will develop and maintain information systems tial impacts of projects on cultural resources. and data bases on federal archaeological Organization resources; provide information presentation Currently (October 1996) the FAO is undergo­ services such as photography and illustration; ing an internal reorganization to better meet the and manage the FAO's archaeological collec­ needs of the integrated responsibility for the new tion (artifacts and records). Office, the AHPF, the requirements of Program Review, the challenge of a redefined Parks Canada Robert M. Harrold is Manager of Cultural Resource Agency and DCH. Within these broad parameters, Management in the Federal Archaeology Office of the the FAO-headquarters proposes to organize itself National Historic Sites Directorate, Parks Canada, into five responsibility areas. Ottawa. • Federal Archaeological Resource Management will develop and co-ordinate a national program for the protection, manage­

CRM N2 4—1997 5 Susan Hum-Hartley Is Shared Leadership An Oxymoron?

ccording to the dictionary: to share ization and streamlining of both the organization means "to join with others in and responsibilities of Parks Canada's former doing or experiencing something" Archaeological Services Branch, and the former Awhile leadership is "the capacity to Department of Communication's Directorate of lead; to guide on a way especially by going in Archaeological Resource Management (DARM). advance." The result, taking into account an overall 30% Thus the question is whether or not archaeo­ budget reduction, is a downsized and restructured logical resource management leadership can be organization, and the elimination of the popular achieved by sharing responsibilities and actions. Access to Archaeology grant program. The hypothesis put forward is that, in this day and FAO merged responsibilities can be summa­ age, it may be the only way to long-lasting suc­ rized as: cess. Internally within Parks Canada, at the • the provision of advice to federal land man­ departmental level, between different levels of gov­ agers in the protection of archaeological ernment, and with other stakeholders such as pri­ resources; vate stewards of cultural properties, interest • the implementation of various commitments groups like Save Ontario Ships and professional made in the 1990 Cabinet approved associations such as the Canadian Archaeological Archaeological Heritage Policy Framework,' Association (CAA), there already exist numerous which articulated the government's intentions examples of collaboration to advance, advocate with respect to the protection and manage­ and promote the objectives of archeological ment of archaeological resources, and resource management. • the provision of policy and operational sup­ Current fiscal and political reality has had port to meet Parks Canada's archaeology widespread direct and indirect impacts. Whether requirements. federal or provincial or territorial civil servants, So, how does the concept of shared leader­ academics or students, private consultants or pub­ ship apply from this federal viewpoint? lic employees, all have been touched. Within Parks Canada Globally, all levels of government have been Internally, within the Parks organization, undergoing significant and continuous budget there is a recognition that only certain responsibil­ reductions over the past several years. Program ities can and should be met by the FAO in Ottawa. and service offerings once considered "untouch­ They generally centre around national policy and able" and for the public good have been severely legislative matters, and in specialty services such curtailed or eliminated. The need to sustain some as underwater archaeology or material culture minimal level of professional capability, focus on research that find their home there. Although the primary mandate, and eliminate duplication has merger formed an organizational unit in Ottawa, led to many of the current efforts to harmonize the expanded mandate relies upon Parks' regional services across jurisdictional boundaries. archaeology capability to support their colleagues At the federal level in Canada, the govern­ in other departments in meeting their land man­ ment's recent focus was to reaffirm those funda­ agement responsibilities. This, to date, has mental responsibilities which are essential to included providing technical advice and guidance achieving its mandate, and in the most cost effec­ to departments such as National Defence, and tive means possible. With respect to archaeology, Indian and Northern Affairs, primarily as it relates this resulted in a confirmation that archaeological to their responsibilities in meeting the Canadian resource management was an appropriate activity Environmental Assessment Act (CEAA) and in the to meet fedeia\ \and management and cu\tuta\ negotiation oi \and c\a\m settkments. Prior to the resource management responsibilities. As a result, merger between DARM and Archaeological the Federal Archaeology Office (FAO) was estab­ Services, the main focus of Parks' professional lished in 1995 within Parks Canada, a program in staff was inward, to address national park and the Department of Canadian Heritage. However, national historic site specific issues, a workload the FAO is not new. It is an integration, rational­ which, by itself, remains overwhelming. However,

6 CRM N2 4—1997 the merger has expanded the horizon of responsi­ ever, highlight a continued interest, by all parties, bilities with minimal additional resources. The to work together in finding a mutually acceptable Department of Canadian Heritage's purpose is to protective regime for heritage wreck. The ensure that the government's obligation for archae­ Department is committed to develop other, hope­ ological resource protection and management are fully more successful, strategies to meet the protec­ met. Parks is collectively working together to pro­ tive requirements identified. duce the tools and guidelines essential to meet Other stakeholders: this obligation in a cost effective manner. The Aboriginal groups regions are assuming even more significant roles Parks Canada's vision to support an and demonstrating their capacity for shared lead­ expanded national historic sites system and pro­ ership. mote cultural resource management is focused on With Other Federal Departments partnership. A collective sense of responsibility Environment Canada: and stewardship for the care and protection of The Canadian Environmental Assessment resources is fundamental. Parks is particularly Agency, situated within Environment Canada, is committed to the improved representation of responsible for administering the Canadian Aboriginal history in partnerships with Aboriginal Environmental Assessment Act.2 It has chosen to peoples. Consultations with a wide variety of share responsibilities and leadership by designat­ Aboriginal groups in each region of the country is ing some federal government departments as underway to ensure their support and participa­ experts for certain matters. The Department of tion in initiatives to commemorate their heritage, a Canadian Heritage, as represented by Parks priority of the National Historic Sites System Plan Canada, is considered by the Agency as the expert and the current government. department for natural and cultural heritage, and Sport Diving Clubs as such, provides both the Agency and colleague The Underwater Archaeology Section of the departments advice and guidance on how to FAO is no stranger to the collective approach. Last ensure projects under the scrutiny of CEAA take year marked the 30th anniversary of the formation these resource concerns into consideration. of this internationally recognized group. With a Active support of the Agency has allowed solid research reputation, the past few years have Parks Canada to prepare reference guides for envi­ seen increasing collaborative efforts. It started in ronmental assessment practitioners. An example is 1995 to offer Nautical Archaeology Society (NAS) the recently Agency publication, Assessing courses to interested and qualified groups to Environmental Effects on Physical and Cultural ensure the maintenance of archaeological stan­ Heritage Resources.^ This is one of several guides dards with partnership arrangements. This educa­ published by the Agency as supporting documen­ tion program developed in Great Britain is tation for the Act. These, and other guidelines and recognized internationally as the standard in tools Parks develops to meet internal policy underwater avocational training. requirements for impact assessment which go Recognizing the necessity of stakeholder par­ beyond those stipulated in CEA regulations, will ticipation, the group is involving more and more be readily available to all interested parties. local volunteer sport divers in their work. Projects Transport Canada: in Banff and Prince Edward Island National Parks Attempts at shared leadership can also be have had great success, but the off-shoot of the applied to Canadian Heritage's recent unsuccessful work done on the French wreck Corossol in Sept- efforts to secure some level of protection for her­ Iles, Quebec, probably best illustrates the results itage wreck. While not a perfect solution or as all- that partnerships with sport divers can render. encompassing as separate legislative efforts made Following this project in which local divers played in the early '90s, the proposal piggy backed on the an important role, other divers from the North initiative of Transport Canada to update the Shore of Quebec informed Parks Canada of addi­ Canada Shipping Act (CSA) which has jurisdiction tional known wreck sites. One located between over all navigable waters and salvage. The intent Baie Comeau and Sept lies, at l'Anse aux of the enabling legislation, only triggered by agree­ Bouleaux, has turned out to be a significant find. ment with provinces, territories or other federal Due to unprecedented storm activity in the government departments, was to remove potential area in the past two years, the once unknown heritage wreck from the current salvage provisions wreck was churned out of its 300 year resting in the CSA and place them into a protective place and was now subject to constant battering regime. by the wave action in the bay it was located. Unfortunately, the proposal generated some Emergency site stabilization work and examina­ jurisdictional concerns which could not be over­ tion of initially found artifacts has lead to the come within the legislative timetable. It did, how­ eventual determination that this wreck is one of

CRM N2 4—1997 7 the ships of Sir William Phips' failed expedition ship in a variety of important areas of legislation, from the Colony of Massachusetts against Quebec management, knowledge, and protection. The one in 1690. Once primarily interested in salvage, the unknown which may significantly affect the man­ local sport divers formed an organization (Groupe ner in which these responsibilities are delivered is de preservation des vestiges subaquatiques de the creation of the Parks Canada Agency. Manicouagan) for the protection of submerged cul­ Parks Canada has developed a business plan tural resources in their area. They have actively approach to meet its future challenges. It is the and enthusiastically participated in the site work mechanism to fulfill obligations to expand both which commenced in the summer of 1995 and was the National Parks and National Historic Sites expanded in 1996. Currently under negotiation is a systems, while ensuring protection and presenta­ unique collaboration of three levels of government tion of current parks and sites, service to clients, (federal, provincial and municipal) and a local and wise and efficient use of public funds. sport diving club focussed towards the protection Conceptualized two years ago, the business plan and presentation of this important site and its arti­ approach has no doubt supported the govern­ facts. ment's decision to create a Parks Canada Agency Succession Planning within the Department, announced in the budget The Material Culture Research staff at FAO speech in February 1995. Not intended to either operates as a centre of expertise in the material privatize or commercialize the national treasures, culture of the historic period. This unit's work has the Agency status will undoubtedly provide a traditionally supported internal operational greater degree of organizational, financial, and requirements of Parks Canada's archaeological, administrative autonomy, essential if the ambi­ curatorial and site interpretation programs. tious Business Plan goals are to be achieved. Future priorities for this group will shift into Despite the desire to be "nimble," Parks is fully two areas: publishing and training. Their work is committed to fulfilling its mandate to protect and already well known through publications such as: present places which are significant examples of Parks Canada Glass Glossary, Trade Ornament Canada's cultural and natural heritage. Time will Usage Among the Native Peoples of Canada, The tell, as the department prepares for the creation of Wheat Pattern, and Lighting Devices in the the agency, how the impetus toward shared leader­ National Reference Collection, and specialized ship in achieving this mandate will not only be training courses offered through venues such as maintained, but expanded. Council for Northeast Historical Archaeology (CNEHA) workshops. With downsizing and the Notes anticipated increasing use of consultants and vol­ 1 Canada. Department of Canadian Heritage, unteers, it is even more important for the material Archaeological Heritage Policy Framework, Minister culture researchers to pass on their specialized and of Supply and Services Canada, 1990, Cat. No. unique knowledge. CO22-93/1990, ISBN 0-662-57510-5. To capitalize on existing research expertise 2 Statutes of Canada 1992, Chapter 37, Bill C-13, FAO plans include material culture readers. These Assented to 23rd June 1992. will be brief guides to dating, identifying and 3 Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency, describing such diverse artifact groups as 19th- Reference Guide on Physical and Cultural Heritage century glass tableware and domestic electrical Resources, April 1996, Minister of Supply and artifacts. Also planned are larger, more detailed Services Canada 1996, ISBN 0-662-24599- studies, such as a guide to 17th- to 20th-century table cutlery. Susan Hum-Hartley is Acting Director of the Federal Potential partnerships with universities will Archaeology Office in the National Historic Sites be explored to assist in training students in mater­ Directorate of Parks Canada in Ottawa. ial culture. While every province in Canada has one or more degree programs in archaeology, there are very limited opportunities to study historical This paper was presented at the Canadian archaeology. The collective unique knowledge Archaeological Association conference, May 1996, embodied in the Material research group and the Halifax, N.S. vast Park Canada collections can make significant contributions. Conclusion What has been reviewed are diverse approaches being pursued by the Federal Archaeology Office, Parks Canada, in a spectrum of archaeological matters to share federal leader­

8 CRM N2 4—1997 Martin Magne, Kurtis Lesick, Peter D. Francis, Gwyn Langemann and Rod Heitzmann Archaeology—A Crucial Role in Ecosystem Management

arks Canada is wresting with funda­ of the Rockies to the mental issues regarding manage­ northern East Slopes. ment of National Parks ecosystems. The literature points We wish to discuss here four topics to Aboriginal burning Clovis point and centraPl to the ongoing debates, focussing on the of many different kinds—fires to encourage certain Pelican Lake point role that archaeological research can play. The fruiting bushes, to encourage ungulate forage, to from 8,000 ft alti­ principal topics are: drive animals for hunts, or accidental fire from tude in Banff camps. Any or all of these would account for the National Park • Natural regulation versus human manipula­ tion of the environment; "mosaic" observed in times past, but direct evi­ • Factoring past human interactions with the dence of Aboriginal fires is lacking. Vegetation environment in contemporary management managers are making great use of proxy data— practices; changes in fire regimes as indicated by tree ring • Understanding historical variability in the studies, macro-charcoal in pollen cores, and so ecosystem; and forth. To date, however, very little or no direct con­ • Employing historical and archaeological sultation with local Aboriginal people has taken research in a multi-disciplinary context to con­ place about past burning practices. In addition, the tribute to ecological integrity. 13,000 year-old pollen record is remarkably coarse Background and finer resolution is required to illuminate pat­ Ecological management of National Parks terns or events at the 10 to 100 year level. can take two extremes: allowing "nature to take its The faunal management hypothesis held by course" with no active human management, or Kay, that Aboriginal people "overkilled" elk in the intervening constantly and deliberately to maintain mountains and were responsible for the low ungu­ a "slice in time." Within our National Parks sys­ late population levels apparently witnessed by tem, we have examples approaching each of these early explorers of the west, is a highly debatable extremes. In between them is a tremendous range one. It does appear the elk levels were low, but of practices and philosophies; these derive from why did they not recover following the drastic real management needs as well as political reali­ decline of Aboriginal populations in the early his­ ties. toric period? Why does the archaeological record Mountain District ecosystem managers have not show an "overkill horizon"? If Native people proposed significant interventions to manage were killing elk in this manner, where are the wildlife and vegetation. Employing background lit­ bones? Did early European hunting, or the intro­ erature studies and computer generated models, duction of horses, significantly modify the environ­ key actions are being advanced as most feasible ments employed by elk? The conclusions that have and of least public risk, for elk population reduc­ been reached to date are but one possible answer. tion, carnivore enhancement, and vegetation The question remains: what roles did renewal. Cultural information contributions to Aboriginal peoples and early Europeans play in these studies and models require adequate consid­ shaping the mountain ecosystem? Certainly, both eration of the roles of Aboriginal peoples, of the groups were an integral part of it. But whether they limitations of the archaeological record, and keen had long-lasting, but small-scale effects, large-scale awareness of the nature of paleo environmental and long-term effects, or temporary, local effects, knowledge. are all questions we only have opinions on at the There is for example, excellent anthropologi­ present time. cal evidence for Aboriginal burning in mountain Discussion environments of Alberta and British Columbia. A key issue in Parks management is the This evidence is not voluminous but it is fairly mediation of human recreational use and impact extensive, ranging from the southern West Slopes with biodiversity and ecological integrity. With the

l CRM N2 4—1997 > growth of public ural habitats in the mountain Parks. Yet human utilization of Park participation in these ecosystems is probably well- resources the engrained. It is apparent, for instance, that without importance of episodic burns in montane and sub-alpine mead­ addressing the ows intense colonization by one species often inter-relationships upsets the ecological balance. Aboriginal burning of cultural and probably helped sustain the "patchwork mosaic" of ecological systems vegetation in the montane regions. In this way, will only increase. though the human role in ecosystem dynamics is Archaeology and understudied and not widely recognized, it is history are in a nonetheless central to ecosystem integrity. It must good position to not be overlooked that the present ecological sta­ situate human cul­ tus of the National Parks has been influenced by Elk management Is tural systems within a more expansive enviro-eco- at least four levels of human participation: prehis­ a highly debated logical understanding. With such an understanding toric-aboriginal, historic fur trade and industry, topic in the moun­ it is possible to make more informed management tourism and recreation, and the impact of Parks tain parks. decisions with regard to public impacts within a Canada. National Park environment. Ecosystem baselines are not "flat"—they fluc­ The priority of maintaining ecosystem tuate dynamically rather than being static. integrity as outlined in the 1988 amendments to Archaeological and palynological information con­ the National Parks Act necessitates a firm reckon­ tribute a long-term perspective to these fluctua­ ing of the constitution of ecosystems. This has tions, but are at the same time coarser than the proven somewhat problematic in that it has been contemporary environmental data. Establishment difficult to isolate the criteria for optimal condi­ and use of baseline criteria for ecological integrity tions comprising an ecosystem. The environmental, require very firm and defensible information on climatological, vegetational and faunal elements all the relative stability, agents of change, and natural fluctuate throughout time within and across eco- variability in the mountain ecosystem. Proper eval­ regions. Further, it is becoming increasingly appar­ uation of the existing evidence requires team ent that much of what is deemed natural landscape approaches by qualified professionals with full has been at least partially determined by past awareness of inherent biases in existing data and human activities. Hence the designation of any professional standards. The Kay studies were landscape as "virgin" and "natural" is both arbi­ indeed extensive, but problematic as to elements trary and erroneous. Throughout time any one of archaeological taphonomy and severe bias in region has experienced many different configura­ consulting archaeology data. In addition, paleo- tions of ecological variables. vegetation reconstruction based on pollen analyses Ecosystem management becomes critical have primarily looked at gross-scale time intervals when any one species becomes too successful in associated with climatic change and have not its simplification of the landscape, especially to the focussed on detailed examination of the more detriment of other species. One position is that recent (ca. 2000 year) past that would include only because of biological diversity between and both fine-scale climatic change and disturbance within species can an ecosystem adapt to environ­ ecology. mental changes. With greater biodiversity comes Traditional environmental knowledge (TEK) an overall increase in adaptive potential and thus of First Nations peoples with respect to the a larger range of environmental conditions can be Canadian Rocky Mountains is thought to be con­ endured. If one particular organism is unable to siderable, although very little has been systemati­ deal with change another species can fulfill its cally gathered. TEK is only occasionally regarded niche. Without diversity, in a simplified habitat as a potential management tool in the Mountain characterized by the specialization of a few District, but is an accepted and useful component species, the failure of one species to adapt to fluc­ of land management in the Northwest Territories tuating environmental conditions could bring and Yukon. A study being completed at Waterton about complete systemic collapse. Hence, as a Lakes is the only comprehensive one ever under­ management scheme, it is in the best interest to taken in the Mountain District. The Waterton- ensure that diversity is maintained and no one Glacier Ethnoarchaeological Project by B.O.K. species is able to dominate the landscape. Reeves has resulted in a much improved picture of This is the goal at present with regard to the Blackfoot plant uses and interests there. Kootenay contemporary human component in the mountain National Park's environmental history study pro­ Parks. There is great concern about the sustain- poses consultations with Elders concerning ungu­ ability of many forms of human impact upon nat­ late history in particular. The Stoney, Sarsi, Metis,

10 CRM N2 4—1997 Beaver, Slave, and Cree people of western and eate the bounds of our knowledge, to provide focus northern Alberta also have very significant contri­ for work in areas where information is lacking. butions to make to our knowledge of ecosystem What we do about the variation we can agree processes in the mountain parks. upon, or how we respond to it, should be the sub­ The contemporary anthropological and ject of future discussion. Our objective is to have archaeological literature addresses many processes people who come at the issue from a historical per­ and concepts that have been developed to model spective and an ecological perspective agree on the and conceptualize ecosystems. Such concepts have concept and research goals. often been extended to human population dynam­ The Mountain District needs to develop a ics, including those of prehistoric, hunter-gatherer long-term multi-disciplinary research strategy, past. Some of the basic biological concepts to con­ which will address the role of humans in the sider are: mountain ecosystem over time. This would involve • Keystone species; • working with other ecosystem researchers, his­ • Predator/prey relationships; torians and park managers to identify the • Prey switching; research questions of most pressing common • Edge effect; interest, and to identify our knowledge gaps; • Optimal carrying capacity; • reviewing known archaeological site informa­ • Optimal foraging strategies; tion to identify key sites with the potential to • Effects of fire; address such questions; • Species diversity. • carrying out site survey to identify new sites Some concepts applied specifically to human pop­ for time periods or environments of interest ulation dynamics include: where there are no known sites; • Human subsistence strategies; • carrying out multidisciplinary excavations at • Human adaptation; selected sites; • Environmental manipulation by use of fire and • analysis of results focussing on changes or other techniques; lack of changes in human-ecosystem interac­ • Hunting strategies; tions through time; and • Optimal foraging theory applied to hunter- • integration of results with other ecosystem gatherers; specialist studies, and integration of results • Aboriginal overkill; into natural and cultural resource manage­ • Post-Columbus epidemics and population ment practices. decline; Just as ecologists have tended to view • Post-Pleistocene extinctions. We need to con­ humans as "stressors" on ecosystems, archaeolo­ sider all of these in a systematic and scientific gists have been guilty of viewing ecosystems as manner. "conditioners" of human adaptation. It's time we What to do? came together. A thorough multi-disciplinary study is required by the body of scientific and historical References disciplines that relate to population dynamics, Kay, C.E biology, ecology, anthropology, and archaeology, to 1994 a Aboriginal Overkill: The Role of Native identify alternative models of human-environment Americans in Structuring Western Ecosystems, Wickiup, of dynamics within the larger Rocky Mountain Human Nature, 5(4): 359-398. unknown function, Jasper Notional ecosystem. A professional workshop has been held 1994b Assessment of long-term terrestrial ecosystem Park. recently to frame the key management issues states and processes in Banff National Park and the within an under­ central Canadian Rockies. Manuscript on file, standable perspec­ Heritage Resource Conservation, Banff National tive and to begin Park, Parks Canada. 405 pp. testing models with regards to a longer Martin Magne is Senior Archaeologist for Alberta term perspective. and British Columbia in Professional and Technical This work­ Services, Parks Canada, Calgary. shop sought to reach agreement on Kurtis Lesick recently completed his M. Phil, degree what is "natural in Archaeology at the University of Sheffield. variation" and how this was repre­ Peter D. Francis, Gwyn Langemann and Rod sented in the past. Heitzmann are Archaeologists, in Professional and It helped to delin­ Technical Services, Parks Canada, Calgary.

CRM N2 4—1997 11 Robert Ferguson The Cultural Landscape of a National Park

n the spring of 1995, the Minister for is equally of value as a cultural landscape, and Canadian Heritage, Michel Dupuy, that the two are inextricably linked. passed a recommendation of the The initiative to recognize Aboriginal history Historic Sites and Monuments Board of at Kejimkujik as a National Historic Site originated Petroglyph showing I Canada (HSMBC) that "the cultural landscape of with a review of the Systems Plan for National two large canoes Kejimkujik National Park which attests to 4,000 Historic Sites (NHS). The Systems Plan (1979-81) with sails at Peter years of Mi'kmaq1 occupancy of this area, and was a strategy approved in 1981 to expand the Point, Kejimkujik. which includes petroglyph sites, habitation sites, Parks network, recognizing the need to represent fishing sites, hunting territories, travel routes and more completely the diversity and complexity of burials is of national historic significance...." Canadian culture. The NHS Systems Plan Review, Established in 1964, Kejimkujik National (1996), emphasized the need to improve the repre­ Park in southwestern Nova Scotia protects an area sentation of Aboriginal peoples, women and cul­ of mixed forest and inland lakes which nurtures tural communities. rare plant and animal species such as the Water In Kejimkujik National Park, the lake shores Pennywort and Blanding's Turtle (Drysdale, 1986). contain some of the most significant galleries of The Park also contains a unique combination of Aboriginal art in Atlantic Canada at four separate cultural resources reflecting the close connection petroglyph sites. The petroglyphs, many of them between Mi'kmaq culture and the environment. dating to the 19th century, are incised into soft From its beginnings, the Park has recognized the slate, providing intricate details of everyday life: value of these cultural resources and has included figures of men and women in traditional dress; interpretation of Mi'kmaq history in its public pre­ canoes and sailing ships; porpoise and moose sentations. hunts; houses, churches and altars; hand and foot­ Over fifty cultural sites are known, including prints; names and dates. four petroglyph sites, three major settlements, Mi'kmaq spokespersons have frequently numerous small camps, stone eel weirs, portage expressed concerns for the protection of the routes, 19th-century family reserves and a 19th- Kejimkujik petroglyphs. During a national work­ century cemetery (Ferguson 1986). The lakes, shop on Aboriginal history, Dr. Peter Christmas of Workshop dele­ rivers and forests have provided food, clothing, the Mi'kmaq Association for Cultural Studies gates Alex Michael, shelter, spiritual comfort and access to a broad net­ (MACS) identified the petroglyphs as one of the Grand Chief Syliboy, work of travel routes connecting the Atlantic coast important cultural resources of the Mi'kmaq First Pauline Lewis, to the Bay of Fundy. Throughout the 19th and 20th Daniel Paul and Nation. Chief Frank Meuse of Bear River First Rob Ferguson centuries, they also provided economic support for Nation stressed in two reports for Parks Canada examine the petro­ a thriving guide business for hunting and fishing the need for protection of Mi'kmaq cultural her­ glyphs at Fairy Ray. enthusiasts. itage in the park (Johnston 1993:ftn43; Sable Photo by R. Swain. Declaration by the Minister of Canadian 1992:2-8). These concerns led Parks Canada staff Heritage was the cul­ in the Atlantic Region to recommend the mination of a two- Kejimkujik petroglyph sites for commemoration by year collaborative HSMBC. This recommendation required the sup­ effort between the port of the Mi'kmaq people and consultations were Mi'kmaq First Nation initiated. of Nova Scotia and Initial contact was made with the four Band Parks Canada Chiefs of southwest Nova Scotia, two Elders of the employees. It is nearby Wildcat Reserve and Dr. Christmas of unique in the MACS. All agreed that commemoration of the pet­ Canadian National roglyphs was a positive step in recognizing the Parks system in rec­ important role of the Mi'kmaq First Nation in our ognizing that a nat­ national heritage. A subsequent meeting, co- ural landscape of chaired by Dr. Christmas and myself, was con­ national significance vened in September 1993, bringing together Grand

12 CRM NM—1997 researchers was delayed this season by local con­ cerns over the disturbance of sites, and has been restricted to a re-examination of existing informa­ tion. Steps have been taken to co-operate with a land claims initiative of the Nova Scotia Mi'kmaq, in an oral history program. Future developments for presentation of the Aboriginal heritage in Kejimkujik will proceed with direction from the Mi'kmaq community. The concept of the "cultural landscape" in so- called natural environments is gaining currency in our vision of the land around us (see, for example, Zacharias 1994). Kejimkujik National Park/National Historic Site allows us to celebrate this wonderful union while honouring the out­ standing contribution of the Mi'kmaq people to our This petro- Chief Ben Syliboy and two Captains of the nation's heritage. glyph group, incised Mi'kmaq Grand Council, Chiefs and Band repre­ into slate bedrock sentatives, members of the Confederacy of at George Lake, Note 1 shows Mi'kmaq Mainland Mi'kmaq, the Mi'kmaq Education The spelling of Mi'kmaq uses the Francis/Smith men and women in Authority and MACS, as well as Parks Canada staff orthography developed by Bernard Francis and the traditional cos­ from the Park, regional office in Halifax and Douglas Smith and widely accepted throughout tume popular in Ottawa headquarters. Nova Scotia (Francis 1988:239) the late 18th and 19th centuries. Delegates visited the petroglyphs and Photo by 8. stopped at the historic cemetery for a blessing from References Molyneaux. the Grand Chief. During the following discussions, Canada. Department of Canadian Heritage. Parks Canada Mi'kmaq participants redirected the focus beyond 1979-81 The National Historic Sites Systems Plan. Phases 1-3. the petroglyph sites to a recognition of the Minister of Supply and Services Canada. Ottawa. Mi'kmaq relationship to the landscape as a whole. 1994 Cultural Resource Management Policy. Part III in Parks A committee of Mi'kmaq and Parks Canada repre­ Canada Guiding Principles and Operational Policies. Minister of Supply and Services Canada. Ottawa. sentatives was struck to present the cultural land­ 1996 The National Historic Sites Systems Plan Review and scape of Kejimkujik as a site for national Investment Strategy. Draft. Ottawa. commemoration. Committee for the Kejimkujik Petroglyphs The resulting report includes an account of 1994 Mi'kmaq Culture History, Kejimkujik National Park, Nova the consultation process, the concerns raised dur­ Scotia. Historic Sites and Monuments Board Agenda Paper ing these consultations, and a synopsis of the con­ 1994-36. Ottawa. tinuous occupation record (Committee for the Drysdale, Clifford, ed. 1986 Kejimkujik National Park Resource Description and Kejimkujik Petroglyphs, 1984). Unresolved land Analysis. Kejimkujik National Park, Nova Scotia. claims, control of the story, recognition and preser­ Ferguson, Robert vation of Traditional Knowledge, protection of the 1986 Archaeological Sites in Kejimkujik National Park, Nova cultural resources and respect for heritage Scotia. Restricted report. Department of Canadian Heritage. resources were identified as concerns. A final draft Parks Canada. was presented to the Nova Scotia Chiefs, and with Francis, Bernard their approval it was submitted to HSMBC in 1988 Micmac Alphabet and Orthography. Stories from the Six November 1994, and passed on for declaration by Worlds, Ruth Whitehead. Nimbus Publishing Ltd., Halifax. Johnston, A.J.B. the Minister. 1993 Comments on the Interpretation of Native History at The establishment of a new National Historic National Historic Sites and Selected National Parks. Site requires an understanding of the commemora­ Manuscript on file, Historic Services Branch, National tive intent and the commemorative integrity as out­ Historic Sites Directorate, Parks Canada. lined in the Cultural Resource Management Policy Sable. Trudy of Canadian Heritage (1994). As a first step, a full 1992 Traditional Sources Study. Manuscript on file, Dept. of inventory of cultural resources is being prepared Canadian Heritage, Atlantic Region, Halifax. 2 vols. Zacharias, Sandra using a Geographical Information Systems map­ 1994 CRM and the Concept of Wilderness in British Columbia. ping program. This will include all known cultural Paper presented at the 27th annual meeting of the Canadian resources as well as land-use patterns identified Archaeological Association, Edmonton, Alberta. from documented sources and recorded Traditional Knowledge. An update of cultural sites by an Robert Ferguson is Project Archaeologist with archaeological team of Mi'kmaq and non-Mi'kmaq Professional and Technical Services, Halifax.

CRM NM—1997 13 David Hems Abandoning the Cult of the Artifact Cultural Landscape Management on the ChilkootTrail

ituated at the northern end of the stand this when viewing the terrain and vegeta­ Alaska panhandle and straddling tion. the international border, the Interest in the Chilkoot Trail, re-kindled in Chilkoot Trail has been one of the the 1960s, led to a steady growing volume of S recreational hikers. The Chilkoot Trail may be the most important routes into the northwestern inte­ rior of the continent. A Tlingit trade route, the only national historic site in Canada where recre­ Trail became internationally famous at the turn of ational activities such as backpacking and camp­ the century, as it witnessed the passage of thou­ ing in and around historic features is encouraged. sands of gold seekers into the Yukon during the Most visitors do not intentionally damage last great North American gold rush. the fragile features, but heavy foot traffic and The Canadian portion of the Trail, 26.5 km uncontrolled wandering, in concert with natural long, runs from the Chilkoot Pass, at the Alaskan processes, can cause severe damage. Throughout border, to Lake Bennett in northern British Bennett townsite, new paths have been cut into Columbia. The Trail offers immense variety and steep slopes and banks as people take shortcuts to density in its cultural resources. Scattered along the historic trails and main road, move from ter­ the trail are numerous remains associated with the race to terrace, or access the lakeshore. Once such gold-rush such as tent and structural platforms, paths are created, they gradually widen with use, refuse middens, boat remains, tram carts, quays vegetation dies and erosion begins. and bridge footings—many of which are concen­ trated at 12 major areas or "historic nodes." Ten The historic nodes are located in the upper sections of the trail Bennett City town- and correspond to favoured stopovers where gold- site at the conver­ rush "stampeders" temporarily cached supplies gence of the before relaying them farther along the trail. In Chilkoot and White Pass trails. addition there were two semi-permanent encamp­ Illustration by D. ments where stampeders built boats for the contin­ Brick. uation of their journey to the goldfields. The largest of the two sites was Bennett City, on Lake Bennett, at the junction of the Chilkoot and White Pass trails. The general terrain around Bennett is rolling and rugged. The site's core was constructed on a hillside which slopes down to the water's edge. Unstable sandy soil and thin vegetation have con­ tributed to erosion and the creation of sand dunes. These conditions led the Stampeders to build ter­ races supported by retaining walls in order to cre­ ate or maximize space. Lake Bennett's population, which at its peak contained upwards of 20,000 gold seekers and entrepreneurs had a significant impact on the environment. Evidence of their efforts—scalloping out the hill side and extending platforms out over the water for their homes and businesses, and constructing roads, docks, and a bridge—still exists. It is the accumulation of these remains which speak of the frantic days of the gold rush. It requires some imagination to under­

14 CRM N2 4—1997 Indiscriminate camping has also been developmental needs, a change in emphasis, away responsible for much damage. Campers securing from the artifact, was necessary. their tents during windy conditions or building fire The public continues to perceive archaeology rings have often used cobbles from retaining walls as primarily about site-specific excavation and the and other historic features. This has led to the recovery of artifacts. This is often spoken about as walls' gradual collapse. As the walls collapse, the the unearthing of historic riches. However, the terraces slump, destroying the historic landscape. Chilkoot Trail, with most of its remains situated on In response, in 1971 Parks Canada began to the surface provides the opportunity to show how provide visitor services and institute visitor safety or why archaeological features could or should be measures, trail maintenance, and some modest on- saved for future generations to enjoy in-situ. Even site interpretation. As anticipation grew during the the most decayed and scarcely traceable of 1980s that the Chilkoot would acquire full remains may reveal something of the past and of national historic site status, an inventory of the ourselves. The slightest terrain modification, vege- cultural resources was begun in preparation for tational differences or soil discoloration can tell a site development associated with the 1996 gold story. Archaeology has a special role to play in rush centennial. However, establishing an artifact awakening a sense of wonder for the process of inventory for an area the size of the Chilkoot Trail decay, or transformation of a living system. It can was a monumental task involving the handling, contribute broadening awareness of the diversity and displacement of a multitude of fragile artifacts, and cultural depth which exists within our envi­ a mountain of paper, and an immense amount of ronmental surroundings. time. It became apparent that for the visitor to As a result Parks Canada chose to view the experience their cultural heritage through an out­ Bennett townsite as a landscape feature, a product door museum concept, and to contribute to site of the interplay of humans and nature, since pre­ sent-day recreational use contin­ ues the historic interaction Bennett City in 1898. between people and the land. The plan was to develop the site as an outdoor museum in a man­ ner that would take into account visitors' needs without unduly compromising the historic site. Observation of the long-term destructive forces at Bennett indi­ cated that guiding the use of the site was necessary to accommo­ date historic preservation and modern recreational activities. Site development which focussed on guiding foot traffic, reduced erosive effects. This was accomplished by maintaining the stabilizing vegetation, which Bennett City in helps hold the loose, sandy soil 1991.There is a in place. Directing individuals to lack of vegetation the historic main road through in the historic one access trail reduced some of photo compared to the more recent the problems created by hikers one. terrace-hopping to reach their preferred camp location. In addi­ tion replacing loosened or dis­ placed cobbles in some of the major retaining walls increased overall site stability and pro­ tected significant cultural fea­ tures which would have been impacted by erosion as the retaining walls collapsed.

CRM NM—1997 15 became a tool of cultural resource management by minimizing land­ scape stress. The goals are to maintain the overall landscape by using Eroding paths show the destruc- the site development to promote tiveness of uncon­ present-day site use to be compa­ trolled foot traffic. rable to traditional historic use. Recent construc­ In order to measure the effective­ tion of a staircase has directed foot ness of these recommendations, a traffic on the slope regular monitoring program was alleviating this required to record the form which problem. site changes were taking and to measure the effectiveness of the various proposals on maintaining site/people interactions. The purpose of the monitor­ ing program was to identify areas Areas selected for camping were limited to of site degradation and to measure the effective­ those areas which could be accessed by a major ness of the various proposals in stopping or historic trail and situated in relatively broad flat reversing degradation. Observations in 1995 areas just off the main historic road. It was also showed that reconstructed retaining walls had recommended that placing both interpretive and assisted in stabilising the hillside. Camping was directional signs in a manner that would draw prohibited on the upper terraces which has people directly down the slope, using the historic reduced the degree to which the edges have crum­ trail, and to the historic main road would mitigate bled as well as reducing the climbing which had path braiding and erosion. It was also suggested occurred up and down the slopes. Placing stair­ that the construction of public facilities and the cases at the locations chosen for direct access to formalizing of camping at locations immediately the historic main road focussed foot traffic, con­ adjacent to the historic main road would eliminate trolling site circulation and lessening erosion. Cobbles loosened much of the terrace hopping. A public shelter con­ Paths which were previously used indiscriminately from a historic structed on an old building terrace and tucked up retaining wall were closed off using vegetation replanting or sim­ against the terrace wall would act as a barricade because of visitor ply blocked with deadfall. In addition an interpre­ to pedestrian traffic. The location of the building's traffic. A combina­ tive program was being developed which was to tion of signs, stair­ entrance and exit would influence people's circula­ assist in providing messages to site visitors. case construction, tion on the site. Indicating historic water access Although shrinking funding has limited a and cobble points would reduce trampling of foundation fea­ replacement have number of proposals such as the warm-up shelter tures near the water's edge. Such steps were contributed to site and reduced the level of visitor education, many of means of replicating present site-use patterns to stabilisation. Photo the proposals have had a positive effect on the by K. Lunn. those of historic Bennett. Thus site development site. The movement away from an artifact focus to a more generalized landscape management approach, and a shift in philosophy spurred by the CRM policy has allowed site managers to work towards maintaining the cultural/natural relation­ ships at the site. No longer was there the per­ ceived need to either salvage or avoid archaeological sites if they were in the way of development, or to reconstruct if they were to be interpreted.

David Hems is Environmental Assessment Archaeologist, Professional and Technical Service Centre, Parks Canada, Winnipeg.

lCi CRM N2 4—1997 Pierre Beaudet will try to provide an answer regarding the merit of monitoring by examining its use within an organi­ zation I know well, Parks Canada. Actual exam­ ples encountered by staff archaeologists and Archaeological consultants will help illustrate what I believe is a practice that, when used judiciously, can serve well both research objectives and cultural resource Monitoring protection. Parks Canada operates a large network of National Parks and National Historic Sites that, in Butchery or Surgery? principle, enjoy a high level of cultural and ecolog­ ical protection. It also provides advice and profes­ would like to quote an excerpt from sional guidance to other federal land a 1996 article printed in a managers—departments and agencies—responsi­ Canadian newspaper, The Globe ble for sites where archaeological resources are and Mail: often much more vulnerable. I For Parks Canada, in the context I am famil­ Rome—Once again, digging up the streets iar with, monitoring has often proved to be a use­ to modernize the capital has rewarded ful way of acquiring information rather than a just Romans with a slice of their past. This time, difficult and frustrating experience. But it takes a the prize is a cluster of Renaissance-era lot more than just passive observation to make it Jewish temples thought destroyed in a fire. into worthwhile tool. For a couple of years, cobblestone streets Yes to monitoring, but not just monitoring in the neighbourhood known as the Old Monitoring of excavations makes up a large Ghetto have been ripped up so Rome's util­ part of an archaeologist's field time even within ity companies could lay down new lines.... the protected confines of Parks Canada's national All traces of the synagogues had been parks and historic sites. It is carried out either in believed destroyed by a fire in 1893. the context of well-planned major or minor opera­ The discovery of temple ruins, whether tions or as a result of housekeeping activities and Jewish, Greek or Roman, can be considered a defi­ emergencies. nitely remote possibility in the trenches of our To choose monitoring as a means of mitiga­ North American cities, parks, forests and fields. tion is a difficult choice and requires careful con- Almost as remote, some Quebec City archaeolo­ gists would say, as finding the grave of Samuel de Champlain, the city's founder, under Buade Street in Old Town. There, rumour as it, it waits to be discovered despite extensive roadwork and other infrastructure disturbances. However these are not reasons to give up or curtail the practice of archaeological monitoring wherever warranted. Opinions are sharply divided on the practice Monitoring excava­ of monitoring excavations conducted for non- tions at the St. John's Bastion, archaeological objectives. Often taken for granted Quebec City. Photo in our historic urban and rural districts, it has by Robert Gamin. recently come under somewhat vigorous attack by some public and private sector advocates, particu­ larly those concerned with the reduction of costs. For some, "archaeological monitoring is bunk and useless! It may ease some people's conscience, but it's only supervised destruction with no bene­ fits for knowledge." For others, to the contrary, it is viewed as "an excellent means of investigation with the least expenditure possible!" Butchery or surgery—what is it really? A purely theoretical examination of monitor­ ing does not give a satisfactory answer to this question, particularly in light of its variable appli­ cation in a wide range of contexts. Accordingly, I

CRM N2 4—1997 17 sideration for its sites where we are mainly concerned with record­ results can be either ing architectural remains or where archaeological harmful or positive, field work alone is not cost effective or a feasible not only for the cul­ alternative. tural resources con­ In most cases, however, monitoring is only cerned, but for our one step in a broader research design, a process ability to make other which may include establishing a site's potential future judicious deci­ and resource inventory, selective excavation, mon­ sions. itoring, data analysis and the publication of Choosing to results. monitor everything, The Fortifications of Quebec indiscriminately, can The Fortifications of Quebec, through a be the worst decision series of major stabilization projects, has repeat­ of all, for in the end, edly provided excellent examples of the use of we may no longer monitoring as a key element in our overall archae­ have the credibility ological strategy. Indeed, with their extensive required for our rec­ earthworks set against massive masonry walls— ommendations to be often several metres in height—the fortifications taken into considera­ lend themselves well only to very selective manual tion, either by our archaeological investigation. Access to much of the professional col­ archaeological strata and hence data relies, in leagues of other dis­ great part, on the observation of excavations con­ ciplines and field ducted in the course of the stabilization work personnel involved itself. Thus, following the selective investigation of in the projects or by particularly rich or fragile sectors, archaeologists Monitoring excava­ those who foot the bill, from the land manager to have spent weeks and often months watching the tions at the St. the public. Thus, it is our responsibility to deter­ swaying motion of power shovels, examined the John's Bastion, mine carefully for each case what means of mitiga­ ill-defined sides and base of trenches, and Quebec City. Photo by Robert Gauvin. tion—if any—are justified by a specific site and recorded thousands of scraps of information relat­ context. ing to the anatomy and evolving function of entire Recommendations must take several factors defensive works. Previous defence alignments, into account: our knowledge of a site from previ­ buttresses, cannon embrasures and, in more than ously conducted field work or documentary one instance, burial places have all been discov­ sources, the nature and relative value of the puta­ ered or unearthed through careful and attentive tive resources, and the type of work being sub­ monitoring. jected to mitigation. Their interplay should largely Let us examine more closely a specific sector determine the usefulness of monitoring as a mit- of the fortifications known as St John's Bastion. igative response, either as a stand alone measure For nearly three years, one of our colleagues, or as part of a wider archaeological strategy. Robert Gauvin, braved its heights and depths, the Each monitoring activity which does go rain and the cold, to record a host of observations. ahead, whether major or minor, planned or urgent, When first undertaken, merits of this lengthy mon­ must be viewed by its practitioners as an opportu­ itoring project could well have been questioned for nity to discover or, at least, to further document two somewhat similar works, the St Louis and the archaeological identity of a site. The smallest Ursulines bastions, had already been examined, of these may often serve only as "archaeopsies" or and the richest sectors of the site itself carefully soundings, helpful in the diagnosis of a site for excavated. However, despite evident kinship, no future reference, while large-scale ones may well two defensive works of the city's western front are provide a wider picture and a wealth of data the same in their history, function and physical which would otherwise have been lost. Either, characteristics. These differences and some however, may lead to situations where more metic­ notable similarities now form a quasi-anatomical ulous archaeological work is required, including portrait of a complex structure whose configura­ salvage excavations. tion evolved considerably through time (Gauvin, Monitoring is not a panacea that can be 1993). applied to all sites in all circumstances. At Parks Looking back, we can definitely say that the Canada, it is applied, in isolation or by itself, in monitoring was worthwhile. Apart from the data certain emergency situations where excavation regarding the site itself, we also gained insight work is on a very small scale and the potential is concerning construction practices that extend well relatively limited, or for very large construction beyond the works in question. For example, what

18 CRM N2 4—1997 at first appeared to be insignificant anomalies on vision or otherwise all sense of context may be the interior face of the bastion's walls revealed lost. One must look beyond the trenches! A diffi­ themselves to be, through cross-site analysis of cult task in the controlled archaeological investi­ structural recordings, convincing evidence of the gations, this process can become a nightmare in fleeting existence of temporary passageways the difficult and urgent conditions of most moni­ designed to facilitate the carting of materials and toring situations. the razing of the walls. For those with an interest Data Linkage in fortifications, an article on this subject will Peripheral vision, even supported by a min­ appear in an upcoming issue of the Council for imum of prior documentation, is not sufficient. Northeast Historical Archaeology journal. We need the ability to combine data from succes­ The importance of careful monitoring of non- sive and neighbouring work sites. This requires archaeological excavations could also be exempli­ the pooling of data and records to provide an fied through discussion of several other recent overview. At Parks Canada and in some large projects conducted by Parks Canada at Grosse-tle- municipalities such as Quebec City and Montreal, and-Memorial-to-the-Irish NHS (disinfection we are fortunate in that we can keep composite building and new utility services), along the and updated maps of remains for almost every Lachine canal and elsewhere. site, so that even the smallest discoveries can The eye of a good observer and the hand of potentially be integrated. But overall, public a quick writer—for monitoring and recording—are repositories of archaeological documentation thus inseparable partners in the process in ques­ appear to have difficulty in even keeping abreast tion. So is peripheral vision. of basic collecting and filing, let alone the estab­ Peripheral Vision lishment of basic linkage mechanisms or data­ The organizer of a recent workshop on moni­ bases. toring, in a list of questions prepared for speakers, A Capacity to Intervene brought out the concerns of some people regarding In addition to developing effective periph­ the value of monitoring for research, as it is often eral vision and linkage mechanisms, another a narrowly focussed activity whose direction is major ingredient must be present to make moni­ dictated more by the developer than the archaeol­ toring an acceptable data collection tool for ogist (Conference of the Association des research purposes. That is the possibility, when Archeologues du Quebec, April 26-28, 1996). Such required, to conduct appropriate salvage excava­ concerns are justified and constitute a major chal­ tions despite the disruptions involved in the lenge that is often difficult to meet. There is, developer's schedule. This concession, often diffi­ indeed, a great risk that data collected through cult to negotiate even within the context of Parks scatter-shot monitoring will be consigned straight Canada, is one that often makes all the difference to oblivion. Disconnected data, technical reports, between the destruction of a site and its preserva­ multiple clients and limited circulation are all seri­ tion. Legislation and regulations alone are not ous obstacles or deterrents for those interested in sufficient for effective intervention. Awareness making sense of this research. and good will on the promoters part as well as Accordingly, archaeologists responsible for persuasive archaeologists are also required! monitoring must possess a very broad peripheral The work carried out at Cap Tourmente, which is described in a new work published in French by Les Editions du Septentrion in co-operation with Parks Canada and the Canadian The temporary Wildlife Service (Guimont vaulted passage­ 1996), is one instance where ways observed monitoring and digging fol­ through monitoring at the St. John's lowed each other as in a relay Bastion, Quebec race, putting the runners to the City. Photo by test throughout the process. Robert Gauvin. The result was the discovery, among other remains, of fragile yet diagnostic components of Samuel de Champlain's 17th- century agricultural establish­ ment. The increased awareness by management

CRM N2 4—1997 19 and the public concerning the reserve's significant Summary cultural heritage resources was also a most impor­ Archaeological monitoring is bunk and use­ tant outcome of this relay project. less! It may ease some people's consciences, but it is Work carried out at the site of the wheel­ only supervised destruction.... Archaeological moni­ wright's shop at the Forges du Saint-Maurice NHS toring, what an excellent way to investigate a site during repairs to a waterway is another excellent without having to pay too much! Butchery for example of the interaction between monitoring some, surgery for others—let's put things in per­ and other forms of archaeological mitigation spective. (Drouin 1995). In this case the sequence was: monitoring of trenching, discovery of remains, test­ References ing, rescue excavation and a change of plans by Drouin, Pierre which the further disturbance of archaeological 1995. Des charrons aux Forges du Saint-Maurice, resources could be avoided. This quick succession Paleo-Quebec, 23: 369-384. Montreal. of events, with monitoring at its source, thus Gauvin, Robert served to increase our knowledge of the site and to 1993. Repertoire anaiytique des vestiges architecturaux ensure the conservation of significant archaeologi­ du bastion Saint-Jean a Quebec, Quebec City, man­ cal remains directly tied to the object of commem­ uscript on file, Parks Canada. Quebec City. oration of the site. Globe and Mail Conclusion 1996. Synagogue remains in Rome ( March 2). I would like to express the view that moni­ Toronto. toring has proven to be an important tool in the Guimont, Jacques practice of archaeology, one which deserves to be 1996. La Petite-Ferme du Cap Tourmente, Les editions used whenever justified. When carried out under du Septentrion, Sillery. favourable conditions by competent practitioners, monitoring can serve both as the front-line in the Pierre Beaudet is Chief of Archaeology, Quebec protection and recording of our buried heritage, District, Parks Canada, Quebec City. and with the right ingredients, as a rich documen­ tary source for the study of our past.

N PS Archeology Program

n the U.S., the National Park Service car­ The NPS archeology program provides for the ries out the archeological responsibilities identification, evaluation, interpretation, protection, that Parks Canada has taken on for and preservation of archeological resources in national I national parks and federal agencies in park units. We also carry out the leadership and coor­ Canada. Since the beginning of the 20th century, dination of federal archeology programs assigned to the when the Antiquities Act that protected archeological Secretary of the Interior by several United States sites on public lands became law and began to influ­ statutes. The coordination and leadership of federal ence public policy, the NPS has been relied upon as a archeology by the NPS is exercised through regulations, source of expertise and knowledge for public archeol­ guidance, and cooperative activities with other federal ogy in the U.S. These government-wide archeology agencies on topics of special importance. Current exam­ and historic preservation responsibilities were ples of such topics are: archeological collections man­ expanded in 1935 by the Historic Sites Act and again agement, public outreach, the protection of later by the National Historic Preservation Act, the archeological resources, and providing appropriate Archaeological Resource Protection Act, the access to archeological information and records. Abandoned Shipwreck Act, and the Native American We hope to continue to share program informa­ Graves Protection and Repatriation Act. tion and technical expertise with our partners in At one time, NPS archeologists provided profes­ Canada. sional and technical support for all agencies. However, since the 1970s, other public agencies, in particular —Francis P. McManamon land management agencies, have built professional Chief, Archeology and Ethnography Program staffs in archeology. These agencies now undertake and Departmental Consulting Archeologist their own archeological activities. National Park Service

20 CRM NM—1997 Helen Dunlop and Suzanne Plousos The Threatened Archaeological Collections Project

n 1990, the Threatened Archaeological Environment to the Collections Project (TAC) began as a new Department of national initiative recommended by the Canadian Heritage. Heads of Archaeology within the In Ontario Region, Wellington boot I Canadian Parks Service (now Parks Canada). archaeology as a distinct section ceased to exist excavated from a The project was designed to meet our preserva­ and was incorporated into a multidisciplinary military latrine at tion mandate and was further inspired by an CRM section. Archaeological and curatorial collec­ Fort Wellington, evolving awareness of Cultural Resource Prescott, Ontario. tions staff was amalgamated, and Ontario region Management principles. In Ontario Region, the and national conservation labs were consolidated project matured in response to expanded con­ in Ottawa. All this had significant impact on the sciousness of CRM philosophy and altered the TAC project. course in reaction to changing political climates. With impending staff reductions and smaller Initial work in 1991 determined the scale of budgets, could continued expenditure on collec­ national collection problems and made recommen­ tions be justified? Yes, preservation of cultural dations for improved storage, conservation and resources is integral to Park Canada's mandate. conversion of handwritten inventories to electronic Although short-range funding was reduced, com­ systems. During this preliminary stage, some mitment to the project was spread over a longer explosives and hazardous materials were encoun­ time period. Despite fewer resources, a CRM tered in Parks Canada collections. In Ontario, approach meant strategic management of collec­ removal of unstable black powder armaments was tions, not just archival storage of the by-products incorporated into project objectives the following of archaeological research activities. Site man­ year. An assemblage from Fort Wellington, a 19th- agers, interpretive staff, curators and historians century British military site, assumed priority not needed to know the value of these resources. only because of black powder concerns, but also Promoting interpretive potential, establishing due to large amounts of wet organic materials research and conservation priorities, and improv­ requiring immediate conservation. ing accessibility became paramount. Collections The movement within North American cul­ had to be processed and organized into meaning­ tural institutions to address Aboriginal concerns in ful tools applied to build a stronger appreciation of the management of archaeological collections, Canadian cultural heritage. Artifacts had to be influenced the project in 1992. Work plans were assessed for their historic value and/or associa­ altered to focus on collections with Native human tions with commemorated activities, events and/or remains in anticipation of re-interment by descen­ personages and for their potential to develop new dant groups. Assemblages with significant Native themes, such as cultural landscapes, women's his­ components were also emphasized to prepare tory and ethnicity. The publication of Guidelines material of interest to Aboriginal communities in for the Management of Archaeological Resources in presenting their history and culture. the Canadian Park Service in 1993 was timely. It Visible results of the TAC project occurred in provided preliminary criteria for evaluating 1993 when the collection was moved to a ware­ archaeological resources, dividing them into cate­ house with a controlled environment, expanded gories of level 1, 2 and "other." Level 1 resources layout space and increased storage capacity. The were those directly related to the commemorative facility was also designed to house curatorial col­ intent as designated by the Historic Sites and lections and a conservation laboratory. That same Monuments Board of Canada (HSMBC). These year, work on archival storage of archaeological would receive highest priority for preservation and records was well underway. But, in the following presentation activities. Level 2 resources were year, the effects of dwindling fiscal resources were defined as having historic value, but were not felt within government agencies. Overall govern­ directly related to the commemorative intent of a ment restructuring resulted in shifting the old national historic site, or were from sites that had Canadian Parks Service from the Department of not yet been reviewed by the HSMBC. Preliminary

CRM Na 4—1997 21 Canada's 10th Prime Minister. A report describing presentation and research potential of the material culture by historical phases was prepared for Woodside. Artifacts associated with the commem­ orated period were highlighted and shown to have significant influence on King's growth within the material world of Victorian family life. The follow­ ing year, this report was revised to incorporate ongoing site resource evaluations by the Woodside cultural resource management commit­ tee. Resource levels were assigned to the archaeo­ logical contexts correlated to historical phases and "other" material was identified for de-assession- ing. Artifacts were sent for conservation and a resource collection of level 1 material was initi­ ated for site use. Cornwall collec­ criteria for assessing level 2 resources considered tions facility show­ archaeological, historical, and material culture The second project examined a Laurel burial ing the contexts. "Other" resources were not deemed to mound assemblage, ca. AD. 950, associated with archaeological pro­ have historical value and would not be managed Manitou Mounds NHS. Manitou Mounds is a ject layout areas. under CRM policies. large, significant habitation and ceremonial centre These evaluation criteria had to be applied in continuous use from the Archaic to Historic to a variety of site assemblages from National Ojibwa periods. Management of the site involved Parks (NP), National Historic Sites (NHS), and a partnership between Parks Canada, the Canals. Ontario sites range from Native archaic to Province of Ontario and the Rainy River First contact period burials, encampments, villages, etc. Nations Band. Through negotiations, arrange­ late 18th-century fur trade posts; 19th-century ments were made for analysis of the human British defensive works; canal engineering struc­ remains by a MA student at Lakehead University. tures and buildings; logging and fishing camps; With Band consent, a representative sample of Victorian domestic houses, and Prime Ministers' artifacts, found within the mound, was reproduced residences. Some assemblages were collected dur­ for a resource collection. All burial material was ing surveys of large areas, some from salvage mon re-interred at the site in June 1995 during a cere­ itoring, others were from intensive investigations. mony conducted by the Band. The ongoing analyt­ Collections sometimes represented single compo­ ical report describes the material associated with nents but were more often from sites with long- the mound fill and highlights its relevance to the term occupations and multi-component features themes and objectives of the NHS. pre and/or post dating the commemorated period. The third pilot project dealt with assem­ Within these diverse collections were level 1 and blages from Pukaskwa NP, excavated or collected level 2 resources: artifacts provocative of the lives during surveys of petroform sites, Blackduck and of past inhabitants. However, assemblages also contact period campsites and historic logging, fish­ contained redundant piles of rusty nails and con­ ing and trapping sites. A preliminary report corre­ struction materials, faunal remains, ecofacts, and lates the material to historic phases in the Lake soil samples many from poor or Superior Basin and shows the interpretive poten- unknown archaeological contexts. Maintaining and archiving such artifacts was questioned and the Future Prime impetus for de-accessioning and Minister, "Willy" "right sizing" the collection arose. King (right) grew Thorough documentation, corre­ up at Woodside in lating archaeological context to a close family envi­ ronment rich in historical phases was required to material expres­ establish resource level prior to sion. conserving, sampling, and/or de- accessioning. Three pilot projects address­ ing evaluation were launched in 1994. The first was Woodside NHS, the boyhood home of William Lyon Mackenzie King,

22 CRM N2 4—1997 tial of artifacts in demonstrating human adapta­ Aboriginal involvement in the war. Artifacts may tion to a changing natural and cultural environ­ also reflect the activities of women and children ment. within the military community. In January 1996, in response to internal Our future aspirations are to continue to reorganization and implementation of business expand awareness of the collection as a significant practices within government, a business case was cultural resource and to improve technological prepared for the TAC project. The case provided applications. In responding to changing issues, the an option analysis, but highlighted the importance TAC project has remained current and continues to of collection evaluation for effective resource man­ receive support. Indeed, the recent Parks Canada agement. The document accentuated interaction focus on revenue generation is gradually increas­ between TAC staff and site resource managers. ing use of artifacts as prototypes for heritage prod­ Input into artifact evaluation, report format, and ucts. Site recognition and use of material culture development of site resource collections was research to augment presentation programs and encouraged and presentation of results was develop educational products will remain a major emphasized. objective. Finally, concern for outmoded and Fort George, commemorated for its role in incompatible databases that inhibit collection the War of 1812, was selected from the regional accessibility and management must be addressed. business plan as an ideal site for collection appli­ Upgrading computer systems to meet new techno­ cations. Upcoming displays were scheduled and logical advances will improve efficiencies and upgrades to furnishing plans anticipated. In addi­ open collections to new and broader audiences: tion, funding from Parks Canada Headquarters audiences who are intrigued by the meaning and provided an opportunity to consolidate collections significance of the material realm in understanding from recent archaeological investigations with Fort the past and in enriching the future. George material excavated prior to the establish­ ment of Ontario Region. The combined assem­ Helen Dunlop and Suzanne Plousos work in the blages have greater potential to enhance such Collections Section for Professional and Technical themes as: British military presence in the Niagara Services, Parks Canada, Cornwall, Ontario. Peninsula, American occupation of the fort, and

Jennifer F.A. Hamilton larger national study which identified that archae­ ological excavations conducted by Parks Canada have produced site collections totalling more than 25 million specimens. Of these, it was estimated Preserving Archaeological that less than 1/2 of 1 % have been identified for conservation treatment. However, the proportion of a collection which usually requires conservation Collections for the Future treatment should be closer to 5%-8% of the collec­ tion. This discrepancy was recognized, as was the fact that many of the site collections are over 25 he importance of archaeological years old and need improvements to their storage collections and their associated and packaging in order to arrest or prevent accel­ records to research and the inter­ erated deterioration and loss of crucial informa­ pretation of the past is well known tion. Furthermore, Parks Canada's Cultural and documentedT . These collections represent the Resource Management Policy and the total of our physical evidence of human activity Archaeological Collections Management Directive at a site, they are non-renewable and thus, the indicate that artifacts held by Parks Canada and need to ensure their protection is essential for the deemed necessary to maintain the integrity of the education of present and future generations. assemblage must be accorded appropriate collec­ Since 1991, archaeology staff, Prairie and tions management and conservation treatments to Northwest Territories Region, Department of ensure their continued survival. This study Canadian Heritage, Winnipeg have conducted a resulted in launching a multi-year project to program of Threatened Collections Projects to review all the backlog archaeological collections to assess the condition of the artifacts and to upgrade address the threats affecting their long-term storage conditions to contemporary collections preservation. management standards for long-term storage and To date, through the Threatened Collections preservation. This initiative was driven from a Projects, 50% of the Prairie and Northwest

CRM N2 4—1997 23 Territories Region's, approximately 2 million rials (e.g. asbestos) were properly documented archaeological specimens recovered over the past and disposed of or rendered safe; 20 or 30 years have been reviewed and upgraded • Artifacts which were beyond the point of sal­ to collections management standards. This has vage (Surplus Dead Specimens-SDS) were been accomplished at a cost of $750,000. Included documented where possible and disposed of in this cost are the resources used to create a site in an appropriate manner; specific reference collection of artifacts which rep­ • The condition of the artifacts were assessed resent the themes or commemorative integrity and those requiring conservation treatment statements identified for National Historic Sites or were identified for future treatment. Parks. • Artifacts destined for regular storage were sorted and boxed by prove­ nience and by material type so that they can be stored in proper environmentally con­ Mobile Shelving at Professional and trolled locations, for ease of Technical Services future monitoring and for man­ in Winnipeg houses agement of the collection. the bulk of the The artifacts were then archaeological arti­ fact collection for placed in one of six environmen­ Parks Canada's tally controlled storage locations Prairie and within the Parks Canada archae­ Northwest ology laboratory facility. This Territories Region. placement was based on the arti- fact's material type, state of preservation and interpretive or reference status. These storage locations include: • Mobile Shelving—This area stores the bulk of the col­ Typically and of no surprise, the archaeologi­ lection in double-walled cardboard boxes with cal collections comprise a variety of materials lids. The main material types stored on these including ceramics, glass, metal of various kinds shelves are glass, ceramic, metal and fauna. (ferrous, brass, lead etc.), organic materials like • Oversize Shelves—Located in the general wood, leather, bone, and inorganic materials like mobile shelving area, larger artifacts are stone, brick, plastic. These collections have stored on fixed shelving. These are artifacts received a wide variety of processing treatments too large to fit in our standard storage boxes from being cleaned, sorted by material and inven­ and therefore will not fit on the mobile toried by function and provenience, to having shelves. received no cleaning, no sorting or no inventory • Humidity Room—Housed here are primarily processing. Although the collections were stored in organic materials such as textiles, leather and adequate boxes and under proper storage condi­ wood at a controlled temperature of 68°F and tions, many of the artifacts were in paper bags and relative humidity of 52%. packed so that metal rimmed tags, tape and other • Freezers—We have two chest freezers and an unstable materials were in direct contact with the upright freezer to temporarily store organic artifacts, contrary to modern conservation prac­ material recovered from wet sites which await tices. conservation treatment or analysis. To address the improper storage conditions, Permanently stored here are rubber artifacts the artifact collections received the following miti­ such as rubber boots. gation actions: • Dangerous goods cabinet—For the temporary • All artifacts were repackaged in plastic bags, storage location of dangerous goods prior to ensuring that any unstable packaging materi­ either documentation and disposal or a als were not attached to or in direct contact process to render them safe. with the artifact; • Reference Collection Cabinets—Artifacts • Metal rimmed tags, tape and other unstable selected for a site-specific reference collection materials which have been used in direct con­ are stored in these drawered cabinets. tact with the artifacts were removed; As well as upgrading the storage of the arti­ • Dangerous artifacts such as live ammunition facts, the computer database for recording and or artifacts constructed using dangerous mate­ managing artifact information was also upgraded.

24 CRM NM—1997 ticular site. These artifacts tend to be those which are complete, but more impor­ tantly, reflect the activities and features of the site and are Artifacts selected representative of the themes for a site-specific and commemorative integrity reference collection statement identified for a spe­ are placed in draw- ered cabinets for cific site. Artifacts selected for greater accessibil­ this special collection receive ity. conservation treatments rang­ ing from preventative such as protective mounts for storage to intervention such as electrol­ ysis. These artifacts were either placed in the cue for conservation treatment or if they were already conserved, they were placed in storage cabinets to allow monitoring for deterioration and greater Reference collec­ accessibility for reference and tions artifacts presentation requirements. received protective The site specific refer­ mounts for storage ence collections, which to date in drawered cabi­ nets. comprise some 10,000 arti­ facts, not only allow easy access to artifacts but also serves as a marketing tool to promote the collection and increase the potential for research. The reference collec­ tion limits duplication in the conservation of the same type of artifact and includes within it comparative type collections Archaeology staff use the computer system, available for specific artifact studies. DOSSIER driven by Progress software. A portion Initiatives such as the Threatened of this upgrade included adding to the database a Collections Project make the best use of scarce number of information "tools" for managing the resources by reviewing the collections according to collection. These include, an "assessment year" a set of priorities and selecting artifacts most wor­ code indicating the year the artifact was assessed; thy of conservation treatment. Furthermore, by a "threat" code which reflects the level of deterio­ applying the principles of collections management ration and priority for conservation treatment (i.e. to each and every artifact, the protection and Surplus Dead Specimens, Existing, Imminent, preservation of the physical integrity of these arti­ Anticipated, Stable, Conserved); a "location" code facts and associated records has greater success. which indicates the storage location; and an "eval­ The maintenance of the integrity of the informa­ uation" code which is based on the commemora­ tion these collections embody is accomplished tive integrity statement developed for the Site or and, finally, it ensures access to artifacts and Park which indicates whether or not the artifact is information for interpretation and research. of national significance. This information allows for easy and accurate tracking, at any given time, Jennifer Hamilton is Archaeological Collections of the significance, condition and location of an Manager, Professional and Technical Services, artifact. Winnipeg. In addition to improving storage conditions, some artifacts are selected for a site-specific refer­ ence collection. This collection includes examples of the different artifact types recovered from a par­

CRM N2 4—1997 25 Gary Adams Management RESOURCE CARD Functions -evaluations Separate card for each -thematic -locational -conditions bui lding, feature .class -interventions -chronological of artifact, etc. -costs -activity A New Tool for -maintenance -relationships Cultural Resource References Location Attributes -connects to -resources are -graphics all related mapped -sounds bibliographic -regional atlas -animations Management references toponomy

n 1995, a new interactive management research, and over 200,000 artifacts. The issue for tool for cultural resources was deliv­ park interpretation staff is most often one of just ered to the Manitoba North National where they start looking. Historic Sites. The delivery of that tool The numerous resources that needed track­ Some tools avail­ I from the regional archaeologists was the culmina­ ing was the primary concern of the park superin­ able for a specific tion of a long process of interaction between site tendent. She wanted to have a system that would resource. operational staff and regional experts all of whom allow her to record the heritage values, threats, had a single objective—to more effectively protect and interventions to the various in situ resources. and present the cultural resources of a National It was important to her to know who did what to Historic Site. The project started over a year ear­ the resources over a period of time. The interpreta­ lier when the superintendent came to archaeolo­ tion staff were looking for a solution to a different gists at the Regional Service Centre with a problem. They had to interpret the site and create specific problem. She needed an on-site inven­ programs for it in Churchill, 200 km to the north. tory of the cultural resources related to York They did not have the benefit of being able to use Factory to record their evaluation and to track the site's in situ resources directly. With the wealth both decisions on, and the activities related to, of information available, they needed mechanisms cultural resources on the site. In subsequent to sift through massive amounts of data; relate it meetings between Site staff and the project team, to resources that were not on hand; and deliver an additional goal was added to make this inven­ messages to the public. tory useful in the development of presentation The final product, A York Factory CRM programming. What makes this whole process Toolkit, was developed to provide solutions to all noteworthy, is the complexity of the issues and of these problems. It emerged as a HyperCard™ the novelty of the solution. stack on a Macintosh Computer. The heart of the As a National Historic Site, York Factory car­ project is a database of more than 1500 cultural ries several intrinsic issues. Although only one resources representing buildings, archaeological major building survives, dating to the 1830s, the sites, archaeological features, and artifacts from actual historic site contains the well-preserved, the site and its immediate environs. Each resource historic remains of more than 100 structures, dat­ is accompanied by basic information and a brief ing back to 1789. Along the lower portion of the description that might include its history, impor­ Hayes River, upon which the site faces, and the tance to the site or role in a broader perspective. adjacent Nelson River, there are remains of addi­ What was avoided was the dry, formal descrip­ tional fur trade sites and resources. As a block, tions that archaeologists tend to rely on. For build­ they represent the core history of the Hudson Bay ings and features, each resource is handled as a Company and exploration of Western Canada separate entity while artifacts have been combined back to its beginnings in the early 1600s. However into a generic typology. In this way, all horse­ rich and significant the resources, the site is cur­ shoes, hammers, and hasps are treated as single rently isolated in the sub-arctic Hudson's Bay entities. Lowlands. The nearest communities are over 150 The cultural resources are further supple­ km away and accessible only by air or boat. This mented by a series of over 500 information makes the site's cultural resources very difficult to records that identify heritage values for the manage. resources. Separate information sets are available The site is also one of the best documented for historical, ethnographic, topographical, tradi­ in the entire Parks Canada network. There are tional knowledge and ecological information. The tens of thousands of pages of archival material key criterion for selecting which additional infor­ directly related to the site, numerous historical mation to incorporate in the Toolkit was that it treatments, seven seasons of archaeological complement the actual resource data and could be

26 CRM N2 4—1997 developing an interpretive program. Added devices Sort Criteria Found on Card Recovers Related Information on to help them were: attached pictures and pho­ RESOURCE CARD Traditional Story tographs of artifacts and buildings; a comment Related Biography field on every record; lists of artifact catalogue Click Button Artifact numbers for pre-selected displayable specimens; Feature and a series of individual notepads that could be generated for each person and/or project. To help Building Resource the user work with the data, each record has a blank field to keep additional notes and there are menu-driven sort, find, and "bookmark" functions. AH of this is explained in an on-line help stack. The most valuable innovation was a sorting and selecting mechanism that allowed someone to Cultural resource linked directly to a resource. In this way, a tradi­ call up all of the resources and related information sorting technique. tional story about weddings at York Factory would by special topic. To the best of our knowledge, this be connected to the church feature. is the first database in Parks Canada that lets site The special capabilities of HyperCard™ were staff access information on such disparate exploited to take this basic information farther resources as archaeological artifacts, landscape than a basic database could handle. The resources features and historic buildings with a single were divided into several groupings that reflected search. Four sets of topics were discussed and the geographic and historic development of the incorporated into this product as menu-driven site. This allowed the developers to display each searches for use by the park staff. The first of grouping on a site map. Little complementary fea­ these is the locational, breaking entire site into tures were developed to further enhance the infor­ small segments on a map. Clicking on any portion mation or clarify issues. There is a small historical of the map will assemble all of its resources. atlas that relates the site to the long-term ecologi­ Among the uses for this is a mechanism to evalu­ cal and cultural history of the region. An anima­ ate cultural resources in an environmental impact tion demonstrates the monumental effects of the assessment. The second grouping activates on the riverbank erosion that has wiped out over 100 themes and sub-themes of the site. Clicking on years of historical resources. Another sequence any sub-theme will generate a subset of all its shows how various features from differing occupa­ related resources. The third set is a chronological tions are superimposed. There are illustrations of sequence that divides the 300 years of occupation more than 100 resources, a complete interactive by the Hudson's Bay Company into logical chunks bibliography of references, and smaller, comple­ based on significant events in the site's history. mentary stacks to provide detailed information. The final set associates activities. Here, the All of this information is only as good as it is archaeologists who compiled the information were useful. As a management Toolkit to implement on familiar ground, using activities to define pat­ Parks Canada's Cultural Resource Management terns of representation. Additional topic areas can Policy, several special features are installed. The be custom designed, based on key words so a pro­ click of a button on any cultural resource will pro­ gram developer can design a presentation around vide a management card for it. This card indicates any desired topic and instantly assemble a list of the heritage, a history of interventions and a all related resources whether they are on site, in description of its condition and the nature of any storage, or in the hands of another agency. threats to it. Site managers can also define five Both the site and service centre staff are additional text fields to track their own issues and pleased with the product as it exists but its true information. There is also a process involved to potential lies in the flexible nature of the help the site determine the level of significance of HyperCard™ style of program. It is very easy to the resource as defined by the policy. Each add to any part of it or to attach new components. resource can be evaluated within the policy, using It is customized around a specific site, but can be on line aids such as site commemoration state­ easily modified to accommodate any site or to add ments, site themes and sub-themes, and related others. New modules are being planned and some information to refine its values. of the original components have already been The tools provided for the interpretation of upgraded. the resources are of a different nature. While the massive amounts of information and the extensive Gary Adams is Senior Archaeologist, Professional bibliography are important in their own right, the and Technical Services, Parks Canada, Winnipeg, site staff wanted this program to be the first line of Manitoba. inquiry when answering questions of the public or

CRM N2 4—1997 27 S. Biron Ebell and Gary Adams York Factory's Octagon A Multifaceted CRM Challenge

n Canada, management of federal A series of monitoring and assessment stud­ buildings that have been designated as ies over the 1970s and 1980s, revealed that the heritage properties, are regulated under environment reacted with the building in complex the Canadian Federal Heritage ways. Successful, long-term stabilization of the York Factory Depot. I Buildings Policy. As well, the new Parks Canada Depot required addressing how the environment The three story sec­ Cultural Resource Management (CRM) Policy impacted the building and vice versa. The ground tion in the centre (1994) provides guidelines for protecting and pre­ was constructed in under the Depot is water logged. Depending on 1831.The sections senting all forms of cultural heritage resources, the season, all footings, floor substructures and on each side were including sub-surface remains. A dilemma can pillars are either saturated or frozen, thus acceler­ constructed in the arise when restoring a designated heritage build­ ating substructural deterioration. Further, the following two years. ing impacts significant archaeological resources. building had been constructed without eaves Photo by S. Biron Ebell. This predicament became a reality at York troughs. Rainwater leaving the building's roof Factory National Historic Site in northeastern pooled under the floor, adding to the natural mois­ Manitoba. There, the challenge was to comply ture problem. Apparently this was anticipated in with Canadian Federal Heritage Buildings Policy the original building design. Archaeological work conservation requirements while still preserving revealed that box drains were initially installed, and protecting archaeological resources. connecting the courtyard to exterior drainage The most visible and spectacular aspect of ditches. Since the building was closed by the York Factory National Historic Site is the over Hudson's Bay Company in 1957, they had not 150-year-old Hudson's Bay Company warehouse been maintained and were found filled with silt. and packing room, called the Depot. This building, The effects of frost heave were devastating. It imposing in its scale even when constructed, caused the ground to shift in response to tempera­ became the central focus of the entrepot's activities ture differentials created by the changing seasons over time, consolidating almost all of them under and the insulating effect of the building itself. As a one roof. result, the ground floor was displaced vertically as Both time and the environment have left much as 30 cm inside the building envelope. their marks on the Depot. As part of a large trading Displacement was so pronounced that, at one time centre, today it stands alone on unconsolidated, it was believed that the floor was designed pur­ saturated, permanently frozen river silts on the left posely to "float" inside the Depot walls. In truth, bank of the Hayes River, about 8 km from Hudson the building envelope and floor sat upon the same Bay in Manitoba. Its proximity to Hudson Bay mud sills. However, the floor was displaced with assures that winters are long and cold, and the such force that the mud sills were severely dis­ summers short and wet. The Depot is large, mea­ torted or broken away from the building structure. suring about 30 metres square, with an internal All of this was analyzed and identified dur­ courtyard measuring 11 by 16 metres. This ing the site's Management Planning program con­ wooden frame building was constructed in sections ducted in the mid-1980s, where it was decided over a seven-year period beginning in 1831. that a long-term Depot conservation and manage­ By the 1990s the ground floor had severely ment strategy needed to be developed by Parks deteriorated, being displaced vertically by per­ Canada. Part of that strategy included structural mafrost and completely worn through in some stabilization and repair which was implemented in areas. The building itself has sunk in the saturated 1992. This was necessary to assure the Depot's soil and as a result of the vertical displacement, longevity and to make it safe for the public. some floor boards were broken off where they were A small excavation under the Depot floor in trapped under the building. When the flooring was 1982 indicated that remains of an earlier structure removed, the substructure—consisting of heavy, existed there (Adams 1985:150-154). At that time, square timber floor joists, sleepers, and mud sills— these remains were not considered to be in any was found to be rotten and no longer provided danger if the Depot floor were replaced using necessary structural support. structural methods similar to those employed in

28 CRM N2 4—1997 the past. The planning team, including an archae­ the rigidity of its solid wooden and brick walls. ologist, historian, heritage structures engineer and Such structural technology may have been appro­ site operational staff, agreed on a methodology. priate for the British climate, but it did not permit The decision was to simply remove the old floor the Octagon to flex with the heave and pressure of and substructure, excavate to a depth that would northern Canadian permafrost. Thus, the founda­ permit the floor to be reinstalled at its original tions and the structural envelope deteriorated level relative to the building envelope, then rein­ quickly. stall it; excavate drainage and insulation trenches The Octagon was demolished and replaced, and install them; and then redo the landscape. section by section, over an eight-year period. By This work was premised on a belief that the earlier 1838 the Octagon was gone and the Depot stood structure's remains were very fragmentary and that in its place, looking much as it does today. Even the eventual engineering solution would not seri­ though the Octagon was demolished over a cen­ ously impact tury and a half ago, and its remains have been them. impacted by Depot construction and numerous With these subsequent repairs as well as relentless frost- parameters in heave, archaeologists found its remains remark­ mind, the floor ably well preserved. These include four flanker was removed by cellars (two of which were open and filled with archaeologists in water), footing remnants of all flankers and cur­ 1991, and the tains, a fireplace or chimney foundation, footings fill excavated and possible oven from the cook room, and a thick between the refuse deposit encircling the Octagon exterior. In floor joists. one of the many ironies of this project, the very What they found environmental features—the cold, waterlogged under the floor ground, permafrost and poor drainage—that were were well-pre­ destroying the integrity of the Depot, were working served remains to protect the Octagon remains. These conditions of the "Old also served to protect highly vulnerable artifacts Octagon," a such as organic fabrics, clothes and tools; delicate fortress-like associations such as bead patterns; and a myriad building con­ of important scientific remains: bone, seeds, plant structed by the remains, even hair and skin. Hudson's Bay Depot restoration required achieving three Joseph Co/en, the Company between 1788 and 1795 [Ebell and interdependent objectives. The first concern was to Hudson's bay Priess 1993]. Remains of this structure were often reinstall the flooran d footings. This was deemed Company "resident found above the bottom of the Depot building necessary to continue to permit use of the building officer" created this envelope. In the following two years, additional by the public. To protect this new flooring, a plan for a "Commodious remains were found when the floor was completely drainage system was re-established to prevent Fort., at York removed and insulation and drainage trenches water accumulating under the floor. Finally, the Factory..." in 1786. were excavated outside the Depot walls and in the ground had to be stabilized to prevent both the Shown here are courtyard. In almost every incident, remains of the building and the floor from moving. The dilemma structural details of the Octagon, die "Old Octagon" impinged on the planned floor rein­ arose in 1992 when the extent of the modification fortress-like struc­ stallation. Therein lay a serious heritage dilemma, to the structure and the surrounding environment ture that housed pitting preservation of the standing Depot building threatened to impinge on the recently discovered the company offi­ against the buried structural remains of the "Old remains of the Octagon. cers and men and Octagon." In the initial plans to stabilize the ground also served as a warehouse. The York Factory Octagon was patterned under the building, permafrost engineers had rec­ Redrawn by D. after 18th-century European military fortifications. ommended installing insulation in shallow Brick. It consisted of five-sided, two-storey flankers or trenches excavated next to the exterior walls, bastions located at each corner, interconnected by around the courtyard, and under the entirety of four enclosed rectangular structures called curtain the new floor. This would allow the ground to sheds. The whole structure enclosed a roughly freeze under and around the building creating a octagonal courtyard. Sometime after its comple­ solid permafrost platform for it. Similar techniques tion, a "men's cook room" was attached to the are used in other permafrost regions of the world exterior of the south west curtain. to create stable building surfaces. For this to suc­ By 1831, after only 35 years of service as a ceed, they also created a drainage system to pre­ warehouse, and officer's and men's quarters, the vent water from accumulating under the floort o Octagon had to be replaced. Its weakness lay in prevent frost heaving. This assured that the new

CRM N2 4—1997 29 footings will last. These solutions required signifi­ bing, reduce the moisture trapped under the new cant modifications to the extant ground surface floor, and provide future archaeologists with a both inside and outside the Depot. stratigraphic reference point between 19th- and As defined by the Parks Canada Guiding 20th-century cellar fill. Restoration technicians Principles and Operational Policies (1994:78) both inlaid insulation around the Octagon footing the extant Depot structure and the "Old Octagon" remains that were exposed in the insulation remains are nationally significant cultural trenches outside the Depot and in the courtyard. resources. The management planning program had These features experienced almost negligible dis­ not anticipated that there could be a conflict turbance while at the same time achieving between cultural resources and no guidelines had required insulation levels. been set in place against this eventuality. Initially, The floor substructure was redesigned to it seemed that successful Depot restoration would bridge large sections of in situ Octagon remains. impact the Octagon remains to an unacceptable However, Depot floor installation did not occur degree under the new policy. Both structural engi­ without some impacts to Octagon remains, and it neers and archaeologists were convinced that the was sometimes necessary to negotiate changes in cultural resources under their care were of floor design to assure that important Octagon fea­ national significance and required primacy in any tures such as structural corners were preserved. intervention. In reality, both resources were of Special floors of reduced thickness and structural equal significance strength were installed in some cases so thick arti­ and each required fact deposits and Octagon remains would not be its own set of pro­ disturbed. But, to assure the Depot's continuing tection and presen­ structural soundness, deep trenches were required tation measures. It in strategic areas, both for support and drainage. was fundamental to In one instance, a footing had to be installed that any solution that impacted Octagon cellar remains and cross tim­ plans to meet the bers. Unfortunately there was no room for negotia­ objectives of the tion in this case. Without this footing, the Depot engineers in a con­ could not be restored to structural soundness. The text that was accept­ only alternative was to record the in situ remains able to the and the subsequent disturbance. archaeologists Unfortunately, impacts to the artifact refuse would include input deposits were not so easily mitigated. The artifacts from several dis­ were usually found in a single stratigraphic layer. parate disciplines, The insulation trenches completely encircling the including permafrost Depot had to penetrate into (but not through) A detail from an engineering, landscape architecture, structural these deposits. A small back hoe was used in the anonymous draw­ engineering, ecology, and archaeology. It also fell excavation and, of course, random testing by ing ofYork Factory to Parks Canada managers to develop a team archaeologists failed in almost every instance to dated 1815. Note approach since various heritage interests were lin­ predict the location of significant artifact deposits. the cook room added to the exte­ ing up on one side or the other. As a result, when artifact concentrations were rior wall of the A number of specific problems had to be encountered, hand excavation had to be done west curtain shed. addressed. Of major concern was the heritage sig­ quickly, usually just ahead of the machine. In Footings and possi­ nificance conflict between the Octagon remains spite of the rush, three fragments of intact bead ble oven remains and the Depot. Depot structural integrity and work were recovered, as well as a bear claw neck­ from this cook room were uncov­ occupant safety had to be achieved without seri­ lace, clothing remnants, a felt hat, three human ered by archaeolo­ ously impacting the buried Octagon remains. At molars (containing large caries), and other fragile gists in 1992. the same time, construction impacts on the artifacts too numerous to mention. Redrawn by D. Depot's complex environmental integrity had to be In one area of heavy artifact concentration, a Brick. anticipated and mitigated. How, then, could Depot special recovery program was implemented. To restoration be accomplished without significant assure that artifacts were not lost and received impacts to the Octagon remains? As a result of co­ appropriate protection, the artifact layer was care­ operation in the field between archaeologists and fully stripped away using shovels and stockpiled restoration technicians, modifications were made by horizontal provenience. Later, artifacts were to the restoration design that did not significantly recovered from the stockpile while the restoration compromise either the Depot or the Octagon. crew carried on with their insulation installation The two open cellars were pumped out, lined and landscaping. with geotextile—a water permeable fabric—then As an aside, the artifact-rich organic layer filled with soil. This will preserve the wooden crib­ contains garbage discarded around the walls of the

30 CRM N2 4—1997 Octagon: probably much of it thrown from the was built between archaeologists and restoration windows. A layer of sand covering the deposit in workers in the field, to solve mutual CRM con­ some areas, suggests that an attempt was made to cerns. reduce the odour of decaying organic wastes. This speaks of what was acceptable sanitary conditions References at the time! Adams, Gary The restoration of the Depot at York Factory 1985 York Factory Archaeology: Interim Report 1981- was achieved and all of the engineering objectives 1982, Microfiche Report Series No. 211. Parks were met. In the process, from design to finished Canada, Ottawa. product, the actual foundations and environmental Ebell, S. Biron, and Peter J. Priess systems were modified or redesigned to protect the 1993 In Search of the Octagon: Archaeological subsurface remains of the Octagon in as many Investigations Under the Depot at York Factory, places as possible. In situ artifacts did not fare as Research Bulletin No. 302, Parks Canada, Ottawa. well but concessions were made by all involved Canada. Dept. of Canadian Heritage. Parks Canada. personnel to remove artifacts in as scientific a 1994 Parks Canada Guiding Principles and Operational manner as possible within the constricted time Policies. Ottawa. frames. This was accomplished primarily as a result of learning that the new policy expects S. Biron Ebell is Archaeologist and Gary Adams is Parks Canada to respect all cultural resources Senior Archaeologist, Professional and Technical equally. Through the evolution of the project a Services, Parks Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba. necessary sense of co-operation and teamwork

Karlis Karklins Tales that Privies Tell

xcavating an old latrine may not inhabited the sound like much fun but it can pro­ fort from 1843 vide a great deal of information to 1854. concerning the lives of the people A stabiliza­ who useEd it. This is especially true when the tion program Excavating the latrine at Fort recovered material is carefully analyzed and was conducted Wellington. interpreted, something that many researchers do at the fort from not undertake either because of tight timetables 1990 to 1992. or a lack of the required knowledge. Fortunately, This was accom­ in the case of Fort Wellington, a 19th-century panied by inves­ British fort in the city of Prescott, Ontario, a tigations thorough interdisciplinary study was possible. undertaken by The resultant knowledge significantly altered archaeology staff from the Ontario Regional Office existing perceptions of life at the fort and led to of Parks Canada in Cornwall, Ontario, under the the revision of the interpretation program at the direction of Joe Last. The work included the inves­ site. Fort Wellington was established overlooking tigation of the gate entrance, the west palisade the St. Lawrence River during the War of 1812 to curtain wall and the latrine. ensure that the vital transportation route linking While much useful information was obtained Montreal and Kingston remained open. The fort from all the excavations, most of it came from the was abandoned in 1826, but reoccupied in 1839 fill of the garrison privy. This unique structure— in response to the Rebellion of Upper Canada. A the only extant wood-framed military latrine of its number of alterations were made at this time, age in Canada—consists of a hipped-roofed struc­ including the construction of a three-storey ture divided into three rooms. The southern-most blockhouse and a latrine. The fort was gar­ room was for the enlisted men. It lacked seats, so risoned by battalions of various regiments over the men perched precariously above a bench along the years, as well as several militia units. The the east wall using hand holds. Women used the elite Royal Canadian Rifle Regiment (RCRR) central room which had a two-seater arrangement,

CRM N2 4—1997 31 shoes, sewing materials and hardware, both furni­ ture and builders'. There were also clay tobacco pipes and such diverse objects as tools, barrel hoops and toothbrushes. The wives and children of the soldiers were represented by such items as jew­ elry, clay marbles and a doll. However, the bulk of the recovered material consisted of ceramic objects. Coarse earthenware from Ontario potters and stoneware imported from England primarily related to food preparation and storage, though quite a few stoneware blacking and leather polish bottles were also found. But fine ceramics predominated, principally in the form of tablewares (plates, bowls and teaware) and toilet- wares (mostly chamber pots), as well as ornamen­ tal pieces and decorative items. As a group, these were the most telling items. Except for several while officers utilized a one-seater in the northern­ pieces of porcelain, all the material is attributed to A display interpret­ the enlisted men and their families. Its presence ing village life in most room. the Fort Wellington Excavation of the latrine's interior uncovered suggests that the men had sufficient earnings to barracks. an exceptionally wide array of period artifacts, support their dependents in comfort and even in revealing that, contrary to all rules, the facility had some gentility. Its diversity (over 100 different pat­ been used extensively as a trash dump and, con­ terns of teaware alone were recovered) reveals that trary to specified procedure (and luckily for the ceramics represent individual purchases and researchers), was never really cleaned out. As not a standard military issue as had generally been interpretation at the site relates to the 1840s RCRR supposed. occupation of the site, Suzanne Ploussos, Material Furthermore, the inhabitants obviously Culture Researcher from the Ontario Region Office, desired decorative household furnishings and initially identified the relevant layers of latrine fill small luxuries. Personal property was regularly on the basis of such tightly datable items as belted used and visible in the barracks and this was obvi­ balls for the Brunswick rifle, military insignia, and ously accepted in a military environment. Victorian marked smoking pipes and ceramics. Various domestic conventions were clearly observed, espe­ members of the staff of the Material Culture cially at mealtimes. The presence of all this mater­ Research section of the Federal Archaeology Office, ial further implies that each family had storage National Historic Sites Directorate, Ottawa, subse­ space apart from the area around and under each quently verified and refined the attributions, and bedstead; the possessions of an enlisted man were reported extensively on the recovered artifacts and generally confined to this small area. Finally, it their significance. appears that children were not only accommodated Military equipment was found to be in a at the fort, but also somewhat indulged. minority, the reason being that worn out or broken The information derived from the latrine at material had to be turned in for replacement and Fort Wellington paints an entirely different picture the discards were then disposed of officially. On of daily life among its inhabitants during the 1840s the other hand, a truly incredible amount of than had previously been derived from historic household refuse was dumped into the latrine documents. As a result, visitors to the site are now (165,000 artifacts were catalogued!), including a presented with a drastically different and much large gridiron that could not have been easily more accurate view of British military life in Upper sneaked into the structure. This suggests that some Canada than before. This would not have been rules and regulations concerning privy use were possible without a thorough study of the recovered not strictly enforced during the RCRR's stay. The material. Far from reflecting a sparse military exis­ material also reveals that, rather than an austere tence, the material reveals that the fort was more and regimented life at the fort as implied by histor­ akin to a working-class community. Silent for ical documents, the enlisted men and their families many years, the latrine at the fort has truly spoken lived fairly sedentary lives typical of the working volumes about the 200 or so men, women and class. children who used it some 150 years ago. Just about every form of household item was represented in the latrine fill. There were eating Karlis Karklins is Senior Material Culture Researcher and cooking utensils, glass tablewares and storage with the Federal Archaeology Office, Parks Canada, containers, a fair number of worn-out boots and Ottawa.

32 CRM N2 4—1997 Martin Magne How Much Archaeological Inventory in Large National Parks is Enough?

nventory implies complete­ ness: an inventory of a store's stock means that every item is accounted for, as is its value. The Athabasca I An archaeological inventory of a park appears to reflect, leading to refinement of our Valley in Jasper, implies to managers that we know all that's there, estimate of that universe, without losing a signifi­ looking south. and it means that we can offer an appraisal of the cant part of the record. The nature of the invento­ worth of various resources. Archaeological inven­ ries we maintain in National Parks, with this tories hardly ever approach that kind of ideal, or overriding conservation ethic, is therefore some­ they do so with probabilistic models. The varying what different from other more widespread degrees of uncertainty we have about the nature archaeological resource inventories. In fact the of the resources very directly affect the ways we inventories are growing, as they are on develop­ will manage them. In most North American CRM, ing lands, and the in-situ resources are not archaeological inventory precedes or is under­ depleting as rapidly. This should ultimately lead taken along with, an assessment of the value (or to a situation where reasonable levels of certainty significance) of those resources for purposes of may be gained concerning the types of sites pre­ determining their fate in the face of impending sent, their condition and threats, and their scien­ impacts. Rarely are there chances to re-examine tific, cultural and public values. those kinds of inventories—we have to live with Other than ideal financial and human the first attempts, thus in the absence of thor­ resourcing, three inherent factors largely determine ough archaeological investigations, very little the completeness of an inventory: site visibility; information is available to allow long-term plan­ the size of the area of concern, and the variety of ning. In contrast to many development-driven prehistoric and historic archaeological resources management systems, in Parks Canada we are that are present. In places with high degrees of fortunate to have opportunities to manage surface exposure and little deposition, full surficial archaeological resources' conservation far more Distribution of coverage may be possible. In those instances, per­ often than their destruction. This allows for con­ archaeological sites haps even fair accounts of "value" can be derived in jasper. tinuing checks on what "universe" the record easily, but while large, stratified well-preserved sites are usually considered more important, some recognition is given to maintaining adequate rep­ resentation of more ephemeral ones. Certainly exercises in value benefit greatly from having large amounts of comparative data. In very large areas, particularly those with forest cover, only intense and long-term efforts may offer more than glimpses at promising terrain. With either good or bad knowledge, we use what we know to deter­ mine the fate of archaeological sites whose demise is imminent. In the Canadian National Parks and National Historic Sites system, the value or rele­ vance of archaeological sites may also be in the nature of their national commemoration, if any exists, which determines the level of protection that will be considered. Sites of national signifi­ cance will receive greater attention than those not

CRM N2 4—1997 33 plans. I am interested in examining the levels of inventory work existing in two existing large parks. Can our experiences with Banff and Jasper help us design what we do with new challenges? Do we have sufficient knowledge? Banff and Jasper were never inventoried archaeologically at the time the parks were cre­ ated, but that is now expected almost as matter of course in new park developments. Those two Parks have been investigated by means of sub- regional surveys to some extent, and a great many sites have been found in impact assessment stud­ ies. In both parks, early non-intensive surveys in the 1970s have been replaced largely by impact assessments, including some fairly large-scale ones, and some directed surveys. Early surveys were scattered and did not contribute a great deal to in-depth understanding of human occupation of the parks, however we should recognize that west­ Distribution of so recognized. All in all, however, the system is ern Alberta and eastern British Columbia did not archaeological quite conservative; many types of resources are have very well-developed culture histories or set­ sites in Banff. preserved, and are considered of great value. For tlement pattern schemes at the time. Even now we example, prehistoric Aboriginal sites contained have only a sketchy understanding of the role of within National Historic Sites created with recent the Parks' prehistoric sites within the frameworks military history themes are accorded great protec­ that exist for these larger areas. tion. Indeed, by and large, the various kinds of Inventory should cover the full extent of the National Historic Sites we have are well invento­ area of concern, depending on the nature of previ­ ried for all kinds of archaeological resources, owing ous work. The actual intensity of any particular mainly to their relatively small size. inventory project has many dimensions: whether In National Parks, a principal value of pre­ to undertake surface survey only, whether or not historic archaeological resources lies in their place to shovel test, whether or not to test once sites are within the Parks' ecosystems. Another key value is found, whether or not to undertake marine sur­ their importance to First Nations peoples. veys, whether to examine high altitudes, how to Understanding the full the range of human activity reach remote areas, how large crews should be, to be found, past and present, is critical to proper whether or not to undertake probabilistic or judg­ ecosystem management. Much of what archaeolo­ mental survey, how to incorporate traditional gists do can be tied in direct parallel to natural Aboriginal or ethnographic knowledge into the resource preservation ideals: maintenance of diver­ studies. All of these factors can be equated with sity, preservation of endangered resources, influ­ cost, a limiting criterion in how much we do. The ences on and from neighbouring areas, and public efficiency of undertaking intensive inventories appreciation of these. Like natural resource man­ appears to be related to a Park's history, with agers we need to have predictable data, sound greatest efficiency over the long term being ways of monitoring the status of our resources, reached by surveying as completely as possible at adequate means of assessing their value in relation the outset of Park establishment, while in older to a larger picture, and the ability to interest peo­ Parks, the focus is where management needs are ple in what we do. immediate. Why Inventory? How Extensive and Intensive? jasper and Banff: What We Know We inventory for many reasons: to gather Jasper is over 10,000 km2 in size, Banff is baseline data; to allow proper management by hav­ over 6600 km2 in area. Both have extensive ing readily available broad and detailed knowledge mountain ranges approaching and over 3,000 m in of our "universe"; to anticipate future impacts by elevation, and large river drainages. Banff overall human and natural agencies; to add to our knowl­ is probably more favourable for human occupation edge of local to continental patterns; to allow inte­ and the archaeological record may reflect that gration of archaeological resource management rather well. Jasper was first surveyed archaeologi­ programs with natural resource management, visi­ cally in 1970 and 1971, Banff in 1969. Jasper has tor services programming and other Parks/NHS on record 423 archaeological sites of various needs. In new Parks or Historic Sites, inventory types, for a known site density of 0.04 sites/km2. facilitates preparation of long-term management Banff has 625 sites on record for a density of 0.1

34 CRM N2 4—1997 sider the density of sites in relation to area actu­ ally examined, Banff shows an apparent density of 1 site/km2, while Jasper's apparent site density is 0.3 sites/km2. Banff would appear to have three times the site density that Jasper has. Up to 1988, Banff had seen about twice as many archaeological projects as Jasper: about 35 Chart of con­ to 16. It is slightly misleading to compare these densed site type figures, since some projects were extensive sur­ frequencies for jasper. veys, others were single-locus impact assessments, others were assessments of 20 or more develop­ ment projects. Apart from this, though, the histori­ cal pattern of investigation within each park is much the same: in Banff, 116 sites were recorded in 1969; 41 were recorded in Jasper in 1971. In 1981 and 1982, 112 sites were recorded in Banff, while 140 recorded in Jasper in 1983. Another 127 in Banff in 1987, 208 in Jasper between 1985 and 1987. However in the two recent years, 1992 and 1993, 78 new sites have been recorded in Banff, 2 sites/km . Many different kinds of sites are known only 2 in Jasper. What these patterns demonstrate in each (see graphs): prehistoric lithic scatters is that intensive survey work can yet reveal sub­ dominate the database, but many historic period stantial new data, but also that we may be sites are known as well. There is no obvious bias approaching a fall-off point, where considerable in terms of overall representation—each park numbers of new sites may not be always forthcom­ appears to have about equal relative representa­ ing with new surveys. tion of site types. What the numbers do not demonstrate is Interestingly enough, a very liberal calcula­ that, particularly in Banff, re-investigation of cer­ tion indicates that about 10% of the area of each tain areas can produce highly significant new of the two parks has been surveyed at least in a information. The older (ca. 10,500 BP) Vermilion cursory fashion, (calculated by estimating the lin­ Lakes sites were found, for example, during the ear distance of covered areas with a 1 km buffer). Trans-Canada Highway assessment and mitigation It would be far too simplistic to simply multiply studies in a valley where many sites had been the known frequencies by 10 to yield a predicted known. In addition, it is interesting to note that "universe," particularly since only some of the often, very significant resources are recorded only attractive, "high potential" areas have been cov­ uniquely or recently: For example, in Jasper, a ered by intensive surveys. But the pattern of site First World War internment camp was recorded in occurrence within each is a bit different: if we con­ Jasper in 1986; several Aboriginal burials were recorded only over six years since 1971 and most recently in 1991, two habitation caves were noted, one in 1991, a fur trade post in 1985, and only one split-log tipi has been recorded, that being in 1971. Chart of con­ How intensively have the sites themselves densed site type been investigated? Not surprisingly, most sites are frequencies for simply recorded upon their initial discovery. About Banff. half have been tested with only 1 m2 or smaller, single shovel test units. Excavation of sites is not a significant activity until the second or third visits. In Jasper 87 sites have seen second visits, 199 in Banff. Sixty-one sites in Banff have seen three vis­ its, 23—four visits, and 8, five or more. One site has been revisited, recorded, tested, and exca­ vated, on eight separate occasions. In Jasper, only three sites have been visited three times. Overall then, many sites are recorded, but their surfaces have barely been scratched.

CRM N2 4—1997 35 In terms of cultural themes, we know that tives of the Apache and Navajo, whose history is the Parks were occupied for at least the last also of great interest to many. These historic sites 11,000 years and that there was widespread use of have potential threats from controlled forest burn­ nearly all environments by Aboriginal peoples, ings and natural deterioration; we have no idea (although ironically we have difficulty document­ whether there are more than those recorded, or ing recent band-level occupations by archaeologi­ what potential information the sites contain, or cal and ethnohistoric means). We have excellent what other kinds of related resources might reside records and archaeological signs of early exploita­ nearby. In general, prehistoric settlement patterns tion of the parks by fur-trade interests, mining and do not appear to have well-balanced representa­ logging, railroad companies, and other commercial tion even though substantial ground areas have activities of many kinds. been examined. We do need to relate more The pattern seems to be that new kinds of directly to the archaeological record of neighbour­ important resources continue to be found in Banff ing areas, though, to determine if that under-repre- and Jasper, yet relatively large areas of each have sentation is an artifact of park boundaries. been looked at. In terms of total area, about 90% Where Does it End? of each is in need of survey. Much effort would be Formally, an inventory ends when its terms required to reach reasonably complete coverage. of reference have been fulfilled: whether within a Even if only one-quarter of the unsurveyed areas certain timeframe an entire park area has been has any "potential", about 20% of this kind of examined; whether an entire park area has been area of each Park has not been examined, or 1328 sampled systematically or randomly, whether the km2 in Banff and 2175 km2 in Jasper. While it existing data are sufficient to allow management may appear that 80% coverage is plenty, even a planning, or when the project runs out of money. 10% sample of those remaining areas would Realistically, our inventories of these large Parks require large-scale projects. Yet we continue to will never end. Currently we operate under an focus almost entirely on mitigating development ecosystem paradigm that requires us to know a lot impacts in areas we already know much about and more about human-environment interactions than ignoring the rest. What about natural impacts? In we do now. Future research and management par­ many areas we are forced to neglect natural adigms should be more encompassing than the impacts of moderate scales, although the National sub-regional studies we do now. We hope that GIS Threatened Sites Program (some examples of capabilities will lead to linked databases that can which are discussed elsewhere in this issue) has examine very broad patterning. Frankly I do not addressed many instances of severe natural dam­ believe that 100% inventory can ever be reached ages. with archaeological resources, without, paradoxi­ There are two obvious biases in our resource cally, eliminating the resource itself. The question data: severely clustered survey areas and site dis­ is that of how intensively each site should be tributions, and diversity of site types. The distribu­ examined. tion maps show clear concentrations in the large In sum, it is my view that large-scale inven­ river systems such as the Bow Valley in Banff and tories should continue but that we need a thor­ the Athabasca Valley in Jasper. However, in two ough assessment of what we have, some kind of seasons of high-altitude survey in Banff recently, middle-ground standard that would see more in areas well away from development threats, over research with known sites. We should use the 80 new sites were discovered, one a Clovis surface high-tech resources at our disposal to make the find. We have surprisingly few rock art sites in best use of our time and money, and to efficiently Banff, despite many located on each side of the model our management methods and we need to Park, few kill sites, and few recent or proto-his- consider areas around our National Parks more toric Aboriginal sites despite known frequent use. carefully in framing our models. It would be inter­ Banff has recently yielded a series of housepit esting, for instance, to compare archaeological site sites, a common characteristic of Plateau settle­ discovery and loss records for particular site types ment, that raise intriguing questions about the across park, private, and provincial lands. We extent of Plateau peoples' movements across the need more co-operative endeavours with our Rockies. A series of interesting historic Aboriginal provincial neighbours and private industry to sites in Jasper have not been re-examined that merge our knowledge, to more fully come to grips have potential to yield information regarding a with what do and do not know. completely unknown but critical geographic area of occupation by Athapaskan peoples. This part of Martin Magne is Senior Archaeologist for Alberta western Canada is not very well known in the eth­ and British Columbia, Professional and Technical nohistoric literature, however, this is the probable Services, Parks Canada, Calgary. homeland of Beaver and Sarsi peoples, close rela­

36 CRM N2 4—1997 David Arthurs Imperilled Patrimony Rescuing Threatened Archaeological Resources in Kluane National Park

he loss of archaeological patrimony is Yukon Territory. During a 1990 patrol through the one of the most challenging issues northern part of the park, Kluane Park Wardens confronting cultural resource man­ discovered a cluster of precontact archaeological agers the world over. Parks Canada is sites perched on the high bluffs overlooking the Aerial view of T charged through its Cultural Resource Management Donjek Valley. They were heavily impacted by Bighorn Sites I Policy with the dual mandate of protection and pre­ wind erosion and mass wastage, and inspection by and 2 at conflu­ ence of Bighorn sentation of the cultural resources under its care. Archaeological Services staff indicated that these Creek and One tool by which this is accomplished is the sites, the largest concentration of precontact com­ Donjek River, National Threatened Sites Program. ponents known in the park, held valuable informa­ Kluane National Threatened Sites are those which are identified tion on the cultural history of the area which was Park Reserve. through formal evaluation to be currently at risk, or rapidly being lost. It was recommended that sev­ Photo by David Arthurs. are expected to be threatened by major damage or eral be identified as Threatened In-situ loss within 10 years of their assessment, and which Archaeological Assets under Parks Canada's require intervention above the level of routine main­ National Threatened Sites Program. tenance. The threats considered under this program Several of these sites, including two at the are primarily the result of natural processes such as confluence of the Bighorn and Donjek Rivers, were accelerated erosion, or may stem from visitor selected for further examination. The objectives of impacts. For inclusion on the National Threatened the investigations were to salvage cultural deposits Sites List, archaeological resources should retain eroding from the edge of the high bluffs overlook­ structural and stratigraphic coherence, and should ing the Donjek River gravel bars, and to gather be sufficiently intact to provide information useful to environmental data to better understand the con­ program interpretive goals, or to enhance the under­ text of human occupation and land use in the val­ standing of Canadian history. ley in antiquity. These sites are given priority in the allocation Bighorn Creek Site 1 stretched for over half a of increasingly scarce heritage resource funds. They kilometre along the Donjek river bank. Here, wind may be recommended for regular monitoring, stabi­ erosion had taken a heavy toll on the cultural lization, or, in situations where preservation is not resources. Strong winds, generated by the glacier at an option, rescue excavation. Sites which have been the head of the valley, have scoured out deep adequately mitigated, are no longer at risk, or from channels in the loess soils that mantle the 30- which all material evidence has been removed, may metre high bluffs along the river corridor. This be retired from the list. action has in places cut through some three to four Approaches to the implementation of the pro­ metres of overburden, exposing the deeply buried gram differ in the regions across the country. In the cultural deposits. Prairie and North West Territories (PNWT) Region, Several charcoal-laden hearth features have responsible for cultural resources in National Parks been exposed in the blowouts. Lithic debitage, and National Historic Sites in the central Canadian tools, and fragments of animal bone lie scattered provinces and the north, Threatened Sites Program down the erosion slope. Among the surface recov­ funding has been used primarily to evaluate and eries were microblade tools of obsidian, basalt, assess threats to cultural resources, and to monitor and other materials, lanceolate and notched projec­ threatened sites, in order to provide data for effective tile points (some of the former with ground bases), management decision-making. In some circum­ and large oval basalt bifaces. A few artifacts stances, Threatened Sites monitoring has led to spe­ appeared to be associated with a compact red- cific mitigation projects mounted by the National brown palaeosol which had developed on an early Parks or National Historic Sites themselves. post-glacial loess in a grassland environment Among the major Threatened Sites initiatives between 8,000 and 2,800 years ago. Others of the past few years was a mitigation project in appeared to have originated both above and below Kluane National Park Reserve, in the southwestern the White River Ash, a distinctive band of tephra

CRM N^4—1997 37 from a volcanic event in the harvesting of this resource over several which has been firmly thousand years. dated to 1,250 BP and Limited testing was performed on a third site, forms a convenient farther up the Bighorn Creek canyon, where a cres- horizon marker. There centic knife of Native copper had been recovered was evidence in the by park staff. A hearth eroding from the cut bank soil column of peri­ nearby yielded a calibrated radiocarbon date of odic inundations, 1,161 BP, making this one of the earliest dated when a glacier surging copper specimens from the Yukon. out of a side valley Ancillary studies are under way to determine created an ice dam the environmental context of the Donjek sites across the river, flood­ through an analysis of faunal and floral remains ing the upper reaches and gastropods. As well, the trace element finger­ of the Donjek Valley printing of the copper artifact and various lithic several times between raw materials from the park should assist in deter­ the end of the mining regional resource acquisition and distribu­ Hypsithermal and the tion patterns over time. It is anticipated that the modern era. evidence collected from these and other Donjek In addition to Valley Threatened Sites will permit construction of controlled surface col­ a detailed cultural chronology for the period lection, limited sal­ between about 4,000 and 600 years ago, which vage excavations were will reflect the complex interplay between people conducted in areas of and the environment in antiquity. the site heavily In spite of their heavily impacted condition, Rescue excavations impacted by erosion. The principal area excavated the Donjek Valley sites have contributed a wealth at Bighorn Creek was found to be a small sheep hunting campsite, of information to the cultural history of Kluane Site 2, Kluane occupied briefly, and perhaps periodically, between National Park Reserve. Through the vehicle of the National Park Reserve. Photo by about 1,800 and 1,650 years ago. Among the Threatened Sites Program, it was possible to iden­ D.Arthurs. recoveries were the remains of a small birch bark tify the need for mitigation of these imperilled container, found beside an eroding hearth that pro­ resources and recover critical data before it was duced a calibrated radiocarbon date of 1,800 BP. too late. Two other hearths contained charred coniferous needles, some of which could be identified as black References spruce. Neither birch nor black spruce are found in Arthurs, D. the area today. An unfinished ladle fashioned from 1995a Archaeological Surveys in the Donjek, Jarvis, mountain sheep horn found on the surface pro­ Kaskawulsh and Alsek Valleys, Kluane National duced an AMS date of about 1,650 BP, suggesting Park Reserve, 1993, Microfiche Report Series, No. that it probably related to the major occupation. 510, Department of Canadian Heritage, Parks This extends this technology, documented in his­ Canada, Ottawa. toric times, back nearly two millennia. 1995b The 1993 Kluane Cultural Resource Bighorn Creek Site 2, on the point overlook­ Management Project, Research Bulletin No. 315, ing the confluence of Bighorn Creek and the Department of Canadian Heritage, Parks Canada, Donjek River, presented a different but no less Ottawa. challenging situation. The ever-shifting braided 1996a The Bighorn Copper Crescen, Centre-Field, stream channels continually destabilize the bank, Newsletter of the Professional and Technical Service and large blocks of soil exfoliate from the flanks of Centre, 2(3):6-7. the point and slide downslope into the river, taking 1996b Rescue Archaeology in the Donjek Valley, with them the cultural deposits. Kluane National Park Reserve, 1994 and 1995, Excavations were strategically situated along Research Bulletin No. 317, Department of Canadian the slump blocks, to salvage cultural resources in Heritage, Parks Canada, Ottawa. immediate peril. These deposits were found to be Canada. Department of Canadian Heritage. Parks stratified, representing at least four occupations Canada. 1994 Parks Canada Guiding Principles and between about 2,000 and 600 years ago. In each, Operational Policies, Ottawa. the bones of mountain sheep attested to the major activity associated with the occupation. The moun­ David Arthurs is National Parks Archaeologist, tain slopes flanking the Donjek Valley are the most Professional and Technical Services, Parks Canada, northerly all-season range for Dall's sheep in North Winnipeg, Manitoba. America, and the evidence demonstrates continuity

38 CRM Nfi 4—1997 Peter D. Francis Threatened Archaeological Sites in the Mountain Parte

ver the past three years, the either an Threatened Archaeological Sites attempt to sta­ Programme has become an bilize the site O important aspect of the practice of in its present 1996 Jasper- cultural resource management in the national state or an University of parks of the Canadian Rocky Mountains. This excavation to Alberta Field School article will describe two multi-year projects from record artefacts excavations in progress. that programme which were instigated in and contextual response to natural rather than anthropogenic information threats to significant aboriginal archaeological before irretriev­ resources. The Scalp Creek Threatened Sites able loss. The Project located at the Ya-Ha-Tinda Ranch Crown factor of cost for site stabilization usually pre­ Leasehold has been approached as a mitigative cludes that sort of protective approach, but occa­ and research study. The Snake Indian River sionally a combination of site stabilization and Threatened Sites Project, located in Jasper archaeological intervention measures has been National Park, has evolved to a focus for acade­ employed (e.g., Francis and Langemann 1993). In mic teaching and postgraduate research within a the case of both projects discussed herein, stabi­ partnership initiative between Parks Canada and lization of the site environment was impractical the University of Alberta. due to the severity and extent of the erosion. A threatened in situ archaeological resource Scalp Creek Threatened Sites Project has been defined by Parks Canada archaeologists The Upper Red Deer River Valley is a as "a site containing significant cultural resources promising area within the Eastern Slopes region of that are threatened with premature damage or the Canadian Rocky Mountains for yielding scien­ destruction within the next ten years as the result oftifi c evidence for human activity that reaches back accelerated erosion, vandalism or changing patternsin time to the early peopling of North America. The of use" (Lindsay 1988: Appendix A). A National first archaeological field work within this valley Threatened Archaeological Sites List is maintained system, including Banff National Park and the by the Federal Archaeology Office in Ottawa; adjacent Federal Crown leasehold, Ya-Ha-Tinda annual updates and revisions to that inventory are Ranch, identified evidence for prehistoric occupa­ provided by the six regional Parks Canada tion throughout Postglacial times. More recently,

Threatened archae­ Archaeological Services offices. the Archaeological Survey, Provincial Museum of ological sites pro­ Mitigative measures to address threats to in Alberta has investigated a very early complex of gramme in Alberta. situ archaeological resources can take the form of archaeological sites in James Pass, immediately east of the Ya-Ha-Tinda Valley, with an age of 10,000 years for the earliest occupation (Ronaghan 1993; Beaudoin et al. 1996). It is within the con­ text of this archaeological background that archae­ ologists from Parks Canada's Alberta Region initiated a programme of survey, excavation, and resource management of the Ya-Ha-Tinda Ranch (Francis and Magne 1993). The Ya-Ha-Tinda Ranch is situated approxi­ mately 15 km east of the eastern boundary of Banff National Park, just inside of the East Front Ranges of the Canadian Rocky Mountains. Its name (i.e., from the Lakota [Stoney] language: ya- ha=mountain; tinda=prairie or meadow) describes a rolling grassland meadow surrounded by high mountain ranges. This tract remains one of the

CRM N2 4—1997 39 friable late Jurassic sediments along the base of the river terrace causing large, localized areas of slumpage along the top of the landform. With suffi­ cient undercutting and slumpage, whole columns of sediment measuring up to 15 metres in height collapse unpredictably into the valley floor. The eroding landform is approximately 2.5 km long upon which a dozen prehistoric sites are in imme­ diate danger of partial or complete removal. In 1993, these endangered archaeological resources were placed on Parks Canada's National Threatened Sites List. Archaeological sites along the edge of the landform are recognized by lithic artefacts and ani­ mal bones eroding out of the topmost metre of the exposed face of the terrace. Following initial archaeological resource impact assessments in 1992, the Scalp Creek Threatened Sites project was designed as a three-year mitigative strategy that was carried out over a 16-week period during the

Location of Scalp very few unspoiled representatives of the Montane late springs and early summers of 1993, 1994, and Creek Threatened Ecoregion in Alberta. The ranch incorporates 1996. Approximately 50 percent of test units Sites Project. approximately one-fifth (i.e., 3,945 hectares or placed at 10-metre intervals along the entire length 9750 acres) of the valley floor area of the inter- of the landform produced stratified cultural materi­ montane Ya-Ha-Tinda Valley. Since 1930, the als. Seven localities received spatially extensive ranch has been used by Parks Canada to breed, excavation over the course of the field work. train, and overwinter horses used by the Warden A common feature of all subsurface investiga­ Service of the western Canadian National Parks for tions is the presence of a well-defined layer of ash backcountry patrol, and it remains the only feder­ that appears as a discrete stratum within the exca­ ally operated horse ranch in Canada. The Scalp vation units and along much of the erosion face of and Bighorn Creeks are the principal, perennial, the terrace. This is Mazama tephra, dated at 6850 tributary streams within the valley and, along with BP, an ash layer serving as a horizon marker that the Red Deer River, they have formed two broad can separate Early Prehistoric from Middle valley terraces upon which most of the 60 known Prehistoric cultural material. Radiocarbon dates prehistoric sites recorded inside the boundaries of derived from below the tephra all pre-date 6850 View of erosion the ranch are located. BP, whilst assays derived from above the ash post­ face of river ter­ The archaeological sites along the lower val­ date that temporal marker. race above Scalp ley terrace on the northeast side of Scalp Creek From the most extensively excavated locality, Creek, Ya-Ha-Tinda the Gate Site, provisional interpretation of the evi­ Ranch.The Gate became a source of concern when it was realized Site is situated at that erosion along the landform involved cata­ dence indicates at least four major components. the top of the ter­ strophic events rather than a steady incremental The earliest occupation at this site is below the race. process. Seasonal high water flow cuts into soft, tephra layer with a single assay on bone collagen of 9,330±70 (CAMS-19738), within the Early Prehistoric time range of either early classic Plains Alberta/Cody or late Agate Basin/Hell Gap, although no clearly "diagnostic" artefacts were recovered. The overlying ash layer is pocketed in a silty matrix although artefacts and bone are situ­ ated only in the silt and not within the pockets of tephra. This second occupation is provisionally assigned an Early Middle Prehistoric date on the basis of a single AMS date on collagen of 7,110±60 (CAMS-12911). Additional radiocarbon determina­ tions are forthcoming. The third cultural layer overlies the ash layer and includes incomplete projectile points similar to a complete specimen recovered from a similar stratigraphic context farther along the landform.

40 CRM N2 4—1997 These projectile points back 10,000 years, such research has a bearing are provisionally identi­ upon the compelling archaeological question about fied as Salmon River the early peopling of North America. Side-Notched, associ­ The Snake Indian River Threatened Sites ated with the Mummy Project, Jasper National Park Cave Complex and, The Federal Archaeology Office in Ottawa thus, of Early Middle provided funding in 1995-96 for an ongoing threat­ Prehistoric date. The ened sites project in Jasper National Park. Located fourth and stratigraphi- on the north side of the Snake Indian River, two cally most recent cul­ known prehistoric sites or multiple activity loci are tural layer at the Gate positioned at each end of a 1.25 km-long, bench­ Site is an association of like landform, although cultural material is eroding lithic artefacts with an out of several exposures along much of the terrace extensive bone bed edge. Marked deflation through wind erosion and consisting of highly hill wash along the edge of the landform is expos­ Location of Snake processed bison bones. The temporal contexts of ing large numbers of lithic artefacts and bone Indian River these components await forthcoming radiocarbon which are being removed from their stratigraphic Threatened Sites determinations. context. Project Similar patterns of multi-component cultural On the basis of previous subsurface testing and stratigraphic evidence were found at four of and more systematic excavation, there appeared to the six other sites investigated during the course of be several spatially discrete archaeological compo­ the three-year project. At three of the multi-compo­ nents within deeply stratified aeolian deposits. nent sites, including the Gate Site, there is material Poorly defined and thin stratigraphic conditions evidence for three additional minor components. predominate the physical context of most known Thus, there may be as many as seven occupational prehistoric archaeological sites in Jasper National episodes within the study area (i.e., four major and Park. Thus, the opportunity of spatial and tempo­ perhaps three minor periods of activity). The early ral control over prehistoric archaeological data occupations along Scalp Creek appear to relate to a underscored the urgency of rescuing that informa­ continuous cultural tradition with people exploiting tion before its irretrievable loss. the area in a similar manner over a long period of Systematic surface collection of artefacts, sev­ time. A different pattern of site usage is evident in eral subsurface (50 cm by 50 cm) tests, and 12 one the later occupations, possibly reflective of metre by one metre excavation units (averaging increased bison hunting. between 1-1.5 m in depth below surface) were The ongoing research of Parks Canada completed at one locality in 1995. Three strati- archaeologists at the Ya-Ha-Tinda Ranch coupled graphically discrete components or occupations View of eroding with the research of the Archaeological Survey of were discernable, the lowest of which appears face river terrace Alberta in the nearby James Pass Meadow (an iso­ below an ash horizon identified provisionally as and archaeological lated extension of the Ya-Ha-Tinda grasslands) are Mazama tephra. site above Snake Indian River, Jasper bringing into sharper resolution the nature and With the completion of four years of archaeo­ National Park with extent of the earliest human occupations within the logical field work at Fort Edmonton, the University test excavation in Eastern Slopes region of the Canadian Rockies in of Alberta was in search of a new venue for their progress. central Alberta. With substantive evidence dating archaeological field training credit course for the summer of 1996. Facilitated by staff from the Parks Canada Archaeological Services Unit in Calgary, a partnership was created whereby Jasper National Park would host a field school to be taught by the University's Department of Anthropology in coop­ eration with Parks Canada archaeologists. The goal of the field school is to provide a wide range of archaeological field training as well as classroom and laboratory instruction while operating within the Parks Canada policies of ecosystem and cultural resource management. From July 15 to August 21,12 undergraduate stu­ dents were introduced to the basic methods of archaeological reconnaissance, surveying, map­ ping, excavation, and laboratory analyses through practical training at a variety of prehistoric and

CRM N2 4—1997 41 historic sites within Jasper National Park. Given ened historically significant heritage resources the productive results of the 1995 field work, it within Jasper National Park. was decided that the primary focus of training activities would be continuing the excavations References begun by the Snake Indian River Threatened Sites Beaudoin, Aiwynne B., Milt Wright and Brian Ronaghan Project, focusing on the aforementioned stratified 1996 Late Quaternary Landscape History and prehistoric campsite (Francis and Hudecek-Cuffe Archaeology in the "Ice-Free Corridor": Some Recent 1996). The physical context of the study area is Results from Alberta. Quaternary International excellent for teaching the principles of stratigraphic 32:113-126. excavation; 15 one by one metre units were exca­ Francis, Peter D. and Caroline Hudecek-Cuffe vated, with each student being responsible for their 1996 The Jasper Archaeology Field School: A Parks own unit. Canada—University of Alberta Partnership. Research Conclusions concerning the number of dis­ Links 4(3):8-10. Parks Canada, Calgary crete occupations and their component assem­ Francis, Peter D. and E. Gwyn Langemann blages await more detailed lithic analysis and 1993 Cultural Resource Management and correlation with the radiocarbon-dated stratigraphy Archaeological Research Initiatives at the of the site. Toward that end, one of the graduate Christensen Site, Banff National Park. Parks Canada student teaching assistants attached to the field Research Bulletin No. 303. Parks Canada, Ottawa. school has agreed to utilize the data from this pro­ Francis, Peter D. and Martin P.R. Magne ject to serve as the basis for graduate thesis 1993 Archaeological Fieldwork at Ya-Ha-Tinda. research. This collaborative effort between Parks Research Links 1(3): 11-13. Parks Canada, Calgary. Canada and the University of Alberta is planned to Lindsay, Charles continue over the next two years. The field school 1988 Threatened In Situ Archaeological Assets of the project has provided many benefits to all those Canadian Parks Service. Unpublished report on file, involved with this partnership. The field school Parks Canada, Archaeological Services, Calgary. participants contribute directly to the acquisition of Ronaghan, Brian new archaeological information and problem solv­ 1993 The James Pass Project: Early Holocene ing which can be applied to the management of Occupation in the Front Ranges of the Rocky archaeological resources. In addition to serving as Mountains. Canadian Journal of Archaeology a vehicle for academic undergraduate degree train­ 17:85-91. ing and advanced degree research, the field school project is proving to be an effective means to meet Peter D. Francis is Archaeologist with Professional the Parks Canada mandate of protecting threat­ and Technical Services, Parks Canada, Calgary.

Sharon Thomson pline-specific, depending on the training of the people who produced them. Thus, cultural resources have been managed in accordance with Life on the Edge archaeological, curatorial and built heritage guidelines. It wasn't until the early 1990s that the development of an official Cultural Resource The Cultural Value of Management Policy provided the first agency- wide guidelines for all cultural resources on lands Disappearing Sites administered by Parks Canada. These new guidelines provide Parks staff he name Parks Canada has long with a means to ensure the protection and presen­ been synonymous with an exten­ tation of Canada's cultural resources. It also pro­ sive system of National Parks well vides a kind of framework to help managers define known for their natural beauty and where the importance of those cultural resources diversitTy of wildlife. Less publicized, however, is lies and forces them to evaluate proposed actions Parks Canada's role as custodian of cultural which would have an impact upon those values. As resources, both within Canada's National Parks the CRM policy becomes a part of daily opera­ and National Historic Sites. Since the organiza­ tional decisions, managers are re-examining tion's inception over 100 years ago, a variety of actions which once would have been taken as a policies has been developed to provide guidelines matter of course. In the process, some interesting for the management of those cultural resources. situations with broader implications have come to These guidelines have traditionally been disci­ light.

42 CRM N2 4—1997 One such example involves a small property tion, despite its short occupation and the damage in rural Saskatchewan, where rapid erosion by the which has occurred since its abandonment. North Saskatchewan River has been exposing cul­ Although housed at the College of William and tural resources at the site of a former fur trade post Mary in Virginia since their excavation, these arti­ for decades. In 1995, Parks Canada archaeologists facts have recently been repatriated. Their re-analy­ were asked to visit the site for the purposes of sal­ sis, after 30 years, has provided considerable vaging any resources in immediate danger and additional insight into Sturgeon Fort's place in the assessing the extent of the resources remaining. In early fur trade history of the northwest. the process, it was discovered that the fort itself The property which is the subject of this dis­ has been completely lost to erosion, and that only cussion did not come under federal jurisdiction by minimal evidence of historic activity remains. This virtue of being the location of a fur trade post. raises the interesting question of whether a site Rather, in 1951 the Historic Sites and Monuments that has effectively lost its physical cultural Board of Canada recommended that Peter Pond be resources continues to have cultural value. commemorated as a nationally significant person. Historical Background At that time, the board also advised that a monu­ Sturgeon Fort, also known as "Peter Pond ment to Pond be erected at the site of Sturgeon National Historic Site," is located on the north Fort, his first trading post. This recommendation bank of the North Saskatchewan River west of has resulted, over the years, in a significant misun­ Prince Albert, Saskatchewan. A cobblestone cairn derstanding regarding the focus of the commemora­ at the location of the fort commemorates Peter tion and the status of the property on which the Pond, a Connecticut native who travelled north HSMBC cairn and the remains of the fort are early in his career and became a notorious figure located. Sturgeon Fort itself is not the focus of the in the North American fur trade. Built in 1776, this ministerial designation, and the property on which was the first of the posts established by Pond and it sits has never been designated a National was occupied by a number of independent traders Historic Site. However, soon after its purchase, until its destruction in 1780. The fort occupies a Parks Canada administrators and HSMBC officials unique place in fur trade history, as it was estab­ alike began referring to the property in correspon­ lished at a time when the rivalry for furs between dence as a national historic site. This was the per­ independent traders and the Hudson's Bay haps predictable outcome of Parks Canada's Company was intensifying. The first trading post to traditional concern with real property management be constructed on the North Saskatchewan River, it and its responsibilities with regard to this particular was on the edge of fur trade expansion northwest parcel of land, which included cairn upkeep and into an unknown country whose resources were grounds maintenance. Thus, as early as 1953, "the largely untapped. Peter Pond cairn" rapidly became "Peter Pond Local interest in Sturgeon Fort has been high National Historic Site," and the implicit belief in since the fort came to public attention in the the property's national historic significance was 1940s. Several excavations have taken place, the entrenched. Excavation units most extensive in 1966 under the direction of The "National Historic Site" misnomer has, in along the North Saskatchewan Norman Barka. Barka successfully located the sub­ recent years, had significant implications with River at Peter Pond surface remains of several of the fort's buildings regard to Parks Canada's responsibility for the NHS. and a rich variety of artifacts related to its occupa­ extant cultural resources on this property. Parks Canada's CRM Policy stipulates that steps will be taken to achieve the commemorative integrity of National Historic Sites by both protecting them and ensuring that the reasons for their national signifi­ cance are communicated to the public. In the process of reviewing the commemorative intent of a number of Saskatchewan sites, the mistaken belief, perpetuated over four decades, that the land sur­ rounding the Peter Pond commemorative cairn was a National Historic Site was revealed. Clarification of the property's status helps to define site adminis­ trators' responsibilities with regard to presentation of its extant cultural resources, but leaves the issue of how to deal with the site's impending destruction by the North Saskatchewan River unresolved. Over the years, longstanding management issues have developed surrounding Sturgeon Fort.

CRM NM—1997 43 The property on which the commemorative cairn the location of a cairn commemorating a famous and the remains of the fort are located was bought individual. If so, where does the value lie? Not, by the federal government in 1953 for the sum of presumably, in any physical resources present on $50. At the time of its acquisition, the property was the site; as has been noted, any structures belong­ 78.8 m deep along its western boundary and 36.4 m ing to Sturgeon Fort proper have been completely deep along its east. Located on a sharp bend in the destroyed. The handful of bone fragments remain­ North Saskatchewan River, the site has been legally ing can hardly be considered representative of the surveyed three times since 1951. These surveys former site or add any more to our understanding indicate that, between 1954 and 1995, 34 m of of the post than is already known. However, most shoreline were lost, primarily along the western half visitors to our historic sites will acknowledge that of the property where erosion is proceeding most many of these places have intangible qualities as rapidly. This rapid shift in the river's position led well—a kind of spirit of place that helps people Norman Barka to speculate that Sturgeon Fort origi­ identify with the place and appreciate the reasons nally stood several hundred feet north of the North for its significance. At Sturgeon Fort, one can easily Saskatchewan River, and that the remains exca­ look out over the high banks of the North vated in 1962 represented only a remnant of the Saskatchewan River and imagine canoes laden original, which he considered largely destroyed. with trade goods rowing into sight after their long Adding to the damage caused by nature, the and arduous journey from the distribution depots human damage to Sturgeon Fort has also been sig­ on the Great Lakes. Could this same spirit of place nificant. Situated just 6 km from a sizeable urban be evoked in another, similar location? Or does the centre, it has proved to be an attractive location for knowledge that the viewer is looking along the visitors in search of alternative forms of recreation. same sight lines at the same landscape seen by There is no custodial presence on the site, as it is Peter Pond and his colleagues over 200 years ago administered from Batoche National Historic Site, add an additional component to the visitor experi­ more than an hour's drive away. Consequently, a ence? Sensitivity to such considerations is vital in site caretaker must be retained to clean up large the responsible management of cultural resources, accumulations of garbage (mostly beer bottles) on a and requires a certain level of knowledge regarding regular basis, and repair vandalized fences, gates an object or a place's history. In the case of special and signs. The property has also suffered at the places, we must be aware of their connections, hands of local artifact collectors, who cheerfully past or present, to the larger society, rather than admit to many enjoyable afternoons at the site with viewing them simply as administrative or opera­ a shovel and, sometimes, a metal detector. tional entities. Continuing erosion over the past three Sturgeon Fort played a brief but important decades has resulted in the destruction of even the role in the early North American fur trade. The limited remains which survived in 1962. Systematic destruction of the fort by natural processes has testing of the property at 5 m intervals and full- raised important questions regarding the intrinsic scale excavation along the top of the eroding river value of the remaining property. Regardless of peo­ bank in 1995 uncovered little evidence of cultural ples' individual responses to these questions, the material related to the fort's occupation, yielding fact that they are being asked at all is a major step only 10 fragments of Native ceramic, a wrought forward in our understanding and treatment of cul­ nail, a piece of lead shot, an iron projectile point tural resources. A decade ago, management deci­ and 375 small pieces of highly fragmented animal sions regarding this property would likely have bone. No features, structural or otherwise, were been based upon little more than the presence or identified, and attempts to locate the palisade at the absence of the actual fort remains. With the trend rear of the fort were unfruitful. Based on the limited toward a broader, more holistic consideration of cultural remains found, it appears that Sturgeon what constitutes value, we see that the answers to Fort itself has been entirely destroyed by erosion these questions are not as self-evident as they and that the remaining resources represent a lim­ might once have appeared. By applying this holis­ ited activity area outside the fort proper. tic approach on a daily basis to any decisions The Intangible Qualities of Historic Places regarding the cultural resources in our care, we In view of the destruction of Sturgeon Fort ensure their continuing protection. And by identify­ and the inevitable loss of the remaining property, ing the intangible values of a place as well as the one might begin to wonder whether the site has any tangible, we are able to provide the public with a value remaining as a cultural resource. It is in more realistic, evocative experience and a greater addressing such questions that Parks Canada's understanding of its significance. Cultural Resource Management policy prompts us to consider whether the property on which the cairn Sharon Thomson is an Archaeologist with now sits has "value" quite apart from simply being Professional and Technical Services, Winnipeg.

44 CRM N2 4—1997 Daryl Fedje Early Holocene Archaeology and Paleoecology on the Northern Northwest Coast

ecent investigations in southern 12,000 BP when conifers began to re-establish. At Haida Gwaii (Queen Charlotte this time, and until the rapid sea level rise after Islands) on the northern northwest 10,500 BP, Haida Gwaii climate would have been R coast provide evidence of coastal much more Continental in nature. occupation extending to over 9,000 BP (before The Gwaii Haanas archaeology inventory present) and a model for applying geological evi­ program included coastal and raised beach survey, dence to early Holocene site location. This work preliminary surface collection, and excavation at is part of the multidisciplinary Gwaii Haanas early Holocene sites. Coastal survey located both Archaeological Project with archaeology carried early Holocene "paleo-intertidal" lithic sites and out by a team of Parks Canada, Haida and con­ many post 2,000 BP site types. Approximately 100 sulting archaeologists; and marine geology and of the ca. 550 archaeological sites now recorded for paleoecology carried out by the author and the coastal zone have been assigned to the Early marine geologists from the Geological Survey of Period (pre-5,000 BP). Assignation is based on Canada. The study area encompassed by this diagnostic artifacts and assemblages and/or dating research includes Gwaii Haanas, an archipelago of associated deposits. jointly managed by Parks Canada and the Haida Raised beach site survey employed digital Nation, and adjacent areas of Hecate Strait (see elevation models (d.e.m.) produced from air pho­ map, p. 46). The following is a brief synopsis of tography in selection of high potential landforms the substantive results to date. This draws from along paleo-shorelines. The d.e.m. was used to unpublished and published sources as well as reconfigure the paleo-shoreline and intertidal zone work in progress. Paleoecology is key to under­ for the ca. 9,000 and 5,000 BP 15 metre marine standing the Early Period (pre-5,000 BP) archae­ transgression. The models are accurate to better ological record on the Northwest Coast. than 10 m horizontal and 0.5 m vertical. Detailed Quaternary sea levels and environment have contour maps plotted at 1:5000 or larger scale from been subject to substantial change with signifi­ these databases allow very accurate definition of cant repercussions to adaptation and site loca­ local topography. In order to maximize site recov­ tion. ery, areas selected for modeling were in proximity At present, the sea level record for Haida to concentrations of paleo-intertidal archaeological Gwaii is the most detailed available for the outer sites. coast of the archipelago. Recent marine and terres­ Our methods included surface reconnais­ trial geological and paleoecological investigations sance as well as shovel testing to mitigate problems in this area show that the character of the area of visibility and preservation with increasing antiq­ changes significantly during early post-glacial uity. In the field (and some impressive terrain) times. From before 13,000 until 10,500 BP the crews proceeded to d.e.m. mapped target areas and archipelago comprised a large land mass (ca. used field generated maps, GPS and digital altime­ 3,000 km2) dominated by broad plains with wide ters (accurate to one metre) to locate suitable land- shorelines. Sea level rose rapidly between 10,500 forms and keep within the 14 m to 18 m targeted and 9,000 BP resulting in the much smaller archi­ elevation range. Seventeen archaeological sites pelago we see today (ca. 1,500 km2). Modern were located using this method. Four have been Haida Gwaii is characterized by a rugged and nar­ radiocarbon dated. At one site stone tools underlay row steep shoreline where the mountains slope material dated to 3,700 BP. The other three contain directly to the ocean. one or more components dating between 6,600 to Paleobotanical investigations across Haida 8,300 BP. Four sites show evidence of microblade Gwaii show that lowland glaciation was over by technology. 14 to 15 BP. Cold tundra-like conditions appear to More detailed assessment has been carried have ensued from before 14,000 BP until ca. out at six sites: Arrow Creek 1 and 2, Echo Bay,

CRM N<2 4—1997 45 a time when the ocean was transgressing the pre­ sent-day tidal limit. At Arrow Creek 2, a large site of ca. two

Cwaii Haanas hectares, tests were excavated on the 15-metre Early Period sites. raised beach, producing about 1,000 artifacts, including a large number of microblades and microblade cores. Dating supports occupation from ca. 8,200 to 5,600 BP. The Echo Bay site appears to be a single component campsite (Fedje et al., 1996b,c). At this site culturally modified sea mammal bone obtained in close association with dense concen­ trations of stone tools was dated to 9,270 BP. A large number of stone tools including several bifaces, two microblade cores and two microblades were recovered from excavations and systematic surface collections in the intertidal zone. A small faunal assemblage recovered from the excavations includes sea otter, bear and unidentified mammal. At Lyell Bay, shovel testing and preliminary excavations have been carried out at two sites, each with large numbers of microblades, a few microblade cores and other materials. A date of Lyell Bay 1 and 2, and Richardson Island. The 7,540 BP was obtained at site 1354T and dates of Arrow Creek sites include an early Holocene estu- 6,630 and 8,110 BP for 1355T arine deposit near the modern tidal limit (Arrow The Richardson Island site includes a deeply Creek 1 )and a raised beach locality (Arrow Creek stratified campsite on a 15-metre raised beach and 2). a surface scatter (likely largely a secondary At Arrow Creek 1, artifacts and organic sam­ deposit) in the modern intertidal zone. The sys­ ples were collected from an exposed section and tematic surface collection produced a large lithic from two 1 m x 2 m excavations on the immedi­ assemblage, characterized by large stone tools and ately adjacent two-metre terrace (Fedje et al microblade cores, most waterworn. Excavation in 1996a). Artifacts were limited to stone tools and the intertidal zone produced both waterworn and were not very abundant (n<100). Several tools pristine artifacts, some with shellfish or crus­ had barnacles attached. Dates of 9,100 and 9,200 taceans attached which date from 8,500 to 8,800 BP on these barnacles demonstrate occupation at BP. These data suggest deposition in the subtidal zone during the rapid early Holocene marine transgression (sea level rise). Faunal remains were limited to a whale skull dating to 8,500 BP, a bear tooth and unidentified sea mammal bone. At the 15-metre raised beach component of

Cwaii Haanas rela­ the site lithic artifacts were abundant. Cultural tive sea level curve. horizons date from 9,100 BP at the base of the four-metre deep cultural deposits to 8,500 BP near the top. The artifact assemblage (n>3000) is char­ acterized by abundant microblades and occasional bifaces in the upper levels and a large number of bifaces together with an absence of microblades in the lower levels. Organic remains recovered were limited to charcoal and a few grams of calcined bone, including fish, bird and large mammal. Preliminary work at these sites enables us to make a strong argument for occupation of Haida Gwaii by 9,300 BP, a time when sea level was ris­ ing rapidly towards the Holocene maximum. Our understanding lithic technology for the Early Period record in Gwaii Haanas is incomplete as much is based on field observations and formal

40 CRM N2 4—1997 References Barrie, J. V., K. Conway, R.W. Mathewes, H.W. Josenhans, and M.J. Johns Early Period arti­ 1994 Submerged late Quaternary terrestrial deposits and facts from Gwaii paleoenvironment of northern Hecate Strait, British Haanas (a, fa,c , d, Columbia Continental Shelf, Canada, Quaternary e: bifaces; f, g, fa: microblade cores). International, 20: 123-29. Ackerman, R.E. 1996 Early maritime culture complexes of the northern Northwest Coast. In: R.L. Carlson and L. Dalla Bona (eds.), Early Human Occupation in British Columbia. University of B.C. Press, Vancouver (pp. 123-150). Carlson, R. L. 1996 Early Period archaeology in Gwaii Haanas: results of the 1993 field program. In: R.L. Carlson and L. Dalla Bona (eds.), Early Human Occupation in British Columbia. University of B.C. Press, Vancouver (pp. 83-102). 1993 Sea levels and prehistory in Gwaii Haanas. Unpublished M.A. thesis, University of Calgary. Fedje, D.W.; A.P. Mackie, J.B. McSporran, and B. Wilson 1996b Early Period archaeology in Gwaii Haanas: results of the 1993 field program. In: R.L. Carlson and L. Dalla Bona (eds.), Early Human Occupation in British Columbia. University of B.C. Press, Vancouver (pp. 133- 50). Fedje, D.W., J.B. McSporran, and A.R. Mason 1996a Early Holocene archaeology and paleoecology at the analyses are still underway, however, there is tan­ Arrow Creek sites in Gwaii Haanas, Arctic Anthropology, talizing evidence for a significant change in tech­ 33:116-42 nology just after ca. 9,000 BP as has been Fladmark, K.R. observed elsewhere on the coast). 1979 Routes: alternate migration corridors for Early Man in In concert with the results of a marine geo­ North America, American Antiquity, 44 :55-69. logical research, these data suggest the possibility Heaton, T.H, S.L. Talbot, and G.F. Shields of a much longer record, now drowned, on earlier 1996 An ice-age refugium for large mammals in the shorelines. The palynological and geological Alexander Archipelago, southeastern Alaska, Quaternary records show that much of the continental shelf Research, 46. along the Northwest Coast, including the environs Josenhans, H.W.; D.W. Fedje; K. W Conway, and J.V. Barrie of Haida Gwaii was suitable for human occupa­ 1995 Post Glacial sea levels on the Western Canadian con­ tion by ca. 14,000 BP. The clear survival of tinental shelf: evidence for rapid change, extensive sub- archaeological deposits through marine transgres­ aerial exposure, and early human habitation, Marine sion and regression in Gwaii Haanas suggests the Geology, 125: 73-94. possibility of preservation of significantly older Mann, D.H., and T.D. Hamilton coastal occupation sites at depth in western 1995 Late Pleistocene and Holocene paleoenvironments of Hecate Strait and terrestrially along the eastern the North Pacific Coast, Quaternary Science Reviews, 14: margins of the strait (i.e., the west coast shores of 449-71. British Columbia) where early post-glacial shore­ Mathewes, R.W. lines are now raised as much as 200 m above the 1989 Paleobotany of the Queen Charlotte Islands. In:, G. present shore. Elsewhere, Heaton and others have Scudder and N. Gessler (eds.), The Outer Shores. Queen recently discovered a faunal record for nearby Charlotte Museum Press, Skidegate. B.C.. Prince of Wales Archipelago of Alaska which Warner, B.G., R.W. Mathewes, and J.J. Clague spans the last glacial maximum and human 1982 Ice-free conditions on the Queen Charlotte Islands, remains dating to over 9,700 BP. Knut Fladmark's British Columbia, at the height of the late Wisconsin hypothesis for late Wisconsinan movement of glaciation, Science, 218: 675-77. early peoples between Beringia and southern North America via coastal route gains further cre­ Daryl Fedje is Coast Archaeologist with Professional dence with these data. and Technical Services, Parks Canada, Victoria.

CRM N2 4—1997 47 C.J. Taylor Ninstints Pole Conservation Project

n September 1995 a joint Parks Canada/Haida team carried out urgent museum began compiling data on the condition of conservation on four standing poles at the poles: noting the degree of soundness and tak­ Ninstints (also known as Ninstints ing periodic readings of their lean or inclination. Archaeologists NationaIl Historic Site and Anthony Island World The conservation program engaged the par­ Daryl Fedje and Heritage Site) in Gwaii Haanas National ticipation of a number of Haida people from the Tina Christianson Park/Haida Heritage Site in the Queen Charlotte excavate base of Skidegate Reserve and elicited widespread sup­ pole. Rolf Bettner Islands. This involved excavating three mortuary port. Haida interested in the conservation of the photograph. poles and one memorial pole that were in danger site such as Captain Gold (Dick Wilson) learned of falling over. The three mortuary poles were about the principles behind the conservation work moved to a vertical position while the memorial from close association with the museum's chief of pole was supported in its leaning position with conservation Richard Renshaw-Beauchamp. log braces. Captain Gold remained as the site watchman It is usual to assume that native and institu­ through the provincial park phase and into the tional approaches to conservation of aboriginal present, continuing to carry out the work initiated heritage—sites and artifacts—would differ. In the by the museum: keeping the long grass away from case of Ninstints there was a surprising degree of the poles and clipping tree and salal seedlings. unanimity about the approach to be taken. Indeed, Meanwhile, the larger Haida community came to there was more debate among the Parks Canada accept as "natural" the altered landscape of side than with the Haida. Some thought that the Ninstints. poles should be left alone to die gracefully. Others It was Captain Gold who, in the summer of wondered about taking a more interventionist 1994, alerted Gwaii Haanas to the fact that four of approach, replicating the poles for instance. But the standing poles were gradually increasing their the Haida seemed wedded to a middle approach: lean and were in danger of falling over. Once carrying out unobtrusive mediation to keep the down, the poles would deteriorate much more place "looking nice." quickly than if they remained standing. Part of the reason for this consensus was The final decision to straighten the poles was that a single approach to the conservation of the taken in the summer of 1995 following consulta­ site had been in effect for the previous 20 years. tion with the Haida hereditary chiefs. The project The site had been a provincial park from 1957 was scheduled for two weeks in September. In until transferred to the federal government in 1988 planning the procedures necessary to straighten and from the late 1970s the provincial museum the poles, we formed smaller task groups. Richard had carried out a program of site conservation. Renshaw-Beauchamp, now a private consultant, This program was based on the principle that there was engaged to provide overall direction for the should be as little direct intervention to the poles conservation of the poles. Tucker Brown, a Haida as possible. It was assumed that the poles could on the Gwaii Haanas staff, took charge of the not be preserved forever, but that their life could engineering. Daryl Fedje, Parks Canada coast be extended if their environment was changed to archaeologist, directed the archaeology prepara­ keep them dry and unencroached by roots growing tion. It was Richard's experience that persuaded into their wood. Consequently, in the 1980s the us that the poles could be manipulated without trees in the village site were removed or pruned. disintegrating, everyone's worst nightmare. Tucker Salal and tree roots that were destroying the poles Brown designed a cage—12' square—to provide a were removed and the ground around them was supporting structure for the poles while they were drained to keep water away from the base of the being excavated and to act as a base for our pulley poles. Ultraviolet light from increased sunlight systems that would lift the poles to vertical. Daryl destroyed many of the mosses and lichens which Fedje pondered the unknown—no Haida pole had grew on the poles, and the bleached exteriors ever been fully excavated—and fussed over the became a hostile environment for further deterio­ possibilities of finding human remains, massive ration. As part of its conservation program, the boulders or ground water.

48 CRM N2 4—1997 The issue of human remains was worrisome September 13, 1995. Each pole was supported by because it had caused excavation projects in the Tucker Brown's steel scaffolding. Tripods were set past to get stuck on the horns of institutional pol­ up on the beach to hold the screening boxes with icy and Haida sensitivity about having their ances­ 1/4" wire mesh. Earth and other small material tors' bones dug up. In the end this caused scarcely was excavated by trowel and then screened for a ripple, even though we were certain of finding artifacts using water pumped from the bay by a some human bones. Because it was undertaken as portable pump. The poles were excavated to their a joint project, the Haida did not seem overly con­ base, about 5' below grade. cerned that their heritage was being trampled by The poles were found to have a u-shaped an alien invader. Everyone was curious to see the foundation of heavy beach rocks indicating that bottom of the poles and everyone seemed assured the poles would have been dragged base forward that excavated human remains would be treated up from the beach and then slotted into the pre­ with reverence. In this regard we were fortunate pared cavity before being pushed and pulled that Daryl Fedje had earned the respect of the upright. Smaller rocks and beach gravel would Haida over the previous six years for the serious­ then have been thrown around the rest of the ness with which he approached Haida culture. base. Items that were found reflected 19th-century When he addressed a gathering of Haida elders village life: trade goods such as beads, thimbles, the month before the project was due to begin and cooking pots, chisels and flintlock pistols as well explained that he expected to find human remains as shells, fish and animal bones. One large stone and sought their guidance, the hereditary chiefs was in the shape of a wedge, indicating that it may expressed their confidence that Daryl would know have been a canoe ballast before being placed at what to do. the bottom of the pole. Human remains that were Not knowing the depth of the pole or the size encountered, or bones that were likely to be of the boulders placed around its base also caused human (assessed on-site by the collective team's Daryl concern because he needed to predict the experience—we had no comparative collection diameter of the hole in order to guide the design of immediately available) were placed in cedar boxes Tucker's cage. The size of the hole would, in turn, with soil and offerings, and re-buried at the base affect the digging time. If it was too big, too much of the poles, accompanied by a solemn ceremony.

Raising the poles earth would have to be screened. Not big enough On average it took about five days to exca­ at Ninstints. Tucker meant that there would be not enough room to get vate each pole. The three mortuary poles were Brown, left, Richard at the boulders, an operation made more difficult straightened according to plan. The large memorial Renshaw- by the lack of machinery on this remote site. In pole was left to the last. It was judged to be the Beauchamp, cen­ most difficult because of its size and the extent to tre, and Tom the end Daryl figured on an excavation four feet Greene jr., right by four feet. which the base had deteriorated. The digging went Rolf Bettner photo­ Daryl estimated that it would take a week for extremely well despite the dense midden material graph. a team of archaeologists to excavate each pole on one side of the base. But when the archaeolo­ which meant that it gists exposed the whole base of the pole, it was would take four weeks found to be less sound than we had hoped. The to do the four poles. In pole could not be raised without risking it collaps­ order to reduce the ing on itself. Instead, we braced it with 20-foot amount of time in the poles cut from beach logs. field we agreed that it All in all, the Ninstints pole straightening would be more efficient project was a remarkable success. We accom­ to have two archaeol­ plished the immediate objective of conserving the ogy teams working four poles judged to be in danger of falling over. simultaneously. Three We devised a unique method of handling the Parks Canada archaeol­ poles. The archaeologists uncovered interesting ogists plus one consult­ insights into 19th-century Kunghit Haida culture ing archaeologist were and we achieved an amicable working relationship brought in along with between Parks Canada and the Haida people in three Haida assistants. the experiment of co-management on Gwaii Others from the conser­ Haanas. vation and engineering teams would pitch in C.J. Taylor, a Parks Canada historian based in when needed. Calgary, was project co-ordinator for the Ninstints The earth around Pole Conservation Project. the first two poles began to be dug on

CRM N2 4—1997 49 Suzanne Richards and David Hems Environmental Assessment ATool of Cultural Resource Management

he most effective means to pro­ tect heritage resources is through ensure that the drainage plan which was to con­ legislation. In the absence of spe­ tribute to the protection of historic extant build­ cific legislation to protect cultural ings did not impact on the buried 1875-83 Horizontal boring T resources in situ, the Canadian Environmental foundations of the original Fort Walsh. A similar machine in action Assessment Act can be used as a tool towards approach was incorporated into the St. Andrews at Motherwell achieving this goal. This is possible due to two Rectory landscaping projects, where archaeological Homestead. main concepts within the Act. The first is the def­ and historical data were used to re-design the pro­ inition of environmental effects in the Act, which ject to prevent or minimize impacts to resources includes a consideration of impacts to cultural from an 1843 farm occupation. heritage. Secondly, the Act requires that environ­ Of even greater importance, particularly in a mental effects be considered as early as possible period of fiscal restraint, is how environmental within the planning stages of a project. assessment can contribute to an integration of The recognition of these factors within the both natural and cultural resource considerations. context of a piece of legislation gives added By looking at cultural and natural resources in a strength in the application of Parks Canada's comprehensive fashion, it is often easier to find Cultural Resource Management policy. This is par­ simpler mitigation measures, that provide protec­ ticularly true when applying section 2.3 of the pol­ tion to all resources, rather than attempting to find icy "Consideration of Historic Value in Actions separate solutions. At Motherwell National Affecting Cultural Resources" and section 3.2 Historic Site, the use of a horizontal boring "Planning" as they also now constitute a legal machine not only minimized impacts to buried obligation under the Canadian Environmental cultural resources, but also reduced impacts to Assessment Act. soils and vegetation. Similarly, the installation of The result, when the process is applied cor­ an irrigation system at the Forks National Historic rectly, has led to project proposals using alterna­ Site with a special plow allowed for the insertion tive technology for implementation, often with the of the hose to the required depth with minimal added benefit of reducing project costs. As an disturbances. example, a horizontal boring machine was used at An additional benefit of cultural resource Motherwell National Historic Site to install water protection through the Canadian Environmental utility lines rather than by trenching. The complex Assessment Act is the public accountability associations and relationships of the varied buried requirement. The Federal Environmental historic components of this site were left undis­ Assessment Index, available in public libraries and turbed since the sub-surface boring allowed for on the Internet, provides a convenient mechanism installation of the water-utility line underneath the for the general public and/or stakeholders to audit cultural deposits. Parks Canada's performance with respect to cul­ The Act has also provided added impetus for tural resource protection at all phases of project incorporating cultural resource specialists into the work, from planning through to implementation. design phase of projects, often contributing to change in project design to ensure the protection Suzanne Richards is Environmental Assessment and of cultural resources. Archaeological data was Science Officer, and David Hems is Environmental gathered specifically to supply information to the Assessment Archaeologist, Professional and landscape architect for the Fort Walsh National Technical Services, Parks Canada, Winnipeg. Historic Site landscaping project. This was done to

50 CRM N^ 4—1997 Martin Magne Co-operative Management of Archaeological Resources A New Opportunity

ne of the burning issues in completion. The draft bill was circulated across Canadian archaeology is the the country, and while it had some flaws, it was multi-facetted relationships that widely and strongly supported by the professional exist among First Nations, community. Many archaeologists had lobbied for archaeologicaOl resource management, and envi­ over two decades to obtain such legislation. The ronmental assessment. I would like to briefly out- Minister of Communications met with members of ine some issues regarding archaeological the Canadian Archaeological Association, sent a resources on non-Treaty lands managed by the delegate to the national archaeological meetings, Federal Government to complement the paper and distributed literature nationally announcing elsewhere in this issue by Ellen Lee concerning the impending completion of the Act. archaeology in the context of land claims. Until Any notions of a celebration were short-lived passage of the Canadian Environmental when it became clear that the proposed Act was Assessment Act (CEAA) in 1992, Canada did not not in step with contemporary views concerning have legislation protecting archaeological First Nations1 heritage, in particular, ownership of resources on federal lands, other than mention of their own heritage. At the same time that the four specific kinds of sites in the Indian Act. In United States was preparing and passing the many ways, Canada still does not have protective Native American Grave Protection and Repatriation legislation in the strict sense. While CEAA legisla­ Act (NAGPRA), Canada was apparently not ceding tion can call for assessment of potential impacts ownership to Canadian Native peoples, or at least to archaeological, palaeontological, and tradi­ wanted to consider the broader public benefits and tional sites in the absence of a CEAA application, public trust before conceding. The Assembly of intentional damage to an archaeological site on First Nations reacted strongly, commissioning federal land is not a recognized offence. studies and circulating a discussion paper entitled

Location of sites Six years ago, an "Archaeological Heritage My Grandfather is Not an Artifact. The Canadian discussed in this Protection Act" for Canada was drafted by the act was never brought to the House. issue of CRM. Department of Communications and was very near NAGPRA is one result of Native peoples in the Americas working together to gain increased respect and protection for their culture. Focussing on human remains stored in museums, but extending to grave goods and other items of spiritual signifi­ cance, NAGPRA requires fed­ erally funded institutions to catalogue these collections and notify appropriate Native groups of their existence. The museum and the appropriate Native community then negoti­ ate terms for repatriation of items, reburial of human remains, and ongoing access to items for study. To some archaeologists, the invasion of cultural per­ spectives was seen as an

CRM N2 4—1997 51 infringement of their intellectual freedom to prac­ can serve as a training ground for youth and help tice a science. Others wondered where it would all grant an extended voice to Elders. end: would First Nations end up claiming owner­ CEAA explicitly recognizes the need to have ship of Beringia? For some, Native Peoples, aware­ impact assessments undertaken when archaeologi­ ness developed of the kinds of arguments that cal sites or Aboriginal traditional use areas are at archaeologists put forward in developing knowl­ risk from development. The Department of edge of "prehistory," an awareness that the scien­ Canadian Heritage is uniquely placed in govern­ tific world did not always jive with their practical ment to lend its experience to assisting with appro­ or spiritual worlds. For some a common outcry priate liaisons between First Nations and was that they could not ever admit to having origi­ government agencies in all kinds of national lands: nated genetically in northeast Asia. They were not National Parks, Department of National Defence "Chinese" and will never be. Many were also con­ establishments, Department of Transport lands, cerned that the dynamic nature of their culture and so forth. was not appreciated—Native cultures are not Many applications of CEAA will require that frozen in ethnographic time. First Nations be directly involved in managing At the present time there remains turmoil, archaeological resources that are directly related to but there are signs of resolution. The proceedings them. Recent environmental cases in Alberta have and expectations resulting from ongoing applica­ witnessed significant interventions by Native peo­ tion of NAGPRA in the USA have spilled over the ple with respect to potential impacts to archaeolog­ border to Canada. Some First Nations believe that ical and spiritual sites. As a result of an mutually acceptable compromises are best negoti­ Alberta-Canada harmonization agreement for envi­ ated on a case by case basis, rather than in the ronmental assessment, the Pine Coulee Reservoir polarized atmosphere that can result from national project in southern Alberta required a joint provin­ legislation, such as NAGPRA. In Canada, resolu­ cial-federal panel to investigate environmental tion of ownership issues is being dealt with pro­ effects of the proposed reservoir. Among its obser­ ductively despite the lack of legislation. Scientists vations and recommendations were several and First Nations are resolving issues over mis­ pointed at the demand for greater involvement of handling of human remains and burial goods; good Native peoples, at an earlier stage in project plan­ quality medical history information is being ning, even if these kinds of projects are proposed obtained from skeletal material that has benefits for off-reserve lands. for modern populations; many burials are being re- There are many complicating factors in buried; spiritual awareness has grown immensely developing mutually agreed upon policies and in laboratories and field camps; commercial devel­ practices for protecting and understanding Native opers recognize gains in developing trust. cultures of the past and present, and for promoting The national scene overall in Canada is democratic and humanitarian solutions. To date, encouraging. The Canadian Museums Association most efforts have been a rewarding learning expe­ has recognized the need for better communication, rience for all parties. Archaeological initiatives established very successful working groups and have both profited from joint efforts and assisted conferences, culminating in the Task Force on with developing innovative solutions. Future chal­ Museums and First Nations. It is now the case that lenges face us indeed. Parks Canada is, with its every major museum, and a number of smaller experience, profile, and mandates of conservation ones, have established Native advisory groups that and public appreciation, assisting the nation with not only consult on collections of sacred objects, proper management of First Nations' cultural her­ but that are also involved in basic museum man­ itage. agement and profoundly influence research direc­ tions. Note For some time now, Parks Canada has been 1 I use the terms "First Nations," "Aboriginal" and a leader in establishing co-operative management "Native" interchangeably. The Assembly of First agreements with First Nations. In each of these, Nations is the proper term for the largest political archaeological knowledge, collections and training group representing most Native people in Canada. have played an important role. Archaeology often Some groups prefer the term "Native," others are provides a link to traditional cultures, and I more comfortable with "Aboriginal." believe there are good reasons for this: Native peo­ ples relate immediately to their past, as do all cul­ Martin Magne is Senior Archaeologist for Alberta tures. Archaeology provides more than this and British Columbia, Professional and Technical obvious linkage, however; its multi-disciplinary Services, Calgary. A version of this paper was first nature involves other sciences and humanities. It published in Research Links Vol. 2, 1994. is labour intensive and encourages team work; it

52 CRM N2 4—1997 Ellen Lee Aboriginal Land Claims and Cultural Resource Management

omprehensive land claims in and historic sites within settlement areas in co­ Canada are an attempt to conclude operation with Aboriginal groups. agreements with Aboriginal groups Each land claim agreement is individual, C so as to resolve the legal ambigui­ although agreements do build on one another in ties associated with the common law concept of some ways. The 1975 James Bay Agreement with Aboriginal rights. Based on traditional land use Quebec's Cree, Inuit and Naskapi Peoples was the and occupancy by Aboriginal peoples who did first negotiated in Canada since the 1920s. Many not sign treaties and were not displaced from issues were discussed during negotiations, and the their lands, comprehensive agreements give final agreement did not include provisions to rec­ Aboriginal groups Jurisdiction over portions of ognize and protect heritage resources on settle­ their traditional settlement areas. ment lands. The Inuvialuit Final Agreement Land claim agreements establish certainty of following in 1984 also did not include cultural and ownership, stimulate economic development and heritage resource management provisions. More ensure that Aboriginal groups share in the benefits recent agreements all have sections dealing with of development. They encourage Aboriginal People heritage, culture and archaeology, including three to participate in government, and recognize that will be discussed in this paper: the Council Aboriginal interests in renewable resource man­ for Yukon Indians (CYI, 1993), the Sahtu (1993) agement and environmental protection. and the Tungavik Federation of Nunavut (TFN, Settlements can include finan­ cial compensation, rights to surface and sub-surface land, wildlife harvesting, represen­ tation on land and water man­ agement, and environmental protection boards, and the right to share in revenues derived from natural resources. Land claim agree­ ments define the rights and benefits to which members of Approximate claim boundaries. a particular group are entitled. In exchange, the beneficiaries agree not to assert Aboriginal rights beyond those specified. Land claim agreements are negotiated by three par­ ties—a specific Inuit or First Nations group, a provincial or territorial government, and Canada, with the Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development as 1993). The Inuvialuit Final Agreement (IFA) the lead federal department. Other federal depart­ allows for the creation of one new national park ments—such as the Department of Canadian on Inuvialuit Settlement Land, and we will con­ Heritage—become involved in land claim negotia­ sider CRM issues as outlined in the separate tions when their mandates are affected. Parks agreement to establish Aulavik National Park on Canada, with a mandate to protect and present Banks Island under terms in the IFA in 1992. areas of cultural and natural significance to all There are widely varying solutions being reached Canadians, has established new national parks with respect to cultural heritage management.

CRM N2 4—1997 53 boards with Aboriginal representation that is either equal to government representation or weighted in favour of Aboriginal People. Park-specific boards, such as the Kluane Park Management Board, regional boards, such as the Yukon's Renewable Resources Council, and Territorial boards such as the Inuit Heritage Trust, have been established. By provisions of the CYI Agreement, the Kluane National Park Management Board eventu­ By the time this ally will include members from three separate child joins the seal Yukon First Nations who have overlapping tradi­ hunt as a full par­ tional territories within the park. The CYI agree­ ticipant, he already will have devel­ ment also provides for the creation of the Yukon oped many of the Heritage Resources Board to advise territorial and necessary skills by federal heritage ministers and to help determine practicing in stone ownership of certain kinds of heritage objects. canoes under the Conservation and management of heritage experienced eyes of his community's resources in the Sahtu Settlement Area includes hunters. Arviat active involvement by the Sahtu Tribal Council. Historical Society New national parks in the Sahtu region will each photo. have a management committee to advise the Minister on all park issues. One task of the TFN- created Inuit Heritage Trust is to: ...assume increasing responsibilities for supporting, encouraging, and facilitating the conservation, maintenance, restoration and display of archaeological sites and specimens in the Nunavut Settlement Area. Aboriginal Interests in their Heritage National Parks in the Nunavut Settlement area all Although the 1984 IFA has no heritage chap­ will have cooperative management boards with ter, the agreement does imply interest in heritage equal representation appointed by Inuit and in the statement of land selection criteria that Government. includes "historic Inuvialuit sites or burial Ownership and Disposition of Cultural Resources grounds." The CYI, Sahtu and TFN agreements Ownership of heritage resources is discussed strongly and specifically state the importance to in terms of three main categories: artifacts (move­ the people of their heritage. One objective of the able heritage resources), traditional knowledge/oral CYI's Heritage Chapter is "to recognize the interest histories and archival documents. The CYI has of Yukon Indian People in the interpretation of complex provisions about ownership and manage­ aboriginal Place Names and Heritage Resources ment of heritage resources based on whose land directly related to the culture of Yukon Indian they are found on and whether or not they are People." The Sahtu Agreement states the matter directly related to the culture and history of Yukon similarly: "Sahtu heritage resources provide a Indian People: record of participants use and occupancy of the settlement area through time and are of spiritual, Each Yukon First Nation shall own and cultural, religious or educational significance to the manage Moveable Heritage Resources and participants." The TFN Agreement asserts that: non-Moveable Heritage Resources and The archaeological record of the Inuit of Non-Public Records ... found on its the Nunavut Settlement Area is a record of Settlement Land.... Inuit use and occupancy of lands and Furthermore, resources through time. The evidence ...... each Yukon First Nation shall own and represents a cultural, historical and ethno­ manage ethnographic Moveable Heritage graphic heritage of Inuit society and, as Resources and Documentary Heritage such, Government recognizes that Inuit Resources that are not Public Records and have a special relationship with such evi­ that are not the private property of any dence which shall be expressed in terms of Person, that are found in its respective special rights and responsibilities. Traditional Territory and that are directly Role in Decision Making related to the culture and history of Yukon Generally, decisions about heritage resources Indian People. on settlement lands are made by management

54 CRM NM—1997 Therefore, if the traditional territory of a sent to any long-term alienation of specimens Yukon First Nation includes a National Park or a found in Nunavut. The IHT establishes its right to National Historic Site, that First Nation owns request possession of archaeological and ethno­ ethnographic artifacts related to its culture and graphic materials from the area, and recognizes history found in the park or site. However, archae­ the principles of maintaining specimens without ological artifacts continue to be owned by risk, public and scientific access, including terms Government in this situation. The agreement pro­ and requirements for research or display, and care vides a mechanism to determine ownership of a of specimens. heritage resource claimed by more than one Yukon Research/Archaeological Permits First Nation. The CYI, Sahtu and TFN agreements all In contrast, the Sahtu Agreement avoids the include provisions for involving Aboriginal Peoples issue of ownership of Sahtu cultural resources, but in any development of new legislation about grant­ does suggest that they should be accessible to the ing research permits. In some cases, research people of the area. The TFN Agreement provides reports must be translated and made available to that government and the Inuit Heritage Trust the Aboriginal community. A Yukon Heritage jointly own archaeological specimens from the Resources Board, composed of CYI and govern­ Nunavut Settlement Area, except those that are ment appointed members, makes recommenda­ public records, any person's private property, or tions on managing artifacts and heritage sites. The found within areas administered by Parks Canada. Sahtu Tribal Council must be consulted when gov­ Provisions in the TFN concerning ethnographic ernment formulates policy and legislation that will objects and archival materials focus on manage­ affect Sahtu heritage resources in the Mackenzie ment and loans, not on ownership. Valley. Permits will not be issued by government Repatriation for work on Sahtu heritage resources without the Ethnographic material in Canadian museums Tribal Council's approval, and will specify proce­ has become subject to negotiation in land claim dures regarding site protection and restoration, agreements. Most northern agreements accept con­ consultation with local communities, disposition of ditions on the return of materials, and acknowl­ materials extracted, and submission of technical edge that repatriation may take a long time. and non-technical reports. The TFN Agreement The CYI Agreement commits government to provides that government and the Inuit Heritage assist Yukon First Nations in repatriation of arti­ Trust together will develop policy and legislation facts and documents related to their culture and for a permit system to govern the protection, exca­ history. The Sahtu Agreement says that artifacts vation and restoration, recording and reporting of and records related to Sahtu heritage should be archaeological sites. Active participation of Inuit returned to the settlement area or to the Northwest in archaeological investigations in Nunavut may Territories, provided that proper maintenance and be a condition of permits. Archaeologists con­ exhibition facilities and expertise exist there and Human Remains ducting a survey at pledges mutual assistance. The TFN Agreement Land claim agreements reflect concerns that the Fall Caribou does not distinguish between materials related and human remains should be protected and treated Crossing, Kazan River, Nunavut, not related to Inuit history. The Inuit Heritage with respect. The CYI Agreement calls for govern­ Canada. Photo by Trust must be involved in decisions about the dis­ ment and Yukon First Nations to each establish Lyle Henderson. position of archaeological materials and must con­ procedures to restrict access to burial sites and ensure that disturbance of burial sites is halted even on non-settlement lands. The Sahtu agree­ ment provides that a "Sahtu burial site in the set­ tlement area shall not be disturbed except after consultation with the Sahtu Tribal Council and after appropriate measures have been taken to respect the dignity of the site." Human burials are not mentioned specifically in the TFN Agreement, but according to the Aulavik Park agreement, Parks Canada will not permit disturbance of burial sites or human remains affiliated with Inuvialuit or Inuit culture without first consulting the Sachs Harbour Hunters and Trappers Committee and the Sachs Harbour Community Corporation, or with­ out the written consent of the Inuvialuit Regional Corporation.

CRM m 4—1997 55 Environmental Assessment Inuvialuit history or culture on Banks Island ... Comprehensive land claim agreements have prepared ... for public distribution." created environmental impact or development The Future of Land Claim Agreements assessment boards composed of Aboriginal and Negotiation of comprehensive claims in government representatives. The IFA, CYI, Sahtu, Canada is a lengthy process even when all three and TFN Agreements contain clauses that make parties are ready. The Nisga'a Agreement in impact assessment a part of the process of estab­ Principle in British Columbia represents that lishing a new national park or historic site. The province's first comprehensive land claim, and Aulavik National Park establishment agreement almost 50 submissions from other Aboriginal states that "all programs, procedures, plans, devel­ groups have been accepted by the British opments and activities proposed for Park lands are Columbia Treaty Commission. Newfoundland is subject to the Environmental Impact Screening negotiating two comprehensive claims with the and Review process in ... the IFA." Labrador Inuit Association and the Innu Nation. Other Issues in Land Claim Agreements Of 14 Yukon First Nations covered under the CYI Heritage resource matters do not begin and Agreement, five have completed their Band Final end with the tangible aspects of culture, that is, Agreements, and more are underway. Some Yukon with sites, artifacts and documents. Land claim First Nations will have to negotiate separate settle­ agreements reflect different cultural values by ment agreements with the province of British including special provisions about them. Columbia as well. Comprehensive claims are being The CYI has a "catch up, keep up" clause negotiated in Quebec and in the Northwest that attempts to redress an imbalance in heritage Territories. Archaeologists working in Canada are presentation in the Yukon: following developments in land claim agreements As the heritage Resources of Yukon Indian very closely. The way archaeologists do their work, People are underdeveloped relative to non- who their work is done for, and who it will be Indian Heritage Resources, priority in the done with, will be affected by land claim agree­ allocation of Government program ments already negotiated and signed, and by those resources available ... for Yukon Heritage in the future. Resources development and management shall... be given to the development and References management of Heritage Resources of The Western Arctic Claim: The Inuvialuit Final Yukon Indian People, until an equitable Agreement. Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, distribution of program resources is 1984. achieved. Umbrella Final Agreement between the Government of The possibility of returning to traditional Canada, the Council for Yukon Indians and the place names for "certain lakes, rivers, mountains Government of the Yukon. Minister of Indian Affairs and other geographic features and locations in the and Northern Development, Ottawa, 1993. [Sahtu] settlement area" and for "various loca­ Comprehensive Land Claim Agreement between Her tions, geographic features and landmarks" in the Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada and the Dene Nunavut Settlement Area is allowed for in two ofColville Lake, Fort Franklin, Fort Good Hope and agreements. The TFN Agreement also safeguards Fort Norman and the Metis of Fort Good Hope, Fort the people's right to continue using archaeological Norman and Norman Wells in the Sahtu Region of sites in their settlement area as they always have, the Mackenzie Valley as Represented by the Sahtu subject to policy guidelines from the Inuit Heritage Tribal Council. Sahtu Tribal Council, Comprehensive Trust. The Sahtu agreement spells out that in new Claim Branch, DIAND, Intergovernmental and parks established in the settlement area people Aboriginal Affairs, GNWT, 1993. will be entitled to "continued use of participants Agreement Between the Inuit of the Nunavut Settlement camps, cabins and traditional travel routes for the Area and Her Majesty the Queen in right of Canada. exercise of the harvesting rights," and that Sahtu Published under the joint authority of Nunavut people might continue to gather flora in new Tungavik Incorporated and the ... Minister of Indian national parks, for "food, medicine, cultural and Affairs and Northern Development, Ottawa, 1993. other personal purposes" and trees for construct­ An Agreement for the Establishment of a National Park ing and maintaining cabins and camps and for on Banks Island, Dept. of Canadian Heritage, Parks fuel. Canada, 1992 (Aulavik National Park The Aulavik National Park Establishment Establishment Agreement). Agreement has an innovative clause that speaks to the way that Aboriginal culture is presented to the Ellen Lee is Manager of Aboriginal Heritage public. It stipulates that the Inuvialuit reserve the Programs, Federal Archaeology Office, Parks right to approve "information concerning Canada, Ottawa.

56 CRM N2 4—1997 William Fox The first anthropological research was by an American who visited Herschel Island and the adjacent Yukon North Slope in 1893-94. The Frank Russell Expedition journals are held by the Inuvialuit-Parks Canada Smithsonian Institution. His ethnographic collec­ tions are also held by the University of Iowa, who published his account Explorations in the Far Partnerships in Heritage North (Russell 1898). Early 20th-century researchers included Stefansson, Mathiassen and Rasmussen of the Fifth Thule Expedition, and he statutory context for Parks Diamond Jenness of Canada's National Museum. Canada CRM activities within the Nuligak was the first Inuvialuit voice to be heard Inuvialuit Settlement Region (ISR) in his autobiography (Metayer 1966). Linguistic has been provided by Lee's article contributions have been made by Petitot and most T recently by Ronald Lowe of Universite Laval (i.e., (infra.)- North Yukon (now Iwavik) National Park was the first established pursuant to an abo­ Lowe 1984), working for the Committee for riginal comprehensive claim (DIAND 1984); and Original Peoples Entitlement (COPE) leading up to subsequent to the 1984 signing of the Inuvialuit the signing of the IFA. Lowe's Uummarmiut, Sight Final Agreement (IFA), two national park estab­ and Kangiryuarmiut dictionaries and grammars lishment agreements have been concluded. Lee are the standard Inuvialuktun reference works. (infra.) alludes to the 1992 Aulavik National Park Archaeological research in the ISR of the agreement (DoE 1992), while the agreement for Western Arctic began with the surveys of R.S. Tuktut Nogait NP was signed on June 28, 1996 MacNeish of the National Museum of Canada in (DCH 1996). Section 8 of the latter speaks to cul­ the 1950s (MacNeish 1956). He was followed by tural resources, particularly archaeological no less than seven archaeologists from the same remains, in detail and based to a certain extent institution; as well as 10 academic researchers on precedents set by the Aulavik agreement and from across southern Canada and from Germany, the Nunavut Comprehensive Claim implementa­ plus the senior heritage managers from the Yukon tion contract (DIAND 1993). It is indicative of and the Northwest Territorial governments. Much Inuvialuit concerns that this section was one of of the most recent research was supported by the the last to be finalized during negotiations and federally funded Archaeology Project of the the agreement leaves little doubt that they are full Northern Oil and Gas Action Plan (Cinq-Mars and partners in management of Tuktut Nogait NP cul­ Pilon 1991; Pilon 1994). The majority of research tural resources. within what is now Iwavik National Park was Aboriginal Heritage Recording in Western Arcticundertake n by Canadian Museum of Civilization With John Franklin's observations and illus­ (formerly National Museum) staff prior to the tration of an Inuit coastal settlement in 1826, we establishment of the park. Likewise, all the acade- have the first European record of ancestral Inuvialuit lifeways (Coates 1979). Agnes White (cen­ Subsequent 19th-century tre) interviews observers included a Charlie and Pers/s series of Hudson's Bay Gruben at Company employees and Kitigaryuit. Photo courtesy of the missionaries; the most Inuvialuit Social informative being Development Roderick Ross Program. MacFarlane, an HBC employee who estab­ lished Fort Anderson in 1861 (Smith 1984), and the Oblate missionary Father Emile Petitot, who resided intermittently in the Mackenzie Delta and Anderson River region between 1866 and 1872 (Petitot 1983).

CRM N2 4—1997 57 mic research within Aulavik and Tuktut Nogait within Iwavik NP. Particular emphasis was placed National Parks occurred pre-establishment. on information related to local place names and The Parks Canada Program former site-specific subsistence activities. These CRM activities in Western Arctic District elder interviews will be continued in 1997, focus­ parks were initiated with Gary Adams' 1987 field ing on the Inuvialuit sites from Nunaluk Spit, west survey along the Firth River in Iwavik National to the Alaska border. Similar studies have been Park. Adams focused on relocating and assessing completed for the Alaskan coastal plain, westward the condition of previously recorded sites, particu­ past Kaktovik to the Canning River drainage larly those reported by MacNeish (Adams 1989). (Jacobson and Wentworth 1982; Libby 1983). The Subsequently, Parks Canada archaeological staff final products from this documentary project will have undertaken inventories along the Thomsen include enhanced information for the Iwavik GIS River of Aulavik NP in 1994/95 (Webster 1996) database, a traditional resource management and the Firth River in Iwavik during 1995; as well report and an interactive traditional knowledge as initiating a multi-year multi-disciplinary computer program for school use in the ISR. Inuvialuit site documentation project along the Kitigaryuit (Kittigazuit) was designated a Beaufort Sea coast of the same park. National Historic Site in 1978, without consulta­ The Inuvik office was approached first late tion with the Inuvialuit peoples. This large former in 1988 concerning an "Inuvialuit Cultural Study" Mackenzie Inuit (Inuvialuit) community had been proposal connected with the development of a archaeologically investigated by R. McGhee of the management plan for Herschel Island Yukon National Museum in 1969 (McGhee 1974), and it Territorial Park. By the 1990s, a cost-shared oral was on the basis of his research that the site was history project was initiated under the auspices of recommended to the Historic Sites and the Inuvialuit Social Development Program Monuments Board of Canada (HSMBC) for desig­ (ISDP), involving the Yukon Heritage Branch and nation. The author approached the adjacent mod­ Parks Canada. Murielle Nagy was contracted to ern community of Tuktoyaktuk concerning the direct this project. While traditional knowledge site's national status in early 1995, but received a focused on natural resource harvesting had been chilly reception. Subsequently, Cathy Cockney of recorded by COPE as part of their IFA negotiation the ISDP office in Inuvik contacted the community research, the Yukon North Slope Inuvialuit Oral and developed an interview project aimed at accu­ History project was the first interview project to mulating all extant oral historical data on the for­ attempt wide ranging documentation on former mer community of Kitigaryuit, in preparation for a Inuvialuit lifeways. Two seasons were spent in future management plan funding submission to Inuvialuit elder interviewing, and the final synthe­ the HSMBC. This resulted in a combined oral his­ sis was published by the Yukon Heritage Branch tory and site mapping project in 1996, involving (Nagy 1994a). Later in 1994, Ms. Nagy was con­ the ISDP, Community of Tuktoyaktuk, Prince of tracted by Parks Canada to initiate community Wales Northern Heritage Centre (PWNHC) of the consultations in Sachs Harbour relating to an oral Government of the Northwest Territories and history project, in compliance with section 5.02 of Parks Canada staff and funding. Plans are under­ the Aulavik NP establishment agreement (Nagy way to continue this research and documentation 1994b). project to completion in 1997. These consultations led to a two-year con­ In August 1994, the Community of Sachs tract with the ISDP for interviewing elders and Harbour worked with Parks Canada to present a archival research directed to recording Inuvialuit one-week outdoor education program in Aulavik subsistence activities on Banks Island and tradi­ National Park for students from Inualthatuak tional knowledge related to the park area in partic­ School. Two elder couples joined the teachers, ular. A major final report and data base including community member facilitators, an Inuvialuit taped interviews, written and photo documents Communications Society video technician and stu­ will be completed by mid-1997. Parks Canada has dents from Grades 3 to 9 at a camp on the also funded Inuvialuit elder interview projects Thomsen River. A series of half-day activities were connected with the Iwavik coastal project (Fox guided by Parks Canada staff, including the 1996), with Kitigaryuit (Kittigazuit) National Aulavik Chief Park Warden, Western Arctic Historic Site (Nasogaluak and Cockney 1996, IRC Ecologist and Arctic Archaeologist. Martha and 1996a,b) and with the Paulatuk Community Frank Kudlak, and Lena and Geddes Wolki shared Archaeology Project (Kirby 1995). their experiences travelling on the land in a series The first is connected with the ongoing of personal reminiscences. The proceedings were Inuvialuit Coastal Heritage Project and was an video-taped and later broadcast on TVNC across attempt to augment the substantial Yukon North the Canadian Arctic. This cost-shared school her­ Slope Inuvialuit Oral History database for the area itage program was successful to the extent that

58 CRM N2 4—1997 Inuvialuit community representative indicated that he would be inter­ ested in a career in archaeology were he a Barbara Cameron little younger. The photographs Angik School students museum curators were excavating a sod pleased to see the inter­ house site near est and concern shown Paulatuk. Photo by the Inuvialuit repre­ courtesy of the sentatives for the care of Prince ofWales Northern Heritage Arctic heritage materi­ Centre. als. This was expressed subsequently in section 8.4 of the Tuktut Nogait NP establishment agree­ ment wherein the Alberta Museums Association Standards other communities approached Parks Canada to Practice Handbook of assist in developing similar field schools. Museums is referenced in regard to minimum stan­ One result was the Paulatuk Community dards for the curation of archaeological artifacts in Archaeology Project funded by Parks Canada and any future ISR repository. A draft custody agree­ directed by Margaret Bertulli of the PWNHC dur­ ment will be delivered to Parks Canada by the ing August 1995 and 1996 (Bertulli 1995). Inuvialuit Regional Corporation in Autumn 1996. Students from Angik School have participated in In 1996, Parks Canada joined with the excavation of a sod house built by Lester Inuvialuit, GNWT and other federal agencies to Asisauna in 1933, Just north of the present sponsor an Aklavik community project entitled Community of Paulatuk. Rosemary Kirby under­ Retracing Inuvialuit Footprints (IRC 1996b). Two took interviews with Paulatuk elders and produced student trips from Aklavik to Kaktovik, Alaska, a report with suggestions for the inclusion of the were organized by Danny C. Gordon and his wife, resulting archaeological and historical information Annie. The project objective was to familiarize the into the local school curriculum (Kirby 1995). students with travel and subsistence skills on the Section 5.06 of the Aulavik NP establish­ land and introduce them to family relations in ment agreement commits Parks Canada and the Kaktovik. Two Parks Canada Inuvialuit staff Inuvialuit Regional Corporation to making "best accompanied the group on the April trip by snow­ efforts to negotiate a (archaeological specimen) mobile and komatik. In July, the students arrived custody agreement within five years ..." (DoE by boat at Tapqaq in time to witness the second 1992). Parks Canada contracted with the ISDP in bowhead whale harvested by the Inuvialuit peo­ 1996 to develop a draft agreement applicable to all ples; an unexpected bonus to another successful national parks in the ISR. As part of the commu­ trip. nity consultation process, representatives from The projects described above reflect a grow­ Aklavik, Inuvik, Tuktoyaktuk, Sachs Harbour and ing partnership between Parks Canada and the Holman travelled to Yellowknife and Winnipeg in people of the ISR in the recording and presenta­ February 1996 to meet archaeological collections tion of Inuvialuit heritage. It is a relationship that management specialists and view Western Arctic has developed slowly due to the inter-cultural con­ artifacts at the Prince of Wales Northern Heritage flicts of the last century and those between our Centre, Manitoba Museum of Man and Nature agency culture and the Inuvialuit during the 1980s (HBC collection), and Parks Canada Professional (Johnston 1996). There are still differences of and Technical Service Centre (IRC 1996a). This opinion and perspective between Parks Canada permitted all parties to fully appreciate the range and the Inuvialuit, and among the Inuvialuit them­ of conservation and curatorial issues involved in selves in regard to heritage conservation or cul­ artifact collections management on the one hand, tural resource management activities related to as well as the deep desire for access to heritage Canada's national parks. There always will be. information on the part of the Inuvialuit peoples, Only continuous dialogue will ensure the good on the other. The visits proved to be educational faith necessary for a quality working relationship, and enjoyable for all the participants, including and Parks Canada is committed to this. The recent the heritage professionals, to the extent that one hiring of Inuvialuit beneficiary Gerry Kisoun will

CRM N2 4—1997 59 go a long way to opening and maintaining the Master in Environmental Studies, Faculty of lines of communication with the Inuvialuit peo­ Environmental Studies, York University. North York. ples. The continued hiring and training of benefi­ Kirby, R. ciary field staff can only strengthen our CRM 1995 School Program Oral History of Sod Houses at regimes in all three national parks. Paulatuk Peninsula Oral History from Elders, Accompanying document for Prince of Wales References Excavation 1995 with Angik School. Kalluk Adams, G. Consulting. Inuvik. 1989 Archaeological Resources Inventory and Libby, D. Assessment, Northern Yukon National Park. 1983 Kaktovik Area Cultural Resource Survey, National Canadian Parks Service. Winnipeg. Park Service, Department of the Interior. Fairbanks. Bertulli, M. Lowe, R. 1995 Angik Archaeological Field Project August 1995. 1984 Uummarmiut Uqalungiha Mumikhitchirutingit Permit #95-804, Prince of Wales Northern Heritage Basic Uummarmiut Eskimo Dictionary. Committee Centre. Yellowknife. for Original Peoples Entitlement. Ottawa. Canada. Department of Canadian Heritage MacNeish, R.S. 1996 The Tuktut Nogait Agreement An Agreement To 1956 Archaeological Reconnaissance of the Delta of Establish A National Park in the Inuvialuit the Mackenzie River and Yukon Coast, National Settlement Region Near Paulatuk, Northwest Museum of Canada Bulletin, No. 142:46-81. Ottawa. Territories. Ottawa. McGhee, R. Canada. Department of the Environment 1974 Beluga Hunters: an archaeological reconstruction 1992 An Agreement For The Establishment Of A of the history and culture of the Mackenzie Delta National Park On Banks Island. Ottawa. Kittegarymiut, Memorial University Newfoundland Canada. Indian and Northern Affairs Canada Social and Economic Studies, No. 13. St. John's. 1984 The Western Arctic Claim. The Inuvialuit Final Metayer, M. (ed.) Agreement. Ottawa. 1966 Nuligak. Peter Martin Associates. Toronto. 1993 A Contract Relating to the Implementation of the Nagy, M.I. Nunavut Final Agreement. Ottawa. 1994a Yukon North Slope Inuvialuit Oral History. Cinq-Mars, J., and J.L. Pilon (Ed.) Occasional Papers in Yukon History No. 1, Heritage 1991 NOGAP Archaeology Project: An Integrated Branch Government of the Yukon. Whitehorse. Archaeological Research and Management 1994b Recommendations for an Oral History Study of Approach, Canadian Archaeological Association Banksland (Ikaahuk). Occasional Paper No. 1. Victoria. Nasogaluak, F., and C. Cockney Coates, K. 1996 Preliminary Study of Kitigaryuit's Oral History, 1979 The Northern Yukon: A History, Canadian Parks Inuvialuit Regional Corporation, Inuvialuit Social Service Manuscript Report No. 403. Ottawa. Development Program. Inuvik. Fox, W.A. Petitot, E. 1996 Inuvialuit Traditional Place Names In Iwavik 1983 Among the Chiglit Eskimos, Boreal Institute for National Park 1995 Project With The Elders Of Northern Studies Occasional Publication, No. 10. Tapqaq. Department of Canadian Heritage, Parks Edmonton. Canada, Western Arctic District. Inuvik. Pilon, J-L. (ed.) Inuvialuit Regional Corporation 1994 Bridges Across Time: The NOGAP Archaeology 1996a Preliminary Study of Kitigaryuit Oral Project, Canadian Archaeological Association History/Educational Tour of Museums, IRC Board Occasional Paper No. 2. Victoria. Summary, Vol. 1, No. 1. Inuvik. Russell, F. 1996b Canadian Heritage/Kitigaryuit Oral History 1898 Explorations in the Far North. University of Iowa Project/Retracing Inuvialuit Footprints/Iwavik Press. National Park, IRC Board Summary, Vol.1, No. 4. Smith, D.G. Inuvik. 1984 Mackenzie Delta Eskimo. Handbook of North Jacobson, M.J., and C. Wentworth American Indians, Vol. 5 Arctic:347-358. 1982 Kaktovik Subsistence Land Use Values through Smithsonian Institution. Washington. Time in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge Area. Webster, D.K. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Northern Alaska 1996 1994-1995 Thomsen River Archaeology Survey Ecological Services. Fairbanks. Aulavik National Park. Parks Canada. Yellowknife. Johnston, B.W. 1996 Co-Management in the National Parks of the William Fox is Superintendent of the Western Arctic Inuvialuit Settlement Region Submitted in partial District, Parks Canada, Inuvik. fulfillment of the requirements for MA degree of

60 CRM N2 4—1997 David Neufeld Other People's History Commemorating the Cultures ofYukon First Nations

hat is the meaning of com­ nity, or are even family-centred activities. And memoration? What do we they cover a very broad array of responses. I consider so valuable that we would like to focus on one feature of the third Wwish to pass on its meaning group, those ways communities or groups com­ and even its substance to those following? What memorate their identity and represent it for out­ values do we wish to pass on? How do we do siders using government institutions. That is, how that? In this paper I would like to try and step have or how can Yukon First Nations (Native outside the historian's paradigm and examine Americans in USA usage) use national commemo­ how communities consider commemoration. The ration programs for their purposes. This commem­ issue of cultural continuity is what we are exam­ oration of identity includes the protection of ining here. Cultures generally establish a variety signifiers of value defining identity (internal use) of institutions to perpetuate themselves. and the presentation of these values to others Among the Mennonites, my own cultural (external use). group, there is a wide range of ways of doing this. Why does a national government institution In the past, the primary elements have been place, like Parks Canada get involved in such activities? stories and myths, church, close-knit communities How does it do it sensitively and helpfully? and marriage rules, language and literature. More WHY—The National Program recently with the diaspora of the group a range of The Historic Sites and Monuments Board of new methods has been added to both replace Canada (HSMBC), established by the Government weakening old ways and to enhance the identity of of Canada in 1919, exists at a national level to the group to the larger polis. These include publi­ ensure the appropriate commemoration of those cations, international aid agencies, and museums; places, people and events that make up our there is even a Mennonite National Historic Site national identity. Made up largely of historians in southern Manitoba. These do not entirely and other cultural professionals representing each replace old ways but are attempts to ensure as province and territory and the national cultural many suitable ways as possible maintain these institutions, the Board considers public nomina­ links through time. All these exist to ensure a con­ tions for recognition. The Board advises the tinuity through time, to connect the present to the Minister of Canadian Heritage of its findings, who past and to provide guidance into the future. Each then makes a final decision on commemoration. group will always have a full and dynamic cata­ Parks Canada, National Historic Sites Directorate, logue of these methods in use. acts as both the research and support branches of These institutions can

Carcross-Tagish generally be broken into first Nation "Indian three, usually tightly inte­ Days." Community grated, groups: planned events like • belief systems or religions this are a celebra­ to nurture and support tion of identity and an important inter­ values; nal form for pre­ • teaching or education sys­ serving and passing tems that pass on a set of on cultural identity. living skills, reflecting Photo by D. Neufeld. these values. • icons or stories that sus­ tain and promote a sense of identity, based upon both the above values and sets of skills. All these groups are firmly based in the commu­

CRM N2 4—1997 61 the Board. It is also the manager for the commem­ well as academics and professionals well-versed oration of those recommendations accepted by the with their histories. In both the national and Minister. Yukon native history consultations the recom­ Any member of the public, or any govern­ mended course of action was clear—the initiation ment or non-government agency, can and do make and direction for any commemoration must come nominations for the Board's consideration. The from the communities. Academics, especially, were Board can also actively seek nominations to com­ reluctant to take any responsibility for represent­ memorate themes in Canadian history that deserve ing the values and identity of the First Nations. national attention. Over the last two decades, the Parks Canada consequently, and I can add, reluc­ Board has striven to balance the commemoration tantly, shelved ideas for a thematic history, the of "under-represented themes." Themes identified usual survey of existing literature on any given under these initiatives include women, ethnic topic to help focus commemoration. Instead a minorities, selected basic industries and First more diffuse community-based research approach Nations. Support for these initiatives has come was taken. from the Government of Canada through the com­ Parks Canada support for local initiatives in mitment of both financial and staff resources. One Yukon First Nation history has evolved from supported initiative is the Board's expressed inter­ directed works on specific topics to the present est in receiving nominations from Yukon First community-based projects that explore locally Nations for sites of possible national historic sig­ directed objectives. Since 1987, Parks Canada has nificance. supported several major community-based native HOW—the Experience in the Yukon history projects in the Yukon. A brief description Parks Canada has developed a two-part pro­ of three of these projects and their results provides gram to carry out the Board's initiative in the an indication of the evolution of this program and Yukon. These parts are: an indication of the commemorative direction • the communication of the Board's purpose coming from Yukon First Nations. and interest to the Yukon First Nations, Parks Canada began work on a research pro­ • support for community initiatives in cultural ject with the Carcross-Tagish First Nation of the commemoration. southern Yukon in 1987, as part of the commemo­ The primary requirement from the perspec­ ration of Chilkoot Trail National Historic Site. The tive of Parks Canada is the provision of informa­ presentation of the "Indian side of the story" tion on the Board and its work. This is particularly appeared to offer another meaningful perspective challenging in the dynamic cross-cultural environ­ on the gold rush passage of the thousands of stam- ment stemming from the negotiation and finaliza- peders travelling through this mountain pass on tion of the Yukon land claims settlement, their way to the Klondike. essentially a land treaty between First Nations and The First Nation resisted attempts to begin the federal government. Many aspects of the rela­ research work on such terms. From their perspec­ tionship between Yukon First Nations and both tive the gold rush was merely a big, occassionally the territorial and national governments are cur­ obnoxious, but ultimately very short camping trip rently being defined—the Board is just another of that bulldozed through their area. Rather than the many government voices trying to make itself "Indian side" of the whiteman's story, they wished heard by the 14 Yukon First Nations. to present their own story, and to serve their own The cross-cultural character of defining com­ needs. A community-based methodology gradually memoration has also complicated the comprehen­ evolved as both First Nation and Parks Canada sion of the Board's purpose and intent. In the sought out common ground through the life of the Yukon, the record of national commemoration has project. Eventually, the research method and focussed upon the achievements of newcomers, objectives were fit into the community structures— specifically the Klondike Gold Rush and subse­ the project involved many community Elders, con­ quent economic and social development. The First tributed to the creation of a community Elders' Nations, not surprisingly, perceive the Board and Council, and resulted in the publication of a First Parks Canada as southern institutions without Nation account of their life in the region. The final much immediate relevance to their own objectives. work, built upon the new relationship between the To this point they are not convinced of the useful­ National Historic Site and the First Nation, repre­ ness or applicability of these institutions in their sents a consensus history of the community. It has cultural continuity. become the basis for a variety of projects interpret­ To address these difficulties, common to sev­ ing the community's history to outsiders. eral other under-represented groups, Parks Canada Discussions on the recognition and commemora­ sponsored a series of national workshops. These tion of this story in the existing National Historic workshops included representatives of groups as Site continue.

02 CRM N2 4—1997 management capability. They demurred at the prospect of an outside agency working with their elders and having access to their history. The con­ trol of their history and its commemoration is an important issue to the community. The First Nation is aware of the need for cultural commem­ oration and the value of presentation to outsiders, but they wish to control this process. Consequently, Parks Canada, also the federal agency for the fulfillment of aspects of the land claims agreement, negotiated a heritage sub-agree­ ment supporting and describing common interests in regional First Nation commemoration. The First Nation has accepted responsibility for the com­ memoration of their own culture, including the potential use of Parks Canada as a vehicle for external presentation. Burnt Point on the Iwavik National Park on the Yukon North Although each of these three projects have Yukon River just Slope is the first national park in Canada created divergent outcomes and operated in very different below the aban­ as a part of land claim agreement. The park is, in ways, there are some commonalities apparent from doned community of Selwyn. Photo by effect, a gift or a shared place from the Inuvialuit these examples. All three initiatives seek to com­ Helene to all of the people of Canada. After some initial memorate Yukon First Nation history, for both DobrowolskylMidni negotiations a five-year oral history project was internal and external audiences. Parks Canada has ghtArts. initiated in 1988. A community-based partnership attempted to fulfill its mandate, but over the years between the Inuvialuit and several government there have been considerable clarification and agencies, including Parks Canada, it included rethinking of what that mandate actually is. extensive interviews in Inuvialuktun with commu­ On the Chilkoot Trail, the initial focus was nity Elders, both onsite and in their villages. the preparation of an interesting, but directly Archival research and community donations cre­ linked aboriginal perspective to non-native history. ated a major photo collection of the region. Gradually, with considerable patience and indul­ Transcripts were typed and translated and the pro­ gence by the First Nation community, there was a ject anthropologist prepared a list of major topics. recognition of another history that needed telling. These were reviewed by the Inuvialuit Elders who At present, the National Historic Site exists to rep­ provided additional guidance to clarify their mean­ resent the gold rush story. Nevertheless, there ing and direction. Finally a summary report was have been opportunities to work co-operatively prepared and again subjected to review. Here the with the Carcross-Tagish First Nation to include community readily took control of the project and their history in commemorative programs. The effectively applied resources to gather information research project was successful largely because it of value to them. Already used in the schools, the worked with existing community structures collected information is also presently being ana­ devoted to cultural continuity and supported them lyzed as an expression of Inuvialuit Traditional with new tools and approaches. The First Nation Knowledge, the cultural equivalent of Euro- is currently considering whether it wishes to nomi­ American Scientific Knowledge. This traditional nate its own history to the Board for possible knowledge is seen as an important element in the national designation. identification and application of appropriate man­ With the Inuvialuit the work has grown from agement techniques in the region's co-management a desire to simply identify and gather information environment. This combined management regime on archaeological sites along the Arctic coast. The will help ensure the recognition and protection of richness of the oral accounts provided a much the Inuvialuit cultural values. deeper understanding of the Inuvialuit life on the Finally, the cultural history of the Kluane coast and even challenged previous conclusions National Park Reserve (NPR) has become a part based solely upon archaeological evidence. Now of the Champagne and Aishihik First Nation land Park staff and Inuvialuit Regional Corporation claims final agreement. A management plan review resource managers wrestle with the far more chal­ of Kluane NPR in 1988 highlighted the need for a lenging question of incorporating the community's native history of the region. The Champagne and Traditional Knowledge, their ingrained values and Aishihik First Nation, already well advanced into ways of knowing, into the direct control and man­ its land claims negotiations, was aggressively agement of the resources needed to support the developing its own cultural research and resource continuity of their culture.

CRM N^ 4—1997 63 In Kluane NPR, a desire to appropriately of protecting their way of life to preserve their val­ present First Nation culture to park visitors has ues. At the end of two days there was an informal morphed into an agreement to focus land claims consensus. Rather than focusing upon any of their settlement funds on enhancing the community's fish camps or hunting areas, or even the river ability to research, preserve and define their own itself, the group recommended the permanent pro­ history. tection of the clean water flowing through their Conclusion lands. This direct connection between commemo­ Considering these experiences how close is ration and cultural continuity is a lesson for us all. Parks Canada coming to fulfilling its task for the What is the goal of the Board and Parks HSMBC and the Minister of Canadian Heritage? Canada in the commemoration of Yukon First Initial work plans focussed upon the traditional Nation culture? Is it the appropriate presentation Parks Canada development of a general thematic of Indian stories or placenames to curious pun­ history and then selecting suitable First Nations' ters? The preparation of yet another publication sites for consideration based on this work. This describing northern ways? Is a Yukon First Nation strategy works on a presupposition of historical NHS the ultimate goal? None of these are goals, closure, or at least, the establishment of patterns they are tools available to the community to of cultural expression recognizable by non-mem­ achieve cultural continuity. To me they are good bers. The Yukon First Nations rejected this tools but there are many good tools around and approach and have responded by suggesting a the decision to use them is the First Nations', not more open-ended evaluation of their history. This Parks Canada's. The goal of the Board and the allows them to initiate and control the commemo­ Dept. of Canadian Heritage is the maintenance rative agenda. and celebration, or commemoration, of identity. For Parks Canada, it means allowing the And that can only come from the community. First Nations to set the speed of their acceptance of new commemorative methods and time to con­ References sider the implications of presentation to outside Carcross-Tagish First Nation (prep. S. Greer) audiences. And the challenges of First Nation com­ Skookum Stories of the Chilkoot/Dyea Trail. Whitehorse, memoration are unlikely to get any easier. Last 1995. spring Parks Canada supported the Tron dek Nagy, Murielle Hwech'in First Nation in the organization of a lnuvialuit Oral History of the Yukon North Slope. Yukon River Heritage Symposium. The symposium Whitehorse, 1995. was aimed at getting a number of Yukon FNs to consider a form of national commemoration to David Neufeld is Yukon and Western Arctic protect and present elements of their common Historian for Pacific and Yukon Region, Parks riverine heritage. The Elders reflected upon the Canada, Whitehorse. need for commemoration, stressing the importance

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