CONSERVATION GUIDELINE FOR MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS (MAPs) IN LEBANON

GEF-UNDP-LARI, 2013. Conservation guideline for medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) in Lebanon. Mainstreaming Biodiversity Management into Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) Production Processes in Lebanon Project. Funded by the Global Environment Facility, implemented by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) and Lebanese Agricultural Research Institute (LARI), Beirut.

BACKGROUND

This technical document was produced based on their endemism (regional or with the framework of the project national), estimated volume of commercial “Mainstreaming Biodiversity Management trade (domestic and international), and into Medicinal and Aromatic Plants perceived decline in wild-collected (MAPs) Production Processes in populations. Four of these target species Lebanon”, funded by the Global (Origanum syriacum, Origanum Environment Facility, and executed by the ehrenbergii, Althaea damascena, and Lebanese Agriculture Research Institute Cyclotrichium origanifolium) are regional and the UNDP, in coordination and or national endemic species that were cooperation with the Lebanese Ministry of selected based on expert opinion that Agriculture. The project objective was to direct harvest pressure (intentional integrate conservation objectives into collection of the species for existing gathering, processing and marketing of markets) is a factor contributing to decline globally significant medicinal and aromatic in resource availability in Lebanon. Two plants (MAP). of these target species (Viola libanotica and Clinopodium libanoticum) are The project worked on both a macro level endemic to Lebanon and were selected (national scale) and a micro level (pilot based on expert opinion that these sites scale). On the national front the species could be endangered by indirect project actively sought to develop and (unintentional) collection of wild strengthen the enabling environment for populations because of their resemblance sustainable use of MAPs. The project to the commercially important congeneric identified regulatory gaps and constraints species V. odorata and M. myrtifolia (syn. that had implications for sustainable juliana). The seventh target species utilization and value chain of MAP (Salvia fruticosa) is a regional endemic resources. Accordingly, several strategic species selected based on the large interventions were implemented on the existing commercial wild-collection and institutional framework. On the pilot site observed negative impacts of wild harvest level, the project worked in four sites of this species on other more vulnerable (Mejdel-Akkar, Assia-Batroun, Hsarat- species. Jbiel and Mrusti-Chouf). These four pilot sites were considered as experimental Lebanon benefits from a rich biodiversity sites for developing sustainable harvesting of more than 4,500 plant species, 2,863 of standards, for developing and which considered native and an implementing value-added processing and endemism rate of 12%. Medicinal and product improvement, for MAP based aromatic plants (MAPs) represent an product marketing and sales and for important part of the natural wealth in certification and branding. The pilot sites Lebanon. There are more than 300 MAP informed the regulative framework species found and utilized in Lebanon (through scientific findings with respect to tens of which are endemic. MAPs provide sustainable harvest standards), informed additional sources of income for rural MAP business development at the communities across the country as there national level and they showcased how to is a long tradition of using MAPs as raw increase the profitability of commercial material for traditional remedies, recipes, MAP products. handcrafts, essential oil and distilled water. The project focused on seven target MAP species: Salvia fruticosa, Origanum The MAP sector in Lebanon suffers from syriacum, Origanum ehrenbergii, Althaea three different challenges but equally damascena, Cyclotrichium origanifolium, damaging. The first two challenges are Viola libanotica and Clinopodium directly linked with the wild MAPs which libanoticum. The species were selected currently supply the majority of the MAP

1 | Page market. First, the heightened demand for The GEF-UNDP-LARI project some MAP species has been met by “Mainstreaming Biodiversity Management unsustainable harvesting which has and into Medicinal and Aromatic Plants will continue to have significant impact on (MAPs) Production Processes in the long term survival of these species. Lebanon” has developed and Second, habitat loss, damage and implemented a step by step approach for fragmentation as well as fires and climate conserving and managing seven targeted change have and will continue to place medicinal and aromatic plants. The significant threat and pressure on the wild project’s experience and tools developed MAP resource. The third challenge is the can serve a piloted guideline to be lack of management knowledge for many expanded and adopted to all MAPs in species because despite the immense Lebanon. This document provides a value of MAP for Lebanon, only few schematic representation of the species have been properly investigated recommended approach for managing and studies from an ecological, social and MAPs in Lebanon with tools developed economic dimensions and also very few and implemented by the project that have been valorized and integrated into provide technical support for each step full market chains. Lebanon requires an outlines. The last section of this effective strategy for medicinal and document includes a detailed aromatic plants which directs conservation guideline for the seven management actions on a species by project target MAP species. species level in one or several directions including wild harvesting, cultivation, and conservation.

2 | Page SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE RECOMMENDED APPROACH FOR MANAGING MAPS IN LEBANON

Identified Wild plant

Step 1: Assess and identify Potential Use Determine the plants use and parts used through: (i) literature review, (ii) enthnobotanical assessments and (ii) lab analysis (chemical, morphological, anatomical)

Yes No

Step 2: Assess Market Potential No Identify the most commercially important MAPs for both domestic and international markets based on studies and market investigations

Yes

Step 3: Assess Suitability for sustainable wild harvesting Further investigation for conservation and Assess if wild harvesting of the plant does jeopardizing its existence in the wild management upon availability of resources Yes No

Wild harvesting Cultivation

1. Conserve wild gene bank

2. Capacity building for cultivation

3. Business development and impletion

3 | Page RECOMMENDED PROJECT REFERENCE FOR EACH STEP OF THE PROPOSED APPROACH FOR MANAGING MAPS IN LEBANON STEP POTENTIAL CONCERNED/ REFERENCE PROJECT OUTPUT INTERESTED ENTITY • Government 1. Categorized list of the most important wild medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) in • MAP based product Lebanon Potential Use companies Assessment • Research institutions • Cooperatives • CBE’s 1. Categorized list of the most important wild Lebanese medicinal and aromatic plants • Government (MAPs) Market Potential • Companies 2. International market study for selected medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) in Lebanon Assessment • Cooperatives (Alcea sps, Micromeria sps, Origanum sps, Satureia sps, Thymus sps, Viola sps, Thymbra • CBE’s spicata, Salvia fruticosa, Cyclotrichium origanifolium)

3. Assessment of suitability for sustainable wild harvesting for selected medicinal and Suitability for • Government aromatic plants (MAPs) in Lebanon (Salvia fruticosa, Origanum syriacum, Althaea sustainable wild • NGO damascena, Cyclotrichium origanifolium, Origanum ehrenbergii, Viola libanotica, harvesting • Clinopodium libanoticum) Assessment Research institutions

4. National distribution surveys, mapping and population assessments for selected medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) in Lebanon (Salvia fruticosa, Origanum syriacum, Althaea damascena, Cyclotrichium origanifolium, Origanum ehrenbergii, Viola libanotica, Clinopodium libanoticum, Thymbra spicata, Satureja thymbra)

• Government Assessment and 5. Monographs for selected medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) in Lebanon (Salvia • NGO Monitoring fruticosa, Origanum syriacum, Althaea damascena, Cyclotrichium origanifolium, Origanum • Research institutions ehrenbergii, Viola libanotica, Clinopodium libanoticum)

6. Salvia fruticosa “sage” population and species characteristics under wild conditions in Lebanon

4 | Page STEP POTENTIAL CONCERNED/ REFERENCE PROJECT OUTPUT INTERESTED ENTITY 7. Origanum syriacum “Oregano” population and species characteristics under wild conditions in Lebanon

8. Developing sustainable wild harvesting standards for Salvia fruticosa “sage” and Origanum syriacum “Oregano” in Lebanon

9. Developing sustainable wild harvesting standards for Laurus nobilis in Lebanon

10. Legal study on the existing institutional and legislative framework that affects the medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) sector in Lebanon

11. Establishing national standard for “Zaatar” in Lebanon • Government Conservation and • NGO 12. Draft IUCN Redlist conservation assessment reports for selected medicinal and Management • Research institutions aromatic plants (MAPs) in Lebanon (Salvia fruticosa, Origanum syriacum, Althaea damascena, Cyclotrichium origanifolium, Origanum ehrenbergii, Viola libanotica, Clinopodium libanoticum)

• Ministerial decision (179/1, 2012) and permit for the wild harvesting, transport and trade of sage and oregano in Lebanon • Draft decree for medicinal and aromatic plants conservation and management in Lebanon • Lebanese national standard (LIBNOR) for Salvia fruticosa

• Government 13. Sustainable wild harvesting training material for Salvia fruticosa “sage” and Origanum • NGO syriacum “Oregano” in Lebanon • Research institutions • • “To keep on harvesting sage and oregano”: Training documentary on sustainable wild Capacity Building and Schools harvesting in Lebanon Awareness Raising • General public • Companies • Illustrated guideline for best practices in medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) • Cooperatives harvesting and post harvesting • CBE’s • Illustrated identification guide for selected medicinal and aromatic (MAPs) plants in Lebanon

5 | Page STEP POTENTIAL CONCERNED/ REFERENCE PROJECT OUTPUT INTERESTED ENTITY • Selected medicinal and aromatic plants within the Medicinal plants project in Lebanon brochure • Origanum syriacum “Oregano” brochure

• Government 14. Management planning for medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) community based • NGO enterprises in Lebanon • Companies • Cooperatives 15. Management of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) community based enterprises • CBE’s with special emphasis on marketing and sales

16. Good Hygiene practices (GHP) and Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) training material for medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) Business development and implementation 17. Cultivation feasibility based on Origanum syriacum “Oregano” cultivation demonstration plots

• Enterprise/cooperative management plans for the four project pilot sites (Mejdel, Assia, Hsarat, Mrusti) • Business plan for Origanum syriacum “Oregano” community based enterprises • Business plan for Salvia fruticosa “Sage” community based enterprises • Business plans for the four project pilot sites (Mejdel, Assia, Hsarat, Mrusti)

• Government 18. Guideline for developing national management and monitoring plans for medicinal and Monitoring and • NGO aromatic plant in Lebanon: Case studies: Salvia fruticosa “sage” and Origanum syriacum adaptive management • Research institutions “Oregano”

6 | Page CONSERVATION GUIDELINES Origanum syriacum Origanum syriacum Latin name Origanum syriacum L Synonyms Majorana syriaca (L.) Rafin, Origanum maru auct. Lebanese Zūbā'; Za'atar ﻣﻧﺎﻗﻳﺵ ﺍﻭ ﺯﻭﺑﺎﻉ ﺯﻋﺗﺭ vernacular name Other species What is collectively known as Za’atar in Lebanon refers to included in the several species from the genus Origanum, Thymus, Satureja vernacular and Thymbra. name Eng. Wild Marjoram, Biblical Hyssop, Lebanese Oregano, Syrian Common Oregano name(s) Fr. Hyssop of the Bible Germ. Echter Staudenmajoram, Syrischer Ysop

Plant

Description (type and size of the plant)

and photo of

the target plant • Type: Perennial, dense, woody base sub shrub • Flowering: Mainly May-July but could extend until December • Height: average 80 cm • Scent: Highly Odoriferous phenolic “Zaatar” smell (mainly Thymol/carvacrol) • Stem: Grayish, hairy and erect • Leaves: Grayish, ovate, thick, hairy • Inflorescence: Terminal dense oblong spike • Flower: White • Additional Info: Entomophilous & Melliferous • Hybrids: three hybrids: O. barbaræ = O. syriacum x O. ehrenbergii, O. symeonis = O.syriacum x O. laevigatum and O. adonidis = O. syriacum x O. libanoticum In the field, it can be confused with Origanum ehrenbergii, an Identification endemic species primarily found on sandy soils under pine problems forest. Hybrids of O syriacum and O ehrenbergii can also create some confusion in the field. Leaves and flowers of O. syriacum are used widely as a food, flavour, and seasoning ingredient in the traditional cuisine in Lebanon and throughout the Eastern Mediterranean. Dried, they Potential use Use (scale and are a principal ingredient of Za'atar, used in Lebanon and assessment trend) exported globally as a topping for breads (Mankousheh). Fresh

shoots are used in salads (Fattouch) or as a fresh topping on baked breads (Ftyreh). Extracts, essential oils, and volatile oils from leaves and flowers are used as food flavourings, in clinically

7 | Page Origanum syriacum supported treatments for respiratory and bronchial problems, and as disinfectants in oral pharmaceuticals. In infusions Za’atar is used traditionally to stimulate memory, as an analgesic and sedative, as a remedy for cold, flu and cough, respiratory problems, hypotension, and to treat a wide range of stomach and intestinal problems. Za’atar is also used externally in emollients and antiseptic ointments. Plant part(s) Entire shoot (leaves & flowers) collected Leaves and flowers • Dried pure • Seasoning • Dried zaatar mix which includes sesame, sumac, salt Plant part(s) etc. used / Potential • Infusion end products • Distilled water • Essential oil Tender shoots • Salads and baked local pies

Phenological stage National Date range Average Yield % Pre-flowering January-April 1.95% Full bloom May-July 3.4% Seed set August – September 2.2% Post seed October-December 1.8%

The following 18 compounds constitute 90% of the essential oil. Additional 16 unidentified compounds constitute the remaining 10% of the oil.

Thymol Alpha phellanderene Carvacrol Limoneme Gamma terpinene Eucalyptol Alpha terpinene Alpha caryophyllene Cymene Caryophyllene oxide Essential oil Beta myrcene Beta.-phellandrene yield and profile Caryophyllene Beta.-pinene Thujone Camphene Alpha thujene Alpha pinene

Plant stage -

Pre flowering Flowerin g Seed set Post seed set Plant part distilled

Leaves Leaves & flowers Leaves & flowers Leaves Thymol 30.58 19.50 29.68 14.60 Carvacrol 33.31 55.61 41.67 36.40 Cymene 13.08 7.63 13.28 31.49

8 | Page Origanum syriacum Alpha terpineme 1.87 1.43 1.62 0.53 Gamma terpinene 11.29 5.72 5.73 4.28 Caryophyllene 2.60 2.32 2.79 1.34 Beta myrcene 1.10 1.10 1.03 0.75 Thymol + 63.38 75.11 71.36 51.00

carvacrol Use potential High The production of O. syriacum is mainly consumed nationally both as dry pure material and as a zaatar mix. Bakeries that produce the traditional Mankoushy is considered the biggest consumer of O. syriacum.

In 2008 the Lebanese export trade value for dried oregano herbs, zaatar mix, and oregano infusion herbs was approximately USD 1.9 million. In 2011 the size of this market was USD 2.4 million (20% increase in 3 years)

Pure oregano Lebanese production of wild harvested O. syriacum varies annually between 700 Tons and 800 Tons of dried material Import/export The pure Oregano exports represent approximately 25% of the herbal exprts ( HS 091099)

Mixed Zaatar Lebanon mainly exports Zaatar Mix to KSA, USA, Canada and Trade (scale Australia in the decresing order. Lebanon mainly imports Zaatar and trend) Mix from Syria (more than 70%) and Jordan (20%).

In 2011, Lebanon exported USD 1,285,934 (561 Tons) of Zaatar Market potential Mix, representing an annual average increase of 9% in terms of assessment value and an annual average decrease of 2% in terms of volume

since 2008. Lebanese Zaatar Mix imports rose by more than 14.4% since 2008, reaching 171 Tons in 2011.

Oregano infusions Lebanese herbal Infusion producers, exported volumes of Oregano infusions reached 7 Tons in 2011 representing only 0.74% of the exported aromatic plants detailed under HS 121190 while the local consumption is estimated at only 0.5 Ton.

Oregano essential oil & distilled water Lebanese exports of Oregano Oil represents less than 1% of the total essential oil exports. Lebanese production of Oregano distilled water is estimated to be 5,000 liters per year

There is both incentive and commercial potential to formalize and expand production.

Market If significantly higher amounts of this species could be potential / sustainably harvested from the wild or cultivated, new innovative value added products for the regional markets as well as for export promotion could be envisaged.

A really interesting product concept could be a Lebanese brand

9 | Page Origanum syriacum of the Za'atar mix using Origanum syriacum, among other local herbs special to Lebanon (e.g. Satureja thymbra or Thymbra spicata), with sesame seeds and Mediterranean sea salt. If the condiment mix carried Organic Wild and FairTrade or FairWild logo designations along with a Lebanese geo-authentic branding, this could be very interesting for the natural, organic and ethical trade markets of Europe and North America. National quality Draft standard NL 677 currently being updated (LIBNOR) and trade standard No known quality standards or trade specification in: • Australia • Canada (Origanum spp. & O. vulgare) International • EU quality and • India trade standard • Switzerland • USA (Origanum oil, Spanish oil from Thymus capitatus & various Organum spp) & Oleoresin origanum Does not expressly appear on any national positive lists of any of the selected counties. Some lists, however, non-specifically allow Origanum spp. which would indicate the allowance to import and use this species as generic “oregano” in food products. This is indeed the case for Canada and the United Regulatory States, both of which permit any species of Origanum to be used framework, under the common name “oregano. market access • Australia (O. majorana & O. vulgare) and • Canada (Origanum spp. & O. vulagare) requirements • EU (Origanum cretium, Origanum heracleoticum, Origanum for export majorana, Origanum vulgare) • India (O. majorana) • South Africa • Switzerland (O. majorana & O. vulagare) • USA (Origanum majorana, Origanum vulgare L. ssp. hirtum; syn.: Origanum heracleoticum auct. non. L.) Market potential High Suitability for sustainable wild Low risk (based on 2010 version) harvesting Low risk (based on 2011 Version and new IUCN redlist status) Assessment

Recommended production method Wild harvesting and cultivation

Common in the Levantine region (Southern Turkey, Syria, Geographic Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine) and less common in Cyprus and distribution Egypt (Sinai). In Lebanon, it has a continuous north-south distribution between 200 and 1600 m asl on west-facing slopes of the Mount Lebanon mountain chain where it is widely spread. Its distribution Habitat and becomes more scarce in the eastern slopes of Mount Lebanon Ecology under wild National and becomes really rare in the internal parts of the country to conditions distribution being completely absent in the Bekaa agricultural plain

Estimated to occupy approximately 880 km2 from the estimated suitable habitat range of 2,800 km2 Habitat Widely spread across different habitats between 200 and 1600 Description m asl on west facing slopes of the Mount Lebanon chain

10 | Page Origanum syriacum (Type, Wooded land (clear wooded land, scrubland, and burnt wooded specificity) land), grassland (dense grassland, clear grassland), and unproductive areas (bare soils) in Thermomediterranean, Eumediterranean, Supramediterranean and Mountainous Mediterranean vegetation levels The plant is suffrutescent with an annual seasonal cycle. It starts vegetative annual growth from the woody base parts during early spring with the development of the tender shoots. Flowering is initiated during April. Full blooming occurs between May and July. Later the species shifts to slow growth with secondary blooming appearing under Mediterranean climate until the first significant rains of the autumn. This seasonality is allowing one Development main harvest during summer. The plant experiences a main stages blooming phase followed by the emergence of late blooming of lateral stems thereafter

Phenological stage National Date range Pre-flowering January-April Full bloom May-July Seed set August – September

Post seed set October-December Estimated population size: 100,000,000 individuals

Average national plant density: 0.22 plants/m2

Average national plant density for harvestable sites: 0.44 plants/m2

Plant size class is based on the number of shoots

Percent contribution of different plant size class based on number of shoots/plant Size class 0 (herbaceous): 0.00 % Size class 1 (1-15 shoots): 44.42 % Size class 2 (16-30 shoots): 31.57 % Size class 3 (16-30 shoots): 14 % National Size class 4 (46-60 shoots): 7.91 % population Size class 5 (61-75 shoots): 1.72 % characteristics Size class 6 (76-90 shoots): 0.23 % (Estimated Size class 7 (91-105 shoots): 0.03 % size, density, Size class 8 (106-120 shoots): 0.10 % size or age- class structure)

Seed production • Average 12,855 seeds/plant • Average 51,292,000 seeds/ha • Average 4 kg of seeds/ha

Percent weight contribution of different plant parts

Fresh Dry Stem Leave Inflorescen Stem Leave Inflorescen s s ce s s ce 37% 33% 30% 39% 29% 32%

Average % Net dry weight of leaves and flowers from fresh weight of whole shoot

11 | Page Origanum syriacum • Outside harvesting window (February-May): 20% • Within harvesting window (June-October): 30%

Average fresh whole shoot biomass (stems + leaves + Inflorescence) from harvestable sites: 26 g/m2

Average dry marketable biomass (leaves and flowers) from harvestable sites: 7 g/m2

• Bisexual flowers Reproduction • Mainly insect pollinated (vegetative or • Population regenerates only through seeds by seeds, type • of pollination) Seed dispersal occurs at the onset of the first rains in Autumn • Estimated germination rate: 0.08% Population • Estimated survival rate (1 summer age): 14% Regeneration • Estimated survival rate (1 year age): 9.5% • Estimated survival rate (2 summers age): 9.5% Early and overharvesting: This species is the most heavily harvested and traded wild plant in Lebanon. Collectors and traders report increasing competition for this resource resulting in increasing harvest intensity and less sustainable practices, including early and repeated cutting of all new shoots (before seed set and dispersal). These practices likely reduce population regeneration potential.

Threats Habitat loss and damage: The stony, calcareous grassland and (causes and degraded forest habitat of this species is declining in area under impact) expansion of industry (e.g., quarries and mines), urban growth, and agricultural intensification (e.g, orchards, terrace field crops, nomadic grazing). Invasive and problematic species also reduce the habitat suitability. Fire intensity and frequency is increasing in these habitats.

Climate change: Vulnerability to climate change may be a concern as well especially due to drought and increased frequency of fires. Conservation and Conservation IUCN Red List Assessment: Management status Near threatened (NT), (IUCN version 3.1) Wild collection and export of O. syriacum from Lebanon are regulated by the Ministry of Agriculture (Ministerial Decision 179/1, March 2012). Time and method of harvest are controlled through a collection approval and permit system implemented by the Directorate of Rural Development and Natural Resources, Ministry of Agriculture.

The species distribution appears to overlap with several Conservation protected areas (Bentael Nature Reserve, Jabal Moussa Actions In- UNESCO-MAB Biosphere Reserve, and Jabal al Rihane Place UNESCO-MAB Biosphere Reserve.

Several sites identified by Radford et al. (2011) as potential Important Plant Areas in Lebanon (but not yet designated as such) are likely to include sub-populations of O. syriacum. Contribution of these sites to conservation of O. syriacum depends on better information about presence of this species in these sites and adequate protection of viable subpopulations within existing or new protected areas.

12 | Page Origanum syriacum

Ex situ accessions of this species are reported in botanic garden and seed bank collections (Plant Search 2013, Royal Botanic Gardens Kew Seed Information Database 2008). Cultivation of this species on a commercial scale in Lebanon may rely heavily on transplanting wild-sourced young individuals. However, a seed system is developed and many nurseries are producing seedling upon demand for cultivation.

Resource & habitat protection: Inclusion of viable subpopulations in protected areas; protection of wild collection sites from habitat conversion and degradation

Site/area Management: Implementation of management plans in areas important for wild collection

Harvest management: Implementation of good collection practice guidelines

Trade management: Reinforcement of area and resource management through the national trade permit system

Ex-situ conservation: Development of viable seed and nursery stock to support a commercial scale of cultivation

Ex-situ Conservation: Ex-situ conservation of in-situ genetic diversity Conservation Actions Awareness &Communications: Capacity building for local Needed collectors, cooperatives, resource managers and consumers

National level legislation: Implementation of the permit system (Ministerial Decision 179/1, March 2012)

Policies and regulations: Implementation of permit system (Ministerial Decision 179/1, March 2012)

Private sector standards & codes: Implementation of sustainable wild collection standard through certification

National level Compliance and enforcement: Enforcement of national permit system (Ministerial Decision 179/1, March 2012)

Livelihood, economic & other incentives: Promotion of increased local benefits for collectors and cooperatives from implementation of good collection practice guidelines and management plans

Research: • Population size, distribution, trends and regeneration characteristics: Confirm and expand baseline established by UNDP-GEF-LARI MAP project Research / • Harvest, use & livelihoods: Contribution of wild harvest of Monitoring this species to local and national economy Needed • Threats: Confirmation / review of main threats identified • Area-based Management Plan: Presence of this species in protected areas; review and adjustment of management plans in pilot sites; expansion to new sites

13 | Page Origanum syriacum • Harvest &Trade Management Plan: Review whether a national permit system is effective as a harvest and trade management tool for wild collection of this species • Yield and profile variability of the essential oil: according to season, geographic variation, wild and cultivation • Variety selection: Focus on specific chemotype for targeted industry and use

Monitoring • Population trends: Trends in population structure and density • Harvest level trends: Trend in harvest volume as an indicator of sustainable levels of wild harvest • Trade trends: Volumes of wild vs cultivated material in trade; domestic vs international trade as indicators of wild resource management • Habitat trends: Rate of habitat conversion, decline throughout species range in Lebanon National Promotion of domestication and regulation of wild harvesting Management plan or strategy in place • Maintain or increase productivity of wild-harvested populations • Maintain or increase the quality of harvested material • Replace destructive harvest practices with sustainable harvest practices Recommended • Increase income generation for local communities from National value-added locally produced MAP products Management • Increase quality controlled, sustainably harvested objectives MAP products that are certified and branded • Reduce conflicts (between collectors, between communities) resource access and benefits • Increase community-based management of wild- collected resources

• Changes in market supply (national, international) Recommended • Changes in market demand (national, international) National • Harvested biomass and quality (national monitoring sites) Monitoring • Change in national distribution Indicators • Implementation of good collection practice • A harvesting permit is required from Ministry of Agriculture • Allowed harvesting time Beginning of June-End of October • Leave 1/3 of main flowering stems of each harvested plant to Recommended guarantee sufficient seed amount for plant regeneration in practice for the site situ sustainable • Harvested once per season wild collection • Cut between 10-15 cm above ground • No uprooting • Use sharp cutting equipment to avoid uprooting • Avoid cutting in very hot and windy conditions

14 | Page

15 | Page CONSERVATION GUIDELINES Salvia fruticosa Salvia fruticosa Latin name Salvia fruticosa Mill. Salvia triloba L. fil., Synonyms Salvia libanotica Boiss. Et gaill. Lebanese Kassiin, Maryamiyeh, Kouwaysseh, Ayzakan vernacular name(s) Other species None included in the vernacular name Eng. Sage, Three-lobed Sage, Greek or Turkish Sage, Trifoliated sage Fr. Sauge trilobee; Common Germ. Griechischer Salbei, name(s) Greek Phaskos, Alyphaskia Turkish Adacayi, adacay of Izmir, elma yagi Spain “Salvia real” ou “sabia real”

Plant

Description (type and size of the plant) and photo of

the target plant • Type: Perennial, large sub-shrub with multiple woody stems • Flowering: February-June • Height: 0.5 - 1m • Scent: Highly Odoriferous • Stem: Thick, canescent, woolly • Leaves: Velvety gray-green three-lobed leaves, tomentous on both sides • Inflorescence: Short-branched panicle, erect, viscid, 15 cm. whorls 4-6 flowered • Flower: Violet pale (or pink), Calyx hispid, viscous, 0.8 cm, Corolla, 2-3 times longer than calyx • An entomophile and honey plant • In literature and in the market, can be confused with Salvia Identification officinalis problems • In the field can be confused with Phlomis fruticosa Use of S. fruticosa as a medicine in the Mediterranean region likely predates 1400 B.C. (Rivera et al. 1994). This species is not now widely used in Lebanon, where dried leaves are Potential use Use (scale and traditionally used on a small scale in infusions and distilled water assessment trend) as traditional treatments for stomach problems. In Southern

Lebanon, branches of wild sage are burned at gravesites, having an association with death and loss that may explain why its medicinal and culinary uses are limited in that country.

16 | Page Salvia fruticosa

Numerous medicinal uses are reported in pharmacopoeias and traditional systems of medicine. Taken as an infusion or otherwise orally, S. fruticosa is considered to have many medicinal properties, including hemostatic, antiseptic, sedative, stomachic and carminative (to treat intestinal disorders), antitussive, antispasmodic (to relax muscular spasms and cramps), hypoglycaemic, antirheumatic and lithocarpic (to remove kidney stones), antioxidant, antimicrobial, antifungal, and antiseptic. Extractions are used as a gargle for mouth diseases, and in ointments to heal wounds and skin infections, and to treat neurological disorders, rheumatism and arthritis. Dried leaves and essential oil of this species are widely used in the food industry as seasonings, flavourings, and antioxidants.

Plant part(s) Entire shoot with or without flowers collected Leaves • Dried Plant part(s) • Seasoning used / Potential • Infusion end products • Distilled water • Essential oil

Phenological Date range Average Yield stage % Pre-flowering January-February 0.70 % Flowering March-April 0.60% Seed set May-June 1.0% Post seed set July-September 2.0% Post seed set October-December 1.5%

The following 19 compounds constitute 85% of the essential oil. Additional 14 unidentified compounds constitute the remaining 15% of the oil.

• Alpha thujene • Alpha terpineol Essential oil • Camphene • Thujone yield and • Beta phellandrene • 1,8-cineole profile • Beta myrcene (eucalyptol) • Alpha terpinene • Caryophyllene • Cymene • Beta pinene • Limonene • Alpha pinene • Gamma terpinene • Alpha • Alpha phellandrene caryophyllene • Thymol • Caryophyllene • Carvacrol oxide

Plant stage -

Pre flowering Flowering Seed Set Post seed set Post seed set

17 | Page Salvia fruticosa Plant part

extracted Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves 1,8- cineole 41.31 37.75 45.97 51.83 31.71 (eucalyptol) Caryophyllene 15.03 20.45 21.58 11.51 3.42 Beta pinene 8.97 7.58 8.53 7.89 17.24 Alpha pinene 5.53 5.23 4.71 5.66 12.09 Alpha 4.60 2.99 3.54 3.60 2.93 caryophyllene Caryophyllene 2.20 3.27 1.43 1.18 0.20 oxide % contribution 1.16 1.65 1.32 1.73 1.29 of thujone to

total oil Use potential High Lebanese production of wild harvested Sage varies annually between 600 Tons and 800 Tons of dried material.

Lebanon exports approximately all the produced dried sage (600 to 800 Tons per year). This figure contradicts the average 450 Tons documented by Lebanese exports. Therefore, the majority of Trade (scale the sage exports is done without passing by the customs to and trend) Jordan and Palestine via Syria. Pure sage is also exported to the Gulf countries

The Lebanese Exports of Sage Oil represents less than 1% of the total essential oil exports. According to data gathered from local cooperatives, Lebanese production of Sage distilled water is estimated to be 12,500 liters per year. There is both incentive and commercial potential to formalize and expand production. The ability of Lebanon to reach new markets beyond its current main customers of Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Yemen and Turkey, could be possible but dependant on a Market potential range of factors. assessment Processed Botanical Raw Materials • Food grade dried leaf, whole, cut & sifted, ground, tea- bag-cut or powdered; conventional or with certifications (e.g. certified organic wild and/or FairWild certified). • Pharmacopoeial grade dried leaf (e.g. Salviae trilobae Market folium PhEur); whole or cut; conventional or with potential / certifications (e.g. certified organic wild and/or FairWild value added certified). Extracts and Oils • “Salvia Triloba Leaf Extract” marketed for use in cosmetic products for antimicrobial, astringent and oral care functions. • “Sage Triloba CO2 Extract” marketed for use in cosmetics and in perfumery, i.e. mouth water, tooth paste, shampoos, soaps etc., as well as potential uses in food and pharmaceutical products. • Sage essential oil. • Sage distilled water. Finished Products in Retail Packs

18 | Page Salvia fruticosa • A Lebanese brand of the Unani Medicine herbal tea formulation “Zahraa” that is presently available in Syria. This formulation contains some of the prioritized Lebanese species including three-lobed sage leaf. • A Lebanese brand of a three-lobed sage leaf single herb tea infusion product packed in filter teabags in cartons. • A Lebanese brand of Spice Seasoning Mix that contains three-lobed sage leaf. • A Lebanese brand of three-lobed sage leaf as a single- herb spice. National LIBNOR standard for Salvia fruticosa ssp. libanotica” issued in quality and 2012 (Reference Number 542). trade standard • Australia (Salvia fruticosa) • Canada (Salvia officinalis L., Salvia triloba L. or Salvia lavandulaefolia) International • EU Pharmacopoeial quality standard (Salvia fructicosa, quality and Three-Lobed Sage Leaf) trade standard • India (no standards for any spp.) • Switzerland (no standards for any spp.) • USA (Salvia sclarea Salvia officinalis Salvia lavandulaefolia Salvia hispanorium Salvia fruticosa appears on many national positive lists of the selected counties. • Australia (Salvia fruticosa, Salvia chinensis, Salvia hispanica, Salvia hispanorium, Salvia lavandulaefolia, Salvia miltiorrhiza, Regulatory Salvia officinalis, and Salvia sclarea) framework, • Canada (Salvia hispanica Salvia lavandulaefolia Salvia market access sclarea Salvia officinalis Salvia triloba Salvia lavandulaefolia) and • EU (Salvia triloba Salvia divinorum Salvia lavendulifolia Salvia requirements officinalis Salvia sclarea) for export • India (Salvia aegyptiaca Salvia haematodes Salvia plebeia Salvia sclarea Salvia moorcroftiana) • South Africa (other species of Salvia) • Switzerland (Salvia triloba, Salviae trilobae folium) • USA (Salvia triloba, Salvia fruticosa) Market potential High Suitability for sustainable wild Low risk (based on 2010 version) harvesting Medium risk (based on 2011 Version and new IUCN redlist status) Assessment Recommended Wild harvesting and cultivation production method East Mediterranean region (Italy, Cyprus, Albania, Turkey, Geographic Greece, Palestine, Syria, Libya) but seems to reach the distribution highest distribution abundance and density in Lebanon Western slopes of the mount Lebanon chain distributed from National sea level up to 800m a.s.l. Estimated to occupy between 80- distribution 230 km2 from the estimated suitable habitat range of 1400 Habitat and 2 km Ecology under wild Wooded land (clear wooded land, scrubland, and burnt conditions wooded land), grassland (dense grassland, clear grassland), and unproductive areas (bare soils) in Thermomediterranean Habitat Description and Eumediterranean vegetation levels at elevations 0–800 (Type, specificity) m asl in Lebanon. Mainly found in Mediterranean open woodland maquis/garrigue, on different stony slopes mainly limestone and marl. Found in habitats of varying degree of

19 | Page Salvia fruticosa degradation of the Mediterranean climax vegetation. The plant is suffrutescent with an annual seasonal cycle which begins with at the woody base parts during early spring with the development of the tender shoots. Flowering is initiated during March-April. After which the plant shifts to slow growth without a secondary blooming wave under Mediterranean climate until the first significant rains of the Development autumn where the vegetative growth reaccelerate again. This stages seasonality allows for one main harvest.

Phenological stage National Date range Pre-flowering January-February Flowering March-April Seed set May-June

Post seed set July-September Estimated population size: 126,000,000

Average national plant density for harvestable sites: 1.8 plants/m2

Plant size class is based on the number of shoots

Percent contribution of different plant size class based on number of shoots/plant Size class 0 (herbaceous): 8.13 % Size class 1 (1-15 shoots): 60.16 % Size class 2 (16-30 shoots): 19.05 % Size class 3 (31-45 shoots): 8.92 % Size class 4 (46-60 shoots): 3.36 % Size class 5 (60-80 shoots): 0.38 %

National Seed production population • Average 193 seeds/plant characteristics • Average 4,00,000 seeds/ha (Estimated size, • Average 27 kg of seeds/ha density, size or age-class Percent weight contribution of different plant parts structure) Fresh Dry

Stems Stems Leaves Leaves Inflorescence Inflorescence

19% 73% 8% 20% 71% 9%

% Net dry weight of leaves from fresh weight of whole shoot • February-May: 27% • June-October: 36%

Average fresh whole shoot biomass: 19 g/m2 Average dry leaves biomass: 6 g/m2 Reproduction • Bisexual flowers (vegetative or by • Mainly insect pollinated seeds, type of • Population regenerates only through seeds pollination)

20 | Page Salvia fruticosa • Estimated germination rate: : 0.27% Population • Estimated survival rate (1 summer age): 35% Regeneration • Estimated survival rate (1 year age): 18% • Estimated survival rate (2 summers age): 16.7% Early and overharvesting: This species has been wild- harvested throughout its eastern Mediterranean range for centuries for its medicinal and culinary uses. In recent years in Lebanon, export demand for the aromatic leaves has increased substantially, as has competition amongst commercial collectors of this resource, resulting in increasing harvest intensity and less sustainable practices, including early cutting of all new shoots (before flowering, seed set and dispersal).

Threats (causes Habitat loss and damage: The stony, calcareous grassland and impact) and degraded forest habitat of this species is declining in area under expansion of agriculture (e.g, orchards and terrace field crops); industry (e.g., quarries and mines), and urban growth. Invasive and problematic species also reduce the habitat suitability. Fire intensity and frequency is increasing in these habitats.

Climate change: Vulnerability to climate change may be a concern as well especially due to drought and increased frequency of fires. Conservation IUCN Red List Assessment: status Near threatened (NT), (IUCN version 3.1) Wild collection and export of S. fruticosa from Lebanon are regulated by the Ministry of Agriculture (Ministerial Decision 179/1, March 2012). Time and method of harvest are Conservation and controlled through a collection approval and permit system Management implemented by the Directorate of Rural Development and Natural Resources, Ministry of Agriculture.

The species distribution appears to overlap with several protected areas (Bentael Nature Reserve, Jabal Moussa UNESCO-MAB Biosphere Reserve,and Jabal al Rihane UNESCO-MAB Biosphere Reserv Reserve, Jabal Moussa UNESCO-MAB Biosphere Reserve, Shouf UNESCO-MAB Biosphere Reserve, and Jabal al Rihane UNESCOMAB Conservation Biosphere Reserve. Actions In-Place

Several sites identified by Radford et al. (2011) as potential Important Plant Areas in Lebanon (but not yet designated as such) are likely to include sub-populations of S. fruticosa. Contribution of these sites to conservation of S. fruticosa depends on better information about presence of this species in these sites and adequate protection of viable subpopulations within existing or new protected areas.

Ex situ accessions of this species are reported in botanic garden and seed bank collections (Plant Search 2013, Royal Botanic Gardens Kew Seed Information Database 2008).

• Resource &habitat protection: Inclusion of viable Conservation subpopulations in protected areas; protection of wild- Actions Needed collection sites from habitat conversion and degradation • Site/area management: Implementation of

21 | Page Salvia fruticosa management plans areas important for wild collection • Harvest management: Implementation of good collection practice guidelines • Trade management: Reinforcement of area and resource management through national trade permit system • Awareness &communications: Capacity building for local collectors, cooperatives, resource management, consumers • National Legislation: Implementation of permit system (Ministerial Decision 179/1, March 2012) • Law & policy Compliance and enforcement: Enforcement of national permit system (Ministerial Decision 179/1, March 2012) • Livelihood, economic & other incentives: Promotion of increased local benefits for collectors & cooperatives from implementation of good collection practice guidelines and management plans Research: • Population size, distribution, trends and regeneration characteristics: Confirm and expand baseline established by UNDP-GEF-LARI MAP project • Harvest, use & livelihoods: Contribution of wild harvest of this species to local and national economy • Threats: Confirmation / review of main threats identified • Area-based Management Plan: Presence of this species in protected areas; review and adjustment of management plans in pilot sites; expansion to new sites • Harvest &Trade Management Plan: Review whether a national permit system is effective as a harvest and Research trade management tool for wild collection of this species /monitoring • Yield and profile variability of the essential oil: Needed according to season, geographic variation, wild and cultivation Monitoring • Population trends: Trends in population structure and density • Harvest level trends: Trend in harvest volume as an indicator of sustainable levels of wild harvest • Trade trends: Volumes of wild vs cultivated material in trade; domestic vs international trade as indicators of wild resource management • Habitat trends: Rate of habitat conversion, decline throughout species range in Lebanon National • Regulation of wild harvesting Management plan • National standard for sage or strategy in place • Maintain or increase productivity of wild-harvested populations • Maintain or increase the quality of harvested material Recommended • Replace destructive harvest practices with sustainable National harvest practices Management • Increase income generation for local communities from objectives value-added locally produced MAP products • Reduce conflicts (between collectors, between communities) resource access and benefits • Development of cultivation protocols

22 | Page Salvia fruticosa • Changes in market supply (national, international) Recommended • Changes in market demand (national, international) National • Harvested biomass and quality (national monitoring Monitoring sites) Indicators • Change in national distribution • Implementation of good collection practice • A harvesting permit is required from Ministry of Agriculture • Allowed harvesting time Mid June-End of October Recommended • Harvested once per season practice for • Harvest all stems and all plants sustainable wild • Cut between 10-15 cm above ground collection • No uprooting • Use sharp cutting equipment to avoid uprooting • Avoid cutting in very hot and windy conditions

23 | Page CONSERVATION GUIDELINES Origanum ehrenbergii Origanum ehrenbergii Latin name Origanum ehrenbergii Boiss. None Synonyms Lebanese Al Zouwayba'a, Za'atar jordi, Za'atar-al-snawbar, Za'aytri vernacular name (s) Other species What is collectively known as Za’atar in Lebanon refers to included in this several species from the genus Origanum, Thymus, Satureja Lebanese and Thymbra. vernacular name Eng. Ehrenberg's Marjoram Common Fr. Origan d’Ehrenberger name(s) Germ. Ehrenbergerischer Majoram

Plant

Description (type and size of the • Perennial chamaephyte (subshrub) (less dense plant) and photo Type: plants than O. syriacum) of the target • plant Flowering: May-October • Height: up to 80 cm • Scent: zaatar acute thymol/carvacrol aromatic scent • Stem: Green Erected, wandlike, with longer internods, Sparingly hairy below • Leaves: Bright green, ovate, obtuse, 1-2cm, Glandular dotted • Inflorescence: less dense, less hairiness and more extended than O. syriacum • Flower: White, calyx of regular 5 teeth, non bilabiated, shorter than the bracts, Bracts ovate to oblong-spatulate, glandular dotted, Corolla tube 3 times longer than calyx Identification Origanum syriacum problems Dried and ground leaves and flowers of O. ehrenbergii are locally added to or substituted for O. syriacum as a principal ingredient of Za'atar, a topping for traditional breads (Mankousheh). Fresh shoots are used in salads (Fattouch) or as a fresh topping on baked breads (Ftyreh). It is also used as a seasoning in traditional cuisine and in household remedies in Potential use Lebanon. In traditional medicine this species is not Use (scale and assessment differentiated from co-occurring species of Origanum, trend) Thymbra, and Thymus, known collectively as Za’atar in Lebanon. These species are traditionally used to stimulate memory, as analgesics and sedatives, and as remedies for cold, flu and cough, respiratory problems, hypotension, and a wide range of stomach and intestinal problems. These species are also used externally as emollients and antiseptic ointments.

24 | Page Origanum ehrenbergii Plant part(s) Entire shoot collected Dried leaves and flowering shoots • Mixed with Origanum syriacum in the traditional zaatar mix which includes sesame, sumac and salt etc. Plant part(s) • Infusion used / Potential • Distilled water end products • Essential oil Tender shoots • Salads and baked local pies Yield: Whole leaves and flowers: 3.7% Ground leaves and flowers: 1%

Profile 8 identified compounds constitute 90% of the oil while 6 additional compounds constitute the remaining 10%

Identified compound % Alfa tujene 0.75 Essential oil yield and profile Alfa pinene 0.93 Camphene 0.07 Beta myrcene 1.73 Cymene 14.83 Gamma terpinene 8.95 Thymol 50.07 Carvacrol 15.40 Caryophyllene 0.34

Use potential Limited

Trade (scale and Trade is limited to local markets were the species occurs in the trend) wild, wider use and trade has not been documented. If significantly higher amounts of this species could be sustainably harvested from the wild or produced through cultivation, then it could make sense to consider the development of innovative value-added products for export Market potential / promotion with a Lebanon geographical brand. value added

This would require a significant scale-up due to the high quantities of fresh aerial parts that would be necessary for a commercial oil distillation operation for export promotion. Market potential National quality None assessment and trade standard No known quality standards or trade specification in: • Australia • Canada (Origanum spp. & O. vulagare) • EU International • India quality and trade • standard Switzerland • USA (Origanum oil, Spanish oil from Thymus capitatus & various Origanum spp) & Oleoresin origanum)

25 | Page Origanum ehrenbergii Does not appear on any national positive lists of any of the selected counties, although some lists non-specifically allow Origanum spp. which would indicate allowance to import and use in products.

Almost no evidence was found to demonstrate that any Regulatory ingredients made from Origanum ehrenbergii are commercially framework, traded or actively used outside of its limited range of Lebanon. market access • Australia (O. majorana & O. vulgare) and • Canada (Origanum spp. & O. vulagare) requirements for • EU (Origanum cretium, Origanum heracleoticum, export Origanum majorana, Origanum vulgare) • India (O. majorana) • South Africa • Switzerland (O. majorana & O. vulagare) • USA (Origanum majorana, Origanum vulgare L. ssp. hirtum; syn.: Origanum heracleoticum auct. non. L.) Limited Market potential

Suitability for sustainable wild Medium risk (based on 2010 version) harvesting Medium risk (based on 2011 Version and new IUCN redlist status) Assessment Cultivation is the recommended option but wild harvesting can be permitted Recommended under very strict sustainability standards within a regulatory permit system production method with rigorous monitoring Geographic Endemic to Lebanon distribution Mainly restricted to pine forest on sandy soils from the coast to 2000 m asl on the western slopes of Mount Lebanon and National South Lebanon Governorates in Lebanon. distribution Estimated to occupy between 40-130 km2 from the estimated suitable habitat range of 150 km2 Dense pine, clear pine, and grassland land cover on sand and Habitat calcareous soils, dolomitic sand, and sandy soils in Description Thermomediterranean, Eumediterranean, Supramediterranean (Type, and Mountainous Mediterranean vegetation levels between 0 specificity) and 2000 m asl. The plant is suffrutescent with an annual easonal cycle which starts at the woody base parts during early spring with the Habitat and Ecology development of the tender shoots. Flowering is initiated during under wild Development April-May. The harvest is done in June. Later the species is conditions stages shifts to slow growth with secondary blooming appearing under Mediterranean climate until the first significant rains of the autumn. This seasonality is allowing one main harvest during late spring early summer. National Estimated density: 0.065 plants/m2 population characteristics Estimated population size: 2,600,000 (Estimated size, density, size or age-class structure) Reproduction • Bisexual flowers (vegetative or by • Mainly insect pollinated seeds, type of • Population regenerates only through seeds pollination)

26 | Page Origanum ehrenbergii Population No data available Regeneration Habitat loss: Existing scattered subpopulations of this plant species are likely declining in size, area, extent, and number of locations primarily due to conversion of limited suitable habitat for development of sand quarries and expansion of agricultural, industrial, commercial, and residential development, particularly near the coast.

Habitat degradation: Forest, scrubland, and grassland habitats are subject to ongoing degradation from uncontrolled grazing of goats and increasing incidence and intensity of fire, particularly in pine forest vegetation. Threats (causes and impact) Unsustainable wild harvesting: There is direct pressure on this species from wild harvest of shoots and flowers for local use in traditional foods and medicines.

Climate change: The eastern Mediterranean is considered to be a region with high exposure to the effects of climate change. O. ehrenbergii has some traits (rarity and habitat specificity) that contribute to high sensitivity to climate change impacts, although its adaptability to several vegetation types and the buffering effects of forest may reduce its vulnerability to climate change impacts (increasing periods of drought, elevated temperatures, and extreme weather events). IUCN Red List Assessment: Conservation VU - Vulnerable, B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v)+2ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v) status (IUCN version 3.1) Conservation and Its observed and predicted distribution may overlap with Management several protected areas in Lebanon (Jabel el Qariqif Forest Reserve, Shouf UNESCO-MAB Biosphere Reserve and Jabal Al Rihane UNESCO-MAB Biosphere Reserve.

Conservation It may be present in at least three proposed Important Plant Actions In-Place Areas in Lebanon (Tannourine, Keserwan, Rihane, but less likely in a fourth, Mount Hermel) described by Radford et al. (2011).

No ex-situ collections are documented in botanic gardens or seed/gene banks (BGCI 2013, Biodiversity International 2013). • Site/area protection: Identification of existing or designation of new protected areas in which this species occurs. • Resource & habitat protection: Identification or designation of new protected areas that include sandy soil substrates under pine forest • Site/area management: Control of goat grazing to balance reduction of direct impacts of grazing with Conservation improved fire management in pine forests Actions Needed • Harvest management: Encouragement of local management of O. ehrenbergii harvest timing and intensity to promote pollination and seed dispersal. • Ex-situ conservation: Establishment of ex situ collections based on intraspecific genetic diversity in situ. • Awareness & communications: Promote awareness of conservation and management actions required by protected areas, forest, and community resource

27 | Page Origanum ehrenbergii managers • National level Law & policy: Development and enforcement of local, forest, and protected areas management plans that include this species Research: • Population size, distribution, trends and regeneration characteristics: Confirm and expand baseline established by UNDP-GEF-LARI MAP project • Harvest, use & livelihoods: Confirmation that use is primarily local, small-scale • Threats: Particular focus on monitoring effects of grazing and fire • Actions: Presence of this species in existing and proposed protected areas. • Plant biochemical composition: Better knowledge of Research species biochemical composition /monitoring • Plant Biology: Plants, seeds and populations biology, Needed cycles phonological stages, etc. • Area-based Management Plan: Inclusion of subpopulations of this species and predicted habitat in protected and other managed natural areas Monitoring: • Population trends: Trends in population structure and density • Harvest level trends: Establishment of practical indicators of change in harvest intensity • Habitat trends: Continued monitoring of habitat conversion and degradation near the Lebanon coast, and expansion of such monitoring to other areas of Lebanon National None Management plan or strategy in place • Maintain or increase productivity of wild-harvested populations Recommended • Ex situ conservation to maintain a healthy and viable gene National bank Management • Replace destructive harvest practices with sustainable objectives harvest practices • Development of cultivation protocols Recommended • Change in national distribution National • Harvested biomass and quality (national monitoring sites) Monitoring • Changes in market supply (national, international) Indicators • Changes in market demand (national, international) Recommended To be developed based on rigorous assessments, investigation practice for and surveys of the species sustainable wild collection

28 | Page CONSERVATION GUIDELINES Althaea damascena Althaea damascena Latin name Althaea damascena - Mouterd Synonyms Alcea damascena ﺧﺎﺗﻣﻳﺔ ﺩﻣﺷﻘﻲ ,Lebanese Khetmiyeh Dimachq vernacular name(s) Other species Khetmiyeh group (Alcea setosa, Alcea pallida) included in Lebanese vernacular name Common Eng. Damascus Hollyhock; Fr. Guimauve de damas; Germ. name(s) Stockrose

Plant

Description (type and size of the plant) and photo of the target plant • Type: Perennial, tall herb • Flowering: May-September • Height: up to more than 1m • Scent: Non-odiferous • Stem: Grayish, simple, tomentous • Leaves: Large, segmented, canescent, dense hairiness • Inflorescence: fleshy spike • Flower: White, carpels pubescent, smooth seeds, calycle less than 1/3 of the calyx Identification Alcea pallida problems Dried flowers of A. damascena are mainly admixed with dried leaves and flowers of other plant species taken as an infusion known in Lebanon as Zhourat. Dried flowers are Use (scale and used similarly in Unani medicine, in particular as a trend) component of herbal tea known as Zahraa, popular in Syria as a digestive and to promote good health (Carmona et al. 2005). Potential use Plant part(s) Flowers assessment collected • Flowers: they are dried and used to prepare tisane mixtures in Syria and Lebanon. Plant part(s) • Tisane: the infusions of the dried flowers material is used / Potential used alone or in mixtures for medicinal purposes. end products • Petals: are used to make a refreshing herbal tea as well as a part of tisane mixtures. Essential oil Not available yield and profile Limited Use Potential

29 | Page Althaea damascena Trade levels and values are difficult to confirm because this species is known to be used interchangeably with Trade (scale and other related species native to Lebanon (including trend) Alcea digitata and A. setosa ) as well as cultivated A. rosea, which share the common name Khatmieh. If production levels are significantly increased, new innovative products for the local market as well as for export promotion to neighboring countries could be Market potential / envisaged. In that scenario, it could be interesting to value added develop and brand finished herbal tea products that contain Alcea damascena as a component of identified folk- or traditional (Unani) medicinal herbal teas, but with a Lebanese geographic origin designation. National quality and None trade standard Only one species of Alcea (Alcea rosea; syn.: Althaea Market potential rosea) has existing standards in selected countries assessment • Australia (Alcea rosea) International quality • EU (Alcea rosea) and trade standard • India • Switzerland (Alcea rosea) • USA Only one species of Alcea (Alcea rosea; syn.: Althaea rosea) is expressly listed or approved for certain uses, and only in some countries. • Australia (Alcea rosea) Regulatory • Canada framework, market • EU (Alcea rosea) access and • India requirements for • Pakistan (Alcea rosea) export • South Africa (Alcea rosea & Alcea officinalis) • Switzerland • Syria (Alcea damascene used in Zahraa) • USA (Alcea rosea) Market potential Limited Suitability for Medium risk (based on 2010 version) sustainable wild Medium risk (based on 2011 Version and new IUCN redlist status) harvesting Cultivation is the recommended option but cultivation can be permitted Recommended under very strict sustainability standards within a regulatory permit system production method with rigorous monitoring Geographic Lebanon distribution Syrian Arab Republic Abandoned agricultural land, near roadsides and villages, in dry, marginal areas with Presteppic Mediterranean vegetation below 1500 m asl in the northern Bekaa valley in Lebanon and adjacent areas in Syria, In dryland areas mainly concentrated between Habitat and Baalbak and Hermel (no plants were found south of Ecology under wild National distribution Baalbak). Found along the anti mountain Lebanon conditions chain but more concentrated on the eastern side of the mount Lebanon chain.

Estimated to occupy between 5-300 km2 from the estimated suitable habitat range of 67 km2 Habitat Description Bare rock, bare soil and grassland land cover, (Type, specificity) Presteppic supramediterranean and Mediterranean

30 | Page Althaea damascena presteppic vegetation levels at elevations below 1500 m asl in Lebanon. The plant is a cryptophyte, during winter an underground part remains while the aerial part dries completely. In early spring the vegetative cycle starts with basal wide leaves development as a stemless Development stages plant that prepares the nutritional stock for blooming later in late spring. Then the plant develops flowering stems but with reduced size leaves due to water stress. After seed set, this aerial part dries. National population Average density of 0.07 plants/m2 characteristics Estimated population size: 371,000 (Estimated size, density, size or age- class structure) Reproduction • Bisexual flowers (vegetative or by • Mainly insect pollinated seeds, type of • Population regenerates only through seeds pollination) • Average Reproductive Age: 2 years Population No data available Regeneration Flowers are collected for medicinal use, but there is currently no indication that the volume, time, or manner of harvest threatens the survival of this species.

Although the natural Presteppic Mediterranean habitat is under pressure of conversion to agriculture, this species appears to establish successfully in abandoned fields and margins Threats (causes and impact) Habitat degradation: Intensification of agriculture and grazing may reduce the suitable habitat for this species over time.

Climate change: Although this species may not be particularly sensitive to climate change effects the increasing incidence and intensity of drought in the eastern Mediterranean region may reduce habitat suitability and reproductive success over the long term. Conservation and IUCN Red List Assessment: Conservation status Management LC - Least Concern, (IUCN version 3.1) The species distribution appears with the Yammouneh Nature Reserve.

It may be present in two proposed Important Plant Conservation Actions Areas in Lebanon (Mount Hermel and Aarsal; Radford In-Place et al. 2011).

It is not reported in botanic garden or other ex situ collections (BGCI 2013, Bioversity International 2013). • Captive breeding/artificial propagation: Promotion of local domestication. • Ex-situ conservation: Collection and ex situ Conservation Actions management of intraspecific genetic diversity in Needed Lebanon and Syria • Linked enterprises & livelihood alternatives: Promote local monitoring of resource abundance and availability in relation to market trends

31 | Page Althaea damascena Research: • Population size, distribution, trends and regeneration characteristics: Confirm and expand baseline established by UNDP-GEF-LARI MAP project • Harvest, use & livelihoods: trends in market demand, local benefits, resource availability • Plant biochemical composition: Better Research /monitoring knowledge of species biochemical composition Needed • Plant Biology: Plants, seeds and populations biology, cycles phonological stages, etc. Monitoring: • Population trends: Trends in population structure and density • Harvest level trends: Monitor to detect large increased in commercial demand for products that include flowers of this species National Management None plan or strategy in place • Maintain or increase productivity of wild-harvested populations Recommended • Ex situ conservation to maintain a healthy and National Management viable gene bank objectives • Replace destructive harvest practices with sustainable harvest practices • Development of cultivation protocols • Change in national distribution • Harvested biomass and quality (national Recommended monitoring sites) National Monitoring • Changes in market supply (national, international) Indicators • Changes in market demand (national, international) Recommended To be developed based on rigorous assessments, practice for investigation and surveys of the species sustainable wild collection

32 | Page CONSERVATION GUIDELINES Cyclotrichium origanifolium Cyclotrichium origanifolium Cyclotrichium origanifolium - (Labill.) Manden. & Latin name Scheng. Calamintha origanifolia (Labill.) Boiss., Clinopodium Synonyms origanifolium Labill. Hashishet El-Basha, Hashishet El-Jabal, Hashishet El- Lebanese vernacular Bahsa, Na'ana'iyyé, Hashishat-al-daght, Ishbet name(s) sannine, Ishbet mar Simaan. Other species included in None Lebanese vernacular name Eng. Marjoram-leaved calamint; Common name(s) Fr. calamenthe a feuilles d’origan; erm Bergminze

Plant

Description (type and size of the plant) and photo of • Type: small shrub (chamaephyte), Woody thick the target plant rootstock and trunk, highly ramified • Flowering: June-September • Height: 20-40 cm • Scent: Highly Odoriferous “minty” smell • Stem: Grayish, slender, erect, flexuous, glabrous or appressed velvety • Leaves: Light Green, hairy, suborbicular to ovate, 6-10 mm • Inflorescence: whorls spaced, multiflore, short peduncled • Flower: corolla pink, tube scarcely exerted, bracts acuminate, as long as calyx, calyx 5 mm with uneven teeth Confusion with other species of Lamiaceae family (clinopodium, Micromeria, etc.). But at that altitude of Identification problems its distribution these species are absent. So confusion may occur if people think that it can be present at lower elevations. Use of this species is primarily limited to local, Use (scale and trend) traditional use in Lebanon Plant part(s) collected Entire shoot Infusions and liquors prepared from leaves and flowers Potential use of related members of this genus the mint family are assessment considered to have diaphoretic, expectorant, Plant part(s) used / hypotensive, antihelmintic, antispasmodic and Potential end products carminative properties.

Essential oil is used as an ointment to treat anxiety, bruises, muscle pain, headache, and stomachache

33 | Page Cyclotrichium origanifolium • Essential oil: essential oil water is extracted from the aerial part and used locally. • Liquor: liquor is prepared from aerial parts. According to the surveys it needs considerable amounts of plant material. • Tisane: it is prepared from aerial flowering parts and used mainly on household level. • Flavoring agent: the species is used with C. niveum as flavoring agent in soups and salads in Turkey. D-Menthone (34.33%), 3-Pinanone (21.20%), Menthol isomer (11.94%), Pulegone (14.16%) (GEF-UNDP- LARI 2013) Essential oil yield and

profile Pulegone 22.5%, isomenthone 12.2%, isopulegone 5.8%, piperitenon 9.6%, piperitone 6.9%, cardinal 4.0% as main constituents (Formisano et al., 2007). Use potential Limited Trade in local markets has been observed, but wider Trade (scale and trend) use and trade has not been documented Outside of micro- or small enterprises, there would hardly be an economy of scale to justify new product development at this annual level of raw material availability.

If sustainable scaling up is deemed possible, new innovative products for the local market as well as for Market potential / value export promotion could be envisaged. In that scenario, added it could be interesting to develop and brand finished herbal tea products as well as essential oils for aromatherapy with a Lebanese geographic origin designation innovative value-added products, including the essential oil for food uses (e.g. flavor component in liqueurs) and/or medicinal uses (e.g. for aromatherapy inhalant use or topical application in creams or ointments). National quality and trade None Market potential standard assessment No known quality standards or trade specification in: • Australia International quality and • EU trade standard • India • Switzerland • USA Does not appear on any national positive lists of any of the selected counties. Almost no evidence was found to demonstrate that any ingredients made from Cyclotrichium origanifolium are commercially traded or actively used outside of its limited range of Lebanon and Turkey Regulatory framework, • Australia market access and • Canada requirements for export • EU • India • South Africa (Calamintha nepeta & Calamintha officinalis & Calamintha sylvatica) • Switzerland • USA

34 | Page Cyclotrichium origanifolium Use potential Limited Suitability for sustainable wild High risk (based on 2010 version) harvesting High risk (based on 2011 Version and new IUCN redlist status) Assessment Recommended Cultivation production method Not recommended for wild harvesting due to high risk of unsustainable wild harvesting Geographic Lebanon distribution Turkey Occurs on stony slopes in rocky habitats at elevations between 1900 and 2600 m asl along the eastern boundaries of Mount Lebanon and North Lebanon National distribution

Estimated to occupy between 6-70 km2 from the estimated suitable habitat range of 70 km2 Occupies areas of bare rock, bare soil and grassland land cover in the Oromediterranean vegetation level at 1900- 2600 m asl, on flat, S, SW, W, NW, and N slopes, and on the following soil types: gravel and massive landslide, Habitat Description stones and bare rocks, yellowish mountain soil, and white (Type, specificity) greyish soil. Grows in eroded gravel and gullies on open slopes where there is little other vegetation. The distribution of this taxon in isolated patches on high, bare, rocky terrain Habitat and suggests it is a member of a relict boreal flora. Ecology under As a small shrub (chamaephyte), the woody thick rootstock wild conditions develops highly ramified aerial green part after snow melt (April-May). Then flowers emerge in June until September. Development stages Then after seed set the plant endures again another cold winter thereby loosing the viability of its annual aerial parts while keeping its woody basis to survive the cold winter. National population • Estimated density: 0.5 plants/m2 characteristics • Estimated population size: 2,750,000 plants (Estimated size, density, size or age- class structure) Reproduction • Bisexual flowers (vegetative or by • Mainly insect pollinated seeds, type of • Population regenerates only through seeds pollination) Project germination test showed an average germination Population rate of 0.19% using top soils from the plants natural Regeneration habitats and 0% germination with using normal soil. Climate change: C. origanifoium has several traits that indicate high sensitivity and low adaptability to climate change impacts: specialised habitat requirements, narrow environmental tolerance, rarity, and barriers to dispersal that include limited suitable habitat and limited dispersal of pollen and seed. Bare rocky slopes at high elevations are Conservation Threats (causes and particularly exposed to drought and elevated temperatures, and impact) and the Eastern Mediterranean is considered to have Management particularly high exposure to the effects of climate change.

Habitat degradation: Disturbance of limited habitat and grazing effects by nomadic goat herds on habitat quality may have a direct impact on viability of subpopulations of this species, as there is little alternative fodder at high

35 | Page Cyclotrichium origanifolium elevations.

Habitat loss: Tourism infrastructure (primarily for alpine skiing) has been developed in at least one location where a subpopulation of this species occurs.

Unsustainable wild harvesting; Wild collection of flowering shoots for local medicinal use may depress regeneration of subpopulations, but likely only in sites accessible by road or near settlements. IUCN Red List Assessment:

Conservation status EN - Endangered, B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) (IUCN version 3.1) The species distribution appears to occur Horsh Ehden Nature Reserve, the Arz Bcharreh Protection / Protected Zone, and the Foret des Cedres de Dieu Forest Reserve where these include suitable habitat.

It may be present in two proposed Important Plant Areas in Conservation Actions Lebanon (Mount Makmel and Sannine-Knaisseh; Radford In-Place et al. 2011).

Accessions from Lebanon are held ex situ by the Millennium Seed Bank (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2008), and are reported in one botanic garden (BGCI 2013).

• Site/area protection: Identification of existing or designation of new protected areas in which this species naturally occurs. • Resource & habitat Protection: Control impacts of grazing in this habitat and on this species • Harvest management: Monitor trends and impacts of wild collection on wild subpopulations • Trade management: Monitor trends in use and trade. Conservation Actions • : Collection and ex situ Needed Ex-situ conservation management of intraspecific genetic diversity of this species. • Awareness &Communications: Key species for national public education and awareness of climate change impacts. • National level Legislation: Development of national threatened species list and legislation to protect these species and their habitats Research: • Population size, distribution & trends: Confirm baseline data established by GEF-UNDP-LARI (2013) • Threats: Confirm and monitor, with a particular focus on monitoring effects of climate change • Area-based Management Plan: Impacts of nomadic Research /Monitoring goat grazing and development of recreational Needed infrastructure on species in this habitat • Plant biochemical composition: Better knowledge of species biochemical composition • Plant Biology: Plants, seeds and populations biology, cycles phonological stages, etc.

36 | Page Cyclotrichium origanifolium Monitoring: • Population trends: Trends in population structure and density • Habitat trends: Confirm and monitor impacts of grazing and recreational infrastructure National Management None plan or strategy in place • Maintain or increase productivity of wild-harvested populations Recommended • Ex situ conservation to maintain a healthy and viable National Management gene bank objectives • Replace destructive harvest practices with sustainable harvest practices • Development of cultivation protocols • Change in national distribution Recommended • Harvested biomass and quality (national monitoring National Monitoring sites) Indicators • Changes in market supply (national, international) • Changes in market demand (national, international) Recommended Not recommended for wild harvesting practice for sustainable wild collection

37 | Page CONSERVATION GUIDELINES Clinopodium libanoticum - (Boiss.) Kuntze Clinopodium libanoticum - (Boiss.) Kuntze Clinopodium libanoticum - (Boiss.) Kuntze Latin name

Synonyms Micromeria libanotica ﺯﻭﻓﻰ ﻟﺑﻧﺎﻧﻳﺔ, Lebanese vernacular Zoufa lubnan; Shummaysah lubnāniyyah name(s) Other species Zoufa group (Micromeria myrtifolia, Micromeria greaga, included in the Micromeria juliana) Lebanese vernacular name Eng. Lebanon Savory; Fr. Micromerie libanaise; Germ. Common name(s) Lebanischer Ysop

Plant

Description (type and size of the plant)

and photo of the • Low herb (hemicryptophyte) Woody rootstock target plant Type: • Flowering: June-September • Height: 5-20 cm • Scent: Slightly odoferous • Stem: filiform, brittle, erect, canescent color, woolly • Leaves: Light Green, hairy, sessile, orbicular to ovate, obtuse 0.5-1.2 cm • Inflorescence: whorls short peduncled, loosely racemed • Flower: Pink,tubular, Calyx non feathery purpurish, Calyx ¼ -1/5 the tube. Corolla 0.45 cm. 1.5 longer than calyx Identification None problems Investigation of the commercial potential of this species is based on the commercial value of related species in the genus Micromeria (e.g. M. myrtifolia and M. barbata) used in traditional medicine in Lebanon and the possibility of confusion with these more common Use (scale and species. However, there is little likelihood that this trend) species is currently in use and trade on its own merits or Potential use as a substitute for related medicinally-used species. assessment The restricted and relatively inaccessible distribution, small biomass and short flowering season in the high mountains of Lebanon do not support popular use Plant part(s) None collected Plant part(s) used / None Potential end products

38 | Page Clinopodium libanoticum - (Boiss.) Kuntze Yield: traces

Main components: Essential oil yield Limoneme (55%) and Bicyclogermacrene (28%) (GEF- and profile UNDP-LARI 2013)

Monoterpene ketones isomenthone (44.5%), pulegone (13.5%) and isopulegone (6.5%) (Diab et al., 2005). Use potential No use reported / identified Market potential There is little likelihood that this species is currently in assessment use and trade on its own merits or as a substitute for Trade (scale and related medicinally-used species. The restricted and trend) relatively inaccessible distribution, small biomass and short flowering season in the high mountains of Lebanon do not support popular use. Market potential / None value added National quality and None trade standard No known quality standards or trade specification in: • Australia International quality • EU and trade standard • India • Switzerland • USA Does not appear on any national positive lists of any of the selected counties. Almost no evidence was found to demonstrate that any ingredients made from Micromeria libanotica are commercially traded or actively used in the Regulatory following countries framework, market • Australia access and • Canada requirements for • EU (Micromeria chamissonis) export • India • South Africa • Switzerland • Syria (Micromeria myrtifolia used in Zahraa) • USA Market potential No market reported / identified

Suitability for sustainable wild High risk (based on 2010 version) harvesting High risk (based on 2011 Version and new IUCN Redlist status) Assessment Recommended Not recommended for wild harvesting due to high risk of unsustainable wild production method harvesting Not recommended for cultivation due to market/use limitation Geographic Endemic to Lebanon distribution Occurs infrequently along the rocky summit ridge of the Habitat and Mount Lebanon mountains along the eastern boundaries Ecology under wild of Mount Lebanon and North Lebanon Governorates conditions National distribution from one side, and western boundary of Bekaa Governorate from the other side at elevations between 2200 and 2800 m asl.

39 | Page Clinopodium libanoticum - (Boiss.) Kuntze Estimated to occupy between 1-35 km2 from the estimated suitable habitat range of 150 km2 Clear grassland and bare rock land cover in Oromediterranean and Presteppic Oromediterranean vegetation levels on east-facing slopes with yellowish mountain soils at 2200-2800 m asl. Grows in shallow Habitat Description substrates in rock fissures (cenomanian porous rocks), (Type, specificity) preferring sunny exposures on east-facing slopes. The distribution of this taxon in small, isolated patches on high, bare, east-facing rocks suggests it is a member of a relict boreal flora. Development stages Project observations showed an annual development of a shallow green biomass of less than 20 cm emerging from a basic relatively thick woody stump. The woody base survives the cold winters at such altitude while the annual green biomass is renewed yearly on a seasonal basis. Estimated density: 0.44 plants/ m2

Estimated population size: 440,000 individuals

Size class Tuft diameter % contribution Size Class A 0-10 stems / plant 62.90 National population Size Class B 11-20 stems/plant 21.43 characteristics Size Class C 21-30 stems/plant 8.75 (Estimated size, Size Class D 31-40 stems/plant 2.99 density, size or age- Size Class E 41-50 stems/plant 2.41 class structure) Size Class F 51-60 stems/plant 0.36 Size Class G 61-70 stems/plant 0.29 Size Class H 71-80 stems/plant 0.44 Size Class I 81-90 stems/plant 0.22 Size Class J 91-100 stems/plant 62.90

Reproduction • Bisexual flowers (vegetative or by • Mainly insect pollinated seeds, type of • Population regenerates only through seeds pollination) Population Not known Regeneration There does not appear to be significant targeted pressure from wild collection: it is unlikely that the leaves are substituted for more common, medicinally- used related species (e.g., Micromeria spp.) because of the inaccessibility of the habitat, small biomass, and short flowering period.

Conservation and Threats (causes and Climate change: C. libanoticum has several traits that Management impact) likely contribute to high sensitivity and low adaptability to climate change impacts: specialized microhabitat requirements, rarity, and barriers to dispersal that include limited suitable habitat and limited dispersal of pollen and seed

Habitat loss & degradation: The natural habitat of this species (i.e. dry, rocky outcrops on East-facing mountain

40 | Page Clinopodium libanoticum - (Boiss.) Kuntze tops in Lebanon) is subject to pressure from nomadic grazing of goats and increasing exposure to the effects of climate change, including drought, elevated temperatures, and extreme weather. Conservation status IUCN Red List Assessment: EN - Endangered, B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) (IUCN version 3.1) Conservation The species distribution appears to overlap with Horsh Actions In-Place Ehden Nature Reserve and in the Arz Bcharreh Protection / Protected Zone and the Foret des Cedres de Dieu Forest Reserve

May be present in at least three proposed Important Plant Areas in Lebanon (Mount Makmel, Sannine- Knaisseh, and Aarsal; Radford et al. 2011)

Does not appear to be included in ex situ collections (BGCI 2013, Biodiversity International 2013). Conservation Site/area protection: Identification of existing or Actions Needed designation of new protected areas in which this species naturally occurs.

Resource & habitat Protection: Control impacts of grazing in this habitat and on this species

Site/area management: Management of grazing; management of protected areas in which this species naturally occurs.

Ex-situ conservation: Collection and ex situ management of intraspecific genetic diversity of this species.

Awareness &Communications: Awareness and public education of climate change impacts.

National level Legislation: Development of national threatened species list and legislation to protect these species and their habitats Research • Population size, distribution, trends and regeneration characteristics: Confirm and expand baseline established by UNDP-GEF-LARI MAP project • Threats: Particular focus on monitoring the effects of climate change • Area-based Management Plan: Management of nomadic goat grazing in this habitat Research / • Plant biochemical composition: Better knowledge monitoring Needed of species biochemical composition • Plant Biology: Plants, seeds and populations biology, cycles phonological stages, etc. Monitoring • Population trends: Trends in population structure and density • Habitat trends: Particular focus on monitoring the effects of climate change on microhabitat of this species

41 | Page Clinopodium libanoticum - (Boiss.) Kuntze National None Management plan or strategy in place Recommended In-situ and ex-situ conservation of the species to National maintain a healthy and viable gene bank that can be Management utilized if use and market assessment showed higher objectives potential in the future Recommended • Changes in national distribution National Monitoring • Change density (national monitoring sites) Indicators • Changes in market demand (national, international) Recommended Not recommended for wild harvesting practice for sustainable wild collection

42 | Page CONSERVATION GUIDELINES Viola libanotica Viola libanotica Latin name Viola libanotica Synonyms None Lebanese Banafsaj lubnānī, Banafsaj vernacular name(s) Other species Banafsaj groups; Viola odorata included in the vernacular name Eng. Lebanon Violet, Sweet violet; Fr. Violette du liban ; Common name(s) Germ. Lebanische Veilchen

Plant

Description (type and size of the • Type: Low stemless chamaephyte (subshrub), plant) and photo of Woody, thick root, Cespitous tufted plant, in the target plant numerous woody stumps • Flowering: May-July • Height: 5-10 cm • Scent: Slightly odoriferous • Stem: Green, not ramified, upper part of the stem with few leaves • Leaves: Green, 1-2 cm, Limb rhomboid or ovate (kidney like shape), Stipules ovate-lanceolate, short fringed. long very thin petiole, Glabrous, coriace, not cordate basis, coarse toothed to crenelate • Inflorescence: Inflorescence in 1-2 scapes. Bracteoles setaceous distant from flowers • Flower: Pale violet or white flowers, Capsule wooly or smooth and globular, Spur longer than sepal appendages

Identification May be confused with the more common Viola odorata problems There is little likelihood that this species is currently in use and trade on its own merits or as a substitute for Use (scale and related medicinally-used species native to Lebanon. trend) The restricted and relatively inaccessible distribution, Potential use small biomass, and short flowering season in the assessment mountains of Lebanon do not support popular use identified Plant part(s) None collected Plant part(s) used / None Potential end products

43 | Page Viola libanotica Yield: Traces (GEF-UNDP-LARI 2013) Essential oil yield and profile Main components: Carvone (87%) & Pulegone (13%) (GEF-UNDP-LARI 2013) Use potential No use reported / identified There is little likelihood that this species is currently in use and trade on its own merits or as a substitute for Trade (scale and related medicinally-used species native to Lebanon. The trend) restricted and relatively inaccessible distribution, small biomass, and short flowering season in the mountains of Lebanon do not support popular use. National quality and None trade standard National quality and None trade standard No known quality standards or trade specification in: • Australia (other viola sps.) International quality • EU (Viola tricolor, Viola arvensis & other viola sps.) and trade standard • India • Switzerland (other viola sps.) Market potential • USA assessment Does not appear on any national positive lists of any of

the selected counties, although some lists allow other species of Viola. Almost no evidence was found to demonstrate that any ingredients made from Viola libanotica are commercially traded or actively used. • Australia(Viola odorata, Viola tricolor, Viola Regulatory yedoensis) framework, market • Canada (Viola sps., Viola odorata, Viola tricolor) access and • EU (Viola odorata, Viola tricolor, Viola yedoensis, requirements for Viola arvensis) export • India (Viola canescens, Viola cinerea, Viola odorata, Viola pilosa) • South Africa (Viola odorata) • Switzerland (Viola tricolor, Viola odorata) • USA (Viola cuculiata, Viola odorata, Viola sororia, Viola tricolor, Viola yedoensis, Viola calcarata) Market potential No market reported / identified Suitability for sustainable wild High risk (based on 2010 version) harvesting High risk (based on 2011 Version and new IUCN redlist status) Assessment Recommended Not recommended for wild harvesting due to high risk of unsustainable wild production method harvesting Not recommended for cultivation due to market/use limitation Geographic Endemic to Lebanon distribution Occurring in rocky Mediterranean shrubland habitats at elevations between 1900 and 2400 m asl across the western slopes of Mount Lebanon and North Lebanon. Habitat and Ecology under wild The observed restricted distribution of this taxon in high, conditions National distribution rocky microhabitats suggests a relict Mediterranean boreal flora

Estimated to occupy between 12-45 km2 from the estimated suitable habitat range of 120 km2

44 | Page Viola libanotica Clear grassland land cover and Mountainous Mediterranean and Oromediterranean vegetation levels on west-facing slopes at 1900-2400 m asl with yellowish Habitat Description mountain, greyey, and white greyish soils. (Type, specificity) Tufts comprising several individual plants grow in shady patches of organic material and moisture in the dry, rocky terrain. The plant has a short cycle, it develops seasonal green biomass emerging from the basal woody stump after snow melt (April-May). The flowering phase is relatively Development stages short and later the plants endured summer water stress. Several months during winter plants are covered by snow Estimated density: 0.026 tuft/m2 Average 2,750 stems/m2 of tufts Average 300 stems/tuft

Estimated population size: 312,000 National population characteristics Size class Tuft diameter % contribution (Estimated size, density, size or age- Size Class A 0-0.2 m2 96.73 class structure) Size Class B 0.2-0.4 m2 2.30 Size Class C 0.4-0.6 m2 0.48 Size Class D 0.6-0.8 m2 0.24 Size Class E 0.8-1 m2 0.12

Size Class F 1-1.2 m2 0.12 Reproduction • Bisexual flowers (vegetative or by • Mainly regenerates vegetatively but possible through seeds, type of seeds pollination) Population Not known Regeneration Recent field surveys indicate that there is not significant targeted pressure from wild collection: it is unlikely that the flowers are substituted for the more widely distributed, commercially important species V. odorata because of the inaccessibility of the habitat, small available biomass, and short flowering period (UNDP- LARI 2013).

Climate change: V. libanotica has several traits that likely contribute to high sensitivity and low adaptability to Threats (causes and climate change impacts: specialized microhabitat impact) requirements, rarity, and barriers to dispersal that Conservation and include limited suitable habitat and limited dispersal of Management pollen and seed.

Habitat loss & degradation: The natural habitat of this species (i.e. dry, rocky outcrops on West-facing mountain tops in Lebanon) is subject to pressure from nomadic grazing of goats and increasing exposure to the effects of climate change, including drought, elevated temperatures, and extreme weather events.

IUCN Red List Assessment: Conservation status EN - Endangered, B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) (IUCN version

3.1)

45 | Page Viola libanotica The species distribution appears Horsh Ehden Nature Reserve, the Arz Bcharreh Protection/Protected Zone, and the Foret des Cedres de Dieu Forest Reserve

Conservation It may be present in at least two proposed Important Actions In-Place Plant Areas in Lebanon (Mount Makmel and Sannine- Knaisseh; Radford et al. 2011)

Does not appear to be included in ex situ collections (BGCI 2013, Biodiversity International 2013). Site/area protection: Identification of existing or designation of new protected areas in which this species naturally occurs.

Resource & habitat Protection: Control impacts of grazing in this habitat and on this species

Site/area management: Management of grazing; management of protected areas in which this species naturally occurs. Conservation

Actions Needed Ex-situ conservation: Collection and ex situ management of intraspecific genetic diversity of this species.

Awareness &Communications: Awareness and public education of climate change impacts.

National level Legislation: Development of national threatened species list and legislation to protect these species and their habitats Research • Population size, distribution, trends and regeneration characteristics: Confirm and expand baseline established by UNDP-GEF-LARI MAP project • Threat: Particular focus on monitoring exposure and effects of climate change on microhabitat required by this species • Area-based Management Plan: Management of Research / nomadic goat grazing in this habitat Monitoring Needed • Plant Biology: Plants, seeds and populations biology, cycles phonological stages, etc.

Monitoring • Population trends: Trends in population structure and density • Habitat trends: Particular focus on monitoring the exposure and effects of climate change on microhabitat of this species National None Management plan or strategy in place In situ and ex situ conservation of the species to Recommended maintain a healthy and viable gene bank that can be National utilized if use and market assessment showed higher Management potential in the future objectives

46 | Page Viola libanotica Recommended • Changes in national distribution National Monitoring • Change density (national monitoring sites) Indicators • Changes in market demand (national, international Recommended Not recommended for wild harvesting practice for sustainable wild collection

47 | Page SUMMARY OF CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PROJECT TARGET SPECIES

Species Recommended Recommended National Recommended National Recommended

Production method Management objectives Monitoring Indicators practice for sustainable wild collection Market potential Use potential Use Suitability for Suitability wild harvesting wild Origanum Wild harvesting and • Maintain or increase • Changes in market Sustainable wild syriacum cultivation productivity of wild- supply (national, harvesting criteria harvested populations international) stipulated in • Maintain or increase the • Changes in market Ministerial decision quality of harvested demand (national, 1/179 (2012) material international) • Replace destructive • Harvested biomass and harvest practices with quality (national sustainable harvest monitoring sites) practices • Change in national • Increase income distribution generation for local • Implementation of good

communities from value- collection practice added locally produced

High High MAP products Low risk • Increase quality controlled, sustainably harvested MAP products that are certified and branded • Reduce conflicts (between collectors, between communities) resource access and benefits • Increase community- based management of wild-collected resources

48 | Page

Species Recommended Recommended National Recommended National Recommended

Production method Management objectives Monitoring Indicators practice for sustainable wild collection Market potential Use potential Use Suitability for Suitability wild harvesting wild Salvia Wild harvesting and • Maintain or increase • Changes in market Sustainable wild fruiticosa cultivation productivity of wild- supply (national, harvesting criteria harvested populations international) stipulated in • Maintain or increase the • Changes in market Ministerial decision quality of harvested demand (national, 1/179 (2012) material international) • Replace destructive • Harvested biomass and harvest practices with quality (national sustainable harvest monitoring sites) practices • Change in national

Risk • Increase income distribution

High High generation for local • Implementation of good

Low communities from value- collection practice added locally produced MAP products • Reduce conflicts (between collectors, between communities) resource access and benefits • Development of cultivation protocols

49 | Page

Species Recommended Recommended National Recommended National Recommended

Production method Management objectives Monitoring Indicators practice for sustainable wild collection Market potential Use potential Use Suitability for Suitability wild harvesting wild Origanum Cultivation is the • Maintain or increase • Change in national To be developed ehrenbergii recommended option but productivity of wild- distribution based on rigorous wild harvesting can be harvested populations • Harvested biomass and assessments, permitted under very strict • Ex situ conservation to quality (national investigation and

sustainability standards maintain a healthy and monitoring sites) surveys of the within a regulatory permit viable gene bank • Changes in market species system with rigorous • Replace destructive supply (national, Limited Limited monitoring harvest practices with international) Medium Risk sustainable harvest • Changes in market practices demand (national, • Development of international) cultivation protocols Althaea Cultivation is the • Maintain or increase • Change in national To be developed damascena recommended option but productivity of wild- distribution based on rigorous cultivation can be permitted harvested populations • Harvested biomass and assessments, under very strict • Ex situ conservation to quality (national investigation and

sustainability standards maintain a healthy and monitoring sites) surveys of the within a regulatory permit viable gene bank • Changes in market species system with rigorous • Replace destructive supply (national, Limited Limited monitoring harvest practices with international) Medium Risk sustainable harvest • Changes in market practices demand (national, • Development of international) cultivation protocols

50 | Page

Species Recommended Recommended National Recommended National Recommended

Production method Management objectives Monitoring Indicators practice for sustainable wild collection Market potential Use potential Use Suitability for Suitability wild harvesting wild Cyclotrichium Cultivation • Maintain or increase • Change in national Not recommended origanifolium productivity of wild- distribution for wild harvesting Not recommended for wild harvested populations • Harvested biomass and harvesting due to high risk • Ex situ conservation to quality (national

of unsustainable wild maintain a healthy and monitoring sites) harvesting viable gene bank • Changes in market • Replace destructive supply (national, Limited Limited

High Risk harvest practices with international) sustainable harvest • Changes in market practices demand (national, • Development of international) cultivation protocols Clinopodium Not recommended for wild In-situ and ex-situ • Changes in national Not recommended libanoticum harvesting due to high risk conservation of the species to distribution for wild harvesting of unsustainable wild maintain a healthy and viable • Change density (national harvesting gene bank that can be utilized monitoring sites)

No use Not recommended for if use and market assessment • Changes in market identified identified reported / reported / High Risk No market cultivation due to showed higher potential in the demand (national, market/use limitation future international) Viola Not recommended for wild In situ and ex situ conservation • Changes in national Not recommended libanotica harvesting due to high risk of the species to maintain a distribution for wild harvesting of unsustainable wild healthy and viable gene bank • Change density (national harvesting that can be utilized if use and monitoring sites)

No use Not recommended for market assessment showed • Changes in market identified identified reported / reported / High Risk No market cultivation due to higher potential in the future demand (national, market/use limitation international

51 | Page