JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY AND ETHNOMEDICINE

Isolated, but transnational: the glocal nature of Waldensian ethnobotany, Western , NW Italy Bellia and Pieroni

Bellia and Pieroni Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2015) 11:37 DOI 10.1186/s13002-015-0027-1 Bellia and Pieroni Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2015) 11:37 DOI 10.1186/s13002-015-0027-1 JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY AND ETHNOMEDICINE

RESEARCH Open Access Isolated, but transnational: the glocal nature of Waldensian ethnobotany, Western Alps, NW Italy Giada Bellia1 and Andrea Pieroni2*

Abstract Background: An ethnobotanical field study on the traditional uses of wild for food as well as medicinal and veterinary plants was conducted in four Waldensian valleys (Chisone, , Angrogna, and Pellice) in the Western Alps, Piedmont, NW Italy. Waldensians represent a religious Protestant Christian minority that originated in France and spread around 1,170 AD to the Italian side of Western Alps, where, although persecuted for centuries, approximately 20,000 believers still survive today, increasingly mixing with their Catholic neighbours. Methods: Interviews with a total of 47 elderly informants, belonging to both Waldensian and Catholic religious groups, were undertaken in ten Western Alpine villages, using standard ethnobotanical methods. Results: The uses of 85 wild and semi-domesticated food folk taxa, 96 medicinal folk taxa, and 45 veterinary folk taxa were recorded. Comparison of the collected data within the two religious communities shows that Waldensians had, or have retained, a more extensive ethnobotanical knowledge, and that approximately only half of the wild food and medicinal plants are known and used by both communities. Moreover, this convergence is greater for the wild food domain. Comparison of the collected data with ethnobotanical surveys conducted at the end of the 19th Century and the 1980s in one of studied valleys (Germanasca) shows that the majority of the plants recorded in the present study are used in the same or similar ways as they were decades ago. Idiosyncratic plant uses among Waldensians included both archaic uses, such as the fern Botrychium lunaria for skin problems, as well as uses that may be the result of local adaptions of Central and Northern European customs, including allionii and V. officinalis as recreational teas and Cetraria islandica in infusions to treat coughs. Conclusions: The great resilience of plant knowledge among Waldensians may be the result of the long isolation and history of marginalisation that this group has faced during the last few centuries, although their ethnobotany present trans-national elements. Cross-cultural and ethno-historical approaches in ethnobotany may offer crucial data for understanding the trajectory of change of plant knowledge across time and space. Keywords: Ethnobotany, Wild food plants, Medicinal plants, Alps, Italy

Introduction and are able to slow or accelerate its erosion, including en- Ethnobotanical studies of minority and diasporic groups vironmental changes, internal (urbanisation) and external are of crucial interest in contemporary ethnobiology to migrations, self-perception and that of others’ identities, help identify those cultural and/or social factors which language, religion, as well as economic or political exter- affect the perceptions and uses of plants and to under- nalities [9-16]. stand how traditional plant knowledge evolves [1-8]. On the other hand, the Alps have been shown to still Moreover, diverse analyses conducted in Europe during represent an important reservoir of local, folk plant know- the last decade have pointed out that a broad range of fac- ledge, both in touristic [17,18] and especially in “periph- tors influence the resilience of ethnobotanical knowledge eral” valleys [19-22], which have been less affected by the mass tourism industry. * Correspondence: [email protected] Along these theoretical trajectories, our ethnobotanical 2University of Gastronomic Sciences, Piazza Vittorio Emanuele 9, Bra/Pollenzo I-12060, Italy research in recent years has focused on a number of Full list of author information is available at the end of the article

© 2015 Bellia and Pieroni. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly credited. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http:// creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated. Bellia and Pieroni Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2015) 11:37 Page 2 of 19

linguistic “isles” and cultural boundaries in mountainous medicinal and veterinary practices in four Waldensians areas of Italy and the Balkans; especially in the latter cul- valleys; tural region, we have also observed the effect that religious 2. to compare the ethnobotany of members belonging affiliation has on the vertical transmission of folk plant to the two faiths (Waldensians and Catholics); and knowledge, as it remarkably shapes kinship relations 3. to diachronically compare the current data with those within multi-lingual and multi-religion communities [23]. from the historical North Italian ethnobotanical data. In order to further assess the role that religion plays in shaping folk plant knowledge, we decided to investigate the Methods local ethnobotany of the Waldensian community and that Selected sites of their Catholic neighbours in the Western Alps, NW Figure1showsthelocationofthestudysites,which Italy. Waldensians represent a religious Christian (and later were represented by four Waldensian valleys (Chisone, Protestant Christian) minority that originated in France Germanasca, Angrogna, and Pellice) located in the during the 12th Century which spread around 1,170 AD to Western Alps, Piedmont, NW Italy. the Italian side of the Cottian (Western) Alps. Harassed for The valleys are characterized by chestnut (Castanea centuries, Waldensians went through a long and dramatic sativa Mill.), beech (Fagus sylvatica L.), and larch (Larix history of persecutions, migrations and relocations, and, decidua Mill.) forests, with some Scots pine (Pinus sylva- despite the isolation and marginalisation of their valleys, tica L.); the climate is alpine, with relevant annual precipi- they built important ties to Protestant countries, notably tations (1000–2000 mm/year). England, the Netherlands, and Switzerland [24]. In particular, the following villages were visited: Fenes- Nowadays, approximately 20,000 believers (Provençal/ trelle (1,138 m.a.s.l.), Mentoulles (1,046 m.a.s.l.), Villaretto Occitan, Piedmontese and standard Italian speaking) still (986 m.a.s.l.), Pomaretto (619 m.a.s.l.), Campo La Salza survive in these valleys, increasingly mixing with their (1,140 m.a.s.l.), (1,187 m.a.s.l.), San Martino Catholic neighbours. (1,063 m.a.s.l.), Villasecca (832 m.a.s.l.), Angrogna The specific aims of this study were: (582 m.a.s.l.), and Bobbio Pelice (762 m.a.s.l.). All villages officially report a few hundred inhabitants 1. to record the local names and specific uses of wild (normally 300–500), but the actual figures are largely over- food plants, as well as wild and non-wild plants for estimated, as a significant portion of the current resident

Figure 1 Location of the four considered Waldensian valleys within the linguistic map of Piedmont, NW Italy. Bellia and Pieroni Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2015) 11:37 Page 3 of 19

populations lives in the lowland Piedmontese centres and studies in Italy as well as the whole of Europe, which was Turin and comes back to the villages only during the sum- conducted by a Waldensian botanist working as a second- mer or on the weekends. ary school teacher, who died from an infectious disease in The local economy, since a few decades, is no longer Uruguay, where he immigrated one year after the publica- based on agro-pastoral activities, and the elderly inhabi- tion of his investigation [31]. tants live off of their pensions and in their free time manage some home-gardens and/or small-scale agricul- Results and discussion tural activities. Young and mid generations work instead Wild food plants in the main lowlands centres and in Turin. Table 1 shows the recorded uses of the wild food and Mass tourism is absent, although some eco-touristic semi-domesticated plant taxa. initiatives have been growing in recent years. The collection of the young aerial parts of the following The original Waldensian inhabitants have increasingly wild vegetables is still common in the study area: Borago mixed with their Catholic neighbours in the last few de- officinalis, Primula spp., Nasturtium officinale, Lapsana cades, and in most cases intermarriage leads to a family’s communis, Chenopodium bonus-henricus, Rumex acetosa, change of faith (from Waldensian to Catholic). Tragopogon pratensis, Urtica dioica, Silene vulgaris, Humu- Nowadays the language spoken within the domestic lus lupulus,andTaraxacum officinale. arena is increasingly a mixture of the original Provençal/ The above confirms what we already know about wild Occitan language with the Piedmontese variety of Italian. food plant consumption in Italy and in particular NW All inhabitants also speak standard Italian. Italy, where the very common consumption of the young of Humulus lupulus and Tragopogon pratensis Field study can be considered a cultural marker of Piedmontese In the years 2010–2014, forty-seven elderly informants cuisine. While all these data confirm the observations (nineteen Catholics and twenty-eight Waldensians, aged reported nearly one century ago by Giovanni Mattirolo between 58 and 78 years) were selected, among those in his review of the wild plants of Piedmont [32], it ap- locals who could be identified as Traditional Knowledge pears that the practice of gathering and consuming the holders (normally elderly small-scale farmers and shep- /young shoots of Valerianella locusta, Phyteuma herds), employing snowball sampling techniques. These spp., Persicaria bistorta, and Aruncus dioicus continued individuals then were interviewed after Prior Informed only until the recent past and/or is less common today. Consent was verbally obtained. The latter three (in soups or boiled) in particular The focus of the interviews, which were conducted in represent an important part of the slowly disappearing standard Italian, was the folk knowledge (name and use) North Italian Alpine culinary “traditions” [17,33]. of wild food plants and wild and non-wild medicinal and Among the wild plants exploited for seasoning, the veterinary plants. use of Carum carvi, Thymus serpyllum, Juniperus com- The Code of Ethics of the International Society of munis,andTanacetum vulgare is predominant. In par- Ethnobiology [25] was strictly followed. ticular, the common use of the leaves of the last species The wild plant species mentioned by the informants (Figure 2) – which has been widely reported not only in were collected, when available, identified according to the Piedmont region but also recently in Occitan/Pro- Flora d’Italia [26], and finally stored at the Herbarium of vençal and Alpine Ligurian areas [17,22,34,35] – as a the University of Gastronomic Sciences. crucial seasoning ingredient in omelettes, soups, and a Plant family assignments follow the current Angio- home-made liqueur called arquebuse maybebetter sperm Phylogeny Group designations [27]. investigated from a historical perspective. In fact, this The reported folk plant names were transcribed using species has a long history of folk use in Britain, espe- the rules of the Provençal/Occitan and standard Italian cially in omelettes consumed during the fish-based diet languages. of Lent [36], and Waldensians, even in the poorest villages, have maintained for many centuries intense Data analysis cultural ties to Britain, due to the historical and theo- We compared the data gathered among local Waldensians logical proximity between the Protestant/Anglican and with those collected among Catholics in the same study Waldensian faiths [23]. sites. As in other areas of NW Italy ([17], and references Moreover, we compared our findings with those ob- therein), wild Artemisia genipi, A. glacialis, and A. served in two ethnobotanical field studies conducted in umbelliformis flowering tops (genepì), acaulis the same areas (Val Germanasca) at the end of the 19th (Figure 3) and roots, and G. lutea roots are com- Century and in the 1980s [28-30]. In particular, the first monly gathered and used for making home-made hydro- work represents one of the very first ethnobotanical alcoholic macerates/digestive liqueurs. Bellia and Pieroni Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2015) 11:37 Page 4 of 19

Table 1 Local wild or semi-domesticated food plant uses recorded in the studied area Botanical taxon/family and Recorded Plant part(s) Local culinary use(s) Wal Cat Citations Notes voucher specimen code local names Achillea erba-rotta All. Routto Aerial parts Home-made liqueurs + * C UNISGVALACH Ruta di montagna Achillea millefolium L. Asteraceae Primmoflour Leaves Soups + * P UNISGVGB025 Alchemilla xanthochlora Leaves Soups + + * P Rothm. Rosacea UNISGVGB030 Allium schoenoprasum L. Aiet Leaves Seasoning (salads) + * C Amaryllidaceae UNISGVALALL Allium ursinum L. Amaryllidaceae Leaves Ingredients for soups + + * P UNISGVALALU Amelanchier ovalis Medik. Rosaceae Amarenchie Fruits Eaten raw + * P Angelica sylvestris L. Apiaceae Angelica Roots Home-made liqueurs + * C UNISGVGB002 Anthriscus sylvestris (L.) Chafoulhét Leaves Salads + * P Hoffm. Apiaceae UNISGVALANT Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (L.) Spreng. Pan dë vouëlp Fruits Jams + + * P Ericaceae Pinmerlés UNISGVALARC Arctium lappa L. Asteraceae Grattëquioùe Very young Soups + * P UNISGVGB034 leaves Artemisia genipi Weber ex. Genepì Flowering tops Home-made liqueurs + * C Stechm., A.glacialis L., A. Gënëpi fumél umbelliformis Lam. Asteraceae (A. umbelliformis) UNISGVALAGE Gënëpi macle UNISGVALAGL (A.genipi) UNISGVALARU Artemisia vulgaris L. Arsemizë Leaves Seasoning soups or omelettes + * C Asteraceae Eisente UNISGVGB038 Ërsëmizo Aruncus dioicus (W.)F. Rosaceae Glaudia Shoots Boiled + + ** P UNISGVGB040 Asparagus tenuifolius Lam. Aspèrge selvagge Shoots Boiled + + * P Asparagaceae UNISGVALASP Bellis perennis L. Asteraceae Magritin Leaves and flowers Salads, soups, omelettes, risotto + * C UNISGWAL007 Margaritin Berberis vulgaris L. Berberidaceae Pittou Fruits Jams + + ** P UNISGVALBER Beta vulgaris L. Amaranthaceae Bléo Leaves Cooked + * C Borago officinalis L. Bouràes Leaves and flowers Soups, salads, omelettes + + *** C Boraginaceae Bourai UNISGWAL013 Burài Campanula rapunculus L. Rampoun Leaves and roots Salads + * C Campanulaceae UNIGVALCAM Capsella bursa- pastoris (L.) Young leaves Omelettes + * P Medik. Brassicaceae UNISGVALCAP Carlina acaulis L. Asteraceae Chardouso Flowers Macerated in olive oil; ++* C UNISGVALCAR the resulting oil used as seasoning Carum carvi L. Apiaceae Chiréi Fruits Seasoning, home-made liqueurs + + ** C UNISGVALCAU Cummel Bellia and Pieroni Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2015) 11:37 Page 5 of 19

Table 1 Local wild or semi-domesticated food plant uses recorded in the studied area (Continued) Centaurea scabiosa L. Asteraceae Young leaves Soups + + * P UNISGVALCEN Cerinthe sp. (?) Anhaoù grò Leaves Boiled + * P Boraginaceae Chenopodium album L. Sënicle Leaves Soups, boiled, omelettes + + * P Amaranthaceae UNISGVALCHE Chenopodium bonus-henricus L. Orla Leaves Soups, omelettes, boiled + + *** C Amaranthaceae Parch UNISGWAL017 Cichorium intybus L. Asteraceae Sicorio Young leaves Salads ++* C UNISGVALCIC Roots Roasted and grounds as coffee P substitute Corylus avellana L. Betulaceae Seeds Consumed raw + * P UNISGVALCOR Daucus carota L. Apiaceae Carotto Roots Salads + * C UNISGVALDAU Dryas octopetala L. Rosaceae Leaves and flowers Cosumed raw as a snack + * P UNISGVALDRY Fragaria vesca L. Rosaceae Maiùssa Leaves Soups, salads + + ** C UNISGWAL036 Fruits Jams Gentiana acaulis L. Gentianaceae Braio d’cucuc Roots, flowers Home-made liqueurs + + ** C UNISGVGB027 Pirulet Gentiana lutea L. Gentianaceae Argensiana Roots Home-made liqueurs + + *** C UNISVALGEN Gënsano (or wine macerates) Humulus lupulus L. Cannabaceae Lüvërtin Shoots Omelettes, boiled + + *** C UNISGWAL015 Luvertìn Juniperus communis L. Cupressaceae Gënébbre Galbules Seasoning + + *** C UNISVALJUN Lapsana communis L. Asteraceae Jalino graso Young leaves Soups, omelettes, boiled + + *** C UNISGVALLAP Laurus nobilis L. Lauraceae Loriè Leaves Seasoning + * C UNISGVALLAU Leontodon hispidus L. (?) (Asteraceae) Plissa Leaves Salads, soups + * P nivale (Ten.) Huet ex Stela alpina Flowering tops Home-made liqueurs + * C Hand.-Mazz. Asteraceae UNISGVALLEO Lonicera caerulea L. Caprifoliaceae Èrza d’loup Flowers Eaten raw as a snack + * P UNISGVALLON Malva sylvestris L. Malvaceae Màevë Leaves Soups + + * C UNISGVAMAL Malvo Mentha longifolia (L.) L. Lamiaceae Mëntatre Leaves Seasoning (esp. soups and +* P UNISGVALMEN omelettes) Nasturtium officinale R.Br. Brassicaceae Creisoun Leaves Salads + + *** C UNISGVALNAS Origanum vulgare L. Lamiaceae Origano Leaves Seasoning + * C UNISGVALORI Oxalis acetosella L. Oxalidaceae Èrbo dâ cucuc Leaves Salads + * C UNISGVALOXA Pan d’ûzèl Parietaria officinalis L.Urticaceae Pan-chaoudét Leaves Soups + * P UNISGVGB007 Pedicularis foliosa L. Orobanchaceae Flowers Sucked as a snack (by children) + * P UNISVALPED Persicaria bistorta L. Polygonaceae Albubuine Young leaves Soups + + ** C UNISGVALPER Arparô Ërparâ Bellia and Pieroni Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2015) 11:37 Page 6 of 19

Table 1 Local wild or semi-domesticated food plant uses recorded in the studied area (Continued) Pinus cembra L. Pinaceae Èlvou Seeds Consumed raw + ** P UNISGVALPCE Pinus sylvestris L. Pinaceae Pin Seeds Consumed raw + * P UNISGVALPSY Plantago major L. Plantanh Leaves Soups + + ** P UNISGVGB021 Plantònh Physalis alkekengi L. Solanaceae Erba chiocca Fruits Jams + * P UNISGWAL040 Fiacch Puvron selvaj Phyteuma spicatum L. Campanulaceae Iucca Young leaves and Soups + * P UNISGWAL043 shoots Polypodium vulgare L. Polypodiaceae Ërgalisio Roots Consumed raw as a snack and as a + + *** C UNISGVGB003 Rizouzèttë seasoning for home-made beverages Portulaca oleracea L. Portulacaceae Pouslano Young leaves Salads + * P UNISGVALPOR (before flowering) Primula helatior (L.) Hill, P. veris L., P. Coucouc Young leaves and Salads, soups, omelettes + + *** C vulgaris Huds. Primulaceae Pimpette flowers UNISGVALPRE Pimpinéllo UNISGVALPVE UNISGVALPVU Prunus avium (L.) L. Rosaceae Sireizie Fruits Consumed raw or in jams + * P UNISGVALPRA Prunus brigantina Vill. Rosaceae Marmouti Fruits Consumed raw or in jams + + * P UNISGVALPRB Prunus spinosa L. Rosaceae Agrenié Fruits Jams + + ** P UNISGVALPRS Bousou niër Ribes alpinum L. Grossulariaceae Uopastrìe Fruits Consumed raw or in jams + + ** P UNISGWAL023 Ribes uva-crispa L. Grossulariaceae Groouzèlla Fruits Consumed raw or in jams + * P UNISGVALRUC Robinia pseudoacacia L. Fabaceae Gazhillo Flowers Deep-fried (in batter) + * C UNISGVALROB Rosa canina L. Rosaceae Agoulensië Fruits Jams + + *** C UNISGVGB018 Bosou Rubus ulmifolius L. Rosaceae Rounzo Young leaves Soups +* P UNISGWAL038 Fruits Jams Rubus idaeus L. Rosaceae Ampolen Fruits Jams, syrups + + ** C UNISGWAL037 Ampoulie Rumex acetosa L. Polygonaceae Aseuccla Stems Consumed raw as a snack (stems); + + *** C Asuitta di pra Leaves UNISGVGB011 Isìgula salads, soups, omelettes, boiled Situla Rumex alpinus L. Polygonaceae Lapòs Stem Jams + + ** P Lavasa Leaves Soups Rabarbaro selvatico Salvia pratensis L. Lamiaceae Bounom Young leaves Soups + + ** P UNISGVGB033 Sambucus nigra L. and S. racemosa L. Sèuc Flowers Deep fried (in batter) or seasoning + + *** C Adoxaceae home-made beverages UNISGWAL016 (S. nigra) Seuic Fruits Jams Silene vulgaris (Moench.) Garcke Chersinet Young leaves Soups, omelettes, boiled + + *** C Caryophyllaceae Cresinet UNISGVGB20 Eicloupèt Tanacetum vulgare L. Asteraceae Archebüse Leaves Seasoning soups (esp. a local + + *** C UNISGWAL009 Tanaìa bread-based soup [suppa barbetta]), Tanaìo home-made liqueurs, omelettes Bellia and Pieroni Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2015) 11:37 Page 7 of 19

Table 1 Local wild or semi-domesticated food plant uses recorded in the studied area (Continued) Taraxacum officinale (L.) Weber Girasole Leaves Salads, soups + + *** C Asteraceae Mourpoursin Roots Roasted and grinded as a UNISGWAL010 heads substitute of coffee Pickled in brine and used as flavouring Thymus serpyllum L. Lamiaceae Serpoul Flowers and leaves Seasoning (also for cheese and a + + *** C UNISGWAL029 local bread-based soup [suppa barbetta]), home-made liquors Tragopogon pratensis L. Asteraceae Barbabouc Young leaves Soups, omelettes, boiled + + *** C UNISGWAL011 Trifolium spp. Fabaceae Fioun Flowers Deep fried (in batter) + * P Tussilago farfara L. Asteraceae Pimpetta Young leaves Salads + * P UNISGVALTUS Ounglëtto Urtica dioica L. Urticaceae Urtìa Leaves Soups, omelettes, risotto + + *** C UNISGWAL041 Urtìo Ürtia Vaccinium myrtillus L. Ericaceae Ërzaìe Fruits Jams, syrups + + *** C UNISGVALVAM Èidra Vaccinium vitis-idaea L. Ericaceae Panféino Fruits Jams + * P UNISGVALVAV Valerianella locusta (L.) Laterr. Saladét Leaves Salads + + ** P Caprifoliaceae UNISGVALVAL Veronica allionii Vill. Plantaginaceae Èrbë d’tè Leaves and flowers Recreational tea + + * P UNISGVALVEA Giaspertere Té d’mountannho Veronica officinalis L. Plantaginaceae Èrbë d’tè Leaves and flowers Recreational tea + * C UNISGVALVEO Tè svizzero Viburnum lantana L. Adoxaceae Tatoulie Fruits Consumed raw + * P UNISGVALVIB tricolor L. Violette Leaves and flowers Salads, soups + + ** C UNISGVGB005 Viooulëtìn Vioulëtto blancho Unidentified taxon Sparsi Leaves and flowers Salads, soups, omelettes + * P (?) identification only via plant and habitat descriptions and folk names. Wal: use recorded among Waldensians; Cat: use recorded among Catholics. Notes: C: current use; P: past use. Citations: *quoted by 10% of the informants or less; **quoted by 11-39% of the informants; ***quoted by 40% of the informants or more.

Among wild fruits, the gathering of the fruits/pseudo- and more recently called “Occitan tea” - became in the fruits of Rosa canina, Sambucus nigra (and rarely S. race- last decade in the study area and also among the entire mosa), and Vaccinium myrtillus is still commonly practiced. Occitan/Provençal community living in the Western Finally, the frequent use of the aerial parts of Veronica Italian Alps an important cultural marker and seems to species (esp. the local Veronica allionii) as recreational teas represent there one of the distinctive signs of the local in the study area, which has also been recorded in adjacent identity. valleys [17], could be the result of cultural “contamination” On the other hand, the use of Veronica officinalis tea from British and Northern/Central European customs. was very spread in France, Switzerland, and Northern Waldensians, for example, have introduced in their valleys, Europe in the 19th Century [37]. and continue to practice today, the English custom of tak- ing afternoon tea, which is extremely uncommon among Medicinal plants the autochthonous Catholics in the study area as well as Table 2 reports the locally recorded medicinal plant uses. other areas of Italy. The most common wild medicinal plant-based remedies, In place of exotic and expensive colonial teas, the which are used externally, comprise the flowers of Arnica poor villagers may have opted for a “cheap”, local sub- montana, the aerial parts of Artemisia absinthium,theresin stitute, which may explain the use of the aerial parts of of Abies alba,andthefreshlatexofChelidonium majus. Veronica spp. even today. This tea – sometimes locally Apart from the last species, this finding confirms the recent Bellia and Pieroni Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2015) 11:37 Page 8 of 19

Themostfrequentlymentionedlocalherbalinfusions are instead prepared with plants that are commonly used throughout Italy and Europe: Equisetum arvense, Hyperi- cum perforatum, Parietaria officinalis, Malva sylvestris, Matriciaria chamomilla, Thymus serpyllum, Tilia cordata, Viola tricolor, and Cetraria islandica. The use of the last species is peculiar, however, as it is frequently found, in Italy, in the herbalism-based standardized phytotherapy, but not often in the local folk medical systems. The remarkable tradition of gathering and using this wild lichen in Waldensian valleys may be, once again, the result of the historical ties that these com- munities retained with Central and Northern European customs. The same lichen, gathered from the wild, is also now- adays one of the pillars of the resurgence of the trad- itional Waldensian cuisine, where it is sometimes used to prepare desserts in a few of the new restaurants in the area [40]. Finally, it is worth mentioning that the unsual herbal folk uses of Cetraria islandica and Botrychium lunaria find parallelisms in the Alpine Catalan ethnobotany Figure 2 Dried aerial parts and flowers of Tanacetum vulgare. [41,42], showing in this way interesting commonalities between the Catalan and Occitan ethnobotanies of the Alpine communities. ethnobotanical data gathered from other Italian Alpine Veterinary plants areas [17-22]. Nearly all the plants pertaining to the veterinary domain Among the less commonly reported species, the use of (plants used for both feeding and for curing animals, the fern Botrychium lunaria for skin problems should be Table3)wereusedprimarilyinthepast,ascurrentusesare further investigated, as the use of this plant was not re- sporadic and quotation indexes are very low. corded in the Italian ethnobotanical database compiled in This suggests that the socio-economic shift local com- 2004 [38], and the phytochemistry and pharmacology of munities have faced since the 1960s, in which most in- the Botrychium is largely unknown, if we exclude habitants have abandoned the traditional agro-pastoral the recent work on its flavonoids [39]. activities and animal breeding has decreased, has also

Figure 3 Gentiana acaulis. Bellia and Pieroni Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2015) 11:37 Page 9 of 19

Table 2 Local medicinal plant uses recorded in the studied area Botanical taxon/ family and Local names Status Plant parts Preparation and Folk medical use(s) Wal Cat Citations Notes voucher specimen code # administration or treated disease(s) Abies alba Mill. Pinaceae Bigiun W Buds Infusion, syrup Cough + + *** C UNISGVALABA Sap Resin Topical application Skin infections, Sòp blanc arthritis, bruises Acer pseudoplatanus L. Plai W Leaves Infusion Cough, flu + * P Sapindaceae Plaie UNISGVALACE Achillea erba-rotta All. See Table 1 W Aerial parts Infusion, liquor Digestive, fever + + * C Asteraceae Alchemilla xanthochlora Rothm. W Aerial parts Infusion Anti-inflammatory + + ** P Rosaceae Topical application Dysmenorrhea Allium ampeloprasum L. Pourëtto C Roots Decoction To decrease the milk +* P Amaryllidaceae secretion Allium sativum L. Alh C Bulb Topical application Corns ++* P Amaryllidaceae Fumigations Cough Externally applied Worms to cloths Aloysia citriodora Palau Limonella C Leaves Infusion Dysmenorrhea + * C Verbenaceae Arctium lappa L. Asteraceae Grattëquioùe W Roots Decoction Respiratory infections, + + ** P UNISGVGB034 Flowers Infusion fever, “blood thinner” Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (L.) See Table 1 W Leaves Infusion Diuretic and +* P Spreng. Ericaceae inflammations of the urinary tract Arnica montana L. Asteraceae Tabacas W Flowers Tincture or Rheumatisms, arthritis + + *** C UNISGWAL003 Tabaccai macerate in olive muscle pains, bruises oil, externally applied Artemisia absinthium L. Ûsenc W Aerial parts Topical application Bruises + + *** P Asteraceae Infusion Fever, worms, UNISGWAL004 digestive Artemisia genipi Weber ex. See Table 1 W Aerial parts Liquor, infusion Digestive, cough + + *** C Stechm., A.glacialis L., A. umbelliformis Lam. Asteraceae Artemisia vulgaris L. Asteraceae Arsemizë W Aerial parts Infusion Dysmenorrhea + + ** P UNISGVGB038 Ërsëmizo Topical application Bruises Beta vulgaris L. Amaranthaceae Bléo C Leaves Topical application Joint pains, acne + * P Borago officinalis L. Bouràes C Flowers Infusion Pimples +**P Boraginaceae Bourai Topical application Eczema, psoriasis UNISGWAL013 Brassica oleracea L. Brassicaceae Chôl C Leaves Topical application Pimples, acne + + ** C Botrychium lunaria (L.) Sw. Èrbo d’l’uo W Ripe Topical application Skin wounds +**P Ophioglossaceae sporangium Inhalation Nose bleeding UNISGVALBOT Infusion Internal bleeding Brassica rapa L. Brassicaceae Rabbo C Bulb Syrup Cough + * C Calendula officinalis L. Courtëzio C Flowers Infusion Dysmenorrhea, for +**C Asteraceae promoting blood circulation Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) W Fruits Topical application Skin wounds + * P Medik. Brassicaceae Carum carvi L. Apiaceae See Table 1 W Fruits Infusion, liquor Digestive, carminative + + * C Cetraria islandica L.(Ach.) Èrbo d’la vélho W Thallus Decoction, syrup Cough, bronchitis + + *** C Parmeliaceae Licchia Decoction, UNISGVALCET Lichene externally applied Pan d’chabbre Bellia and Pieroni Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2015) 11:37 Page 10 of 19

Table 2 Local medicinal plant uses recorded in the studied area (Continued) Chelidonium majus L. Sireunnho W Latex Fresh topical Warts + + *** C Papaveraceae Erbë sironnhë applied UNISGVGB039 Conium maculatum L. Apiaceae Sicutto W Aerial parts Infusion Abortive + * P UNISGVALCON Crataegus monogyna Jacq. Prusét W Aerial parts Infusion Hypertensive, venous + + ** P Rosaceae insufficiency UNISGVALCRA Cyanus segetum Hill. Asteraceae W Flowers Eyebaths Conjunctivitis + * P UNISGVGB015 Cynodon dactylon L. (Pers.) Gramoun W Roots Decoction Diuretic + + * P Poaceae UNISVALCYN Datura stramonium L. Èrbo dâ W Leaves Inhalation (dried Asthma + * P Solanaceae dërboun powedered leaves) UNISGVALDAT Equisetum arvense L. Èrbo cavalino W Sterile stem Decoction Diuretic, to prevent + + *** C Equisetaceae Topical application prostatic cancer UNISGWAL020 Skin inflammations Erica carnea L. Ericaceae Erica W Aerial parts Infusion Urinary tract infections, +* P UNISGVALERI diarrhea Euphrasia alpina Lam. Eufrasia W Flowers Eyebaths Conjunctivitis + * P Orobanchaceae UNISGVALEUP Fraxinus excelsior L. Oleaceae Fraise W Leaves Infusion Venous insufficiency, +* P UNISGVGB022 hypertension Fragaria vesca L. See Table 1 W Leaves Topical application Pimples, acne + * P Rosaceae Gentiana acaulis L. See Table 1 W Whole plant Liquor, infusion Apetizing, digestive + + ** P Gentianaceae Gentiana lutea L. See Table 1 W Roots Liquor Appetizing, digestive + + *** C Gentianaceae Macerated in wine Hypericum perforatum L. Millepertuis W Flowering Macerate in oil Skin inflammations, + + *** C Hypericaceae Trafourèllo aerial parts burnes, arthritis UNISGWAL018 Sengian Hyssopus officinalis L. Izòp C Aerial parts Infusion Cough + * P Lamiaceae Juglans regia L. Juglandaceae Nouvìe C Leaves Infusion, externally Chilblains + + * P applied Juniperus communis L. See Table 1 W Fruits Infusion, liquor Digestive + + * C Cupressaceae Lamium album L. Lamiaceae Urtìo morto W Aerial parts Infusion Dysmenorrhea + * P UNISGVALLAM Larix decidua Mill. Pinaceae Mèlze W Sprouts Infusion Expectorant + + ** C UNISGVGB031 Resin Topical application Skin inflammations Pine cones Syrup (remove splinters) Respiratory infections Laurus nobilis L. Lauraceae See Table 1 W Leaves Infusion Digestive + * P Fruits Leontopodium nivale (Ten.) See Table 1 W Flowering Infusion Digestive + * C Huet ex Hand.-Mazz. tops Asteraceae Linum usitatissimum L. Linaceae Lin C Seeds Poultice, externally Respiratory infections + + ** P applied Urinary infections, Baths constipation Macerated in water Toothaches Bellia and Pieroni Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2015) 11:37 Page 11 of 19

Table 2 Local medicinal plant uses recorded in the studied area (Continued) Malva sylvestris L. Malvaceae Malvo W Whole plant Decoctions Urinary and genital + + *** C UNISGWAL031 tracts inflammations, digestive Marrubium vulgare L. Marëfi W Whole plant Infusion Digestive + * P Lamiaceae UNISGVALMAR Matricaria chamomilla L. Caramillho W Flowers Infusion Urinary tract infections + + *** C Asteraceae Infusion, externally Bronchitis UNISGWAL008 applied in poultices Earaches Oleolites Melissa officinalis L. Melissa C Leaves Infusion Neurorelaxant + + ** C Lamiaceae UNISGWAL026 Menta longifolia (L.) Huds. Mëntatre W Leaves Infusion Digestive + + * C Lamiaceae Myristica fragrans Houtt. Noce moscata C Seeds Grinded and Dysmenorrhea + * P Myristicaceae ingested with sugar Ononis spinosa L. Fabaceae Ratabuou W Roots Decoction Cystitis, in the +* P prevention of prostate cancer Origanum vulgare L. Lamiaceae Oouriënt C Leaves Infusion Digestive + * C Parietaria officinalis L. Pan-chaoudét W Aerial parts Infusion Urinary tract infections + + *** C Urticaceae and for prevention UNISGVGB007 prostate cancer Pelargonium zonale (L.) L’Hér. ex Geranio C Leaves Topically applied Skin cuts, hamatomas, +**P Aiton Geraniaceae odoroso (fresh) wounds Pilosella officinarum Vaill. Èrbo dâ runh W Leaves Topical ly applied Skin cuts and wounds + * P Asteraceae Ourèllhë d’rattë (fresh) UNISGVGB013 Pinguicola vulgaris L. Èrbo d’la W Leaves Topically applied Skin cuts, wounds + ** P Lentibulariaceae talheuiro (fresh) Pinus cembra L. Pinaceae Èlvou W Cones Syrup Expectorant +* C Resin Topically applied Wounds Pinus mugo Turra, Pin W Cones Syrup Cough, bronchitis + + ** P P. sylvestris L. Pinaceae Sprouts Decoction Plantago major L., P. lanceolata Plantanh W Leaves Infusion Urinary and + + ** P L. Plantaginaceae Plantònh Baths genital infections UNISGVGB021 Topically applied To prevent prostate (fresh) cancer Bruises and haematomas Polygonum bistorta L. Ërparà W Aerial parts Infusion Diuretic + * P Polygonaceae UNISGVGB036 Polypodium vulgare L. Ërgalisio W Roots Decoction Cough, digestive + + ** P Polypodiaceae Rizouzèttë UNISGVGB003 Potentilla reptans L. Rosaceae Èrbo d’la W Whole plant Decoctions Urinary infections ++* P UNISGVALPOT sinquèno Baths To prevent prostate cancer Primula helatior (L.) Hill, P. veris See Table 1 W Flowers and Infuson/Decoction Diuretic, cough + * P L., P. vulgaris Huds. Primulaceae roots Prunus avium (L.) L. See Table 1 W Stems Infusion Diuretic + + ** P Resin Topically applied Sprains Prunus domestica L. Rosaceae Dalmeizinìe C Resin Topically applied Skin cuts and sprains + * P Bellia and Pieroni Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2015) 11:37 Page 12 of 19

Table 2 Local medicinal plant uses recorded in the studied area (Continued) Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A. Amandoulie C Seeds Fresh eaten Galactagogue + * P Webb Rosaceae Rhododendron ferrugineum L. Brousé W Galls Oleolite Muscle pains + * C Ericaceae UNISGVGB035 Rosa canina L. Rosaceae Bosou W Fruits Jam Intestinal astringent + + ** P UNISGVGB018 Agoulënsia Flowers Decoction Increase Infusion, in external immunostimulating applications on the Eye inflammations and eyes conjunctivitis Rosa centifolia L. Rosaceae Ruse C Infusion Sore throat + * C Rosmarinus officinalis L. Rousmarin C Leaves Infusion Digestive + + * C Lamiaceae UNISGWAL030 Rubus ulmifolius L. Rosaceae Rounzo W Leaves Infusion Sore throat and + + ** P UNISGWAL038 Topical fresh hoarseness applied Acne and pimples, cicatrizing Rumex acetosa L. Polygonaceae See Table 1 W Leaves Topically applied Insect bites + * P (fresh) Rumex alpinus L. Polygonaceae Lavaso W Leaves Infusion Cough + * P Salix alba L. Salicaceae Gourìe W Leaves Infusion Fever + * P Salvia officinalis L. Lamiaceae Salvio C Leaves Infusion Oral disinfectant and + + ** C antibacterial, headaches, digestive Sambucus nigra L. Adoxaceae See Table 1 W Flowers Infusion Hypertension + + ** P Fruits Applied (fresh) in Tooth abscess the mouth “Blood cleanser” Jam Satureja montana L. Lamiaceae Sëréa W Flowers Infusion Dysmenorrhea + * P Sempervivum montanum L. W Aerial parts Topically applied Skin cuts and burns + * P Crassulaceae (fresh) UNISGVGB029 Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn. Pugn W Leaves Infusion Diuretic, +* P Asteraceae Roots Decoction dysmenorrhea UNISGVALSYL Symphytum officinale L. Èrbo dâ W Roots Topicaly applied Muscle pains and skin +* P Boraginaceae panariss (fresh) infections UNISGVALSYM Tanacetum vulgare L. Tanaìo W Aerial parts Infusion Dysmenorrhea + * P Asteraceae UNISGWAL006 Taraxacum officinale L. Girasole W Roots Decoction Diuretic/“blood ++* P Asteraceae Mourpoursin cleasing” UNISGWAL010 Teucrium chamaedrys L. Calamandréo W Aerial parts Infusion Hypertension, + + ** P Lamiaceae dysmenorrhea UNISGVGB019 Thymus serpyllum L. Lamiaceae Sërpoul W Aerial parts Infusion Digestive + + *** C UNISGWAL029 Topically applied Insect bites (fresh) Tilia cordata Mill. Malvaceae Télh W Flowers Infusion Respiratory tract + + *** C UNISGVALTIL Tîeul inflammations Trigonella caerulea (L.) Ser. Thé d’hl’ort C Aerial parts Infusion Digestive + * C Fabaceae Tussilago farfara L. Asteraceae See Table 1 W Aerial parts Infusion Respiratory tract +** P inflammations, fever Bellia and Pieroni Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2015) 11:37 Page 13 of 19

Table 2 Local medicinal plant uses recorded in the studied area (Continued) Urtica dioica L. Urticaceae Urtìo W Roots Decoction Diuretic + * P UNISGWAL031 Verbascum thapsus L. Couvoùëlp W Infusion Respiratory tract + + *** P Scrophulariaceae Syrup inflammations UNISGVALVER Cough Verbena officinalis L. Barbéno W Fever Infusion Febrifuge + * P Verbenaceae UNISGWAL032 Veronica allionii Vill. See Table 1 W Flowering Infusion Diuretic + * C Plantaginaceae aerial parts Viola calcarata L. Vioulëtto W Flowers Infusion Respiratory tract + + ** C Violaceae d’mountannho inflammations, fever UNISGVGB028 Viola tricolor L. Violaceae Vioulëtto W Flowers Infusion Respiratory tract + + *** C UNISGVGB005 blancho Topically applied inflammations, fever, Viooulëtin toothache Unidentified taxon Appia W Leaves Topical application Bruises + * P Unidentified taxon Murtalia W Flowers Tea Anti-infllammatory + * P #: see Table 1 for other voucher codes. Status: C: cultivated; SC: semi-cultivated or semi-wild; W: wild. Wal: use recorded among Waldensians; Cat: use recorded among Catholics. Citations: *quoted by 10% of the informants or less; **quoted by 11-39% of the informants; ***quoted by 40% of the informants or more. Notes: C: current use; P: past use. produced a dramatic loss of Traditional Knowledge the same time fostered strong ties to Central and North- concerning veterinary practices. ern Europe, may have facilitated unique patterns of plant perception and use. Waldensian versus Catholic ethnobotany: the possible However, in the last few decades intermarriage between role of cultural isolation from neighbours members of the two communities has become more com- Figure 4 illustrates the overlap between the ethnobotany mon (generally bringing the new family into the Catholic of Waldensians and that of their Catholic neighbours in faith), and this will probably further hybridize the ethno- the three analysed domains (folk wild plant foods, medi- botany of the two groups. cines, and veterinary food plants and remedies). On the other hand, a stronger overlap of the ethno- The comparison shows that Waldensians had, or have botanies of two culturally distinct groups in the specific retained, a more extensive ethnobotanical knowledge, wild food domain has also been observed in other and that approximately only half of the recorded wild mountainous regions of Europe, and may be regarded as food and medicinal plants are known and used by both acommonstrategyforcopingwiththefoodsecurity- communities. Moreover, this convergence is more centred struggles that marginalised Alpine populations marked for the wild food plant domain. had to face in the past [1]. Despite the fact that Waldensians nowadays live to- gether with Catholics, intermarriage between the two The Waldensian ethnobotany during the last century: a religious communities did not exist until a few decades historical analysis ago. Given the fact that vertical transmission (from Table 4 illustrates the overlap of ethnobotanical data grandmother to mothers and from mothers to daugh- collected at the end of the 19th Century and in the 1980s ters) of ethnobotanical knowledge is related to kinship in one of the study valleys (Germanasca Valley) [28-30] networks and these are determined by religious affili- with our current data. ation, this factor may explain the divergence of the two Although few plants were reported in the ethnobotan- ethnobotanies. ical study published in 1900 [28,29] and few taxa were Moreover, the fact that the plant knowledge among reported with their local names in the survey published Waldensians appears to be more extensive than among in 1984 [30] (thus suggesting maybe a sampling based the Catholic population may be related to a less marked mainly on trained herbalists), more than half of these erosion of the traditional customs and the strong sense species recorded in these two studies are used in the of identity Waldensians retain. The historical isolation of same of similar ways today. the Waldensian community, which survived for many However, possible different research methods used centuries cut off from the rest of their neighbours but at in the current and past field studies make a detailed Bellia and Pieroni Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2015) 11:37 Page 14 of 19

Table 3 Local veterinary plant uses recorded in the studied area Botanical taxon/ Local name Status Plant Preparation and Folk veterinary Treated Wal Cat Citations Notes family and voucher (folk taxon/generic) part(s) administration use(s) or animals specimen code # treated desease(s) Achillea erba-rotta See Table 1 W Aerial parts Infusion Rumination CA + + * P All. Asteraceae disorders Aconitum napellus L. Èrbo toro W Whole plant Eaten fresh Abortive CA + * P Ranunculaceae Alcea rosea L. Malvone C Aerial parts Infusion Rumination CA + * P Malvaceae disorders Artemisia absinthium L. See Table 2 W Aerial parts Fodder or in Rumination CA, RA + + ** P infusions disorders Avena sativa L. Avéno C Aerial parts Fodder (fresh) Post-partum CA + * P Poaceae depurative Calendula officinalis L. Courtëzio C Flowers Infusion To facilitate CA + * P Asteraceae pregnancy Cetraria islandica (L.) See Table 2 W Thallus Decoction Stomach disorders CA + * P Ach. Parmeliaceae Equisetum arvense L. See Table 2 W Aerial parts Foothbath Infections of the SH + * P Equisetaceae paws Euphorbia cyparissias L. Laitin gró’d W Fruits Fodder (dried) Infections (esp. in CA, PO, +* P Euphorbiaceae mialàourë the oral cavity) SH UNISGVGB009 Fagopyrum Granét C Aerial parts Dried Fodder CA, PO, +* P esculentum Moench. PI Polygonaceae Festuca ovina L. Grasoun W Aerial parts Dried Fodder CA + * P Poaceae Foeniculum vulgare Fënoulh W Aerial parts Fodder (fresh) Galactagogue CA + * P Mill. Apiaceae UNISGVGB012 Fraxinus excelsior L. See Table 2 W Leaves Fresh Fodder CA + * P Oleaceae Galium verum L. Caglio W Flowering Dried As rennet + * P Rubiaceae tops UNISGVALGAL Gentiana lutea L. See Table 1 W Roots Decoction Rumination CA, SH + * P disorders Gentianaceae Heracleum Plaoutasino W Aerial parts Fresh or dried Fodder PO, RA + * P sphondylium L. Apiaceae Juniperus communis See Table 1 W Fruits Fodder To improve the CA + * P L. Cupressaceae skin health (making it shiny) Laburnum alpinum Albuorn W Leaves Fresh or dried Fodder RA + * P (Mill.) Bercht. & J.Presl. Fabaceae UNISGVGB037 Lamium album L. See Table 2 W Leaves Fresh or dried Fodder PI, PO, +* P Lamiaceae RA Larix decidua Mill. See Table 2 W Resin Topically applied Bruises, sprains, CA + + * C Pinaceae wounds Linum usitatissimum See Table 2 C Seeds Fodder “Blood cleansing” CA + * P L. Linaceae Bellia and Pieroni Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2015) 11:37 Page 15 of 19

Table 3 Local veterinary plant uses recorded in the studied area (Continued) Malva sylvestris L. See Table 2 W Whole plant Decoction Depurative during CA + * P Malvaceae the menstrual cycle Marrubium vulgare L. See Table 2 W Whole plant Infusion Rumination CA + * P Lamiaceae disorders Matricaria chamomilla See Table 2 C Flowers Infusion Rumination CA +* P L. Asteraceae disorders (calves) Medicago sativa L. Luzèrno W Aerial parts Fresh or dried Fodder CA + + ** C Fabaceae Onobrychis viciifolia Jalét W Aerial parts Fresh or dried Fodder CA + * P Scop. Fabaceae Ononis spinosa L. See Table 2 W Roots Decoction Depurative during CA + * P Fabaceae the menstrual cycle Oxalis acetosella L. See Table 1 W Leaves Eaten fresh or Fodder PO, RA + * P Oxalidaceae dry Parietaria officinalis L. See Table 1 C Aerial parts Fresh Fodder PO + * C Urticaceae Pilosella officinarum Èrbo dâ runh W Whole plant Fodder Rumination CA + * P Vaill. disorders Asteraceae UNISGVGB013 Plantago major L.,P. See Table 2 W Leaves Fresh or dried Fodder PI + * P lanceolata L. Plantaginaceae Polyporus officinalis Panouflo W Fruiting Fodder (ground) Rumination CA + + ** P Fries. body disorders Poliporaceae Quercus petraea Roure W Leaves Fresh or dried Fodder GO + * P (Matt.) Liebl. Fagaceae Secale cereale L. Sèel C Seeds→Flour Fodder Galactagogue CA + + * P Poaceae Sedum album L. Picouloump W Leaves Fresh Fodder PO + * P Crassulaceae Silene vulgaris Eicloupèt W Leaves Fresh or dried Fodder PO, RA + * P (Moench) Garcke Caryophyllaceae UNISGVGB020 Stellaria media (L.) Pavarino W Leaves Fresh Fodder PO + * P Vill. Caryophyllaceae Silybum marianum Pugn W Roots Decoction Depurative during CA + * P (L.) Gaertn the menstrual cycle Asteraceae Tanacetum vulgare L. See Table 1 W Aerial parts Infusion Rumination CA + * P Asteraceae disorders Taraxacum officinale See Table 1 W Aerial parts Fresh or dried Fodder PO + * P F.H.Wigg. Asteraceae Thymus serpyllum L. See Table 1 W Aerial parts Topically applied Rumination CA, SH + + * P Lamiaceae in the mouth disorders, infections of the oral cavity Trifolium alpinum L. Fioun W Aerial parts Fresh or dried Fodder CA + * P Fabaceae Triticum vulgare Vill. Froumént C Aerial parts Fresh or dried Fodder CA + + * P Poaceae Bellia and Pieroni Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2015) 11:37 Page 16 of 19

Table 3 Local veterinary plant uses recorded in the studied area (Continued) Ulmus glabra Huds. Oùëlme W Leaves Fresh or dried Fodder PI + * P Ulmaceae UNISGVALULM Urtica dioica See Table 1 W Leaves Fresh or dried Fodder PO + * P L. Urticaceae Verbascum thapsus See Table 2 W Leaves Fresh or dried Fodder SH + * P L. Scrophulariaceae Viola tricolor L. See Table 1 W Flowers Infusion Rumination CA + * P Violaceae disorders #: see Table 1 and Table 2 for other voucher codes. Status: C: cultivated; SC: semi-cultivated or semi-wild; W: wild. Treated animals: CA: cattle; GO: goats; PI: pigs; PO: poultry; RA: rabbits; SH: sheep. Wal: use recorded among Waldensians; Cat: use recorded among Catholics. Notes: C: current use; P: past use. Citations: *quoted by 10% of the informants or less; **quoted by 11% of the informants or more. comparison very problematic, as in both of the past have also confirmed the survival of 19th Century folk considered surveys, which were conducted by botanists, plant uses to today [16,43]. an exact description of the utilized sampling and ethno- graphic methods and, paradoxically, even an indication Conclusions of collected plant vouchers are completely missing. Local plants have played, and still partially play, an im- The comparative analysis shows in any case a remark- portant role in the context of food security and emic, able degree of resilience of traditional plant uses in the domestic pathways of the management of human and study area, despite the tremendous socio-economic animal health in the Western Alps. changes that occurred during the last 120 years; other A marked persistence of local knowledge regarding diachronic analyses recently conducted in the Balkans these plants among Waldensians confirms the importance

Figure 4 Overlap between the folk plant taxa used among Waldensians and Catholics in the study area. Bellia and Pieroni Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2015) 11:37 Page 17 of 19

Table 4 Comparison of the local plant uses recorded in the Germanasca Valley in 1900 and 1984 with those collected in the current study Botanical taxon Local uses recorded in 1900 [27,28] Local uses recorded in 1984 [29]* Local uses and family nowadays (current study) Allium cepa L. NR Decoction of the bulbs a diuretic NR (Amaryllidaceae) Amelanchier ovalis Fruits consumed as a snack by boys NR = Medik. (Rosaceae) Anemone hepatica L. Leaves externally applied on women breast for NR NR (Ranuncolaceae) treating inflammations Arctium lappa L. NR Infusion of the dried roots, as a depurative ≈ (Asteraceae) Arnica montana L. Alcoholic macerate of the flowers externally applied for ≈ (Asteraceae) treating cuts, rheumatism, and muscle pains Artemisia genipi Weber NR Aerial parts in infusion or alcoholic macerate (liquor) as = ex Stechm. a digestive (Asteraceae) Beckwithia glacialis (L.) Flowers in decoction, drunk as a diaphoretic Decoction for treating toothaches NR Á. Löve & D. Löve (Ranuncolaceae) Calendula officinalis L. NR Infusion of the dried flowers as a depurative ≈ (Asteraceae) Campanula spicata L. NR Fresh leaves, crashed, externally applied for treating NR (Campanulaceae) cuts Cetraria islandica (L.) NR Decoction of the thallus as a digestive and expectorant = Ach. (Parmeliaceae) Chelidonius majus L. Latex externally applied on warts NR = (Papaveraceae) Crataegus Fruits consumed NR ≠ rhipidophylla Gand. (Rosaceae) Gentiana acaulis L. NR Whole plant or roots in infusion/decoction or wine = (Gentianaceae) macerate as appetizing and digestive Hypericum perforatum Hung behind the house door, to prevent Oil macerate of the fresh flowers as a cicatrizing = (as in 1984) L. (Hypericaceae) witcheries Laburnum anagyroides Bark decocted and externally used for treating NR ≠ Medik. (Fabaceae) lice in cows and calves Laricifomes officinalis NR The fruiting body, powdered, in infusion as a digestive NR (Vill.) Kotl. & Pouzar (Fomitopsidaceae) Lathyrus sylvestris Remedy (?) for cows when they calve NR NR (Fabaceae) Lilium candidum L. NR Oil macerate of the fresh flowers as a cicatrizing NR (Liliaceae) Linum usitatissimum L. The seeds (in compresses?) as anti-rheumatic NR = (Linaceae) Malva sylvestris L. Infusion of the leaves (?) as emollient, both for NR ≈ (Malvaceae) humans and animals Nasturtium officinale R. Leaves consumed raw in salads Leaves consumed raw in salads or in soup, as a NR Br. (Brassicaceae) depurative Onobrychis viciifolia Fodder NR = Scop. (Fabaceae) Oxalis acetosella L. Leaves consumed raw in salads NR = (Oxalidaceae) Papaver rhoes L. Flowers in decoction, drunk for treating NR NR (Papaveraceae) toothache Bellia and Pieroni Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2015) 11:37 Page 18 of 19

Table 4 Comparison of the local plant uses recorded in the Germanasca Valley in 1900 and 1984 with those collected in the current study (Continued) Parietaria officinalis L. NR Decoction of the dried aerial parts, as a diuretic and ≈ (Urticaceae) depurative Polygonum aviculare L. NR Infusion of the dried aerial parts (?) as an astringent NR (Polygonaceae) Rosa canina L. Flowers consumed as a snack by boys Infusion of the flowers externally applied for treating = (as in 1984) (Rosaceae) eye inflammations Rosa centifolia L. Petals (not clarified how) for treating eye NR ≠ (Rosaceae) inflammations Rubus ideaus L. Fruits consumed; leaves as fodder NR = (Rosaceae) Rubus ulmifolius Fruits consumed NR = Schott (Rosaceae) Sorbus aria (L.) Crantz Fruits consumed as a snack by boys NR ≠ (Rosaceae) Tanacetum vulgare L. NR Fresh aerial parts consumed in salads as a depurative ≈ (Asteraceae) Thymus serpyllum L. NR Infusion of the flowering tops as a digestive and anti- ≈ (Lamiaceae) tussive Tilia x europea L. Flowers in diaphoretic decoctions; leaves as NR = (Malvaceae) fodder Trifolium spp. Fodder NR ≈ (Fabaceae) Tussilago farfara L. NR Crashed fresh leaves, externally applied, as a ≠ (Asteraceae) suppurative Urtica dioica L. NR Young aerial parts consumed in soups as a depurative; ≈ (Urticaceae) dried roots and leaves, decocted, for treating alopecia; dried leaves used as fodder for hens for increasing the egg production Verbascum phlomoides NR Decoction of the flowers for treating catarrhs = L. (Scrophulariaceae) Verbena officinalis L. NR Fresh aerial parts, crashed and mixed with pork fat, ≠ (Verbenaceae) externally applied for treating cuts Veronica prostrata L. NR Infusion for treating catarrhs and inflammations ≈ (Plantaginaceae) Viola biflora L. NR Infusion of the dried flowers for treating coughs and as NR (Violaceae) an intestinal anti-inflammatory; mixed with milk and bread, externally applied, as a suppurative Viola calcarata L. Leaves consumed in soups Infusion of the dried flowers for treating coughs and as = (as in 1984) (Violaceae) an intestinal anti-inflammatory; mixed with milk and bread, externally applied, as a suppurative Viola tricolor L. Not specified, the resulting preparation Infusion of the dried flowers for treating coughs and as ≠ (Violaceae) (decoction of the aerial parts?) considered good an intestinal anti-inflammatory; mixed with milk and for those women, who had given a baby bread, externally applied, as a suppurative *We considered folk uses referred only to those plant taxa, for which local names were reported. (?): hypothesized plant use details. NR: not recorded; = same use; ≈ similar use; ≠ different uses. of studying enclaves as well as cultural and linguistic as cultural and religious customs, since plant folk know- “isles” in ethnobotany, which may represent both crucial ledge systems are the result of a continuous interplay reservoirs of folk knowledge and bio-cultural refugia between these two domains over centuries. [44]. Finally, these neglected local plant resources may rep- On the other hand, the findings of this study indicate resent a key issue for fostering a sustainable develop- that a proper conservation of the bio-cultural heritage, ment in an area of the Alps, which has been largely such as the ethnobotanical one, requires strategies, which untouched by mass tourism and is looking with particu- carefully consider natural landscapes and resources as well lar interest at eco-touristic trajectories. Bellia and Pieroni Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2015) 11:37 Page 19 of 19

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