Section 2: Nature Friendly Environments — Communities Making it Happen

Waitakere’s Green Network, a 10-year anniversary — the challenges and successes of implementing a biodiversity programme begun in 1993 Chris Ferkins1 Waitakere City Council Private Bag 93-109, Henderson, Waitakere City, New Zealand [email protected]

ABSTRACT In 1993 Waitakere City Council joined a group of some 2000 cities world-wide in taking the path to becoming sustainable cities — a direction that considers the impact our decisions today have on future generations and on the environment the city inhabits; a direction recommended to communities world- wide by The Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, through Agenda 21.

When Waitakere City agreed to these recommendations they became the fi rst city in New Zealand to begin realigning to a sustainable objective. The eco city was born and a concept called the Green Network was developed. The Green Network is not just about enhancing biodiversity, but is a ‘healthy habitat for a city’ concept. The key element besides biodiversity is ecosystem services, and both have capacity to enhance the healthy functioning of biological and physical processes, to the benefi t of all living things within the city environment.

Waitakere City faces similar challenges to the retention of biological diversity as other large New Zealand cities including land use intensifi cation, the spread of environmentally invasive weeds and the loss of vegetation and habitat. Waitakere however, has also retained signifi cant biodiversity helped by the mix of features that give variety to the landscape including coast, ranges (a large and recovering area of rainforest if somewhat frayed at the edges and in the vicinity of roadways), lowlands (containing fragmented remnant bush and wetland areas) and streams (retaining perhaps surprising levels of biodiversity).

The Green Network is a concept and planning tool that uses both regulatory and voluntary mechanisms to attain a physical presence (the development and retention of habitat connections from the ranges to the coasts). But the Green Network must also connect the community and have a clear purpose if it is to succeed and persist. Crucially, Waitakere City Council has a clear vision, supported and encouraged by the community. Attitudes of integration and innovation are also strong.

This paper marks the anniversary of a decade of work in furthering the Green Network and the eco city in Waitakere, and focuses on a few key examples of the progress made and lessons learnt:

1. Asset Management — Roadsides Waitakere has 1500 km of roadsides within Road Reserves, including that in the Waitakere Ranges. Management changes have seen substantial improvement in the asset, its ecological health, its impact on surrounding natural areas, and expected future savings on the cost of road maintenance

2. Regulation — Riparian Margins One key inclusion in the District Plan was the creation of a riparian zone that set a specifi c set of rules for the land beside streams, and in so doing provides a positive message about the values of that land

3. Community and Partnership — Green Network Community Assistance Programme As the tool by which local communities express their wishes and guide their development, Councils

1 Note: the contents of this paper are the opinions and the copyright of the author. They do not necessarily represent the opinions of Waitakere City Council.

48 Greening the City. ISBN 0-959-77566-8 © Royal New Zealand Institute of Horticulture (Inc.) 2005 Section 2: Nature Friendly Environments — Communities Making it Happen

have a role in both supporting and encouraging communities. The massive potential of a supportive community, taking both individual and group action in working towards a vision should not be underestimated. Although some do support these initiatives just for their environmental gains, much broader engagement is gained through also acknowledging and incorporating the economic, cultural and social objectives of community members. Non-regulatory programmes of support for community involvement including private landowners are also discussed

4. Stormwater and ecological restoration in the heart of the city — Project Twin Streams This project aims to improve water quality, improve ecological function and health, and create wildlife corridors through the heart of urban Waitakere.

INTRODUCTION In 1993 Waitakere City Council joined a these overlapping but complementary elements group of some 2000 cities world-wide in (Fig. 1) have capacity to impact on the healthy taking the path to becoming sustainable cities functioning of biological and physical processes, — a direction that considers the impact our and their enhancement can benefi t all decisions today have on future generations inhabitants of the city (human and non-human) and on the environment the city inhabits. This with improved environmental quality — as well direction was recommended to communities as enhanced cultural, social and economic world-wide by the United Nations Conference functioning. on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992. This Now, 10 years later, Waitakere is celebrating a conference, also called The Earth Summit, decade of work on furthering the Green Network was the largest gathering of world leaders in and the eco city. history, and made the recommendations in a signed agreement called Agenda 21 that This paper focuses on examples of Waitakere outlined global strategies for cleaning up the City Councils experiences in four key facets of environment and encouraging environmentally operation: sound development. 1. Asset Management — Roadsides Thus, in 1993 Waitakere City agreed to 2. Regulation — Riparian Margins these recommendations and became the 3. Community and Partnership — Green fi rst city in New Zealand to begin realigning Network Community Assistance Programme to a sustainable objective. The eco city was 4. Stormwater Management — Project Twin born, and an early step was the development Streams. of a concept called the Green Network. The eco city vision gave direction but where to THE BACKGROUND — BIODIVERSITY start? And how could the Green Network THREATS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN be managed to serve those economic, WAITAKERE cultural and social outcomes as well as the environment? These were among the fi rst Landscape features practical challenges that we needed to resolve Waitakere City is bounded on three sides by to translate the eco city and Green Network coast (Fig. 2) — looking east to the Auckland concepts into reality. harbour bridge across the Waitemata Harbour; south to Manukau across the Manukau Harbour, Interestingly, the Green Network was never and west to the Tasman Sea. Running in a just about biodiversity, but about fostering dog-leg north to south is the central divide a ‘healthy habitat for a city’. (See Appendix of the rainforest covered Waitakere Ranges 1 for a defi nition of ‘Biodiversity’). The key (Waitakere Ecological District). There are element fostered besides biodiversity is some settlements west of the divide and some ecosystem services (Appendix 2). Both of housing along the rural roads. Urban Waitakere

49 Section 2: Nature Friendly Environments — Communities Making it Happen occupies the lower eastern foothills and lowlands, and the foothills beside the Manukau Harbour (Tamaki Ecological District). An area of peri-urban agriculture lies to the north (also largely Tamaki Ecological District with one valley Ecosystem Biodiversity Services that is in the Rodney Ecological District).

Three elements help summarise the threat to biodiversity:

1. Land use intensifi cation and urbanisation Fig. 1 The relationship between Biodiversity and (Waitakere is New Zealand’s fi fth largest city) Ecosystem Services. 2. Environmentally invasive weeds — location (proximity to a major international seaport and airport), climatic infl uences (sub-tropical vigour) and disturbances to the landscape (current and • Despite cumulative, historical habitat loss, a historical) have resulted in the wider Auckland surprising amount of native aquatic and some city, of which Waitakere is a part, having an signifi cant riparian wildlife is still present (Fig. exceedingly large naturalised fl ora, a diversity 4A,B). apparently unmatched in any other city in the world, resulting in it being arguably the weediest Waitakere Ranges and west coast (Waitakere city in the world (Esler 1987) Ecological District): 3. Historical and current loss of vegetation and • 98% of the Waitakere Ranges and west coast habitat (including disturbance to 98% of what has suffered historical disturbance (especially is now the more vegetatively ‘intact’ parts of from fi re and logging) the city). • 90% of the area has returned to native bush (regenerating rainforest) but the vegetation Despite this, other factors including the patterns have changed regenerative power of native ecosystems mean • The area is still rich in species diversity Waitakere now has signifi cant biodiversity, and — 20% of New Zealand native angiosperm the layout of the land has endowed Waitakere species and 60% of New Zealand fern with multiple small and several medium sized species are represented (542 species in streams that fl ow between the bush covered total). However, of these plant species, 21 foothills and the coast, through the middle are threatened, and 6 are endemic of the urban landscape. This is the base of • 700 species of beetles and 100 land snails biodiversity and ecosystem services available were identifi ed in a survey of one bush area for the development of the Green Network and near Te Henga (Bethells Beach) on the west a sustainable city. coast • 5 species of native lizards and the Biodiversity features endangered Hochstetter’s frog (Leiopelma hochstetteri) are present Lowlands — urban and peri-urban (Tamaki • The loss or survival of the other components Ecological District; e.g., Fig. 3): of biodiversity is poorly known — the genetic • 30% of the existing lowland vegetation was diversity within species (especially as this lost between 1993 and 2000. While some may be affected by the loss of distinct loss resulted from subdivision, most is the net populations), and ecosystem diversity. effect of many people removing a few trees each over time Marine areas: • 9% of the area is now occupied by remnant • A small number of marine mammals are vegetation, most of this being in gullies and present including seals and the world’s beside streams and is highly fragmented smallest and rarest marine dolphin, the

50 Section 2: Nature Friendly Environments — Communities Making it Happen

Maui’s dolphin (Cephalorhyncus hectori But link it by passageways of cover maui) to other bush? You get interconnecting • Mangrove colonies are intact providing passageways of green ... a backbone for valuable refugia for juvenile marine life, the Green Network. but the mangroves are spreading with the increasing siltation of estuarine areas due to The Green Network can be defi ned activities on land. physically as (see Fig. 5): • A framework (or ‘backbone’) of green space City-wide (within the Waitakere City Council dedicated to habitat creation. These ‘fi ngers boundaries): of green’ (corridors) include bush and riparian • About 200 species of invasive plants are areas on both public and private land, and currently recognised as present or threatening stretch from the Waitakere Ranges to the to Waitakere (WCC 2002a) coasts. They create connections with remnant • 12 species of native fi sh including shortjaw bush, wetland, coastal edges and other natural kōkopu (Galaxias postvectis). Most species features. The plotting of areas of existing and have a continuing presence in those lowland proposed vegetation (Fig. 5) highlighted those streams now part of the urban area, but in low areas that if restored, would create continuous numbers connections for the length of the catchment • Recent monitoring indicates that bird • And a matrix — mixed use areas that populations are now increasing in the complement and give body to the framework Waitakere Ranges but are still decreasing in such as areas of stormwater management the lowlands (planted ponds, swales, rain gardens), • Long-tailed bats (Chalinolobus tuberculatus) agricultural (hedgerows, orchards, rank are making nocturnal incursions into urban grass), residential (gardens, street trees) areas following corridors of well-established and commercial yards, all of which contain vegetation. vegetation or habitat features that can be occupied by some species. And people? • 168 750 people and 56 170 households The Green Network can also be defi ned by: — these numbers are expected to grow 40% • Team — comprising all those people who by the year 2050 share an interest, management role or impact • 367 km² land area within the Council boundaries on the health of the natural features of the • 23% of the Council land area is urbanised City including: (within the metropolitan urban limit of the city) ◦ Private landowners and occupiers, • 52% of respondents to an annual telephone community groups survey want more Green Network activities ◦ Cross-council teams who meet monthly to and support exchange information and coordinate activities • 542 Parks. (including Parks, Transport Assets, Resource Management, Consents Services, Ecowater The above data on biodiversity features is from Solutions, Cleaner Production, community the State of the city report (WCC 2002b). coordinators, and Strategic Development) ◦ Interagency interests including for THE GREEN NETWORK — WAITAKERE’S example Waitakere City Council, Auckland ‘HEALTHY HABITAT FOR A CITY’ CONCEPT Regional Council, Water Care Services, DOC, power companies, Transit, Tranzrail, Ever walked into a patch of bush and QEII National Trust thought ‘where are all the birds?’ • Purpose — the aims of the Green Network Many New Zealand birds and other wildlife are to: cannot move across open space! ◦ Enhance the natural environment — Therefore wildlife in that bush is isolated including health, self-sustaining capacity, too and life in the bush slowly dies away. and diversity

51 Section 2: Nature Friendly Environments — Communities Making it Happen

◦ Enhance the capacity of nature (natural and that of the surrounding natural areas. and managed environments combined) to Future impacts are expected including a relative maximise benefi cial ecosystem services to reduction in the maintenance costs of both the Waitakere City roads and the roadsides. ◦ Increase people’s enjoyment of (e.g., recreation), valuing of, and participation in Task description: management of the City’s environment. • Identify and manage threats to the asset (i.e., threats to both the constructed and natural All three components (physical, team and features) purpose) are essential for the Green Network to • Identify and manage threats being effected on be effective in the context of a modern, urbanised the environment surrounding the asset (e.g., society living with and benefi ting from nature. impacts on bush, wetland and stream habitats) • Maximise the potential benefi ts of the asset to The progress in developing the Green Network Waitakere City is cumulative with a large number of tasks • Reduce the long-term costs (including and programmes undertaken. There are fi nancial, environmental and human health) three factors that have resulted in substantial attributed to use of the asset, and of momentum in Waitakere. These are: managing the asset • Consider the enhancement of natural health 1. The work is part of a vision that has broad and ecosystem services such that they help Council and community support achieve outcomes currently achieved by more 2. Strong efforts are made to integrate the costly and/or damaging intervention practices vision across Council, which helps to • Ensure no loss of safety to carriageway users. avoid the potential for staff in separate departments to be isolated, or to undermine Issues and challenges: each others progress Unfortunately, roadsides are regularly treated by 3. Council have a policy of being an innovative society as ‘highly managed wastelands’. This ‘learning organisation’, which mandates a results in high levels of disturbance, dismissive willingness to experiment and an attitude of attitudes, damaging behaviours, and signifi cant innovation. threats and damage to ecological values and functions, all of which increase the costs of Collectively these three factors have generated managing and maintaining the roadside asset of a substantial momentum, both in addressing the city. biodiversity and ecosystem services (Fig. 6), including focussing on in-stream and Roadsides and roadside vegetation also: riparian areas (Fig. 7). Additionally, these • Are home to threatened species initiatives provide a strongly motivational and • Provide important habitat rewarding environment for staff and community • Have a major role in silt reduction and water participants alike. quality improvement to local streams • Provide edge protection and buffer for There are too many activities here to explore neighbouring native bush them all in this paper. I have chosen four key • Add ground stability for roads. examples, representing different facets of Council operation. Roads are a major means of distribution for weeds due to effects such as wind funnelling, CASE STUDY 1. ASSET MANAGEMENT water channelling, movement of people and — ROADSIDES machinery, and removal of vegetation and Waitakere has 1500 km of roadsides including dumping. Land and vegetation disturbance those through the Waitakere Ranges. including road and roadside works means Management changes have seen substantial there is traditionally a lot of habitat available for improvement in the asset, its ecological health, weeds to establish on roadsides.

52 Section 2: Nature Friendly Environments — Communities Making it Happen

N

Fig. 2 Aerial depiction of Waitakere City and surrounds.

Fig. 3 Henderson Creek working its way through urban Waitakere, fl anked by industrial sites, backyards and open green spaces — all components of either the framework or the matrix of the Green Network.

53 Section 2: Nature Friendly Environments — Communities Making it Happen

Fig. 4 A, coastal wetland in A B Waitakere looking across the Waitemata Harbour to central Auckland; B, resident fernbirds.

Fig. 5 Map showing part of Waitakere’s Green Network.

54 Section 2: Nature Friendly Environments — Communities Making it Happen

Regulation Education • District Plan 1) zoning of riparian • Internal training &and education education areas; 2) mapping of vegetation, • Industry training &and education education habitats and landscape features,features; 3) • Teachers package —- based based on on State State vegetation control rules Ofof theThe City City Report Report • Consents &and enforcement enforcement that that protects • Citizenship ceremonies ceremonies - gift— ofgift labelled of naturalprotects areas natural and areas requires and requiresweed ecosourcedlabelled ecosourced plants plants controlweed control and ecosourced and ecosourced planting planting. • Public access strategy • Interpreted walkways • Planting &and Restoring Restoring Guidelines Guidelines • Fact Sheets • Public talkstalks.

Community Parks Planting Programme Roadside Vegetation &and Parks Parks • Supports residents wanting to plant/ Management revegetate on public landland. • Flail mowimgmowing managementmanagement forfor nativenative habitat improvement • Weed control • Planting &and other other habitat habitat enhancement • Weedenhancement Strategy - guiding doc • ThreatenedWeed Strategy species — guiding management document Community Assistance Programme • Threatened species management. Support community residents working on private land. Provides: • Technical expertise • Management Plans In-Stream and Riparian Areas • Weed disposal • see FIGFig. 77. • Chemicals for weed eradication • Plants — ecosourced • Fencing • Covenanting Addressing • Rates Relief Biodiversity • &Lots lots of of encouragement! encouragement! and& Ecosystem Ecosourcing Services • Use of ecosourced plants • Code of Practice — publishing and Partnerships with Community implementation Organisations • Working with industry to supply Support communitycommunity involvement involvement and & ecosourced plants to the retail and provision of services. wholesale marketsmarkets. Activities include: • Adopt Aa Spot • Trees for Babies • ‘Green Toto Go’Go’ youthyouth conferenceconference • War inon Weeds Weeds • Clean Stream • Project Kumerahou Monitoring and Reporting • Trees for Survival • State of City Report • Hosted ‘Night Walks With Nature’ • Wildlife surveys (birds, lizards, bats, • Weed Free campaigning frogs, fish...) • Weed removal services • Strategic &and Annual Annual Plans Plans & and • 70 Land/Coast Care groupsgroups. performance indicatorsindicators.

Contract Methodology Includes standard clauses on: •Contract Weed hygiene Methodology West Coast Plan • EcosourcingWeed hygiene • Plan for land &and communities communities west west of • NaturalEcosourcing area protection theof the divide. divide. Objectives Objectives of retainingof retaining the • HydrologicalNatural area protection environmentalthe environmental character character and andlifestyle • HydrologicalAmenity Planting protection Guidelines. thatlifestyle makes that it makes unique. it unique. • Amenity Planting Guidelines

Fig. 6 A decade of work — general activities.

55 Section 2: Nature Friendly Environments — Communities Making it Happen

Stormwater Management Habitat Restoration • Stormwater reduction, e.g., permeable • Riparian weed control surfacing, swales • In-stream weed control • Stormwater treatment, e.g., ponds, • Riparian planting swales • Fish ladders • Roadside batter revegetation. • Daylighting of streams.

Project Twin Streams Regulation • The beginning of a $35m project to • Riparian zoning manage water quality. Stormwater and • Consents and enforcement as habitat restoration in conjunction with in Fig. 6. community.

Community Assistance Programme Aftercare — Retired Landfills • As in Fig. 6. • Containment and/or treatment of contaminated run-off.

In-stream and Riparian Areas — Addressing Biodiversity and Ecosystem Sevices

Community Partnership Structure Plans Programmes • Rural subdivision consents require • Stream restoration with community hydrological neutrality. groups Includes: • Clean Stream • Adopt a Spot • Trees for Survival • Project Twin Streams. Cleaner Production • Support to business to ensure proper storage and transport of hazardous material to prevent discharge to stormwater and streams.

Education • As in Fig. 6. Te Henga Swamp Also: • Willow and weed control • Interpretation of Council’s • Community planting Management programme through the River • Interpretative walks. Restoration Group.

Fig. 7 A decade of work — activities on streams.

56 Section 2: Nature Friendly Environments — Communities Making it Happen

Herbicide use and reduction is an issue for human • Explore weed hygiene — for example, is the and environmental health that can be improved by operation inadvertently contributing to the appropriate selection of control techniques. spreading of weeds? • Contract specifi cations modifi ed especially for Vegetation management objectives for road fl ail mowing and weed control (the two major reserves: tools for managing roadside vegetation) to There are nine objectives, fi ve of which require increase positive effects and minimise effects vegetation control: contrary to the management objectives.

1. Safety (maintaining sight lines for drivers and Biodiversity lessons and achievements: preventing overhanging plants) The overarching lesson is to use a systems- 2. Protection of the asset (preventing plants based management regime. When well thought from causing damage to the seal, footpaths, through this will both accommodate causes kerb and other features or furniture of the and effects and use them in helping achieve a road edge or berm; or preventing erosion positive direction that supports the objectives. from undermining such features) This makes the approach very powerful 3. Flood mitigation (preventing stormwater as it enlists natural processes in achieving blockages and damage) management objectives, and thus in the 4. Control of environmental weeds medium term is also likely to result in relative 5. Fire risk reduction. cost reductions and improved outcomes. The causes and effects considered must include The four remaining objectives require vegetation both human (including management) and enhancement: ecologically related ones. Causes and effects related to the baring of soil and to weed 6. Water quality improvements for local streams invasion have proven to be the biggest threats (reducing the quantity of silt and pollution to the objectives. Changes made to roadside carried by stormwater washing from roads, vegetation management as a result of this roadside banks and ditches) approach have included: 7. Stability enhancement (i.e., reducing slips through revegetation and moderation of water • Raising the height of fl ail mowing (minimum saturation and drought levels in soil) height of 300 mm on batters). Result: ground 8. Threatened species protection (roadsides coverage on batters by native plants (when provide a well-defi ned seral habitat suited to combined with spot spraying for invasive some species) weeds). Outcomes: minimised bare ground, 9. Bush edge protection (achieved by increased stability, minimised new weed maintaining good ‘edge’ structure for bush invasion, maximised ecological benefi ts areas growing on neighbouring land). Intact • Go beyond legal requirements for weed edge vegetation has signifi cant benefi ts for control and include all invasive species (build the health of the adjoining bush and other up to this progressively starting with the most natural areas. threatening species) • Giving equal priority to environmental and Processes: agricultural weed control — each has its • A weed management strategy for Waitakere imperative in certain circumstances. While City was prepared (Flynn & Buddenhagen many invasive species may not currently be 2000) followed by a weed management subject to legal controls (listed in Regional planning exercise for roadsides Pest Management Strategies or in the • A systemic examination of management National Pest Plant Accord), there is potential practices and options was made to determine they will be in the future. Controlling smaller their effi cacy populations now will reduce substantially the • Running of trials for refi ning weed control and cost of future control — and of course limit herbicide reduction environmental damage

57 Section 2: Nature Friendly Environments — Communities Making it Happen

• Limiting the weed habitat available — • Number of weed species being controlled in achieved through the management regime. the Waitakere Ranges have increased from 6 For example, by adjusting the height of fl ail to 58 mowing, adopting weed hygiene requirements • Signifi cant stretches of roadside are now weed for contractors, and limiting the by-kill from free, naturally regenerating, and more stable weed control — requiring only base-level maintenance • Preparedness to retain gorse (Ulex • Increasing public recognition of positive europaeus) at some sites as a temporary tool change most commonly expressed in a to suppress other more threatening weeds, sense of hope that it is possible to make a and to encourage native regeneration. A difference. This is resulting in increasing close observation of gorse highlighted its participation as more people take actions to ability to establish on dry banks that are control weeds and restore areas, both on otherwise diffi cult to vegetate and prone to ‘their’ berm (road reserve) and within their erosion. The established gorse is stabilising properties. (A small number of people have batters and causing moisture to be retained objected to the selective retention of gorse as in the soil. This is assisting native seedling described below.) germination that after fi ve years is now suppressing the gorse Notably, during this period there was no • Management regime designed to focus on increase in allocated funds. Note also that limiting population distribution, not just the aspects of the above are reported on in killing of weeds. This will be most effective in Roadside vegetation monitoring, Waitakere City reducing population size (WCC 2004). • Programme includes responsiveness to weed areas of public concern (i.e., empowering It is expected that the trends towards the public participation in weed management) objectives will continue and consolidate, • Prioritising — targeting weed outliers and that costs associated with current road before targeting large colonies, most maintenance (e.g., slips, drains) will begin threatening species before lesser to decrease (Fig. 8). By 2014 (the 15-year threatening species, areas of high mark) it is expected that savings on road ecological value before lesser valuable maintenance costs associated with roadside areas. Result: 967% increase over four ground stability will have reached their years in the number of species for which maximum potential and that the roadsides outliers are controlled in the non kerb and of Waitakere City will be substantially free of channel areas of roadside (i.e., rural and invasive weed plants. Roadside vegetation wilderness roadsides). 600% increase management costs will continue but at a over four years in the number of species reduced level as the lengths of roads needing controlled in urban roadsides. Some fl ail mowing will be reduced, and noxious species received priority control throughout weed control will be restricted to the control of the whole asset from the start, while small new invasions. others were targeted in groups over time. Concurrently, incremental control of large Fig. 9A illustrates a slightly extreme example population clusters was begun, focussing of traditional roadside vegetation control. first on areas of greatest ecological value. The lower area is scalped by the flail mower (tractor with a mower on a movable arm), Thus to date (fi ve years into the programme): and the upper area is blanket sprayed for gorse. The majority of vegetation has been • Substantial passive regeneration of native removed including those that would have vegetation (no planting cost) has resulted begun the rehabilitation of the site. Exposed • Some native species previously in decline, for soil with high light levels provides great example, kūmarahou (Pomaderris kumeraho), habitat for the establishment of further crops are now regenerating strongly of weeds.

58 Section 2: Nature Friendly Environments — Communities Making it Happen

Fig. 9B illustrates changed management practices and a newly regenerating site. Flail mowing has ceased and weed control is by spot spraying only of all invasive species. Flail Cost mowing will restart should this vegetation grow to within 1.2 m of the road. Quantity Eco Health

Fig. 9C illustrates the same site, six months Public Comment later. The plants will soon reach canopy closure (no bare soil and the plants will exclude direct 1999 2004 2009 2014 Year sunlight on the bank), removing the potential Fig. 8 Current and expected trends resulting from habitat for most weeds. Therefore no further management changes to roadside vegetation. spraying is required. these native plants are suffi ciently established, Fig. 9D illustrates fully re-established they will either remain when the gorse is vegetation in a moist habitat on a shady bank. selectively controlled, or will outgrow and cause The site is now meeting all objectives, with dieback of the gorse. minimal maintenance and cost now required. These plants are unlikely to grow any bigger CASE STUDY 2. REGULATION — RIPARIAN and the closed canopy means that weed MARGINS invasion is also unlikely. Although species One key inclusion in the District Plan is the composition will differ, regeneration also creation of a Riparian Margin. This applies a occurs on dry, sunny sites (Fig. 10A). Once set of rules to a designated land area beside a site has been substantially restored and is streams. The very presence of these rules weed free, there is minimal maintenance or gives a positive message about the values of cost (Fig. 10B). this riparian land.

Although it may seem surprising to some, gorse Task description: is probably the least ecologically damaging • To provide a tool for the regulation of activities invasive plant in Waitakere. On drier sites, within this sensitive riparian area away from productive or residential land (e.g., • Maximise the ongoing potential of the riparian Fig. 11), gorse establishes where other plants area to sustain biological diversity (both in the fail. This effectively creates all the benefi ts of aquatic and riparian environment) the vegetation in Fig. 9D. In addition, through • Maximise the ongoing potential of the riparian soil moisture retention and shade, conditions are area (and associated aquatic environment) created that allow native plants to now colonise. to provide stormwater quality and other More than 20 species of native plants are now ecosystem services of economic, recreational present in the site illustrated in Fig. 9D. Once and ecological value to the City.

ENVIRONMENTALLY INVASIVE WEEDS To clarify what is meant by ‘environmentally invasive weed’, please note that for management purposes, weed plants are acknowledged according to the nature of their impact. Some weeds have a horticultural impact, e.g., oxalis; some have agricultural impacts, e.g., ragwort and gorse; while others have environmental impacts. Some plants may have impacts in more than one area. Environmentally invasive weeds are those that can be judged to impede or over-ride the natural processes of nature, such that the self-maintaining abilities, natural succession or regen- erative capacities of native habitat(s) is inhibited. The inhibition of seedling germination caused by dense stands of ginger within forests of the Waitakere Ranges would be a good example. Ecological, agricultural, and horticultural weed species require different management practices and methodologies in effecting their control.

59 Section 2: Nature Friendly Environments — Communities Making it Happen

Result: CASE STUDY 3. COMMUNITY AND All waterways in Waitakere City of 1 m or more PARTNERSHIP — GREEN NETWORK in width have a designated Riparian Margin COMMUNITY ASSISTANCE PROGRAMME (Fig. 12). The margin starts at the waters edge People may be reluctant to change their and moves with any movement in the stream perceptions and actions, but try making a bed, and margin widths range from 5 m to 20 m. lasting difference in an urban environment Note that the designation of a Riparian Margin without addressing the cause of an issue — or does not change ownership of the land — it just without harnessing the massive potential of a applies a specifi c set of rules to that land. supportive community! Then ask yourself — ‘What drives that support?’ Often social (e.g., Issues and challenges: team building, altruism, community service), • To gain suffi cient information on which to cultural (e.g., artistic materials) or economic base decisions about the appropriate widths interests (e.g., reducing business costs, of Riparian Margins. Actions: increasing property values) are the principle 1. Research information on widths needed to drivers, and create a ‘win-win’ situation when achieve the objectives ‘helping the environment’ at the same time. 2. Conduct team walks critically assessing When those responsible for environmental features that help determine Riparian projects acknowledge other objectives of Margin widths for each stream reach. A their community they gain a formula for broad formula was devised and used to ensure engagement. consistency. • Communication on issues with the public. Task description: • Encourage adoption of the Green Network as Process and milestones: a community tool (landowners and occupiers, • Riparian Margin widths are incorporated business, community groups), not just a in the District Plan. A set of rules regulate Council tool activities in the margin • Provide a system to enable and encourage • The District Plan became operative in 2002. strong community participation in generating and managing the Green Network (much of it Biodiversity lessons and achievements: self-driven) • Changing attitudes to and treatment of the • Encourage the development of a community riparian area is substantial (Fig. 13A,B). This endorsed ethic of care — for the urban is observed across a range of people from environment and environmental values on individual householders to developers. It private land is now seven years since Riparian Margins • Maximise the potential for residents to were fi rst proposed for the District Plan contribute to biodiversity and ecosystem • Acting upon their own initiative, developers services through appropriate management of often now present their plans with the private land Riparian Margin intact — and are often using • Enable the generation of understanding it to advantage for stormwater mitigation, and skill development in the community, to landscape enhancement, and amenity facilitate the implementation of best practice. • Streams and riparian areas are now more likely to be perceived as an asset by the Results: community at large • A non-regulatory system of support providing • Riparian areas make a major contribution a range of services from the easy-to- to ecological linkages — connecting up the implement to more in-depth programmes. Green Network Supportive measures include: • New piping or culverting of streams is now ◦ Access to technical expertise very rare. Some projects undertake work to ◦ Free native ecosourced plants ‘daylight’ previously piped streams. ◦ Weed bins for safe disposal of invasive weeds

60 Section 2: Nature Friendly Environments — Communities Making it Happen

◦ Free bags and dumping at the Transfer environmental issues (Fig. 16). This model Station for kahili and yellow ginger facilitates identifi cation of an individual’s or (Hedychium gardnerianum and H. group’s current needs. fl avescens) ◦ Subsidised contractor assistance for the Attitude behaviour education model more diffi cult weed jobs The stages of knowledge, attitude and ◦ Subsidised fencing for excluding stock from behaviour development include: natural areas ◦ A covenanting programme with biennially • Gloom — a cause, or crisis, is recognised (by updated management plans some) and a message of ‘look at all the damage ◦ Rates relief for property owners with Green we are doing’ is given. The desire is to draw Network or QEII National Trust covenants attention to the issue. It is a ‘dramatic’ response with active management to surrounding ignorance / poor awareness • Ongoing experimentation and collation of best or lack of engagement. The response to the practice information — for both Council and message is often one of feeling surprised by the community use new concept — and debate begins. • A developing attitude of ‘we’re in this together’ between community sectors and Council (Fig. Note: At each stage in the model there will be 14; 15A,B). those individuals that fall by the way, through either lack of understanding of the issue or its Issues and challenges: signifi cance, or through choice (choosing to give • Supporting those with regulatory other issues or values greater priority). None requirements — people with consent of these people are lost to the model as further requirements can access the non-regulatory information, re-evaluation, market pressures or programme for technical guidance. Other other means may see them engage at a later support becomes available for activities that time. If the issue has merit, debate will begin, go beyond the requirements of the consent or if dropped, the issue will come back with a • Helping individuals or groups overcome greater imperative at a later time. obstacles that might otherwise prevent them from getting on with the task. It is common • Acceptance — wide acceptance that there to hear someone say ‘I’ve been trying to do are environmental problems that we (society) this for years but I didn’t know where to start / need to address. The response has two couldn’t get it to work’ stages: • Uptake of the programme has been rapid and 1. Oh yes, but it’s out ‘there’, too big, or, continually growing. This makes resourcing ‘nothing to do with me’; and later the major limiting factor. 2. Oh yes, and ‘I am part of it’. Thus …

Processes and milestones: Milestone 1 • Development of application forms and Belief or feeling that what I do can make information sheets some difference. If my current decisions are • Public speaking engagements contributing to a negative consequence, what • Knowledge within the community of the alternatives are there? support and services available • Information seeking — people start looking for • Developing interest in environmental care, information. Response (by those advocating followed by developing skill base. the issue): provision of guidance on how to address the problems (i.e., providing practical Understanding the process whereby individuals options as solutions). and community take up new ideas and • Application — uptake of solutions opportunities has been important. A useful tool (experimenting to see what suits and what is a model of change-over-time as it relates to works — for me / our household / our knowledge, attitudes and behaviours towards organisation). This may be as a:

61 Section 2: Nature Friendly Environments — Communities Making it Happen

◦ Participant (self — on own or with group) Importantly, the whole continual improvement ◦ Advocate (tell others); or process can be sped up signifi cantly or short ◦ Organiser (organise for others to circuited if the system is provided early on, that participate). is, leadership is given by a forward looking and Usually these stages are progressive and innovative system provider, e.g., community cumulative. organization, business, local authority, etc. This • Effectiveness requires several attributes on the part of the ◦ Suitable (convenient) and workable system provider: techniques are discovered ◦ Begin to repeat — using most convenient • Open and listening, thus able to perceive the and effective techniques issue and need ◦ Common strategies, methods, tools used. • Responsive • Trusting and capable of working with the Milestone 2 community • Normalisation — Changed behaviour and • Innovative and solution orientated attitudes have become normalised (habitual). • Proactive and willing to follow a vision • Give advocacy at a practical and political Note: The stages from Information seeking to level. This is the provision of leadership. Normalisation can be cyclical. The formation of ‘habit’ means less energy or concentration is Lessons and achievements for biodiversity needed to support the action. Now energy can and community: be concentrated on the next change. • Escalating enhancement of biodiversity on both private and public land • Effort, Inconvenience — this stage includes • Escalating knowledge and application of skills feelings of commitment and involves a • The community has huge potential — willingness to put yourself out to do the ‘right acknowledging this energy and commitment thing’ because of what you believe (belief is creating wonderful opportunities often forms after the fi rst cycle and will fuel • The programme was initially intended to following cycles.) It is also now, after one or engage individual property owners. It has more cycles that ‘Advocate’ and ‘Organiser’ been surprising to observe the proliferation are most likely to happen. It is also at this of groups keen to contribute to biodiversity, point that what may have been an individual many of whom are neighbours acting but concurrent journey may become cooperatively, church groups, youth groups, coordinated, i.e., supported in a growing and so forth number of instances by groups forming (e.g., • From 1998 to 2003 there has been a 930% within workplaces, clubs, or neighbourhoods) increase in the number of groups (known to to plan and assist collective responses. Council) getting involved in environmental activity Milestone 3 • ‘The environment’ is becoming a common • System — a societal response. That topic of conversation. Earlier reticence to is, enough people are prepared to put discuss environmental matters is now much themselves out that there is now enough reduced demand to set up a system. Systems are • Multiple objectives: Participation has not been important (e.g., kerbside recycling) because limited to so-called ‘conservation groups’. they reduce effort and inconvenience The community includes a large number of allowing effort to be transferred to the next potential groups, most of whom have other step and allowing wider uptake. Without a primary objectives — sports groups wanting a system, the development process as detailed fi tness exercise, businesses wanting a team above stagnates. With the timely creation building exercise, church groups wanting a of systems the process is one of continual community service exercise, youth groups improvement. wanting to contribute to the community. Such

62 Section 2: Nature Friendly Environments — Communities Making it Happen

groups can achieve their own objectives • Maximise the potential benefi ts of the project whilst at the same time participating in a and the streams to the economic, social, Green Network project. In this way new cultural and environmental life of the city. people gain exposure to environmental activities, perhaps for the fi rst time Result: • Sustainability is also about strong Stage 1 — A NZ$40–50 million programme is (sustainable) structures within the community. just beginning, of riparian restoration covering Working with the community on a ‘multiple two streams and four signifi cant tributaries objectives’ basis enhances the viability and through industrial and residential areas of respect for those people and groups, serving lowland Waitakere. as valuable community development • Separation of project control (decision Stage 2 — An intended programme to build making), and accountability (of staff regarding upon the foundation of Stage 1, including Council policies and public funds etc). This extending the catchment approach and is a whole paper in itself, but essentially retrofi tting stormwater management devices. allowing community groups to take on the For example, devices such as planted swales decision making role is hugely empowering and rain gardens offer a suite of benefi ts. and motivating. Doing so substantially Swales are broad shallow channels that allow enhances community engagement and good vegetation and soil contact, and rain community/Council relations. gardens are planted sand traps. Both are used to fi lter surface water runoff (stormwater) CASE STUDY 4. STORMWATER especially from contaminated areas such as MANAGEMENT — PROJECT TWIN carparks, through vegetation and to allow STREAMS time for the water to soak through soil or Focussing on stormwater management with sand — instead of going directly into pipes. associated habitat restoration in the urban heart This enables plant, microbial and physical of Waitakere City, Project Twin Streams aims to processes (ecosystem services) to treat the improve water quality in the local urban streams stormwater before it reaches the local stream. and associated harbour and gulf. A major As well, these techniques offer ground water tool in achieving this is the improvement of replenishment, habitat, and can be used as ecological function and health, including riparian part of the landscape and amenity of the city restoration and the creation of wildlife corridors environment. This will thus complement the through the urban lowland of Waitakere City. riparian restoration of Stage 1. Project Twin Streams intends to facilitate substantial community participation in achieving Issues, actions, and challenges: the project and to leverage community This project is resulting in substantial re- development from this and the signifi cant evaluations of many practices and processes. fi nances committed to the project. A selection of best practice guidelines and other tools are being incorporated or produced, Task description: for example the Ecosourcing code of practice • A comprehensive project of stormwater and ethics (Ferkins 2001), Riparian restoration quality management for the major streams guidelines (WCC, undated 1) and Weed that run through urban Waitakere management — a community tool for action • Maximise the effectiveness of biological (WCC, undated 2). and physical processes (as assisted by biodiversity and ecosystem services) in Waitakere City Council is seeking to implement the riparian and aquatic environment that all that has been learnt so far into one large contribute to stormwater quality Biodiversity / Ecosystem Services project. • Support and encourage community engagement in generating and managing the Signifi cant actions and challenges include: Green Network • Identifi cation of the fl oodplain and the

63 Section 2: Nature Friendly Environments — Communities Making it Happen

purchase of a number of properties within the REFERENCES 100-year fl ood zone Daily, G. C.; Alexander, S.; Ehrlich, P. R.; Goulder, • Geotech studies — it is expected that L.; Lubchenco, J.; Matson, P. A.;. Mooney, H. earthworks will account for only NZ$150 000. A.; Postel, S.; Schneider, S. H.; Tilman, D.; Bioengineering techniques are expected to Woodwell, G. M. 1997: Ecosystem Services: be implemented in the majority of situations benefi ts supplied to human societies by natural requiring erosion control and stabilisation ecosystems. Issues in Ecology 2: 1–16. • Generation of planting and weed control Department of Conservation (DOC) and the plans Ministry for the Environment (MfE) 2000: The • Plant supply — including the collection of New Zealand biodiversity strategy: our chance ecosourced seed to turn the tide. Wellington, Department of • Establishment of mechanisms for large scale Conservation and Ministry for the Environment. community engagement 144 p. Available at http://www.biodiversity.govt. • Monitoring nz/picture/doing/nzbs/contents.html. • The sourcing of funding Esler, A. E. 1987: The naturalisation of plants • The size of the project — 110 km of in urban Auckland, New Zealand. 1. The streamside. introduction and spread of alien plants. New Zealand Journal of Botany 25: 511–522. Achievements Ferkins, C. 2001: Ecosourcing code of Although the project is only beginning, Project practice and ethics. Waitakere City Council, Twin Streams is defi nitely building the capacity Henderson, Waitakere City. 129 p. of Waitakere to: Flynn, S.; Buddenhagen, C. 2000: Waitakere City weed strategy. Kingett Mitchell & Associates. • Be an eco city (For Waitakere City Council). 34 p. • Work together for better social, cultural, Waitakere City Council (WCC) 2002a: Invasive economic and environmental outcomes for or environmental weeds of Waitakere. our children, our grandchildren and yes, Waitakere City Council, Henderson, ourselves. Waitakere City. April 2002, 8 p. Available at http://www.waitakere.govt.nz/CnlSer/pw/ SUMMARY COMMENT plantweed/pdf/weedlist-env-inv.pdf. It is stating the obvious to say that it takes a lot Waitakere City Council (WCC) 2002b: State of to change the direction of a city, but that does the city report: Waitakere City. Waitakere City not make the statement any less true. Council, Henderson, Waitakere City. 212 p. Available at http://www.waitakere.govt.nz/ The eco city was launched in 1993. Ten AbtCit/ps/socreport.asp. years later the accumulation of change is Waitakere City Council (WCC) 2004: Roadside substantial. Is it visible to residents of the vegetation monitoring, Waitakere City. City? That depends partly on their observance Waitakere City Council, Henderson, of environmental activity. Is it making a Waitakere City. 23 p. & appendices. difference to the biodiversity within the City? Waitakere City Council (WCC, undated 1): Yes. Several large projects coming to fruition Riparian restoration guidelines. Twin Streams including Project Twin Streams will provide Project, Lower Oratia Catchment, Waitakere renewed impetus and greater visibility. Like City. Waitakere City Council, Henderson, many of my colleagues, I enjoy the challenge, Waitakere City. 18 p. the innovation and the satisfaction of being Waitakere City Council (WCC, undated 2): part of making a difference, of fi nding new Weed management — a community tool for and effective ways to value what is ‘us’ — the action. Waitakere City Council, Henderson, biodiversity of Waitakere and New Zealand. Waitakere City. 12 p. Available at http://www. The eco city is as much a journey as a waitakere.govt.nz/CnlSer/pw/plantweed/pdf/ destination. weedmngmnt.pdf.

64 Section 2: Nature Friendly Environments — Communities Making it Happen

AB

C D

Fig. 9 A, a common effect of traditional vegetation control of roadsides. (Photo: C. Ferkins); B, a newly regenerating site. (Photo: M. Tyrrell); C, the same site as Fig. 9B, six months later. (Photo: M. Tyrrell); D, fully re-established vegetation on a shady site. (Photo: C. Ferkins). A B

Fig. 10 A, regeneration beginning on a sunny, dry site; B, substantially restored and weed free site. (Photos: C. Ferkins).

Fig. 11 Gorse — a traditional enemies strengths used to benefi t roadside vegetation management. (Photos: C. Ferkins).

65 Section 2: Nature Friendly Environments — Communities Making it Happen

Fig. 12 Riparian area designated widths, Waitakere City.

A B

Fig. 13 Avondale Stream A, impacts of earlier attitudes; B, same site — evidence of changing attitudes. Local residents and school children restore the stream. (Photos: C. Ferkins).

66 Section 2: Nature Friendly Environments — Communities Making it Happen

Societal Response *System Leadership Q. What if system was provided earlier? Commitment – effort

Effective (Workable) *Habitual

Fig. 14 Motivated people, new skills — Green *Belief – Network Community Assistance staff discussing OK Seeking restoration of a private stream. Meeting convened I see it Solutions by property owners who invited neighbouring stream owners and Council. (Photo: C. Ferkins). Uptake Participate A I do / I don’t Advocate Organise

Cause or Crisis

Fig. 16 Model of change in knowledge, attitudes, and behaviours in response to environmental issues.

B

Fig. 15 Green Network community management A, rural; B, urban. (Photos: C. Ferkins).

67 Section 2: Nature Friendly Environments — Communities Making it Happen

Eco city – the journey continues…

Managing for biodiversity?

‘Think on it … unless we change direction …

... we will end up where we are headed.’

68 Section 2: Nature Friendly Environments — Communities Making it Happen

APPENDIX 1: GLOSSARY Adapted from The New Zealand biodiversity strategy: our chance to turn the tide (DOC & MfE 2000)

Biodiversity The variability among living organisms from all sources including … terrestrial, (Biological marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of Diversity): which they are part. This includes diversity within species (genetic diversity), between species (species diversity) and of ecosystems (ecological diversity). Biodiversity is a global concept contributed to by each population, species and ecosystem within its native range. Biodiversity is therefore best managed locally. Genetic The variability in the genetic makeup among individuals within a population. Diversity: Species The range of species native to a particular geographical area. A species is a Diversity: group of organisms that have evolved distinct inheritable features and occupy a unique geographic area. Species are usually unable to interbreed with other species due to such factors as genetic divergence, different behaviour and biological needs, and separate geographic location. However several plant species readily cross-pollinate and produce hybrids. Natural barriers help to isolate populations. These barriers include historical (remnant patches of vegetation); climatic or microclimatic (valley bottoms and swamps versus ridge-tops); substrate (volcanic soils bordering alluvial areas) and topographical barriers (islands isolated by surrounding water and ridge-lines that cause seed transporting water to fl ow in one direction or another). Such barriers are a signifi cant factor in the development and maintenance of diversity in the New Zealand landscape. Ecological The variety of ecosystem types (e.g., forests, deserts, grasslands, streams, (ecosystem) lakes, wetlands and oceans) and their biological communities that interact Diversity: with one another and their non-living environments. An ecosystem is an interacting system of living and non-living components such as sunlight, air, water, minerals and nutrients. Ecosystems can be small and short-lived, for example, water-fi lled tree holes or rotting logs on a forest fl oor, or large and long-lived such as forests or lakes.

69 Section 2: Nature Friendly Environments — Communities Making it Happen

APPENDIX 2: ECOSYSTEM SERVICES: BENEFITS SUPPLIED TO HUMAN SOCIETIES BY NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS (Summary reproduced from Daily et al. 1997)

Human societies derive many essential goods other natural ecosystems imperil the delivery from natural ecosystems, including seafood, of such services. The primary threats are land game animals, fodder, fuelwood, timber, use changes that cause losses in biodiversity and pharmaceutical products. These goods as well as disruption of carbon, nitrogen, and represent important and familiar parts of the other biogeochemical cycles; human-caused economy. What has been less appreciated invasions of exotic species; releases of toxic until recently is that natural ecosystems also substances; possible rapid climate change; perform fundamental life-support services and depletion of stratospheric ozone. without which human civilizations would cease to thrive. These include the purifi cation of air Based on available scientifi c evidence, we are and water, detoxifi cation and decomposition of certain that: wastes, regulation of climate, regeneration of soil fertility, and production and maintenance • Ecosystem services are essential to of biodiversity, from which key ingredients of civilization our agricultural, pharmaceutical, and industrial • Ecosystem services operate on such a enterprises are derived. This array of services grand scale and in such intricate and little- is generated by a complex interplay of natural explored ways that most could not be cycles powered by solar energy and operating replaced by technology across a wide range of space and time scales. • Human activities are already impairing the The process of waste disposal, for example, fl ow of ecosystem services on a large scale involves the life cycles of bacteria as well • If current trends continue, humanity will as the planet-wide cycles of major chemical dramatically alter virtually all of Earth’s elements such as carbon and nitrogen. Such remaining natural ecosystems within a few processes are worth many trillions of dollars decades. annually. Yet because most of these benefi ts are not traded in economic markets, they In addition, based on current scientifi c carry no price tags that could alert society evidence, we are confi dent that: to changes in their supply or deterioration of underlying ecological systems that generate • Many of the human activities that modify them. Because threats to these systems or destroy natural ecosystems may cause are increasing, there is a critical need for deterioration of ecological services whose identifi cation and monitoring of ecosystem value, in the long term, dwarfs the short-term services both locally and globally, and for economic benefi ts society gains from those the incorporation of their value into decision activities making processes. • Considered globally, very large numbers of species and populations are required to Historically, the nature and value of Earth’s life sustain ecosystem services support systems have largely been ignored • The functioning of many ecosystems could until their disruption or loss highlighted their be restored if appropriate actions were importance. For example, deforestation has taken in time. belatedly revealed the critical role forests serve in regulating the water cycle — in particular, in We believe that land use and development mitigating fl oods, droughts, the erosive forces policies should strive to achieve a balance of wind and rain, and silting of dams and between sustaining vital ecosystem services irrigation canals. Today, escalating impacts and pursuing the worthy short-term goals of of human activities on forests, wetlands, and economic development.

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