ARCHIV KARKI no. 120935 SHARING LOCAL AND NATIONAL EXPERIENCE IN CONSERVATION OF MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC IN SOUTH ASIA DPC

SHARING LOCAL AND NATIONAL EXPERIENCE IN CONSERVATION OF MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS IN SOUTH ASIA

Proceedings of the workshop held at Pokhara, Nepal 21-23 January 2001

Editors Nirmal Bhattarai Madhav Karki

Medicinal and Aromatic Program in Asia (MAPPA), InternationalDevelopment Research Centre (IDRC), Canada South Asia Regional Office, New Delhi, ; Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation, HMG/Nepal and Institute of Forestry, Tribhuvan University, Pokhara, Nepal

October 2002 @ 2002 International Development Research Centre (IDRC)

Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Program in Asia (MAPPA) is a joint initiation of International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Canada & Ford Foundation.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, includingphotocopy, recording or any information storage and retrieval system, without permissionin writing from the publisher.

The presentation of materials in this publication and in maps that appear herein does not imply the expression of any opinion on the part of MAPPAor IDRC concerning the legal status of any country, or the delineation of frontiers or boundaries.

Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Program in Asia (MAPPA) International Development Research Centre (IDRC) South Asia Regional Office (SARO) 208 Jor Bagh New Delhi 110003 INDIA

Design and production: Art Options Tel: 26528311 Telefax: 26510589 Email: [email protected] HMG/Nepal Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation (MFSC) is the principal agency assigned with the policy-making, project implementation, forest resourcemanagement and coordination tasks of the Government of Nepal in the field of forest and related natural resources. It has five functional departments separately for forest, soil conservation, research, wildlife and plant resourcesand a number of corporations. The ministry has recently set up a National NTFP and Jadibuti Development Committee under the chairmanship of the Minister with members representing all the majorstakeholders which will set policies, coordinate research and development activities and carry out, and bring various partners together for achieving the goal of sustainable use of medicinal and NTFP resources. The secretariat of the committee is located in the Departmentof Plant Resources of the MFSC with which MAPPA plans to work in future.

IDRC CRDI

The InternationalDevelopment Research Centre (IDRC) is a public corporation established by the Parliament of Canada in 1970. The Centre was created to help communities in the developing world find practical solutions to the social, economic, and environmental problems they face. Support is directed toward broadening local knowledge and capacity to enable communitiesto build healthier, more equitable, and more prosper societies. IDRC supports innovations within South —creative, effective, long-term solutions to development problems that work in local conditions. In doing so, IDRC also strengthens the overall capability of research institutions to generatepolicies and technologies that can help create more equitable societies. The Governmentof Canada finances IDRC; its policies are however set by an international Board of Governors. The Centre's headquarter is located in Ottawa, Canada. There are six regional offices located in Africa, Asia and Latin America.

MAPPA The Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Program in Asia (MAPPA) is a program of strategic research, networkingand collaboration to comprehensively address critical research issues related to the sustainable and equitable use of medicinal and aromatic plants in Asia. Through collaboration and partnerships, and based within a regional approach to these issues, MAPPA is involved in formulating and implementing a holistic program which will complement and build on other related research and development activities in South Asia. The general objective of MAPPA is to enhance the sustainable and equitable use of medicinal and aromatic plant resourcesin Asia. Initially, MAPPA is focusing its research and developmentefforts in South Asia region only. This will be achieved by supporting strategic research, building partnershipsamong the key stakeholders including donors, and enhancing regional and international networking.

Photographs on the cover page (from left to right): 1. Taxus wallichiana Zucc. (Taxaceae) 2. Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D.Don) Soo () 3. Butea monosperma(Lam.) Kuntze (Papilionaceae) Contents

FOREWORD 7

INAUGURAL STATEMENTS 9

Welcome Statement 11 Madhav Karki

Message from Ford Foundation 13 Doris Capistrano Inaugural Remark 15 Elizabeth Fajber Inaugural Speech 17 Rabi Bahadur Bista

Remarks from the Chairperson 19 Danria J. Leaman

Vote of Thanks 21 AbhoyK. Das

LIST OF PARTICIPANTS 23

THEME PAPERS 31

Conservation and sustainable use of medicinal and aromatic products 33 in North America: Are there really lessons to be learned? A. L. (Tom) Hammett and James Chamberlain

Improved harvesting,processing and storage of medicinal plants: 42 Their role in conservation and quality of plant-based drugs V. P. K. Nambiar

3 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medical and AromaticPlants in South Asia

Highlights and outcomes of the Conservation Assessment and 46 Management Planning (CAMP)Workshop, Pokhara, Nepal Nirmal Bhattarai, V. Tandon and D. K. Ved

Policy and institutional bottlenecks: Possibilities for 54 NTFP development in Nepal Keshav Raj Kanel

Recent trends in medicinal,plants research 62 M. Iqbal Choudhary and Atta-ur-Rahman

POSTER PRESENTATIONS 67 LEARNINGFROM CONSERVATIONEXPERIENCES

Conservation Assessmentand ManagementPlanning (CAMP) 69 for Prioritization of medicinal and aromatic plants in Nepal: Commentson behalf of the IUCN/SSCMedicinal Plant Specialist Group (MPSG) Danna J. Leaman

Health care development and medicinal plants conservation at Shey Phoksundo National Park, Nepal Y. Aumeeruddy Thomas, Y. C. Lama and S. K. Ghimire

Ex-situ conservation of medicinal plants by backyard home 93 garden for primary health care in Bangladesh Ferdousi Begum

Developing methodologies for sustainable managementof high 96 value medicinal and aromatic plants in Jumla district, Nepal Sunil Regmi and Sagun Bista

Action research on non-timber forest products in central 101 mid-hills region, Nepal Damodar P. Parajuli

Resource base and conservation strategies of medicinal and 105 aromatic plants in Pakistan Zahoor Ahmad and A. Ghafoor

4 Contents

Conservation and cultivation of medicinal plant genetic resources 110 in Pakistan Shakeel Haider Zaidi

Local managementof medicinal and aromatic plants in 122 Gorkha district, Nepal Helle 0. Larsen

Community oriented conservation of medicinal and aromatic plants 130 in the , Uttranchal, India Arun K. Badoni and Kiran Arun

Conserving medicinal plants in southern India 135 Ravi Kumar

Threatenedmedicinal plants of Maharashtrastate, India 139 P. Tetali

Sustainable model for the conservation and promotionof non-timber 141 forest product species: Experiences from Chhatishgarhstate, India J. A. C. 5. Rao

POSTERPRESENTATIONS 143 STRATEGIES FOR EQUITABLE COMMERCIALIZATION

Commercial use of biodiversity and equity: Are they compatible? 145 Bhishma P. Subedi and Hemant R. Ojha Conservation of non-timber forest products in the mid-western 163 community forests of Nepal: A participatory approach Rana B. Rawal

Motivating actions to sustain the medicinal plant resource of the 173 Indian sub-continent: Reports of the medicinal plant stakeholders' meet Puslip K. lain

Conservation and sustainable use of medicinal and aromatic plants: 179 IUCN's efforts in Nepal Mohan Siwakoti and Sagendra Tiwari

Promotion of medicinal and aromatic plants by small farmers through 185 training and capacity building: Experience of the HPPCL, Nepal Dhruv R. Bhattarai and Pradip Maharjan

5 Sharing Local andNational Experience in Conservationof Medical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia

An overview of medicinal and aromatic plant resourcesin 188 Humla district, Nepal Prem N. Kandel

International conventions and non-wood forest product trade: Implications on conservation of biodiversity Padam P. Bhojvaid Conservation and commercialization of medicinal and aromatic 207 plants of the Terai region, Nepal Rabindra N. Shukla

POSTERPRESENTATIONS 209 IMPROVINGTHE QUALITY OF TRADITIONALMEDICINE

Tengboche High Altitude Herbal Medicine Project: Experiences in the Sagarmatha NationalPark, Nepal Kate Armstrong,Michael W. Schmitz and Helen Cawley Quality control of Ayurvedic medicines produced in 215 Ritigala area, Sri Lanka L.Arambewela, S. Perera, M. Arawwawala and P. Dissanayake Sustainability of traditional herbal medicines practiced in 220 Andhra Pradesh, India S. Vedavathy Sustainable medicinal plants conservation in the JFM areas: 226 A case from Madhya Pradesh, India Prodyut Bhattacharya and Bhaskar Mitra Ethnobiotic alternatives to modern brooding techniques 238 Krishna Kaphie Medicinal plants of Nepal in the Ayurvedic contexts 244 Narendra Nath Tiwari

EVALUATIONAND RECOMMENDATIONS 245

Summary of participants' comments 247 Workshop recommendations for the sustainable management 257 of medicinal and aromatic plants Workshop evaluation by the participants 259

6 FOREWORD

Human ingenuity, traditional knowledge makers, researchers, resourcemanagers, and gains of modern science have conservation scientists, field workers, enabled us to explore the unexplored, use development planners and community the underused resources and unravel the organizers in a common forum whose mystery or unknowns. However, the focus was on South Asia. As the same knowledge and tools have also workshophad representationfrom cross- allowed mankind to mine the sections of scientists, practitioners, field environmental and natural resources researchers, government officials and causing wanton destruction, biodiversity academia, it was a multi-disciplinary loss and ecological imbalances. gathering. IDRC-based MAPPA program Unsustainable extraction of medicinal in collaborationwith the Ministry of Forest plant wealth and resultant biodiversity & Soil Conservation (MFSC) and the loss has been a cause of global concern, Institute of Forestry (JOF), Pokhara which IDRC has embraced as one of the organized the workshop, which made it thrust areas of its Sustainable Use of a multi-partnership effort as well. Biodiversity Program Initiative (SUB PT). For unavoidablereasons, the preparation The planning and organization of the of the proceedings has been unduly workshopon Sharing Local and National delayed. We have attempted to include Experience in Conservation ofMedicinal all the plenary and poster presentations and Aromatic Plants in South Asia in this publication but due to lack of timely have been primarily done as part of our submission of the abstracts and/orpapers, pursuit to receive regular feedback from some poster presentations are not our partners to inform, influence and included and only the summary note of improve IDRC's research on medicinal some presentationshave been included. plants in South Asia. The main objective It is our earnest hope that the combined of the regional workshop was therefore package of information will be both to discuss, share and develop ideas and of practical and academic use to the experience in a participatory and multi- readers. The market place session was disciplinary manner amongst the policy truly an open, participatory and valuable Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservation ofMedical and Aromatic Plants in SouthAsia component of the workshop the outcome of which has been briefly summarised. We would like to thank the contributors of the papers and the posters for their valuable presentations. The lead Editor of the proceedings Dr. Nirmal Bhattarai has done a commendable job of interacting with almost all the authors and obtaining their presentations for which he deserves special thank from JDRC and Ford Foundation - the joint promoters of MAPPA. You will note that we have included the speeches made during the opening session in the proceedings as we felt that they provide an important source of information regarding respective organizations' policies and program. The individual speakers' views also reflect their rich knowledge and experience in the field of medicinal plants, which may be useful and inspirational to the younger generation of researchers and field practitioners. Finally, I thank everyone in MAPPA/ IDRC office and the publishing team for their excellent technical work in bringing out this publication. Madhav Karki, Ph.D. Regional Program Coordinator, MAPPA & Workshop Coordinator

8 INAUGURAL STATEMENTS Welcome Statement

Madhav Karki, Ph.D. Regional Program Coordinator MAPPA, IDRC, SARO New Delhi, India

Madam Chairperson of this Inaugural Network for Bamboo and Rattan (INBAR) Session and Chair of the Medicinal Plants in China— a flagship project of IDRC - on Specialist Group (MPSG) of the IUCN behalf of His Majesty's Government of Species Survival Commission (IUCN/ Nepal. SSC): Dr. Danna Leamann; Respected I welcome our Chief Guest Mr. Rabi B. Bista, Secretary, heartily keynote speakers: Dr. A.L. Associate Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation, (Tom) Hammett, esteemed distinguished Professor of Forest Products & Marketing colleagues, in the VPI & State Dr. participantsparticularly those who have Univ., USA, M.Iqbal Professor of in the traveled from foreign countries, ladies Choudhary, Chemistry Institute of in and gentlemen. HEJ Chemistry University of Karachi; Dr. Keshav Kanel, Forest It is my great honour as well as a privilege Economist & Head of the Foreign Aid to welcome you all in this Regional Coordination Division in the MFSC; and Workshop on Sharing of Local and Prof. VPK Nambiar, Professor and Senior National Experience in Conservation of Scientist at the Arya Vaidya Sala, Kerala Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) who will join us shortly. My special in South Asia. welcome to all the MAPPA partners, dedicated researchersand filed foresters Itis and to welcome my privilege pleasure who have readilyaccepted our request to the Chief Guest Mr. Rabi Bahadur Bista, prepare the posters, case studies, display the in the of Forest & Secretary Ministry materials and papers to present in the Soil Conservation forkindly accepting our Their hard work, innovative invitation to the workshop. inaugurate workshop. ideas and anticipated active participation Mr. Bista as you know, even before he are the main feature of this assumed of the three-day the high office Secretary It is to welcome in the has been workshop. my pleasure Ministry very supportive all the guests who are amongst us to of new initiatives in conservation and support us in our endeavour. sustainable management of bio-diverse resources. I fondly remember his support Research Scientists, Foresters, to the establishment of the International Development workers, Business people,

11 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medical and AromaticPlants in South Asia traditionalhealers, and academicians in I once again extend my warm welcome to the South Asian region have long the entire guest and participants. recognized that unsustainable use of their biological resources, especially medicinal plants, has rarely been of direct benefit for them or for the economic development of the rural people. It is therefore necessary to sensitize policy planners, decision-makers, scientists, teachers, NGOs, CBOs, grass-root level workers, youth, general public to the need forgreater attention to conserve and develop options to sustainably use our medicinal plants resources and cultural heritage. At the same time it is important to protectthe intellectual propertyrights of the local people who have been custodians of these practices and are dependent on them for their health care and livelihood. Presently, there is an alarming imbalance between growing demand and diminishing supply of medicinal plants that suggest a need for a comprehensive interventionincluding development of policy and institutional frameworks.

This workshop is to share the local, sub- national, national, regional and international experience among the researchers and field workers from six countries of the South Asian region and five developed countries of Europe and Americas.

I am sure their rich experience and practical knowledge will help stimulate meaningful discussion and suitable actions.

12 Message from Ford Foundation

Dr. Doris Capistrano Deputy Representative Ford Foundation New Delhi Office, India

Dear Chairperson, Chief Guest Mr. Rabi has attracted increasing attention in recent B. Bista, Secretary, Ministry of Forest & years, not only for its promise to bridge Soil Conservation, distinguished the goals of forest resourceconservation participants, esteemed colleagues and and livelihood needs of communities in ladies and gentlemen: Greetings! remote locations, but also for the riches I regret that I am unable to be with you of the local knowledge, tradition and today due to other urgent matters that practices which have been such important require my presence in Delhi. aspects of medicinal plants use and and which are to their However, I would like to convey to you management key all my sincere and best wishes for the future conservation. success of this that importantworkshop MAPPAhas a role to brings together government policy very important play makers, researchers, private sector at this juncture. Its efforts to bring various representatives, non-governmental groups together to develop improved organizations, community-based strategies for sustainable management of associations — all key players in the medicinal plants will help advance the medicinal plants sector in the region. achievement of common goals. In with the Ford We, at the Ford Foundation,believe, and partnership IDRC, have been a witness to the fact that, it is Foundation has been privileged to be in the meetingof minds of diverse groups associated with MAPPA since its and perspectives such as those establishment in 1996. We join others in represented here, where potential expressing our appreciation for the breakthroughsare greatest. Workshops progress that MAPPA has achieved thus and discussions such as this provide far. We look forward to MAPPA's fertile ground for developing broader continued facilitation and in of common for leadership understanding issues, the sustainable of medicinal forging creative solutions, and management in the And wewish MAPPA strengtheningthe foundationsfor future plants region. collaborative action. and all participants a very productive and successful workshop. This workshop is both timely and necessary. This medicinal plants sector Thank you.

13 Inaugural Remark

Ms. Elizabeth Fajber Senior Program Officer IDRC/SARO, New Delhi, India

Madam Chairperson, the Chief Guest & communities. Furthermore, knowledge Secretary Mr. Rabi Bista, distinguished and use of these plant resourcesare also participants, ladies and gentlemen. threatened by a lack of validation and institutional support given to local health On behalf of IDRC, Canada, it is my practices, culturalchange and decreasing pleasure to welcome the chief guest and availability of the resource itself. The all the participants attending the three conservation ofmedicinal plants diversity day workshop on Sharing Local and National in Conservation of and their sustainable use for livelihood Experience have become collective concerns Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in South support of local communities, national Asia. In this workshop, IDRC is keenly and industries alike. looking forward to receiving useful governments feedback from its partners to inform, IDRC supports a multi-disciplinary enrich and improve our program on approach towards research on the medicinal - both and plants regionally sustainable use of medicinal plants, with In short I would like to globally. my talk, an emphasis on improvingconditions of introduce to the salient features of you rural poor and marginalized peoples. IDRC's program on medicinal plants. IDRC is uniquein addressing this complex In Asia, a large number of rural poor subject in a comprehensive and holistic depend on medicinal and aromatic plants manner, recognizing the interconnections (MAPs) as key sources of primary health of issues relating to conservation, care and a critical source of livelihood livelihood imperatives, economic support. However, their livelihoods are potential, and use of medicinal plants for threatened due to the rapid loss of these local health care. It is essential to medicinally and socio-economically understand the linkages between and useful species and genetic diversity among the stakeholders within the value through habitat destruction, non- chain of this resourcein order to identify sustainable levels of harvest, and and develop and ensure opportunities for inadequatepolicy, fuelled in part by poor improved benefits from this resource economic conditions in the rural going to disadvantaged groups, especially

15 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia women and tribal groups. Improved livelihood options and sustainable use to meet local health care needs will similarly support sustainable managementof the resources and preservation of unique local knowledge systems. IDRC supports medicinal plant research activities that are community-based but that can influence national and international policy objectives, principally in the following four areas: a) Biodiversityconservation; b) Improved access to health care, c) Marketing and employment opportunities, and d) Networking Finally, on behalf of IDRC, I would like to thank the Ministry of Forest & Soil Conservation, Government of Nepaland the Institute of Forestry for collaborating with MAPPA and IDRC to organize this regional workshop. I wish the workshop a grand succ€ss. Thank you.

16 Inaugural Speech

Rabi B. Bista, Secretary Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation His Majesty's Government of Nepal

M'me Chairperson, Distinguished little wiser, we will be able to generate Participants, Ladies and Gentlemen: enough economic activity through harvesting, farming and utilizing I am to be here, so for delighted equally medicinal plants. being the Chief Guest of honour for this RegionalWorkshop on Sharing Local and My Ministry is tryingto work out a project National Experience in Conservation of together with IDRC and local people in Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAP) in some remote hill districts of Nepal so as South Asia (SA). I believe that it is an to promote sustainable harvesting, appropriateand timely decision to have commercial farming, training and this workshop convened in Nepal, utilization of MAP. At least I confess here because of our location in the Eastern that we give a high priority in the Himalayan Region, especially so in development of medicinal and aromatic Pokhara, as it is the picturesque place in plants. We have the right policy and well Nepal, as well. Let me thank the articulate programs. But we at the organizers for being generous to my government level firmly believe that the country and me. Furthermore, on behalf initiative has to comefrom the individuals of HMG/Nepal and my own, I would like and entrepreneurs, possibly in to extend our warmest welcome to all the collaborative partnership with foreign foreign participants. investors. I have been told that at all present We are ready to promote any of such allopathic medicines contain 30% natural initiatives. The objectives and themes for not to talk about the and base, Ayurvedic deliberations look adequate to me. In medicines which is Homeopathic gaining addition, your interaction with each other popularityday by day. Nepal is therefore break and off time will for this during help strategically placed harnessing produce positive results. wealth allotted to us by nature and already good amount of the income in Few places on earth match the biological the hills is from collection of medicinal diversity of the Eastern , which and aromatic plants. But if we become contain 7500 species (500 within 100 sq.

17 Sharing Local and National Experiencein Conservationof Medical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia km.), of higher flora with 2250 species bamboo. Medicinal and religious plants endemic to this region. The plants, are often gatheredon the spot by pastorals mammals, birds, insects, and a multitude while tending their herds at high altitudes of other life forms constitute various during the summer months. Collectorsare ecosystems and maintainvital ecological underpaid and often exploited by processes in the eastern Himalayas. middlemen. Biodiversityconservation and Together, their mixture andblend provide poverty alleviation has a direct linkage. continuity of life support systems. The The socioeconomicand subsistence needs interconnected benefit of conservation of the marginal farmers must be addressed has implications for the economic well in order to conserve biodiversity. There being, political stability, and the survival are gender, ethnic, social class and of the diverse cultures in the region. The household domain differences which goods and services provided by the needs to be addressed when discussing natural resourcesare immeasurable and equity issues. the livelihoods of millions of in people uncontrolled & unlimited SA countries are depended on the Management, conservation and sustainable use of these utilization of MAP, our niche is one area, resources MAP. The traditional which you will deal upon and which can including make the difference in the mountain use of biologically diverse resourcesnot areas. Your for three I only reflects a diverse resource-use indulgence days, but also of hope, will be able to deliberate thoroughly pattern, ways maintaining on the and come out with livelihood in mountain ecosystems. issues, possible this both cultural answers, which hopefully we can use, in Maintaining diversity, the national level and spatial relationship with the planning. environment is, therefore, consistent Have a pleasant stay in POKHARA. with the conservation of the natural world. I wish the workshop a great success. Nepal has a wealth of NTFP because of Thank you. its altitudinal zones and diverse ecosystems. Although we say this proudly and loudly, nevertheless, knowledge, skills, and potential are not fully put together for the larger interest and well being of the local communities. NTFPsconstitute one of six forestry sector programs in the master plan where seven are highlighted for promotion: medicinal and aromatic plants, Daphnepaper, pine resin, katha, sabai grass, canes and

Is Speech from the Chairperson

Dr. Danna J. Leaman, Chairperson Medicinal Plants Specialist Group Species Survival Commission, IUCN

Chief Guest of this session Mr. Rabi B. I am looking forward to participating in Bista, Secretary, Ministry of Forest and the workshop not only as the Soil Conservation, HMG/Nepal, representativeof the MPSG but also as a Members of the OrganizingCommittee, keen researcher interested in the distinguished scientists and conservation conservationand sustainable management workers from Nepal and abroad, ladies of valuable medicinal plants of the and gentlemen: Himalaya. From the chair as well as on behalfof the Finally, I thank the organizers for giving Medicinal Plant SpecialistGroup (MPSG), me the honour of chairing this opening IUCN, I first of all would like to thank session. I wish the workshop all the IDRC and its Medicinal and Aromatic success. Plants in Asia (MAPPA) for Program Thank organizing this regional workshop. you. I personally appreciate the hard work put in by the organizers especially Dr. Madhav Karki, Regional Program Coordinator, MAPPA; Ms. Liz Fejber, Regional Program Officer, IDRC, Dr. Abhoy K. Das, Dean, IOF, and Dr. Nirmal Bhattarai, Senior Botanist, Departmentof Plant Resources and the rest of the organizing team to bring together a network of committed research institutions, government agencies and individual researchers actively working together to achieve the goal of an integrated conservation, management and development of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in this region.

19 Vote of Thanks

Dr. Abhoy K. Das Dean, IOF, Pokhara, Nepal

Respected Chairperson, Honorable Chief to achieve the workshop goals and has Guest, Distinguished Participants, Ladies contributed to its value. The third and Gentlemen: organizing partner, my own, Institute of Forestry, especially its faculty members, On behalf of the sponsoring administrative staff and the students are organizations and the workshop thanked for their great enthusiasm, it is organizing committee, my pleasure support and cooperation in helping us to to propose a vote of thanks to all of you organize this workshop. for your presence in the inaugural session of the Workshop on Sharing Local and I thank Dr. Danna J. Leaman not only for National Experience in Conservation of chairing the sessionbut also for providing Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in South her valuable inputs especially indicating Asia. the close linkage between the concepts and tools of just concludedConservation First of all, my special thanks are due to Assessment and Management Planning the Chief Guest Mr. Rabi B. Bista, or CAMP initiative of MAPPA and the Secretary of Ministry of Forest and Soil regional workshop. We are delighted to Conservation (MFSC), His Majesty's hear the valuable message sent by Dr. Government of Nepal (HMG/N) for Doris Capistrano, DeputyRepresentative, delivering an inspiring, informative and Ford Foundation, and New Delhi for the encouraging inauguralspeech. success of the workshop. The Medicinal and Aromatic Plants I would like to sincerely thank Dr. Madhav Program in Asia (MAPPA), an initiative Karki, Regional Program Coordinator, of IDRC, Canada and Ford Foundation MAPPA, IDRC, and the Workshop deserves our unreserved thanks for Coordinator not only for his informative organizing this timely and useful welcome statements but also his hard workshop in our courtyard. The co- work to overseeing different aspects of the sponsoring of the workshop by the workshop. My thanks go to Ms. Elizabeth MFSC, HMG/Nepal is highlyappreciated Fajber, Regional Program Officer, IDRC/ as it has inspired the organizers to strive SARO, New Delhi for providing valuable

21 Sharing Local andNational Experience in Conservationof Medical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia information on IDRC's Global and Regional Program on Medicinal Plants to the gathering. Last but not the least, I extend my sincere and warm thanks to all the MAPPA partner organizations and researchers who have come from different parts of the region and world to share rich and valuable research information and knowledge on medicinal plantsand other NTFPs which will be useful in planning the development and sustainable management of these resources. I sincerely hope that each of you will get benefited from this forum whose objective is sharing of experiences and exchanging of views on the important subject of medicinal plants. Finally, I would like to thank the distinguished guests for attending this inaugural session. Thank you all.

22 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS List ofParticipants

BANGLAIJESH Rolighedsvej 23 1958 Frederiksberg C, Denmark Dr. Ferdousi Begum Tel/ 45 35 28 36 70 Executive Director Fax: 45 35 28 26 71 DEBTEC, Developmentof E-mail: [email protected] Biotechnology and Environmental Conservation Centre. FRANCE 5/4 Sangsad Avenue, Monipuripara, Dhaka 1215, Bangladesh Dr. Yildiz Aumeeruddy-Thomas Tel: 880 2 8114827 WWF, UNESCO Fax: 880 2 8616958 People and Plants Initiative E-mail: [email protected] Project Officer, Himalayan Medicinal Plants BHUTAN International Technical Advisor for Nepal Mr. Tshitila Laboratoire de Botanique, Institut de Medicinal and Aromatic plants Botanique Research Program, 163, rue Auguste Broussonnet Renewable Natural Resources Research 34090 Montpellier, France Centre, (RNRRC) Fax: 33 467 04 1870 Dept. of Research and Development E-mail: [email protected]. fr Services (DRDS), Ministry of Agriculture, Bhutan INDIA Fax: 00975 2 321601, T. 00975 2 321902, E-mail: [email protected] Dr. S. Vedavathy President, Herbal Folklore Research CANADA Centre B. 23, Vaikuntapurarn Danna J. Leaman, Ph.D. Tirupati - 517 502, Andhra Pradesh, Chair-elect India Medicinal Plant Specialist Group Tel:91-8574-42065 91-8574-29605® IUCN — the World Conservation Fax:91-8574-54830 Union, SpeciesSurvival Commission E-mail: [email protected] c/o CanadianMuseum of Nature vedavathy@rediffmail. corn P.O. Box 3443 Station D; Ottawa, Ontario K1P 6P4 Dr. Padam P. Bhojvaid Telephone: 1 613 235 7213 Head, Non-wood Forest Produce Fax: 1 613 235 9622 Division E-mail: [email protected] Forest Research Institute, ICFRE [email protected] P0 New Forest 248006 Tel. 91-135-756847 DENMARK Fax: 135-756865 E-mail: [email protected] Ms. Helle 0. Larsen Royal Agriculture and Veterinary Mr. Vinay Tandon University Conservator of Forests

25 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medical and AromaticPlants in South Asia

Forest Department, Govt. of HP, Dr. G.S. Rawat Shimla Medicinal Plant Scientist Himachal Pradesh, India Wildlife Institute of India Tel./Fax: 91-177-224376 Dehradun, India E-mail: [email protected] Tel.: 00-91-135-640111-115 Fax: 00-91-135-640117 Dr. Ravi Kumar E-mail: [email protected] Conservation Officer FRLHT, No. 8, 1St Floor, 4th Main Prof. VPK Nambiar MSH Colony, Anand Nagar, Senior Scientisit Bangalore, India AVS Kottakkal -676 503, Malappuram Tel. 91-80-3336909 ; Fax: 91-80-333-4167 Distrcit, Kerala E-mail: [email protected] Tel. 0493-742216-19/742561-64 Fax: 0493-742210/742572 Mr. Pushp Jam E-mail: [email protected] Medicinal Plants Consultant TRAFFIC-India Dr. A. K. Badoni WWF-India Secretariat Secretary General 172-B Lodi Estate, for Environmental New Delhi - Society Himalayan 110003,India Research (SHER) Tel. 91-11-4616532; 91-11-469-1760 DakpatharRoad, Vikasnagar, Fax: 91-11-469-1226 Dehra Dun, India E-mail: [email protected] Tel: 01-360-50174 [email protected] Fax: 01-360-50972 Dr. Prodyut Bhattacharya of and Ms. Kiran Arun Faculty Ecosystem Management Society for Himalayan Environmental Technical Forestry, Research Indian Institute of Forest (SHER) Management, Dakpathar Road, Vikasnagar, Dehra Nehru Nagar, P.O. Box 357, Dun, India Bhopal - 462003. India. Tel: 01-360-50174 Madhya Pradesh, Fax: 01-360-50972 Tel: 91-755-775716(0), 91-755-773799(0), 91-755-794571(R) NEPAL Fax: 91-755-772878(0) E-mail: [email protected] Mr. Suresh KumarGhimire Assistant Lecturer, Tribhuvan University Dr. P. Tetali Kathmandu Naoroji Godrej Centre for Plant Nepal Research Tel.: 01-331 322(0), 330 492(R) Pune, Maharshtra, India E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] Ms. YeshiChden Lama WWF, and Plants Dr. R. K. Garg People Program Vice-President, Indian Environment WWF Nepal Program Office Society (IFS) Kathmandu, Nepal New Delhi, India Tel.: 434 820, 434970, 410942

26 List ofParticipants

Fax: 977-1-372128 (R) CECI-NEPAL E-mail: [email protected] GPO Box 2959 Baluwatar, Kathmandu, Nepal Mr. Karan Nepali Tel. 00-977-1-419412/414430 Local Biodiversity Expert Fax: 00-977-1-413256 Jumla District, Nepal E-mail: C/o Mr. Gopal Sherchan [email protected] Dr. G.D. Dr. Krisna Kaphie Pimprikar Lecturer Dy. General Manager Dabur Pvt. Ltd. Institute of Agriculture & Animal Nepal Science Tinkune, Koteshwor; Kathmandu, Trubhuvan University Nepal Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal Tel. 00-977-1-478010/487672/487673 Tel. 056-25810 Fax: 00-977-1-478030 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] Dr. Mohan Sibakoti Dr. AbhoyKumar Das Program Officer Dean, Institute of Forestry IUCN Country Office Tribhuvan University Bakhundole, Pulchowk Pokhara, Nepal Tel.: 528 781/761; Fax: 536 786 Tel./Fax. 977-61-21563 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] Ms. Kabita Bhattarai Dr. Narendra Nath Tiwari Country Director, CECI-Nepal Ayurveda Campus, Institute of GPO Box 2959 Medicine Baluwatar, Kathmandu, Nepal T.U. Tel. Nardevi, Kathrnandu,Nepal 00-977-1-419412/414430 Tel. 256114 Fax: 00-977-1-413256 977-1-259743, (R) E-mail: [email protected] Dr. Sarnar Bahadur Malla Ex-Director Botanist Ms. Sagun Bista General, Community Based Economic Biodiversity Study Centre Development Project 22/348, Ganabahal, Kathrnandu, Nepal CECT-NE PAL Tel. 977-1-220262 GPO Box 2959 E-mail: [email protected] Baluwatar, Kathmandu, Nepal Tel. 00-977-1-419412/414430 Mr. Krishna Pant Fax: 00-977-1-413256 Lecturer E-mail: [email protected] Institute of Agriculture & Animal Science, Mr. Sunil Rgmi Tribhuvan University, Deputy Team Lader Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal Community Based Economic Tel. 00-977-56-20101 Development Project E-mail: [email protected]

27 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia

Mr. Bhishma P. Subedi Tribhuvan University Coordinator, ANSAB Hetauda Campus, Nepal P.O. Box 11035 Tel./Fax. 977-57-21453 Mm Bhawan, New Baneswor Fax: 977-57-20865 Kathmandu, Nepal E-mail: [email protected] Tel. 00-977-1-487547 Fax: 00-977-1-487916 Mr. Kuber Jung Malla E-mail: [email protected] Botanist Department of Plant Resources Mr. Gopal Sherchan Thapathali, Kathmandu, Nepal GEF/SGP/NEP/98/G-52 Tel. 00-977-1-251160 (0), 549671(R) UN House Fax: 0977-1-251141 P.O. Box 107, E-mail: [email protected] Pulchowk, Kathrnandu, Nepal [email protected] Tel.: 01-241188 (0), 01-473 915 (R) Tel./Fax: 081-20650 Mr. Pradip Singh Maharjan E-mail: [email protected] Senior Planning Officer Herbs Production & Processing Co. Ltd. Mr. Charles Pradhan Koteshwor, Kathmandu, Nepal EnvironmentAdviser/CLIFF Tel. 00-977-1-630452/630067 Coordinator Fax: 00-977-1-630232 CanadianCooperation Office (CCO) E-mail: [email protected] Post Box 4574 Lazirnpat, Kathmandu, Nepal Dr. Keshav Raj Kanel Tel. 977-1415193 Forest & Environmental Economist & Fax: 977-1-410422 Chief, Foreign Aid Coordination E-mail: [email protected] Division Minsitry of Forest & Soil Conservation Dr. I.C. Dutta Singh Durbar, Kathmandu, Nepal Professor Tel: 977-1-432447 (R) Institute of Forestry Fax: 262 599 Tribhuvan University E-mail: [email protected] Pokhara, Nepal Tel./Fax. 977-61-21563 Mr. Prem NarayanKandel E-mail: [email protected] District Forest Officer, Humla Department of Forest Ms. Kate Armstrong Babar Mahal, Kathmandu, Nepal Reseacher Tel.: 00-977-1-357569 Tsyangboche Tibetan Medicine Fax: 00-977-1-229013 Research Project Nepal Dr. Nirmal Bhattarai, Ph.D. E-mail: [email protected] D. Sc. Senior Botanist, Medicinal Plants Expert Mr. S.C. Chaudhary 538/6, Ghattekulo, Dillibazar, Lecturer Kathmandu, Nepal Institute of Forestry P.O. Box 20568

28 List ofParticipants

Tel: 977-1-436356 (R) Babar Mahal, Kathmandu, Nepal Fax: 977-1-473020 Tel./Fax: 00-977-82-20505, 01-496744 (R) E-mail: [email protected] Dr. Damodar Prasad Parajuli Mr. ShankerDahal Technical Adviser Forest Officer SAFE Concern Minsitry of Forest & Soil Conservation Kathmandu, Nepal Singh Durbar, Kathrnandu, Nepal Tel. 977-1-491369 (R), Fax: 977-1-253302 Tel: 01-221936 Email: [email protected] Fax: 262 599 E-mail: [email protected] Mr. Rana Bahadur Rawal Forest Microenterprise Developrnent Mr. Achyut Gyawali Associate Professor Expert, Ram Hiti Phant, Bauddha - 6 Institute of Forestry Tribhuvan Pokhara, Kathmandu, Nepal University, Nepal Box 1765 Tel./Fax. 977-61-21563 P0 E-mail: Tel: 977-1-494514 (R); Fax: 977-1-468102 [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] Mr. Dhruv Bhattarai PAM General Manager STAN Herbs Production& Processing Co. Ltd. Dr. Zahoor Ahmed Koteshwor, Kathmandu, Nepal Director Tel. 00-977-1-630452/630067 Plant Genetic Resources Institute (PGRI) Fax: 00-977-1-630232 Pakistan Agricultural Research Council E-mail: [email protected] NARC, Park Road Islamabad — 45500, Pakistan Dr. Keshab Raj Rajbhandari Tel.: 92-51-240 151; Fax: 92-51-240 909 Senior Botanist, Taxonomist Departmentof Plant Resources Mr. Shakeel Haider Zaidi Thapathali, Kathrnandu, Nepal Medicinal Plant Botanist Tel.: 00-977-1-251161 Pakistan Forest Institute Fax: 00-977-1-251141 Governmentof Pakistan E-mail: [email protected] Peshawar — 25120, Pakistan Mr. Rabindra N. Shukia Fax: 92-521-42457 Manager, HPPCL, Branch Office E-mail: [email protected] Nepalganj, Banke District, Nepal Tel.: 00-977-81-21487, 22762 Prof. Dr. M. Iqbal Choudhary,T.I. E-mail: [email protected] HEJ Research Institute of Chemistry University of Karachi Mr. Shyam Krishna Paudel Karachi, Pakistan Department of Forest Survey Tel. 92-21-469 9873 & Research Fax. 92-21-4963373 Ministry of Forest & Soil Conservation E-mail: [email protected]

29 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medical and AromaticPlants in South Asia

SRI LANKA Tel. 540-231-3611 Fax. 540-231-1383 Dr. Lakshmi Arambewela E-mail: [email protected] Industrial Technology Institute (ITT) P.O.Box 787, 363 IDRC Bauddhaloka, Mawatha Dr. Madhav Ph.D. Colombo — 7, Sri Lanka Karki, Tel.: 94-1-693807-9 Regional Program Coordinator Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Program Fax: 94-1-686567 in Asia E-mail: [email protected] (MAPPA) International Development Research Centre UNITED KINGDOM (IDRC) South Asia Regional Office (SARO) Dr. Keith Shawe 208, br Bagh, New Delhi 110003 Tel: 91-11-4619411 Fax:91-11-4622707 Biodiversity Specialist, E-mail: The Natural Resources Management [email protected] Department, The Natural Resources Ms. Elizabeth Fajber Institute, Senior Officer University of Greenwich,Central Program International Development Research Avenue, Centre, Chatham Maritime,Chatham, South Asia Office (SARO) Kent. ME4 4TB,UK Regional 208 Jor Bagh, New Delhi, 110003 Tel: (44)-1634-883107 Tel: fax: 91-11-462-2707 Fax: 91-11-461-9411; (44)-1634-883959 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: k.g. [email protected] Ms. Seema Batra Dr. Susanne F. Schmitt, PhD. Assistant International Plants Consv. Program Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Program Officer;WWF-UK in Asia (MAPPA) Panda House, Weyside Park International Development Research Godalming, Surrey, GU7 1XR, UK Centre (IDRC) Tel: +44 (0) 1483 412 553; home: 01865 208 Jor Bagh, New Delhi- 110003 725 950; Tel.: 91-11-4619411 Mobile: 07759 814 841 Fax: 11-462 2707 Fax: +44 (0) 1483 426409 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] www.rbgkew.org.uk/peopleplants Ms. CarolynSwitzer www.wwf-uk. org Intern InternationalDevelopment Research UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Centre (IDRC) 208 Jor Bagh, New Delhi- 110003 Dr. A.L. (Tom) Hammett Tel.: 91-11-4619411 Associate Professor Fax: 11-462 2707 of Natural Resources College E-mail: [email protected] Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA

30 THEME PAPERS Conservation and Sustainable Use of Medicinal and Aromatic Products in North America: Are There Really Lessons to be Learned?

A. L. (Tom) Hammett James Chamberlain*

Introduction sustainable use of NTFPs. This was an ambitious as often is found with The of this goal, purpose regional workshop many areas around the world, we have is to "discuss, share and ideas develop learned of much MAP experience in our and betweenand the experience amongst region. However, it is importantthat we policy makers, researchers, resource begin with a caveat. Are there indeed managers, conservation scientists, field lessons to be learned for this regionfrom workers, development planners and North America? community farmers in a common forum." We aim to share experiences in particular We felt at the outset that there is much to among the countries in South Asia, but be learned right here, and hope that at we are also interested to share the end of this session that you will agree. Our observations are based on several experiences between the North and the South. The have an years' experience working in projects on organizers provided the from the authors' excellent forum that we expect will lead ground, professional to recommendations for future association of nearly 15 years. More strategies this is based on a to international donors and importantly paper governments, through sharing with civil to the thrust, experience society groups improve colleagues in Nepal and throughout the focus and impact of their support to NTFP in several sustainable use of medicinal and aromatic region. experiences countries of many countries outside North plant resourcesby local communities. America have also been examined.

Our assignment was to "help set the What was our approach to the assigned stage" or present some thinking points task? First, we discuss the legacy of non- for the work at hand at this workshop. timber forest product (NTFP) and, more We were asked to identify and report on specifically, medicinal plant use in North lessons learned in North America in the America. We will also discuss brieflyMAP

Dr. James Chamberlain, Non-Timber Forest Products Research Technologist, US Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Coordinator, IUFRO Research Group 5.11 (Non-woodForest Products), Virginia Tech, 1650 RambleRoad (0503), Blacksburg,VA 24061, USA.

33 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservation ofMedical and AromaticPlants in South Asia markets both in North America and (carvings, and handicrafts) (described by throughout the world, and then to the authorsin Hammett and Chamberlain describe the constraints to the sustainable 1999). As in Asia, medicinal and dietary use and development of MAP resources. supplements(or MAPs as discussed here) Lastly, we havebeen asked to relate some amount to majorcomponent of the value lessons that may be appropriate for traded in the North American NTFP application in South Asia. market.

But, before we start, there is one critical To get a feel for the scope of MAPs in question we wish to raise - Are there North America, let's discuss a few indeed lessons to be learned for this common MAPs found in the region. regionfrom North America? Our answer Several are increasingly popular; so much lies in the realization that there are many so that their survival in the natural similarities betweenthe two regionsand environmentis threatened. This lesson from we will gain sharing our is not only to be learned in our region - But our experiences! overexploitation, many plants have been extracted to lack of information on the sustainable extinction the world. MAPs of and the dearth throughout management MAPs, such as Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea), of MAP leads us to believe that policies Indian tobacco (Lobelia inhlata), and Yew this is ahead of the world in region many (Taxus brevifolia, T. canadensis) have aspects of MAP preservation and culture. been well known. herbal remedies What follows are our notes based on the Many such as Black cohosh (Cimicifuga presentation made, and the discussion Golden Seal that We invite comments racemosa), (Hydrastis followed. your and Elm and canadensis), Slippery (Ulmus suggestions. fulva) have been popular both within the Background region and exported outside the region. The region has a history of MAP North America has a of non- long legacy production and use for several hundred timber forest collection product (NTFP) years, and has exported for nearly 400 and use. NumerousNTFPs are collected years. and traded from forests or, as with more recently growing markets and shrinking North America markets herbal medicinal natural stocks, cultivated for trade. products derived from 175 species. Over NTFPs havebeen described in four major 500 species have been found in the groups: eatable products (berries, fruits, Appalachia region alone, with 125 species herbs, spices, and foods based on plant identified as havingmedicinal properties. derivatives); medicinal or dietary Meanwhile, the NorthAmerican suppliers supplements (the topic of discussion are supplying herbal medicinalproducts here), floral products (decorative to the worldwide market in ever- products); and specialty wood products increasing amounts. As recent as 1998 the

34 Conservationand SustainableUse ofMedicinal and AromaticProducts in NorthAmerica world MAP market saw $16 billion in wild roots, it has been exported in sales, of that Europe had $7.1 billion in increasingly larger quantities. sales and Asia had $5.1 billion in sales. The U.S. alone has $3.9 billion in Forest harvestedGinseng collected on the yearly - sales. forest floor has been the emphasis especially with a perceived price Markets for some popular North differential estimated by buyers in China American MAPs are large and have been (Williams 1989). However, over harvest expanding. Ginkgo biloba had U. S. sales caused by black market in for "greengold" of $90.2 million in 1997, St. John's Wort in North Carolina has lead to concern had U. S. sales of $47.0 million in 1997, about sustaining the resource. The and May Apple saw U. S. sales of $1.5 Convention on the International Trade in million in 1992. Suchlarge marketshave Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and driven up demand and in some cases, Flora (CITES) formed in 1975 (Robbins put pressure on natural stocks. 2000) now lists ginseng in Appendix II. This does not limit its harvest, but To some learned perhaps identify lessons regulates and monitors the sale and export in North America that may be pertinent trade of wild ginseng. in South Asia, let's look at one well- known example found in hardwood The price of ginseng is often determined forests in eastern North America - the by sentiment, not supply and demand popular Panax quinquefolium or (Kains 1903). Anecdotal stories relate that American Patches are still Chinese buyers sort ginseng root into over Ginseng. - found on north-facing slopes where sixty different products all associated harvesters collect most often in small with different qualities and prices. The quantities. Dried at home and sold to market for ginseng in China remains local buyers who consolidate and sell to strong, if not unlimited. As early as 1903, some large corporations for processing. it was estimated that 400 million used The exportmarket prefers naturalgrown, ginseng in China, a market estimated at wild harvested Ginseng putting pressure "millionsof dollars" (Kains 1903, this large on the wild population. Prices for dried market was confirmed by McCaleb et al. wild Ginseng in isolated cases have 2000). reached $600 the but per pound price, Why this recent MAP markets more has been $114 - $205 recently per surge? pound. Now listed in CITES, data shows hundreds of tons of Ginseng have been First it is important to define the exported from the Eastern U.S. and consumers in North America. In many Canada. Meanwhile, cultivated Ginseng cases this resurgence in MAP sales is due has sold for only $11 - $88 per pound, to "Baby Boomers" who have increased and due to recent declines in supplies of spending power and have become

35 Sharing Localand National Experiencein Conservationof Medical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia increasingly concerned about their is the international trade fair Natural health. In doing so they have embraced Products Expo held each year in the fall herbal products — not just MAPs. In the on the East Coast or in the spring on the past only a small group of health West Coast. This Expo hosts over 3,000 conscious consumers shared this producers and more than 45,000 buyers awareness of the benefits of natural of natural products from not just North medicine. Now an increasingly larger America but from around the world. segmentof the population knows of the benefits of natural products and can The industry has matured from a afford to purchase these products. They marketing sense. It realizes the are more health conscience- importanceof consistentproduct quality, knowledgeable of the benefits of using packaging, and consumer's need for natural products instead of processed ample product information. In North medicines or vitamins. The natural America, establishing a MAP product product craze is here and growing certification program is now being quickly. The presence of an increasingly discussed — it is a new avenue by which knowledgeable segment of the some feel the sustainability of MAP population with adequate disposable resources may be assured (Robbins 2000). income is driving this recent surge in Both authors have participated in initial sales. exploration of the certificationof Ginseng. Those who are environmentally In addition, buyinglocally madeproducts concerned to purchase increasing is in Local craft fairs are now vogue. amounts of natural products should be found in most areas of the region. Natural concerned about MAP conservation and or organic products and other fresh items would embrace a MAP certification are best sold directly to the consumer. These seasonal fairs facilitate and program. consequently help to further educate the Constraints to sustainable MAP consumer. In chainsuper markets, many management now have a large section of the floor space There are several constraints to devoted to fresh or natural products. sustainable MAP management that Increased amounts of disposable income warrant mentioning. First and foremost, have meant more travel and purchaseof the harvest of MAPs is yet to be an issue these products is possible, and desirable. of public concern. This precludes the In addition, those who see them as better attention needed to focus policy. Secondly than recently more invasive techniques there is a lack of information and or surgical procedures desire alternative knowledge on the growth and medicines. As awareness increases the management of many MAPs. In addition, marketfor MAPs is growing. One outlet there is no legislativemandate to preserve

36 Conservation and SustainableUse ofMedicinal and AromaticProducts in North America genetic resources. Hence few guidelines gatheringis notable. Herein lie answers exist that would direct policy formulation to many of the questions asked of you. or assist in adding MAPs to forest Beyond that there should be an effort to managementplans. build awareness on the part of the public in the use and sustainable management Most managersof forests (stateor private of MAPs. owned) lack the skills and expertise to know and manageMAPs. Knowledge of By building this awareness, you need to how fast each species will regenerateis develop a vocal and visual constituency key before managers can prescribe that supports the use of MAPs and management regimes. Often there are protects for wise use MAP resources. This greater demandson managers to manage effort will demonstratethe valueof these recreation, timber or watersheds for resources not just to the general well being volume and quality of water. of the population, and but also the great positive impact on sustainable forest Lastly, there is no funding mechanism management and biodiversity that for specificresearch into the plants, their increased managementof these resources ecology, uses (as medicines etc.) and their give. This recognition is not wide spread. management in the wild or on farms. Several other regions in the world have Several federal agencies including the not assessed or emphasized the impact USDA's Department of Agriculture and of these resources. Your region has a long- Forest Service have fostered some standing history and much knowledge has research for a few specific MAPs. But already been gathered and cataloged. greater support is to assure the identification and sustainable Remember the three standards of management of key MAPs. Clearly there sustainable development: ecological, is need to organize a thorough economic, and social or cultural aspects of use and of renewable comprehensive research effort. The management eastern of North America has a resources. MAPs are truly renewable and region this needs out in long history of MAP harvest and use. message to come However, details are needed about packaging, articles such as in the popular and vehicle habitat, on the ground inventory, and press through any public you have access to. harvest levels. Without such an ongoing may research that builds on the program There is great need to develop and extend wealth but accelerates disappearing to MAP field workers appropriate anecdotal knowledge. management practices. These should What is needed? include how to determine current and projected inventorylevels, monitoring for The information and knowledge sustainable harvest, handling and storage, represented by the experts in this and, where native populations are

37 Sharing Local andNational Experiencein Conservationof Medical and AromaticPlants in South Asia threatened, appropriate culture stakeholders along the chain (such as techniques. harvesters, middlemen,and consumers). Once the market is better known it will Management and utilization of LPs be easier for producersand processors to set priorities. Improved packaging, Local producers will gain much from labeling, product uniformity, and better market knowledge-helping them consistent quality and increased income to make management decisions. With will result. Based on MAPs' values and improved marketing knowledge there is inventory trends, we need to propose sometimes risk of over harvest and loss areas that need attention of policy makers. of resources. However, with proper Once this information is known, it will management techniques and knowledge be relatively easy to determine new of the resource and how quickly it products and value addition strategies. replenishes itself, fear of over exploitation These lessons are true here in Asia, as should be lessened. they are in other regions. There is also need to learn more about Commonissues to increase the the legal and institutional aspects of MAP priority given to MAPs trade. Increased of flow understanding that have of products through marketing channels There are several issues and market trends would help MAP common valuebetween the two regions. producers sense market changes and How do the MAP products show valueat more effectively plans production the local, regional and national market activities. This greater knowledge of potential. Before MAPs can be further market trends would also help policy appreciated there is a need for a vocal and makersand enforcement personneltrack visual constituency in support of these legal and illegal trade, better understand products and their management. There the impacts of policies and effects of law is great need to organize and promote a enforcement efforts. It is important to vocalconstituency that can communicate learn more about how harvest bans or concern for the resource and access to moratoriums impact the market and the market authorities. resource. Since often these wild crafted herbs come To increase incomes and opportunities for from government lands or are poached local level enterprises it is vital to increase from privatelands, a key question is how market transparency. All players along to ensure legal and equitable access for the market chain need to realize the harvesting? What is the impact of greater changes that occur and the value added harvest levels on markets?There is a dire at each level. To do this one needs to need to demonstrate impact of harvest identify and profile all the key on the resources. How can one suggest

38 Conservationand SustainableUse ofMedicinal and AromaticProducts in NorthAmerica sustainable harvestingwithout knowing There are several questions that need to what the resource is capable of be addressed before MAPs will attain producing? In order to manage the increased priority. What is their value? resource, we must first better equip What is the local, regional, and national ourselves to know the ecology of these market potential? Who are the clients for plants. What are the sustainable harvest MAP research? Are they landowners, the levels and practices? How to enforce MAP conservation NGO, the extension harvest regulations? agent, and forest landowners?Are there others?Each stakeholder will have Research and DevelopmentNeeds group a different and evolving set of information It is important to define, track and needs. It is importantthat we learn these estimate markets for MAP products. To needs. facilitate sustainable of MAP growth Who needs MAP cultivation markets and trend of improved tracking analysis and utilization What is markets is needed. Producers need technologies? up- an and vocal to-date market and sound needed is organized information, that the scientific knowledge about theplants and constituency supports conservation of MAP species and the resources. It is important to integrate (incentives for MAP analysis of biology, ecology and socio- encouragement cultivation and increaseduse). MAPs can economy of MAPs. This integrationwill add to the of the results be sustainable and locally grown, but this greatly utility needs to be communicated those gained. This information would better message who slow or our efforts to utilize serve farmers and foresters. The specific may stop needs for documentation of current these valuable resources. These are key that affect the sustainable knowledge are changing. Demographic questions may of MAPs in all and ethnographic studies are needed that development regions. the local on help identify dependence We have been discussingsustainable use MAP resources. The best to way gather and management of our naturalresources this information is through participatory in many venues. Perhaps key question research. (community-based) that needs addressing is what impact does What is needed for conservation and MAP harvesthave on forest health? There sustainable development? Information on is great need to discover the true impact the species (number, range, ecology), of MAP harvest and use on the forest marketinformation (size, quality needs), ecosystem and the incomes of local forest species inventory, monitoring, and users. How might you ensure the management, and cultivation and equitable useand access of MAPresources enrichment technologies for MAPs is and the benefits from their harvest, critical. processing, use and sale?

39 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia

Let us not be blinded by the value of these proper documentationof value addition products,but look at how to manage the of indigenous knowledge is important. resourceso that it will provide incomes Nepaland the region have a rich heritage, well into the future. Let us first know to which needs to be preservedand fostered manage forests for continued or increased for its sustained growth. From this rich access to MAP resources. What are the wealth of knowledge, the rest of the world can But to from this all sustainable harvest levels and practices? gain insight. gain Once determined what should we must document, store, and share MAP policies at this be and in the local information. Such sharing here developed put place, will officials can the enforcement gathering help this region grow implement MAP. As of those that will stronger in the production of regulations-especially the world market is not smaller, help ensure the livelihood of MAP getting sharinginformation on MAPs with those producers, and other villagers. outside the region will help you predict Conclusions market changes and market expansion. Are there lessons from North America Finally, thank you for allowing us to for sustainable MAP production? We feel participate in this important seminarand As the and others that we should leave this question to you. workshop. Secretary said the of this Hopefully you have seen some of what during inauguration event, we feel there to be learned from North the sustainable development of MAP resources is criticalto the health America. To raise awareness about MAPs long-term livelihood and to ensure that will be of the region's forests and to the help supplies of those in or near the forests. sustained, we all need to learn much living about the cultivation, use, and The lessons learned here will help increase conservation of MAPs in this region. the recognition of the importance of MAPs and their value in the region. We hope to However, the real lessons need to be learn much the which learned here in the While during workshop, right region! we will share when we return to North all stakeholders in this process play America. the real lessons to be much can learned Clearly, important roles, be learnedare here in this room. Please outside the lab or academic right community. share and learn in the coming days, and Listen as your colleagues speak and as work across the various farmers and landowners share what together regions they represented here so that we know that have learned of valuable through years results of hard work will help all those Here have a wealth of experience. you interestedin conserving and utilizing this information worth sharing among your rich heritage. selves. Write down how MAPs are used and can be conserved before the memory We welcome your comments and of these practices is lost. In this context, suggestions. We hope that this discussion

40 Conservationand SustainableUse ofMedicinal and AromaticProducts in NorthAmerica will continue. The wealth of the MAP resourceand all those who benefit from its wise management and use will gain much from your deliberations here. We appreciate this opportunity and look forward to hearing of great results from this meeting. Acknowledgement: The lead author is grateful to MAPPA/IDRC for the invitation to attend the Regional Workshop at Pokhara, Nepal. Literature cited Hammett, A. L. and J. Chamberlain. 1998. Sustainable use of non-traditional forest products: Alternative forest-based income opportunities. In: Proceedings of the Conference on Natural Resources Income Opportunitieson Private Lands. Hagerstown, MD. April 5-7. pp. 141- 147.

Kains, M. G. 1903. Ginseng. Orange Judd Company, New York. McCaleb, Robert, Evelyn Leigh and Krista Morien. 2000. The Encyclopedia of Popular Herbs. Herb Research Foundation, Boulder, CO and Prima Health, Roseville, CA. Robbins, Christopher S. 2000. Comparative Analysis of Management Regimes and Medicinal Plant Trade Monitoring Mechanisms for American Ginseng and Goldenseal. Conservation Biology 14(5): 1422-1434. Williams,Michael. 1992. Americans and Their Forests: A Historical Geography. Cambridge University Press, NY. 599 p.

41 Improved Harvesting, Processing and Storage of Medicinal Plants: Their Role in Conservation and Quality of Plant-based Drugs

V. P. K. Nambiar

ABSTRACT 1998). A status report on ethno-biology in India has revealed that tribal The importanceof medicinal plants used communities use over 7,500 species of in the Tradition System of Ayurveda has plants for medicinal purposes been highlighted. The necessity of (Pushpangadan 1994). Approximately25% resorting to in-situ and ex-situ of the prescriptions dispensed from is out. The conservation aspects brought community pharmacies in the United achievements of the Plants Medicinal States contained one or more ingredients (India) Project are described. Harvesting, derived from plants (Farnsworth and and as drying storage methodologies on Soejarto 1991). Aspirin, digoxin, codeine, today, importance of the purity of plant morphine, vindblastine, pilocarpine, raw in the finished and drugs product cocaine, ephedrine, atropineand emetine the research needs for the future is used in are derived from out. allopathy plants pointed (Natesh and Mohan Ram 1999). Following Introduction World War herbal drugs slipped from their pre-eminent perch as synthetic According to WHO 80% of the world drugs took mainstream medicine, since population is dependent upon plants for independence, through successive "Five health care particularly in the developing Year Plans" to develop the Indian economies (Akerele 1992). Our own Traditional Medical Systems (Ayurveda, system of Ayurveda is probably more Siddha and Unani). The 1982 Health than 4,000 years old. Charaka Samhita Policy initiated efforts to dovetail the (900 BC) and Susruta Samhita (500 BC) functioning of traditional health dealing with pharmacopoejas were practitionersand their health services in completed on the basis of the knowledge the total health care system of the country. contained in the Atharvaveda. It is estimated that as many as 3,226 of the There are 460,000 traditional medicine 4,752 communities in India (70% of the practitionersin India. Of these 223,000 in population) are dependenton traditional Ayurveda, 30,456 in Unani, 18,128 in plant based medicines (Gadgil and Rao Siddha have registered as practitioners

42 Improved Harvesting, Processingand Storage ofMedicinal Plants under the state boards. In addition to should be the preferred choice, it is private pharmacies, almost all the State unlikely that the pressures on land would Governments have their own pharmacies permit more than 4% of the geographical for production of medicines. There are area to be set aside as protected area. separate Directorates for traditional Hence, it is essential to complement in- systems of medicine in all states. situ approaches throughex-situ measures. According to a WHO report, there are As a part of this we have encouraged the 215 Hospitalsand 14,000 dispensariesin farmers to enter into the field of large scale the country devoted to traditional cultivation of much needed medicinal medicine (Bajaj and Williams 1995). species under the Medicinal Plants (India) Project. India which is floristicallya rich country, is recognized as one of the 12 mega Medicinal Plants (India) Project diversity centers of the worldranking 10th among the plant-rich nationsof the world The project sponsored by IDRC and 4th among the Asian countries. (International Development Research Excluding aquatic life forms we have Centre, Canada) was undertakenby Arya 5,000 species of medicinal plants. A Vaidya Sala, Kottakkal (Kerala) with a significant proportion of this is utilized financial assistance of CAD$ 138945 after in modern medicine, traditionalsystems getting approval of the Ministry of Home of medicine, tribal and folk practice, Affairs, Govt. of India for the period 1993 beauty care and for export. — 1999. Under this project, 20 widely used medicinal plants of Western Ghats region Only less than 10% of the medicinal of Kerala have been studied. The studies traded in the are plants country focused on the distribution, selection of cultivated. 90% are collected from the best stocks, developing sustainable wild very often in the destructive and on unsustainable manner. However, over- techniques propagation, increasing their availability on a sustainable basis so harvesting, loss of habitat, increasing urbanization and forest-base as to reduce tendency for adulteration, shrinking features, have resulted in declinein the pharmacognostic developing significant modules and volume of raw materials This for on-farm cultivation produced. recommendations for their has causedirreversible loss of drawing up population conservation and in forests. of medicinal plants. It is therefore regeneration to conserve our medicinal An immediate output is organization of imperative live collection of several of plant wealth on a scientific basis. provenance' 20 speciesfor reference and research and Ongoingefforts in India includeboth in- supplies of their genuine parts for situ and ex-situ approaches to medicine preparationand evaluation. The conservation. While in-situ conservation farmers will be benefited by the

43 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia propagation technique developed and be transported to the drying shed as the foresters can make use of the quickly as possible. information in bio-diversity management and regeneration programmes. Our Drying on the preliminary investigations is essential for to deterioration on selected raw Proper drying drugs plant drugs be are indicative of the need for traded internationally. Drying is done clearly to reduce the moisture content to research on storage problems. up 5-10 percent to minimize spoilage. A Harvesting considerable quantity of herbs is dried in the shade. Artificial is The methods of drying increasingly existing harvesting, being employed since it produces a processing and storage are thoroughly superior product retaining much of the unscientific leading to total devastation a of certain medicinal from their original flavour and avoiding hay-like species taste. The should be natural habitats, causing serious drying yard properly deterioration of the harvested raw cleaned. The drying temperature has a drug. vital influence on the Harvesting as the vital link between quality. source and resource management use, In artificial the temperature should of non- drying, pre-harvest operation, complexity not exceed 40° C, as the essentialoils and wood forest products harvesting, the flavour are lost at harvest and simultaneous high temperatures multiple (Atal and 1982). harvest of multiple products, post- Kapur harvest treatments, and organizational Storage issues in resource management need improvement in tools and techniques. Different types of storage can influence the quality of the herb. Dried herbs store An factor that influences the important best in the whole form and most buyers quality of the herb is the time at which it choose this form of A further is harvested. The are storage. usually consideration in is to the whole important storage gathered throughout growing limit contamination. Most authorities period. They are picked either singly or in the entire stem is cut off and the leaves recommend storage air-tight containers in a dark at a not are stripped of afterwards. The leaves dry place temperature 18° C. Heat robs herbs of their should be healthy, free from diseases and exceeding flavour whilst causes insect pests, clean and dry. The aerial or dampness ground herbs to cake and deteriorate. Most top parts of the plant are collected with the -bearing stem just before or at authoritiesrecommend that herbs for the the beginning of the flowering stage. retail market should be available in small Fruitsand seeds are collected when they quantities preferably in jars or packets are mature. The harvested herbs have to (Atal and Kapur 1982).

44 Improved Harvesting, Processingand Storage ofMedicinal Plants

Research Needs Baja], M. and Williams, J.T. (1995). Healing Forests, Healing people — Report, Though considerable research has been IDRC, New Delhi. carried out on the utilization aspects of non-wood forest plant products, there is Farnsworth N.A. and Soejarto, D.D. little information available on their (1991), Global Importance of Medicinal production, conservation, harvesting and Plants. Cambridge University Press, storage practices. Judicious use of the raw Cambridge, U.K. in the medicine drugs manufacturing M. and P.R.S. is also to be considered to avoid Gadgil, Rao, (1998). process Nurturing Biodiversity: An Indian wastage of raw materials. The purity of Center for Environment raw and the Agenda. drugs processing technology Education, Ahamedabad, India. have a significant role in determiningthe quality of the finished product. Natesh, S. (2000). Biotechnology in the Taxonomicand pharmacognostic studies Conservation of Medicinal and Aromatic are the right tools in determining the Plants: Biotechnologyin Horticultural and correctness of the raw drugs used. Plantation Crops. Maihotra Publishing Scientificextraction methodswill have to House, New Delhi and Cambridge be developed and perfected in order University Press, Cambridge, U.K. to prevent destructive harvesting S. and Mohan Ram, H.Y. of non-wood forest produce. Research Natesh, (1999). has to be concentrated on scientific Updating Green Medicine. J. md. Bot. Sc. assessment of the utility of other (in press) of trees in the of regenerative parts place Pushpangadan. P. (1994). Ethno-biology their roots, so that uprooting the entire in India: A report. Ministry of trees can be avoided. Environment and Forests, Government of India, New Delhi, India. Acknowledgements: I record my deep gratitude to the organisers of this function for providing me an opportunity for participation. References

Akerale, 0. et al. (1992). Conservation of Medicinal Plants. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K.

Atal, C.K. and Kapur. B.M. (1982). Cultivation and Utilization of Aromatic Plants. CSIR, RRL, Jammu-Tawi, India.

45 Highlights and Outcomes of the Conservation Assessment and Management Planning (CAMP) Workshop, Pokhara, Nepal

Nirmal Bhattarai V. Tandon D. K. Ved*

Background flowering plants belonging to 1534 genera and 216 families have so far been Nepalextends along the great Himalayan documented 5% endemic to the from 81° 15' to 88° 10' E including range longitudes country and 30% to the Himalayan range within an area of 147,181 square (Press et al., 2000). kilometers. The altitude ranges from 60m to 8848m above sea level. Due to its The vast deforestation and habitat location along the central portion of the destruction in the past has not only Himalayan range, the country is a reduced its vegetal cover but also has meeting zone between the flora of east threatenedits rich plant diversity. It has, Himalaya containing many Sino-Japanese therefore, become urgentto systematically species and the west Himalaya, with document and analyze ecological and many west Himalayan floral elements. It taxonomical information about its plant has also plants representative of central resources before it is too late. The Pokhara Asia (Tibet) in its many northern CAMP is an attempt, first of its kind, to frontiers, especially in the trans- initiate activities towards recording the Himalayan regions. Numerous plants threat status of the country's wild representative of the Indo-Gangetic plain medicinal and aromatic plants flora. are found in its plain and low altitude regions. Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) About 39.6% of the country's area is under forest including forestland (29%) Nepal has an age-old tradition of using and shrub land (10.6%) (DFRS, 1999). plants in the local traditional healing Having widest altitudinal range in the systems that are closely intertwinedwith world within short distances, Nepalhas the nationalculture. The country is also a about 35 major forest types, 75 vegetation leading supplier of important medicinal types and 118 ecosystems. 6076 taxa of and aromatic herbs to the Indianand other

* Mr. D. K. Ved, Foundationfor the Revitalizationof Local Health Traditions (FRLHT), Ananda Nagar, Bangalore- 560 024, India

46 Highlightsand Outcomesof the ConservationAssessment and ManagementPlanning international markets. The collection, to the taxa being assessed and to propose transportationand trade of commercially plans for their conservation and valuable medicinal and aromatic plants management. The CAMPprocess uses the have long been a steadybasis of the rural IUCN Red List categories and criteria to household economy. evaluate baseline information gatheredon the taxa included in the assessment (IUCN Due to increase in population, 2001). This process has been applied accompanied by over-exploitation, to assess the threat status of deforestation and other forms of habitat successfully the medicinal flora of several in destruction including increasing regions the India e.g., South India, North India, development pressures, country's Himachal Pradesh and Maharashtra. wild plant resources are shrinking fast, the survival of Information required to assign Red List criticallythreatening many threat includes of high value wild medicinal plants. At the categories knowledge in size, extent of same time, although every category of changes population wild flora is under varied threats, occurrence and area of occupancy, and available resources restricted the magnitudes of habitat disturbance, human interference and use investigation to the assessment of a including limitednumber of medicinal and aromatic patterns. plants alone. Itis thought essential to take Pre-CAMPfieldwork stock of the information available to evaluate the threat status of Nepal's Gathering and evaluating the quantity and medicinal and aromatic plant species, to quality of information available are identify the information gaps, and to importantsteps in the CAMPprocess that understand the conservation needs of must take place in advance of the these important resources. assessment workshop. A team of 10 field botanists and foresters ConservationAssessment and experienced the (C/IMP) gathered species-related biological Management Planning information, a standardand essential step Workshop Process in the CAMP process. They also gathered The CAMP workshop process was socio-economicdata by using Rapid Rural designed by the Conservation Breeding Appraisal (RRA) techniques with Specialist Group (CBSG) of the IUCN — villagers, collectors, traders, traditional the World ConservationUnion to direct healers, CommunityForestry personnel, limited information and resources toward NGOs, and government institutions from evaluation of extinction risk and to plan differentgeographical locations in Nepal. adequate conservation measures for the Mr. D. K. Ved, who has facilitated several species assessed. The objective of the of the CAMP workshops on medicinal CAMP workshop is to determine the plants in India, also facilitated part of the extent of existing and potential threats fieldwork. This innovative step provided

47 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservation ofMedical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia more local knowledge of population and Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Program habitat changes over time, and in Asia (MAPPA) - a joint program of information about use and trade, than is International Development Research normally included in a CAMPassessment Centre (IDRC), Canada and Ford process. This reconnaissance resulted in Foundation in collaboration with the the compilation of information on 125 Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, medicinal and aromatic plant species and His Majesty's Governmentof Nepal. The their use in need for immediate workshopwas held with technicalsupport evaluation. from the Medicinal Plant Specialist Group Survival Commission Pre-CAMP (MPSG), Species Workshop (SSC), IUCN. A was held at pre-CAMP workshop There were 48 participants from 11 Dhulikhel, Nepal: 9-10 December 2000, to the with a countries, including Bangladesh, Bhutan, provide participants Canada, Denmark, France, India, Nea1, thorough knowledge of the CAMP Sri United and and the Pakistan, Lanka, Kingdom workshopprocess application of USA. Four current and participants represented IUCN Red List criteria, to IDRC's New Delhi based South Asia short-list of medicinal prepare a plants Office The with sufficient data for assessmentin the Regional (SARO). participants included members of the Medicinal CAMP Mr. Tandon eight workshop. Vinay Plants Almost conducted CAMP Specialist Group (MPSG). having many all the also workshops in India facilitated the pre- pre-CAMP participants participated in the Pokhara CAMP. The CAMP workshop. Participants included 22 and participants came from a wide range of Nepalesebotanists foresters who field were involved in field-based research on professional disciplines, including medicinal and aromatic of the botany, , ethnobotany, plants traditional medicine, country. During the pre-workshop a short anthropology, wildlife, research, list of 77 prioritized medicinal plant forestry, plant conservation biology, medicinal plant species was provided to the participants for further review to select most trade, herbal pharmaceutical and Dr. N. K. significant ones to include in the CAMP biodiversity disciplines. Bhattarai, Tandon and D. K. Ved workshop. Vinay facilitated the workshop. Pokhara CAMP The participants, through focused The main CAMP workshop to assess the discussions in five working groups each conservation and management status of having 7-10 participantsand assessing 9- medicinal and aromatic plants of Nepal 12 taxa of medicinal plants, assessed the was held at Pokhara, Nepal, 18 to 20 threat status of 51 medicinal plant species January 2001. It was organized by the belonging to 41 genera and 28 families.

48 Highlightsand Outcomesof the ConservationAssessment and ManagementPlanning

Another working group reviewed each Among the remaining 44 species of working group'sassessment. Assignment medicinal plant species assigned a Red of the Red List status was finalized for List category at Pokhara 22 species have each taxon, in a plenary session, by been earlier assessed at different CAMP general consensus of the participants. workshopsfor different regionsin India. The Red List categories assigned to the For example, Lucknow CAMP (1997) 51 medicinal plant taxa, assessed during included 16 species (Aconitum the workshop, ranged from Critically heterophyllum, Arnebia benthamii, Butea Endangered (CR; 3 taxa) to Endangered monosperma, Curculigo orchioides, (EN; 14 taxa), Vulnerable (VU; 23 taxa), Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Near Threatened (NT; 3 taxa), Least deltoidea, Gloriosa superba, Jurinea Concern (LC; 1 taxon), and Data Deficient , Nardos tachys grandiflora, (DD; 7 taxa) (Table 1). Panax pseudo-ginseng, Podophyllum hexandrum,Ra u volfia serpentina, Rheum The medicinal plant species assessed nobile, Swertia angustifolia, Swertia represent the range of geographical chirayita and Taxus wallichiana) that has regions and climatic zone of Nepal. been assigned a threat category by the Considering the global distribution Pokhara CAMP (2001). Likewise, Pune patterns, 6 species are endemic to Nepal, CAMP(1998) that assessed the threatened 10 endemic to the eastern Himalaya, 3 to medicinal plants of the MaharashtraState the western Himalaya, 16 to the Hindu included 2 species (Oroxylum indicum Kush Himalayan range. The remaining and Rauvolfia serpentina) assessed at 16 species have broader areas of Pokhara. Kullu CAMP (1998) assessed distribution (Hara and Williams, 1979; medicinal plants of the Indian states of Hara et al., 1978, 1982; Shrestha and Jammu & Kashmir and Himanchal Joshi, 1996). Considering growth habit, Pradesh in the western Himalaya that there are 9 trees, 2 shrubs, 4 annual included 8 species (Aconitum herbs, 4 biennial herbs, 5 climbers; the heterophyllum, Arnebia benthamii, rest are perennial herb. All the species Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Jurinea dolomiaea, assessed are used locally for medicinal Nardostachys grandiflora, Podophyllum purposes. Some species having multiple hexandrum, Rheumaustrale and Rheum uses includefood, spice and condiment, moorcroftianuni) assessed at the Pokhara dye, and religious purposes. Majority of CAMP. Likewise, Southern India CAMP the assessed species is used in trade, that assessed medicinal plants of the however some are used in traditional Indian States of Kerala, Karnataka and remedies as adulterants or substitutes. Tamilnadu included 6 species (Gloriosa superba, Michelia champaca, Operculina Out of the 51 species assessed (Table 1), turpethum, Oroxylum indicum, Piper 7 are Data Deficient and therefore could longum and Rauvolfia serpentina) not be assigned a Red List category. assessed at the Pokhara CAMP.

49 Sharing Local and National Experiencein Conservation ofMedical and Aromatic Plantsin South Asia

The Pokhara CAMP assessed 8 species • Assessment of 6 species endemic to of plants that are included in Appendix Nepal represents their global Red List II of CITES: Dactylorhiza hatagirea, assessment. Ephemerantha macraei, Nardos tachys Assessment of additional 29 grandiflora, Otochilus porrectus, • species hexandrum, Rau volfia endemic to different sectors of the Podophyllum has Dioscorea deltoidea, and Himalayan range provided serpentina, information from a sizeable of their Taxus wallichiana (Shrestha and Joshi, part limited distribution 1996; Dutta and Jam, 2000). the range. Opportunities Among exist to advance cumulative efforts in their assessed taxa, collection of two species conservation and in the namely Dactylorhiza hatagirea and management Neopicrorhiza scroph ulariifoliahas been region. banned the Government of by Nepal • The percentage proportion of the under Forest Act 1993. Likewise, two assessed species in Nepal in relation to tree species viz. Michelia champaca and its total known distribution, as assessed Pterocarpus marsupium have been by the participants, are useful to under while four brought protection understand their regional-level threats. species viz. Rauvolfia serpentina, Nardosta chys grandiflora, Valeriana • Species in trade dominate the assessed jatamansii, and Taxus wallichiana are ones providing evidence that commercial restricted for exportin their crude forms. extraction from the wild is one of the Some of the assessed species are included major threats. in the Red Data Sheets in India, e.g.. • The can have far Aconitum ferox, Dioscorea deltoidea, workshop findings reaching implications are important Nardostachys grandiflora and Panax provided the lessons learned are used to pseudo-ginseng(BSI, 1987-98). review and reform conservation policies Experience Gained and Lessons in Nepal in particular and South Asia in Learned general. • For the first time in the world, the • IDRC/MAPPAis currently assisting a latest version of the IUCN Red List number of projects focused on MAP categories (version 3.1) has been applied conservation and managementinitiatives in a CAMP workshop. in the region. The present experience should facilitate its future course as well. • Developing human resources in South Asian countries and improving • The lesson learned, and organizational capabilities for future recommendations derived, can be of use CAMP efforts are the most noted to the government, researchers and donor achievements. agencies.

50 Highlightsand Outcomes ofthe ConservationAssessment and ManagementPlanning

References

BSI, 1987-89. Red Data Book. Vol. 1-3. BotanicalSurvey of India, Calcutta, India. Dutta, R. and Jam, P. 2000. CITES Listed Medicinal Plants of India. TRAFFIC- India/WWF-India, New Delhi, India. Hara, H., Chater, A. 0. and Williams, L. H. J. 1982. An Enumeration of the Flowering Plants of Nepal. Vol. III. Trustees of British Museum (Natural History), London, UK. Hara, H., Steam, W.T. and Williams, L. H. J. 1978. An Enumeration of the FloweringPlants of Nepal. Vol. I. Trustees of British Museum (Natural History), London, UK. Hara, H. and Williams, L. H. J. 1979. An Enumeration of the FloweringPlants of Nepal. Vol. II. Trustees of British Museum (Natural History), London, UK. IUCN (2001). IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria: Version 3.1. IUCN Species Survival Commission. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. ii + 30 pp. Press, J. R., Shrestha, K. K. and Sutton, D. A. 2000. Annotated Checklist of the Flowering Plants of Nepal. The Natural The finalreport of the Pokhara CAMPworkshop History Museum, London, United has been published and available for dissemination. Kingdom. 43Op. Con tact: Shrestha, T. B. and Joshi, R. M. 1996. Dr. MadhavKarki, MAPPA Program Rare, Endemic and Endangered Plants of Coordinator, IDRCISARO 208 br Bach, New Delhi - 110003, India. Nepal. WWF Nepal Program, Kathmandu, Nepal.

51 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medical and Aromatic f'lants in South Asia

Table 1: Details on plant species assessed at Pokhara CAMP (2001).

Michelia champaca (Magnoliaceae) CR T Broad Pterocarpus marsupium (Papilionaceae) CR T Broad Rayvolfia serpentina (Apocynaceae) CR S Broad Aconitum balangrense (Ranunculaceae) EN H Nepal Aistonia neriifolia (Apocynaceae) EN T EH Corydalis megacalyx () EN H Nepal Crateva unilocularis (Capparidaceae) EN T Broad Dactylorhiza hatagirea (Orchidaceae) EN H HKH Dioscorea deltoidea () EN C Broad Ephedra intermedia (Ephedraceae) EN H WH Gloriosa superba (Liliaceae) EN H Broad Heracleum lallii (Umbelliferae) EN H Nepal Operculina turpethurn (Convolvulaceae) EN C Broad Oroxylurn indicum (Bignoniaceae) EN T Broad Otochilus porrectus (Orchidaceae) EN EH HKH Swertia angustifolia (Gentianaceae) EN H HKH Taxus wallichiana (Taxaceae) EN T Broad Aconiturn heterophyllurn (Ranunculaceae) VU H HKH Aconitum spicaturn (Ranunculaceae) VU H HKH Alliurn hypsisturn (Amaryllidaceae) VU H Nepal Aistonia scholaris (Apocynaceae) VU T Broad Arnebia bentharnii (Boraginaceae) VU H WH Asparagus racemosus (Liliaceae) VU S Broad Butea monosperma (Papilionaceae) VU T Broad Curculigo orchioides (Hypoxidaceae) VU H Broad Delphinium hirnalayai (Ranunculaceae) VU H Nepal Ephemerantha rnacraei (Orchidaceae) VU EH EH Fritillaria cirrhosa (Liliaceae) VU H EH Highlightsand Outcomes of the Conservation Assessmentand ManagementPlanning

Nardostachys grandiflora (Valerianaceae) vu H HKH Panax pseudo-ginseng(Araliaceae) vu H EH Parispolyphylla (Liliaceae) vu H HKH Neopicrorhiza scrophulariifolia vu H HKH (Scrophulariaceae) Piper Iongum (Piperaceae) vu TH Broad Podophyllum hexandrum (Berberidaceae) vu H HKH Rheum australe (Polygonaceae) vu H HKH Rheum nobile (Polygonaceae) vu H EH Rubia manjith (Rubiaceae) vu C HKH Swertia chirayita (Gentianaceae) vu H EH Tinospora sinensis (Memispermaceae) vu C Broad Valeriana jatamansii (Valerianaceae) vu H HKH Jurinea dolomiaea () NT H HKH dhwojii(Papaveraceae) NT H Nepal Rheum moorcroftianum (Polygonaceae) NT H WH Arisaema costatum (Araceae) LC H HKH Aconitum bisma (Ranunculaceae) DD H EH Aconitum ferox (Ranunculaceae) DD H EH Liium nepalense (Liliaceae) DD H HKH Maharanga bicolor (l3oraginaceae) DD H EH Maharanga emodi (Boraginaceae) DD H HKH Pongamia pinnata (Papilionaceae) DD T Broad Swertia multicaulis (Gentianaceae) DD H EH

Abbreviations: Threat categories: EN (Endangered); VU (Vulnerable);NT (Near threatened); LC (Least concern); DD (Data deficient). Habit:T (Tree); S (Shrub), C (Climber); TH (Trailing herb); EH (Epiphytic herb); H (Herb). Distribution: EH (Eastern Himalaya); WH (Western Himalaya); HKH (Hindu Kush Himalaya).

53 Policy and Institutional Bottlenecks: Possibilities for NTFP Development in Nepal

Keshav Raj Kanel*

Introduction increases as the altitude increases. Therefore, mountains and hills are is endowed with about high Nepal 7,000 rich in valuable NTFPs, MAPs of of out of which mainly species higher plants, high commercial value. On the other more than 700 are to be species reported hand, the potential of managing forests of medicinal importance. Nepal's for timber is altitudinal variation from 60 meters to production extremely high in the Terai and Inner Terai. The high more than 8,000 meters within a small value NTFPs are area of 14.7 million hectares eventually exported provides to India Terai districts. varied habitats for the natural of mainly through growth little research has so various Despite this, very plants. far been carried out on the biological, Nepal's forests provide a spectrum of commercial, socio-economic and productsand services. Non-TimberForest institutional aspects of NTFPs in Nepal. Products (NTFP) include those products, This is mainly because NTFP5 are which have conventionally been termed considered to be a common property as Minor Forest Products (MFP) such as resource, collected from the wild by bamboo, canes medicinal and aromatic villagers and traded through multiple plants (MAPs) and their products. actors and market channels within a Importance of NTFPs has been confusingpolicy environment. because of increasingly recognized Forest are their commercial, socio-economic and District Offices (DFOs) for the of ecological values with use responsible recording quantity together NTFPs collected from the nationalforests values, providing livelihood support to of However, their record many poor rural families of Nepal. Nepal. keeping system is very unreliable and outdated. The importance of NTFP in terms of high Community Forest User Groups (CFUGs) value but low volume and weight are now allowed to charge fees (royalty)

*Keshab Raj Kanel, Ph.D., is a Forest Economist and presently working as the Deputy Director General in the Department of Forests, HMG/Nepal. The ideas presentedin this paper do notnecessarily represent the views of the organization with which the authoris affiliated.

54 Policyand InstitutionalBottlenecks for the collection of forest products India (Kanel 1999). The Environment and including NTFPs from their community Forest EnterpriseActivity (EFEA) project forests. For this to happen, they have to estimates that the market value of officially mention it in their Operational Plansduly collected NTFPs from the eight project signed by the concerned District Forest districts is about US $ 4 million, out of Officer. Otherwise, the District Forest which less than one percent is from the Offices collect royalties of the forest two Terai districts, Banke and Bardia products like the one collected from the (EFEA 1999). These estimates reinforce the national forests. In fact, collection of high potential of promoting the royalties by CFUGs has not happened in development of NTFP sub-sector in the many CFUGs in the country. Sometimes, hill and mountain districts of Nepal. they also charge export (Nikashi) tax, of the Review which is differentfrom the custom duty Objectives Paper of 0.5 percent imposed by the custom Although the scope of NTFP development offices while exporting the NTFPs. Permit and potential contribution to local and systems have been designed to regulate national economy is substantial, the collection, trade, processing and substantial hurdles remain in the design marketing of NTFP. Althoughthey have and implementation of policy that affect been devised to attain lofty goals of collection, trade, use and The the processing. sustainably managing forests, general objectiveof this paper is to explore promoting value addition within the the and institutional issues related and policy country generating revenue, their to the management and promotion of enforcement is ineffective. Instead, they NTFPs in Nepal. My argument is that have increased the transactioncost and policy and institutional reforms are behavior. encouraged rent-seeking feasible, and they can create both higher The official revenue from the sale of employment, and income opportunities to the stakeholders which are NTFPs from the national forest of Nepal multiple in NTFP collection,conservation, is about 10 percent of total royalty of engaged utilization, trade and valueaddition. This about NRs. 320 million (US$ 4.7) collected has been in the context by the Department of Forests (DoF) paper prepared of EFEA area. the during 1997/98. However, their actual However, policy regime contribution to local and national and constraints relatedto NTFP and MAP is for the whole economy is substantially higher. One highly representative report suggests that Nepal annually country. over 26.7 million exports US$ worth, NTFP Policy Issues in Nepal mainly raw, NTFPs to India (ANSAB 1997). My preliminary estimate reveals The policy and regulatory constraints that NTFPs valued at US$ 18 million at relatedto the development and promotion border price are annually exported to of NTFP in Nepalare mainly of four types:

55 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservation ofMedical and AromaticPlants in South Asia

A. Regulatory policies • The Department of Plant Resources B. Fiscal policies (DPR) issues export permit for the C. Institutionalissues processed product. The office is located D. Marketing and trade issues in Katmandu and exporters have to travel to Kathmandu from to obtain such A. regions Regulatory Policy permits; The are related to regulatory polices • A permit is also required from the harvesting/collection, transport and of to of NTFPs in Department Cottage Industry processing Nepal. establish even a micro-enterprise; Unsustainable harvestingof NTFPs from wild is a serious issue which is also • Limitedtime (usually 15 days)is given related to the principles and mechanism by DFO to transport and export NTFPs, of appraising, monitoring, enforcing and although such a time limit is neither sanctioning rule breakers in the specified in any regulations nor actually sustainable management and harvesting practiced fully; of NTFPs. Various types of permits have been to • There is a legal ban on the collection designed implement regulatory of two value policies in Nepal althoughno systematic high species; and detailed inventory of NTFPs has so • There is a ban on the export of eight far been undertaken. The transaction cost NTFPS in their raw forms; and of these instruments such as issuing permits, monitoring sustainable • Multiple checkpoints have been harvesting,enforcement of rule-breakers established for verification while etc. is a serious financial and economic transporting NTFPs and other forest issue. Moreover, the provision of these products leading to high transactioncost permits has encouraged rent-seeking and side payments. behavior various stakeholders. among B. Fiscal Policy There are various regulatoryprovisions, Fiscal are relatedto the which have the of policies imposition impeded development of various types of taxes and subsidies that this sub-sector. are: They affect various agents involved in the • Collection permits have to be collection, processing and export of obtainedfrom the DFO for the collection NTFPs. Revenue collection mechanisms such as and other of NTFPs from government forest or in royalty fixation, export and from CFUGs for their informal taxes are included in this pastureland Some of the collection from community forests; category. community forestry projects are now providing materials such • Transit/exportpermits of unprocessed as seeds, seedlings and some block grants NTFPshave to be obtained from the DFO; to promote the cultivation of NTFPs. The

56 Policyand InstitutionalBottlenecks

USAID funded EFEA project is and private forests. Various other implementing programs that provide stakeholders are also involved in the material and technical assistance to trade, processing and marketing of members of CFUGs to promote and NTFPs. The relationship, right, revenue expand NTFP related activities in collection system among the stakeholders community forests. and their roles are fundamental for the sustainable value addition fiscal constraints in the management, Major policy and employment generation. developmentof NTFP sub-sector are as Coordination and follows: cooperation among these stakeholders is a majorpolicy issue • The system of royalty fixation and having impacts on the development of collection is irrational; NTFP sector. • Different forms of informal taxes are Main institutional constraints in the levied by various organizations such as development of NTFP sub-sector are as police, school, Village Development follows: Committee District (VDC), Development • CFUGs' Committee etc.; Normally, operational plans (DDC), municipality, are prepared for five years and are • There is an additional export tax of approved by DFO. It needs to be renewed 0.5 percent of the value of product; after five years. However, the right to revise an operational plan lies with the • The Federation of Nepal Chamber of CFUGs but DFO needs to be informed; Commerce and Industry (FNCCI) issues certificate of origin to requesting traders • Most of CFUGs' operational plans are in the eastern part of Nepal. It charges a too restrictive. They require special tax of 0.06% of the valuefor issuing such permission for harvesting NTFPs and certificate; harvesting green but matured trees;

• The mechanism for charging export • The mechanism of handingover of the tax on the value of the product is not Terai and hill/mountain forests to CFUGs clear. It is said to be based on market is not well organized; but market means a price price price of DFO staff in mountain relative to a market and • Shortage particular may and hill districts is the differ from market to market. adversely affecting handing over process and subsequent C. Institutional Issues forest managementsupport; Two main stakeholders, CFUGs and • There is a provision of CFUG fund. DFOs are involved in the development All the income from a community forest and promotion of NTFPs in community has to be deposited in that collective fund.

57 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medical and AromaticPlants in South Asia

Part of this collective fund can be used NTFP collectors in the remote areas of only for collective action. This creates a Nepal. Input and output markets need to restrictive incentive for CFUG members be made more effective and efficient for to intensify the management of the growth of NTFPs. communityforest; Major issues in marketing and trade of • Coordination among different NTFPs are as follows: stockholders is difficult task. Thereseems to be the need of establishing a NTFP • People involved in the regulation of board for policy coordination and NTFP collectionand export e.g. DFO staff, research. It should have members Customstaff, Police etc., have difficulties including different stockholders but in identifying NTFP species especially majority of the board members should Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAP); be represented from the private sector; • Many of the MAP species have more • There is very little consistency and than one local names mentioned in the transparency in the implementation of Forest Rules 1995. Thus, in many cases forest rules in NTFP collection and the same product or same species has transit. For example, Salyan district DFO different royalty rates; issues collection to those permits only • The rural the who are registered in income tax office. poor especially In the Terai, some of the DFOs collect marginalized community groups mostly before collection collect NTFPs. They always face shortage royalties issuing permits. of There is no established formal In fact, royalties are supposed to be capital. collected after NTFP collection credit system in those remote areas. depending market inhibits them upon the quantity of product collected. Capital imperfection to reasonable from trade. In Therefore, the procedures of issuing get gain many cases, the wholesale traders issue permits and levying taxes are not always money in advance and interest rates transparent. charge high on the money loaned. In other cases, the D. Marketing and Trade Issues traders purchase NTFPs on discount because they have provided loan in Many agents and institutions are advance for collection. Therefore, involved in the collection, trade, establishing efficient rural micro-credit and of NTFPs. processing marketing system could address this problem; Marketing information on, and knowledge of, NTFP is very weak among • Many of the NTFP collectors are poor the collectors, traders and government and live in isolated areas. In these places, officials. Similarly, capital market is illiteracy and poverty are wide spread. imperfect in the rural areas. This has led Supporting them with marketing to high interest rates to be paid by the information such as price, demand and

58 Policyand InstitutionalBottlenecks market could increase their earning as government, collectors and traders could well as bargaining power. Similarly, benefit from these renewable natural training on record keeping and other resources. There is no justification of capacity building could be equally banning the export of some products in beneficial; row and the existing ban needs to be removed. Fortunately, the government • In this context, the role of the removed the ban on the collection and government in the establishment and trade of Yarsa Gumba of NTFP should be (Cordyceps operation enterprise sinensis) in the fiscal 2001/2002, reviewed. For Herb Production year example, although it cannot still be exported in the and Processing Company Limited raw form, which is what the market is a owned (HPPCL) government accepts. company. The General Manager and the board members are government Develop a mechanism to regularly employees while the chairperson of the review the royalty rates board is politically appointed. The company is operating on loss, possibly The market price of NTFPs fluctuates over the main cause is its being over-staffed. time. In order to overcome this problem, The government has targeted to privatize a mechanism should be developed and so that of the HPPCLduring the current ninth five-year practiced representative plan. governmentand other parties involved in NTFP managementand trade participate • CFUGs can establish and run in making a decision on the royalty rates. enterprises. However, they appear and behave like non-profit NGOs. The role Review royalty rates and remove of CFUG in the establishment and multiple royalty rates for the same operationof processing units should be species analyzed. Present royalty rates should be reviewed Recommendations in relation to changing markets. NTFPs with different local names but obtained On the basis of this study following from the same species should have the recommendations have been proposed: same royalty rate. The local name should be matched with scientific name. The Remove the ban on the export of NTFPs royalty review committee should also have representations from collectors, The objective of the governmentshould traders, Custom Department and be to capture values of these products botanists. In fact, a task force comprising through their collection, processing and of personnel from the Department of trade in the form of tax or royalty. This Plant Resources, Departmentof Forests, way, all the concerning parties, the and traders' representatives could

59 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medical and AromaticPlants in South Asia immediately be formed to identify the cultivating NTFPs on their private land. scientific names of NTFPs traditionally One optioncould be to assess the amount exported from Nepal. The task force of NTFPs grown on private land by a team should visit the border towns of Nepal comprising of DFO, District Development from where these products are exported Committee (DDC), VDC and CFUG and identify these products. This representatives. The team would then information, then, should be used in the issue a certificate of origin to the private review of royalty rates and in removing owner to get a free transit for export. the multiple royalty rates for the same Revise so that species. operational plans CFUGs could collect revenue from Strengthen capabilities of CFUGs NTFPs grown on CF and other stakeholders CFUGs are allowed to capture revenue The training centers of the ForestMinistry from the NTFPs grown on their should give technical training to CFUG community forests only if it is mentioned members and private individuals in NTFP in their operational plans which, management, harvestingand storage so otherwise, is collected by the District that the productivity is increased and Forest Office. Therefore, operational sustainability maintained. An association plans of CFUGs should be reviewedand, of herb traders like Jadibuti Association if needed, revised so that they get their of Nepal (JABAN) should obtain market proper share. information of MAPs and important a mechanism so that disseminate this to CFUGs to pass it over Develop to small-scale traders and collectors. contributing households obtain compatible personal benefits from Develop a mechanism for issuing their community forest free for NTFPs on permit grown To link of private land development community forestry program with povertyalleviation, There exists a mechanism for collecting a mechanism should be developed to royalties of NTFPs by CFUGs grown on transfer some benefits of community community forests. But, the government forests to those who participate in their gets royalty from the NTFPs grown on development and management. For other national forests. There in no example, householdswho use their labor mechanism of issuing a certificate of for managing medicinal plants in originof NTFPs producedby farmerson community forests could be paid with their private land. Therefore, such a some percentage of income generated mechanism should be developed and from that product. This way, a compatible made operational so that private incentive system could be designed so that entrepreneur will also get their valueby poverty alleviation and forest

60 Policyand InstitutionalBottlenecks management could be fruitfully linked. benefits to the various stakeholders This is a major policy reform that needs involved in this sector. to be further probed based on the Critical review of the NTFP experience of Joint Forest Management existing policy, Scheme in India. accompanied by justified revisions considering the above mentioned Train officials involvedwith trade recommendations are the most urgent in the identification of NTFPs tasks for the sustainable management of the resource as well as economic To fee the should be charge any product development of the stakeholders. properly identified. Inability to identify most NTFP species is a bottleneck in Acknowledgement: The authoris grateful fixing royalty rates and its collection. to MAPPA, IDRC for the invitation to Often, NTFPs are valued less than they attend the RegionalWorkshop at Pokhara, are worth. Therefore, officials involved Nepal. in royalty and tax collection should be trained in identifying NTFP species, References cultivated or collected. ANSAB 1997. NepalNTFP Entrepreneurs' Develop credit facilities in remote Directory. Asia Network for Small Scale areas so that trader do not exploit Agricultural Bioresources, Kathmandu, collectors Nepal.

Presently local collectors of NTFP have EFEA 1999. AnnualProgress Report(1997/ to depend on traders for finance. Local 98). Environment and Forest Enterprise financiers charge these collectors high Activity (EFEA), Nepalganj, Banke, interest rates. Therefore, credit facilities Nepal. should be and linked to the developed Kanel, K. R. 1999. Review of of NTFP in remoteareas of Strategic development Medicinal and Aromatic Plants and Their Nepal. Utilization in Nepal. Study report Conclusions submitted to International Development Research Centre (IDRC), New Delhi, Non-timber forest products, especially India. medicinal and aromatic plants are the important renewable resource that is closely related with the livelihood of majority of the rural population. Training, capacity building, and empowermentof the stakeholders, accompanied by the provision of related information, are highly desirable to provide appropriate

61 Recent frends in Medicinal Plants Research

M. Iqbal Choudhary AttaurRahman*

Plants and Human Health: Current Drugs from Plants: Future Perspective Perspective 1. Plant Products are used as 1. Moreacceptance for the phytotherapy a. Foodstuffs 2. Use of biotechnology and genetic b. Flavoring agents and spices engineering for the production of c. Perfumes and cosmetics plant-based medicines (Cell culture, d. Pharmaceutical and biological targeted biosynthesis, etc.) agents 3. Demand of plant-based medicines for diseases and 2. Over 120 compounds from 90 plant age-related (autoimmune species are available as prescription degenerative diseases) drugs 4. Preventive medicines (antioxidant, 3. Over 88% of world's population (5.3 vaccines, nutritionaltherapy, etc.) will billion people) relies on plant-based be more important for medicines primary health care 5. Many new diseases among the poorest 4. Approximately $ 5 billion were spent due to microbial resistanceand water in USA on phytoceuticals (1998) shortage World in 215t Century New Approaches in Plant-Based Medicines 1. 100% increase in World's population (12 billion by the year 2050) 1. Rapid de-replication by machine-based 2. 60% reduction in forests cover — Loss methods (hyphenatedtechniques LC- of Biological Diversity MS, LC-NMR, GC-MS, etc.) 3. Life expectancy close to 100 years in 2. Knowledge-based selection of plants most parts of the world — More aged (Ethnobotanic, chemotaxonomic, people zoopharmacognosy) 4. World resourcesof fossil fuel will be 3. Use of automated assays and high- totally consumed— Moreemphasis on throughput screening for bioactivity- renewable resources directed isolation

Prof. Dr. Atta-ur-Rahmar,,H.E.J. Research Institute of Chemistry, Universityof Karachi, Karachi - 75270, Pakistan.

62 Recent Trends in Medkrnal Plants Research

4. Combinatorial chemistry on plant Knowledge-based Selection of extracts — Increasing phytochemical Plants for Drug Discovery diversity 1. - Let folk 5. Better control on the of Ethnobotanical approach production wisdom the to new secondary metabolites by point wdy understanding and use of the medicines ecological and stress factors • Indigenous knowledge Greater 6. Structure modification of natural chances of success products via biological derivatization methods 2. Targeted selection / scientific selection of plants Rapid De-replication — Selection of close 1. Dereplication against the growing • Chemotherapy number of known natural products relatives of plants known to produce usefuf compounds 2. Use of hyphenated techniques such as LCMS, LCNMRIbioassaysystems, • Ecologybased selection of plants etc. to discernthe probability of active that live in habitats or new principles in active extract particular 3. On4ine search of databases both for 3, Zoopharmacognosy Use of Animal chemical structures and reported instinct for the unbiased selection of biological activities plants

Figure 1. D&replication of Natural Products

UV/VIS DETECTOR

FRACTION COLLECFOR

IOASSAYS

63 Shanng Local and National Lxperiencc in Conervation ofMedical and Aromatic Plantsin SouthA ia

Figure 2. Ethnomedically Driven and Mass Screening Drug Discovery Proesses

ETHNOMEDICALLY DRIVEN MASS SCREENING Drug Discovery Process Drug Discovery Process

Humans A' Humans *

I Combrnatorial chemistry

Ethnobotany microbiological assays) as automated high-throughputscreens 1. Ethnobotany is the study of the relationships between plants and 2. Rapid screening of thousands of people compounds Accelerated pace of research 2 89 Plant-derived drugs, currentlyused modern were in medicine, originally 3 Less amount of plant extract required discnvered thrnugh the study of traditional cures and folk knowledge 4. Specially suitable for the isolation of of indigenous people bioactive constituents from complex plant extracts 3 Ethno-directed selection of plants, the of collected screening randomly plants Combinatorial Chemistryon Plant High4hroughput Biological Extracts Screening 1 Bioas ay-directed isolation and on-line 1. Use of in-vitro biological assays structural studies on most active (biochemical, cellular and pF ytochcmical derivatives

64 Recent Trends in MedicinalPlants Research

2. Knowledge of chemical structures and 6. Automated assayand high-throughput their varying biological activity — Better screenings on combinatorial natural understandingof the structure-activity product libraries relationship(SAR) Chemistry on the Production of 3. More diverse than all synthetic Secondary Metabolites combinatorial chemistry libraries 1. Secondary metabolites are the 4. Multiplying the structuraldiversity of response of plants against the phytochemical mixtures by planned ecological and stress factors combinatorial chemistry 2. Better understanding of chemical 5. Rapid production of libraries of ecology and its relationship with the hundreds, or thousands of diverse productionof specific plant metabolites natural products

Figure 3. Combinatorial Chemistryon plant extracts

Y •i:: .:::J Active Plant Extract RoboticParralel Synthesis

Reagent A e Reagent B Reagent C @

Library-A Library-B Library-C

65 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medical and AromaticPlants in South Asia

3. Use of ecological knowledge for the production of secondary metabolites Biological Derivation of Phytochemicals 1. Use of microorganisms, and intact plant and animal cells for the transformation of phytochemicals 2. Greater understanding of enzyme system responsible for structural transformation

3. Specifically designed biologicalagents for chemical derivatization

Acknowledgement: The former author is grateful to Medicinaland AromaticPlants Programin Asia (MAPPA),International Development Research Centre (IDRC) for the invitation to attend the Regional Workshop at Pokhara, Nepal.

66 POSTER PRESENTATIONS

LEARNING FROM CONSERVATION EXPERIENCES Conservation Assessment and Management Planning (CAMP) for Prioritization of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Nepal Comments on Behalf of the IUCN/SSC Medicinal Plant Specialist Group (MPSG)

Danna J. Leaman

On behalfof the IUCN, and the MPSG, I I propose the following five incentives: would like to thank the participants,and I believe we can all claim to have the organizers of this workshop for this First, to observe, and in a benefited from sharing knowledge and opportunity very information and useful limited way, participate in, the process making of the CAMP and Red List threat connections with each other that we will assessment. It is indeed a major take away and apply to our own work. understanding, requiring the time, and Second, there is the increased energy, commitment of many and of how individuals. I can assure that I will understanding appreciation you much we need to know in order to assess not so innocently propose to any the a that include the Red List conservation status of plant species, colleagues they how much of this information we lack, assessment amongst their research and and how important are the field priorities strategies. assessments, trade assessments, and field You may have wondered over the last monitoring that make up much of the few days of hard work, how does this really hard, long-term labour of process and the resulting Red List conservation. I think we have also better assessment contribute to the actual, understood how fundamental this practical conservation efforts you are research and this knowledge is to all the making in your own capacities. You are grander schemes we have to enable not alone. I have asked myself this people to benefit from the contribution question, too. I've been thinking about of medicinalplants to economics,cultures, what incentive there is to encourage and health. people like yourselves to contribute your to this effort, and what incentive Third, it is very clear from this gathering expertise - there is for organizations like the what a precious resource you are you International Development Research who have the technical knowledge and Centre (IDRC), and the Medicinal and skills to contribute to this process, and Aromatic Plants Program in Asia also how rare a resource you are. We need (MAPPA) to support these efforts. a rescue and regeneration program for this

69 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medical and AromaticPlants in South Asia expertise, and the passion and together, and more importantly, a call to commitment needed to apply it to act together to protect species that are conservation. important to us in many different ways in our own spaces. There are few groups Fourth, this CAMPin with the particular, of species - plant or animal - that inspire broad representationof people involved the interest and the of so wide a in trade, passion enterprise development, constituency of researchers, users, and cultivation, and traditional health, has beneficiaries. We must work to the value of these together highlighted combining conservation tools, like the Red List, various kinds of to apply knowledge identify and the CAMP, work more for for conservation effectively priorities and strategies this of This has action well before has reached group species. workshop a species indeed taken on this I will make the of and challenge. stage threat, ultimately the commitment, on behalf of the MPSG, extinction in the wild. to work with the regional membershipof And fifth - your particular contribution the MPSG, as it evolve, to build on the to the Red List program - to the global results of this meeting, both at the level Red List, and to the accumulationof local, of the global Red List and how it is national and regional information developedand used, and within region, gathering that adds up ultimately to a in supporting conservation action for better understandingof the conservation medicinal plants. status of species than we can ever achieve without this kind of pooling of information, however imperfect the process may seem. We have begun to create a picture of the conservation status of 51 important species of medicinal plants that occur in Nepal, but some of which are important throughout the Himalayan region. On the basis of the Red List assessment, once it has gone through the rest of the process of review and evaluation, the priority you have assigned to each of these species can be comparedwith all other species, and the conservation actions required can benefit from a global effort to preserve species threatened with extinction. This is the power of the Red List that the collective impact of what we know

70 Health Care Development and Medicinal Plants Conservation at Shey Phoksundo National Park, Nepal

Y. Aumeeruddy-Thomas Y. C. Lama S. K. Ghimire

ABSTRACT community-based management of medicinal plants inside the park. In the This paper describes the concepts, park buffer zones, ongoing work now approaches and results of developing a aims at a better understanding of the trade model for strengthening community- systemand of the impact of collectionfor based management of medicinal plants, trade on resources. particularly for local health care, in Shey Phoksundo National Park and its buffer 1. INTRODUCTION zone in district. This is Dolpa project part The Himalayan region has a large variety of a wider initiative to build capacity in of medicinal which are used in in plants applied ethnobotany developing formal traditionalmedical systems, such countries. While the trade of medicinal as theAyurvedic and Siddha, the Chinese, plants from the district puts high pressure the Unani and the Tibetan, as well as by upon certain species such as a large variety of local folk medical Nardostachys grandiulora and Picrorhiza systems. Medicinal plantshave been used of scrophulariiflora, a large number in the Himalayas not only locallybut have species are selectively harvested by been exchanged or form part of secular amchis1 for local health care. Based on trade systems (Edwards 1996; Dobremez the results of participatory planning and 1976). Trade, however, is increasing at a interdisciplinary research, the project has tremendous rate, because of the focused on two interrelatedobjectives of expanding market for phytomedical developing a community based products in the region, as well as management systemfor medicinal plants internationally. About 11,694 tons of air- and improving local health care. The dried herbs were collected for trade in promotion of amchis knowledge together Nepal in 1993/1994 as compared to 3448 with the sustainable use of medicinal in 1989/1990 (Bhattarai 1997). In certain plants for health care has constituted a areas ofNepal almost 50 percent of village majorapproach of the project to reinforce populationsare engaged in collectionand

Practitioners of the Tibetan system of medicine

71 Sharing Localand National Experience in Conservationof Medical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia sale of medicinal and aromatic plants protected area planning and (MAPs) (Olsen and Helles 1997). In management." Funding for the PPI Gorkha District, Nepal, 25-100% of project is from the European Union and householdsin a given village participates the Department of International in commercialcollection of MAPs; 15-35% Development. Initially planned as a four- of the income of poor householdsin the year project (1997-2000), it has now been northern and centralparts of this district extended for four more years (2001-2004). comes from the sale of MAPs (Olsen Key achievements of this project during 1998). Over 90 percentof the total export its first phase (1997-2000) have been is to India and mostly in crude form the setting up of a community-based (Bhattarai 1997). From India products are management system in one Village re-exported to other countries either in Development Committee (VDC), crude forms or after primary processing, Phoksundo, located inside SPNP. This in addition to being used in the Indian management system is based on amchis' Ayurvedic pharmaceutical and aromatic knowledge of the management of industries (Edwards 1996; Bhattarai medicinalplants, existinglocal institutions 1997; Olsen 1997). Airplanes, if not by for the control and management of MAPs, motorable roads, a factor that has also and the setting up of Medicinal Plants enhanced the overall trade of medicinal Management Committees (MPMCs) a plantsfrom the Himalayas (Aumeeruddy linked to Traditional Health Care Centre 2001), now link remotest areas of the (THCC). Himalayas. 2. GOAL OF THE PROJECT

The People and Plants Initiative (PPI) The of the between 1997 in Phoksundo National Park majorgoal project project Shey and 2000 has been to develop linkages (SPNP) and its buffer zone is of a part betweenconservation of medicinal plants global initiative by WWF and UNESCO resources and health care to build in development (1992-2000) capacity through: developing countries to address conservation and development issues (1) establishing a community-based related to use and management of plant management model of medicinal plants resources. and (2) buildingthe capacities of amchis and WWF-Nepal program is implementing women in primary health care. this project in Nepal with technical support from PPI. The field project 3. BACKGROUND, CONSERVATION started in 1997 in conjunction with WWF- AND DEVELOPMENT ISSUESAT Nepal Program's Northern Mountain SPNP Conservation Project (1997-2001)at SPNP, which aims "to promote community Covering an area of 3555 sq.km, Shey natural resources management, and Phoksundo National Park in Dolpa

72 Health Care Developmentand MedicinalPlants Conservationat Shey Phoksundo National Park, Nepal district, Nepal, has a rich flora of The local economy therefore highlyrelies medicinal and aromatic plants. These on animal husbandry, especially the medicinal plants are distributed from the rearing of yak in high alpine pastures and lower temperate forests, up to the high trade of products between Tibet and the alpine and trans-Himalayan region. lower plains (Jest 1975). These are valued plants highly by health traditional doctors (amchis) for use in Amchis, are almost the only traditional health care, which is based on practitioners inside the park. Their are in the local the Tibetan medical system. Some of practices firmly grounded beliefs and culture. Their status confers these species also have a high value for to them much at the level commercial trade, which is increasing at authority village not in the field of health care but a high rate and represents a major threat only for some species. Some 3000 inhabitants also regardingmanagement of important live within the boundaryof the park; they livelihood resources such as pasture are mostly of Tibetan origin and culture resourcesand medicinal plants collection and follow Tibetan Buddhism or Bon (Ghimire etal. 1999, 2000, 2001). However, religion. BOn or Bompo is an ancient their profession is declining due to lack of formal religion of Tibet for which Dolpo is today support to the Tibetan medical a major sanctuary (Kind 1999). About system at the overall national level, lack 10 000 people live in the park buffer-zone of access to medical texts and other areas located in the periphery. They are medical materials as well as to proper culturally of a mixed Indo-Nepali culture training. Based upon the concept of comprising ancient ethnic groups of compassion of Tibetan Buddhism, their Nepal (such as Gurung and Magar) and services are provided free of cost but this more Indian-related groups (such as makes the profession very vulnerable in Bhraminand Chhetri) who have migrated the modern context. Few young people more recently from the lowland Terai are willing to enroll as new amchis. plains of Nepal. Amchis knowledge of the use and management of medicinal plants is Health status is very poor in Dolpo due extensive as is described in more details to harsh climatic and socio-economic below. With this background and because conditions. Access to allopathic health health is a major livelihood issue inside care is almost non-existent due to the the park, it was decided that this project remoteness of the area. Major problems would in it's first phase (1997 — 2000) focus of and hygiene sanitation prevail it's activities on consolidating linkages especially due to lack of chimneys in between health care and conservation of houses and heated water (Gurung et al. medicinal plants resources. 1996; Shrestha et al. 1998b). Moreover food security is also very low due to the The major conservation issue related to very restricted size of agricultural lands. plant resources in Dolpa district is the over

73 Sharing Local and National Experiencein Conservation ofMedical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia harvesting of medicinal and aromatic control outsider collectors who encroach plants (MAPs)due to trade pressure. The inside the park with many signs of over trade of MAPs from Dolpa has exploitation and collect medicinal plants considerably increasedover the last few for trade. If harvesting continues in the years to very large quantities (Hertog absence of sustainable practices and 1995; ANSAB 1997). Amountsof raw dry management, more species are likely be products coming from localities close to overexploited, threatening the resource SPNP were of five tons in 1992/1993, nine base not only for trade but even for basic to twelve tons in 1995/96 and twelve tons livelihood needs. Thus, there is an urgent in 1996/97 based on DFO records. need for improvedmanagement of MAPs Surveys conducted under this project at the community level integrating show that some 40 tons were exported traditional practices and scientific in 1996/1997 (Shrestha et al. 1998b). The information regarding their sustainability, Asia Network for SmallScale Agricultural use, sale, propagationand distribution. Bioresources (ANSAB) conducted a After its first which the in 1997 in and estimated phase during survey Dolpa project focused on the linkages between that about 80 tons were in 1996/ exported conservation and management, it is now 1997. These figures show that there is a in with between official and engaged working directly major gap figures commercial collectors in the park buffer estimates of different trade surveys. This zone to out of is due to the fact that are figure ways regulating many plants access to areas of collection,amounts, and not traded and that different officially possible solutions. group may use different methods for conducting the surveys. Some 22 species 4. METHODS ANDAPPROACHES have been identified to be traded from not all of which are 4.1. Project planning at national Dolpa district, and field site level and officially traded (Ghimire et al. 2001). returning project results Among these species a few are listed as threatenedspecies eitherunder the IUCN A process of planningat the nationallevel red list, in Appendix II of CITES or was conducted prior to the beginning of restricted of collectionor export by HMG. this project and included consultation The preliminary results of this project with ethnobotanists, conservation have showed that MAPs collection was managers,manufacturers, entrepreneurs occurring at a high rate in the southern and representatives of major NGOs buffer zone of the park and there was a involved with resource management in need for developing sustainable Nepal such as ANSAB and the King harvestingsystems. People living within Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation the boundary of the park are much (Aumeeruddy 1997). Discussions were concerned that the park is not able to held at a workshop by the UNESCO!

74 Health Care Developmentand MedicinalPlants Conservationat Shey Phoksundo National Park, Nepal

ICIMOD ethnobotany project in the management in Dolpo and progress made Hindu Kush Himalayas held at Royal by the project. In 2000, a training video Chitwan NationalPark in 1996 (Shrestha was edited which shows the development et al. 1998). The site for this project was of the project; it illustrates the close chosen with the help of WWF-Nepal relationship between local cultural Program because of: (1) it's wide perceptions of landscapes,plant ecology recognition as a being a major repository and management systems and of medicinal plants of Nepal, (2) the demonstrates practical methodologies alarming increase in trade of MAPs in (Aumeeruddy 2000). A book entitled the area and (3) WWF-Nepal Program's "Medicinal Plants of Dolpo, Amchis' involvement at this site in a larger knowledge, and Conservation" has been integrated conservation and development produced in close collaboration with project. A three-day field participatory Dolpo Amchis which aims at highlighting planning workshop was held at the amchis' knowledge relating both to inception of the project in Ringmo (SPNP) management and health practices, in June 1997 with representatives of the conservation and trade issues as well as National Park, local interest groups and major approaches and methodologies institutions and non-government (Lama et al. 2001). organizations such as ANSAB and Ban 4.2. with Udyam - Biodiversity Support Program Interdisciplinarity, work (BSP). Numerous meetings were medicinal plants resource organized throughout the course of this specialists and capacity building project to return the results of studies An interdisciplinary team consisting of conducted at the national and district and levelsas well as the in botanists, sociologists, amchis, to people villages National Park staff has worked and to the holders,lamas and knowledge throughout the project to conduct amchis aiming at reviewing results and fieldwork to collect activities. This socioeconomic, planning project system ethnobotanical and trade of micro has in information, planning helped of selected local and ecological monitoring integrating people's priority medicinal conduct on needs in the of all plants, surveys planning project health and all related activities. Park activities. game scouts and local amchis were included in In order to make the results more the project team to increase their level of accessible at the local level, the major participation in the project design and to findings were summarized into two build capacity for joint management of popular booklets in Nepali and Tibetan - medicinal plants. Two expertamchis from also available in English. The booklets Mustang, Tsampa Ngawang Gurung and underlined major issues related to Gyatso Bista, who have extensive medicinal plants conservation and experience throughout the Himalayas

75 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medical and AromaticPlants in South Asia were also associated to the field team. located in PhoksundoVDC. Itwas chosen Training included joint field work with as it is in a strategic location, its lands the People and Plants Coordinator (Yildiz being the immediate area inside the park Aumeeruddy-Thomas)for sociological where commercial collectors of medicinal and ethnobotanical surveys, micro-level plants may pursue their collection as field planning as well as design of stocks of plants are being slowly depleted ecological experiments and harvesting in the park south western periphery.The simulations. The project botanist(Suresh major summergrazing pasture of Pungmo K. Ghimire) provided practical training village, Kunasa, at an altitude of over 4000 to amchis and gamescouts for monitoring meters was identified as a resource experimental plots and conducting management unit where patterns of use ecological surveys, identification of of medicinal plants as well as plants, collection and preparation of experimentation could be conducted. herbarium specimens. The project (Ghimire et al. 1999). Work was also sociologist(Yeshi Choden Lama) assisted initiated in some pastures located in the the two expert amchis for the health care buffer-zone area especially in Dokpa and side of the project. Dhirendra Parajuli Mukroman, which lie at the southwestern (sociologist) conductedresearch on local boundary of SPNP and cover large areas institutions for pasture managementand encompassing both sub-alpine and alpine and on the sociological dimension of eco-zones. Resource harvesting and resource use in Kunasa. Gin Tripathi grazing still occurs as per traditional use (botanist) conducted a Rapid rights. Harvesting of MAPs for trade is Vulnerability Assessment under the now a common feature in these pastures guidanceof SusanneSchmitt (WWF-UK, as opposed to pastures located inside the People and Plants). National Park, such as Kunasa. 4.3. Methods for developinga Ehnobotanical approaches, combining community-basedmedicinal plants natural as well as social sciences methods management model have been adopted to get information regardingthe knowledge of local resource Since 1998, a thorough survey of local users on resource availability, distribution, knowledge systems and management extraction process, amount and local practices has been conducted with the institutions responsible for the control underlying objective of developing a over pasture resources. Experimental plots community-basedmodel for medicinal were set up for ecological monitoring of plants management. The village of population dynamics and simulation of Pungmo, representative of Bön/Buddhist different levels of harvesting of two communities of Lower Dolpo, living medicinal plants of high value, inside the park, was identified for Nardosta chys grandiflora and Picrorhiza developing this approach. This village is scroph ulariiflora. The experimental design

76 Health Care Developmentand MedicinalPlants Conservation at Shey Phoksundo NationalPark, Nepal was based on information provided by ecological characteristics such as amchis as well as on scientific knowledge. distribution of plants populations in The project botanist conductedthis part the pasture, size and importance of of the field activities. Field work was sub-populations, plant life cycles conducted during May/June and including local categories for September/October in 1997, 1998, 1999 designing, different growth stages, and 2000. During each field visit, a series techniques and practices in particular of participatorymeetings were carried out season and methods of collection. at the site with all interest groups. 5. Setting up research plots for the Methods and approaches consisted in: ecological follow-up of population dynamics of two medicinal plants of 1. Understandinghow people relate to value both for local use and for land and and how control high landscape trade, and is exercised over different resources Nardostachys grandiflora Picrorhiza scroph ulariiflora. within the village territory. 6. Simulating differentharvesting levels 2. Once an overallpicture was obtained, of the above two using unit of was species a management identified, particular techniques of selective Kunasa, in which detailed work was used the local conducted of harvesting by specialists regarding management (amchis). pasture resources including rotational grazing, medicinal plants collection, 7. Setting up a monitoring system using and grass collectionfor winterseason, local indicators (indigenous categories including calendar of activities of of plant growth stages). different groups using this pasture. 8. Conducting a detailed survey of the 3. Within this particular pasture, a morphology and growth patternof the geographical and ethnological above two species. approach was developed to 9. results to local communities understand how relate to Returning people and authorities and different elements of the landscape. park setting up of Medicinal Plants Management 4. Knowledge systems were examined Committees. through open interviews on the field 4.4. Improvinglocal health care with the specialists and through with through capacity building of amchis conducting quantitative surveys and women: methods and a of from the sample lay people approaches village and park personnel. Aspects of knowledge explored were: plant Amchis and women were chosen as the nomenclature and uses, plant's two major interest groups because: (1)

77 Sharing Localand National Experience in Conservationof Medical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia amchis are the majorproviders of health The major aims of the THCC are: (1) to care as well as being the majorknowledge promote the amchis' professionthrough holders in relation to use and training of amchis at the clinic and managementof medicinal plants and (2) facilitating exchange of knowledge women are responsible of children'scare between the amchis; (2) providinghealth and have formally expressed at the services to the population and (3) serve project's inception, their high interest of as a monitoring centre for the sustainable getting training in primary health care. use of medicinal plants. Women indeed argue that althoughmost A Rapid Vulnerability Assessment was of them cannot afford spending seven conductedin 2000to determine the list of years of to become an amchi, training plant species and the amounts that can they still wished to acquire some basic be used at the THCC in a sustainable knowledge. manner, to assess the vulnerability to used The health care side of the project was harvesting of the medicinal plants in to make approached more from a developmental the THCC and recommendation the use and perspective as compared to the above. regarding Baseline data collection was conducted monitoring of potentially vulnerable the THCC and the amchis. This throughoutthe course of the project and plants by was related to health status, diet, survey consisted in establishing the list in local of plantsneeded at the clinic, determining identifying gaps knowledge using with the of the the size and the classification of diseases of the Tibetan help amchis, distributions of the of each systemof medicine and in generaltrying populations to understand species, the parts harvested and pattern people's requirements of most vulnerable to related to health care. Furtherto baseline harvesting. Species harvesting were short - listed with the data collection, the project facilitated: help of the project team, and finally • the exchange of knowledge between surveys were undertaken on the field to Dolpo amchis, checkthe populations of these species and determinebest pattern of harvest, which the distribution of medical • texts, may not affect the plant populations. • the of amchis training Dolpo mainly 5. RESULTS by the resourcepersons from Mustang, 5.1. Indigenous knowledge and resource • the training of women in primary management health care, Buddhism and Bon philosophies • the construction of a Traditional integrated in local customary rules and Health Care Centre (THCC) in local rituals have been instrumental in Phoksundo VDC, developing a sense of respect for forest,

78 Health Care Developmentand MedicinalPlants Conservationat SheyPhoksundo National Park, Nepal pastures, mountains and the natural management, public health care, public environment among the people of education, etc. are the major Pungmo. Moreover, the landscape is responsibilities of the Dratsang (Parajuli perceived as being inhabited by a 1998). pantheon of deities, nagas and demons Rules and the (Iha, lu and siddhak) in the natural regulations applied by Gomba are still followed to some environment which wields power over system extent the in the area. The specific areas, resources and the humans by community establishment of the Park and who dwell in that area. Suchlandscapes National are often consideredsacred becausethey it's sole responsibility in controlling are believed to be the dwelling places of resources has to some extent discarded these deities and many such areas some of the community rules. These rules represent places of pilgrimage for the and regulations include systems like community. Conservation of resources provision of fine, amount of timber and within this culturalcontext seems to have pasture resourcesthat may be collected, been relatively effective. practice of rituals before starting harvesting and resource exploitation People of Pungmo and associated small activities, use of local and religious villages (Punikha and Gomba) have been calendar for resource harvesting. Seasonal managing their resources according to rotational grazing and harvesting of rules that are not customary a matter of resources are followed in pasture lands. ad hoc decisions by individuals, but a It should be noted however that although result of decisions made at the this system has existed for very long, there have community-level. Historically, some plants highly used locally such as been two traditional local institutions Nardostachys grandillora are not collected directly or indirectly related to natural with the same care by as resource are the lay people management; they comparedwith the amchis. Althoughnot hierarchic and Dratsang (lama institution) verified, these activities and grazing the institution headed Yulgigothe(village pressure have led to a decrease in the head of the may by customary village, the populations of N. grandiflora in Ghimire et al. mukhiya) (Parajuli 1998; Kunasa. These rules and regulations 1999). Today, the resourcemanagement of activities the remain, however, good examples of former institution is and and confined to the Kunasa area indigenous knowledge practice (gomba area, have, therefore, formed a area under the control of the starting point meaning for the of a formal whereas thelatter development system religious community), of community-based MAP management is active in Pungmo village territories. (Ghimire et al. 1999; Parajuli 1998). Gomba management, construction and repair of bridges, tracks, conflict The ethnobotanical surveys conducted resolution, resource regulation and throughout the project in Pungmo and

79 Sharing Local and National Experiencein Conservationof Medical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia elsewhere in Dolpa revealeda rich local the basis of binary categories usingcurrent knowledge about the resourcesand their expressions such as more useful and less management (Shrestha et al. 1998; useful, edible and non-edible, medicinal Ghimire et al. 1999, 2000, 2001). 407 and non-medicinal, poisonous and non- medicinal species belonging to 226 genera poisonous, etc. Morphological characters and 80 families have been recorded in are most frequently used in naming a Dolpa since 1997 (Ghimire et al. 2000). plant as well as a particular characteristic The local people have precise knowledge of the plant relating to use, habitat, about the life cycles, ecology and property etc. These terms which may distributions as well as harvesting and regroup a number of species of the same management techniques of medicinal are generally further differentiated found in the area. plant species Local through the assignment of a second amchis have a of higherknowledge plants descriptive term which may refer to its as well as of than harvesting practices colour, use value, properties of the plant, lay people. Amchis recognised more than and habitat. Besides local 90% of the shown to them naming plants, plants people, especially amchis, define very to 55% for from compared lay people precisely and name the parts, biology and 35% for Pungmo community, people life cycle stages of a plant. In particular from Hindu community living in the five of the life are of the and 35% for stages plants recognized periphery park park which are: seedling stage (selubarte/ staff (Ghimire et al. 2000). keyete), juvenile (dongpokeyete), yound 5.2. Local system of plant flowering (utumchadu, metokbarduk) and nomenclature mature adult (kamduk. thudaichonduk). These indicators of different growth stages Four major types of landuse units or of plants have been used by the project ecosystems are distinguished, viz: nahkri for the current monitoring of ecological or (forest land), penhri pangri (pasture experimental plots, thus enabling to drakri mountains or land), (rocky cliffs) integrate scientific approaches with local and Some of khangri (snowy mountain). knowledgesystems (Ghimire et a]. 1999, these units are furthersub-divided on the 2000). basis of their physical and morphological nature, cultural values and component 5.3. Local practices of sustainable species. harvesting Similarly, local people categorize plants The amchis and lamas have developed based on their life forms, habit and use some concepts of sustainable harvesting (Ghimire et al. 1999). In addition to of MAPs through their study of the explicit categories which are expressed Tibetan medical texts as well as through in the local nomenclature or naming empirical knowledge and training from system, plants may also be classified, on their fathers and forefathers. Having some

SO Health Care Developmentand MedicinalPlants Conservation at Shey Phoksundo National Park, Nepal ideas about the limits of the stock or from the pastures, which are also collected volume of medicinal plants available in at the same period. the area, tend to use selective they 5.4. of medicinal harvesting practices. Whenunderground Ecological study parts are needed for medical plants preparations, only mature and robust Transect studies have been conductedof are selected, plants leaving younger two major species of medicinal plants bulbs, rhizomes and vegetativeshoots to which are harvested outside mature and set seeds over several commercially years. the viz., When leaves, or other of park Nardostachys grandiflora parts and Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora in the plants are required, limited amounts different habitats of the high altitude are purposely collected in order not to pastures. These studiesrevealed variation affect their regeneration. Such knowledge can be instrumental for in distribution frequency and abundance designing between sites in to managementprescriptions. study response grazing pressureand harvesting intensities (Tables Similarly, the harvesting stage of a 1 and 2). The habitats in the park medicinal plant depends on the nature bufferzone (such as Dokpa, Chimla, Paile) of disease/disorders for which the plant experience heavy disturbance through is used, nature of plant parts used and resource harvesting and grazing and type of herbal preparations. The lamas showed the lowest density and other and amchis consult the Tibetan calendar population attributes of Nardostachys and medical texts and generally proceed grandiflora compared to the protected for harvesting after performing specific habitats inside the SPNP (Table 1). The rituals prior to the collectionof medicinal disturbed sites in the park buffer zone plants. According to the Tibetan calendar, showedsigns of unsustainable harvesting there are four seasons of three months of N. grandiflora. It was believed that N. each in a year, duringwhich specificparts grandiflora was dominantly foundall over of specific medicinal plants should be these habitats a few years ago, but now it collected for better medicinal efficacy. is very scarce and restricted to some steep Besides these harvesting seasons, there and inaccessible slopes. is a period locally known as dangsong rikhi during which medicinalefficacy is The distribution and dominance of P. highest (Ghimire et al. 1999). This period scrophulariiflora in habitats within the is when the leaves have started to turn Kunasa area varies (Table 2). Densitywas yellow in October and during which a found higher in the relatively more "nectar rain" nurtures all plants. This disturbed site (Talgera) while frequency relates to rhizomatous and bulbous was highest in the less disturbed site. species, which underground parts, are Althougha comparatively higher density then collected as well as to grass fodder of competitive species and lower density

81 S..,

rable I In it . St!dijVc' d n it !t o,u H' v. rr!ati unp; lance aloe inth'. nd !u_na / Iardn 1a 1w '1infhJra a! different ilc '.

Dcn'-ity1 rn 4 2.16 16.28 2.2 - 1.1- 30.41)

Relative density (%) 6.03 2.08 19.89 .81 1 3 22 fTc quener ('.) 42 48 86 40 10 90 Relative 6equency ("o) 6. i8 8 66 12.87 3 125 4 25

Relative cover (''o) -l.t 2.40 23.3 10.3 2 1 23 Importance value index (lvi) I . 16 13. 14 X) 99 19. 124 12 60 Relative IV! (o) T2 4. 8 18.66 6.37 1.2 20 13 (kg'ni ) 2 063 I (110 . 143 1 2(F I). '68 13.312 ,,t, iv,lsm tiw ,is'snai :',u " '-s ii i/u- ss— r .—

rab1 2 1 )n-,il . n./ab aden'a's .trvSlot rel,itit,e in -qu nIl. ic-Ia/il. cnver, iinJ'; fan c' c-a/ia'- ind ' rn- I I'm na- of Iu-r, hi',i '.c .,jthulariatlt - if ton dilterent -'/ - in 1xnna- a o-ulhin the •5.f\

Density! 1 91) 1.8(1

Relative density ('s,,) 3 i 1.88 hequeoi.y °"I 25.00 30.00

Relative lrcslueaic\ ('0) 4 1$ (i—I

Relative cover ("ci) L3 (a 6..

Iin porta ni e value index (R'1) 9.09 9..54 Relative IVI () 3.03 1.18 13iomas (gm/or) $6.28 5-.9.3 ii! 1' s ri hular-n!l'aa, -1 l.OIi1()ii(') 1,s cs_itO ViftI 1511 OtC.111iC mattc-i and Lilger5i ch.uacti-razc the 1'!ii n-1esn th Inc isiuN ( ouR-lit Idli4er l site i', — (less di tuihc 51), the ik- -l aus_ hicher 510150 0 'civ hic r %vith pen rndcy and hiWIi,1ss r(sd lId tion lila ty—, r S.. - t& per slc s K ( himiie ((,hirniu' ct iii i. 1 hi' ni,as l'- ,ia.ie to lOt . 1. >bi;l ha- Uflslclt,lkilI uelailc-cl ,inaIsi', presence- (51 welts-i ,id i-ntI -r 'inps-— e, r40'ical daea. Health Care Developmentand MedicinalPlants Conservationat Shey Phoksundo National Park, Nepal

5.5. Population dynamics and through balancing the three humors, harvesting simulations phlegm, wind and bile. Diseases are seen as caused when wrong actions or There is for both species a decreasing influence of external factors upsets the order of ramet recruitment and state of balance: diet, climate, behavioral survivorship with the increasing patterns of the individual (Donden 1996; intensities. N. harvesting Comparatively, Khangkar 1998; Lama et al. 2001). Amchis grandiflora showed a higherrate of ramet classify medicinal plants according to loss than recruitment. Thus in N. explicit qualities as said before. In grandiflora the overall ratio of ramet addition,medicines and medicinal plants recruitment vs. loss was comparatively are also classified according to implicit lower and it decreased further with the qualities related to their taste and potency. increasing harvesting intensity. This All medicinal plants and materials for suggests that populations of N making medicine are said to have six grandiflora due to it's morphology, tastes: sweet (ngar), sour (kyur), salty growth pattern and possibly overall (lentsa), hot (tsawa), bitter (khawa) and reproductivebiology is more sensitive to astringent (kawa). In addition to the six harvesting even at very low levels of tastes, medicines have eight powers: harvest. Both Nardostachysgrandiflora heavy(chiwa), oily (numpa), cool (silwa), and Picrorhiza scrophulariifloraare clonal neutral (tuiwa), light (yangpa), coarse types of plants, which spread by the (tsuba), hot (tsawa) and sharp (nowa) multiplication of ramets (vegetative off (Lama et al. 2001). shoots). However, the modular growths Research conducted Yeshi Lama of these two are different and by (Lama plants very et the P. is more successful in al., 2001) showed that amchis of scrophulariiflora a number of medicines multiplication of ramets than N. Dolpo prepare rinpoche rik (precious metals), (Ghimire et al. 2000, 2001). using grandiflora domen (stone medicines), samen (earth 5.6. Health status and amchis medicines), shingmen (tree medicines), health related knowledge tsimen (resins), ngo men (plants) and sokchag (animal parts). The medicines The health care needs of the people are locally prepared are administered as provided by the amchis whose tradition decoction (thang), powder (chhema), pill of healing is based on the "Four Medical (rilbu), paste (degu) and concentrate Tantras" (Gyu-shi) which is practiced in (khenda). Amchis may use a variety of various regions of the Himalayas therapeutic techniques starting from a including India, Nepal, China(Tibet) and gentle therapy and then moving on to a Bhutan. This medicine is based on the more stronger therapy depending upon practice of maintaining equilibrium of the nature and severity of the disease. psycho-physical processes in the body Amchis also have mastered certain

83 Sharing Loial and National I xperiin r in Conservationi IMr Nal and Air rnati I lants in South Ao techniques for curing illnesses through (horn for drawing blood), tsukshel their practical experience. For cxa pie, (ointment for drawing lymphfluid) kuny€ Amchi Karma of lakkyu has cured (massage), mcn ngak (mantras) are also several patients in the lichu ong area in some specialized techniques used by the lower Dolpo who were suffering from amchis of Dolpo (1 ama et a!, 2001). painful joints with Dudtsi Ngalom, a field visits from 1997 to 790 medicinal bath constituted mostly of During 2000, medicinal Dudtsi patients have been treated by Amchis plants. Ngalom Bista and (medicinal bath), tarka metsa (blood Isampa Ngawang, Gyatso by the caretaker of the rraditional Health letting and moxibustion), Iapchang Care Centre in Phoksundo VDC (radish wine with medicine), ngabru

rA ,,/" / / 2 V 2

t

a ii

Ii I r

Ii

84 Hralth (arc I)evclopn ent and \4cdcinal Plant, C niservitio at Shcy l'h k undo National Paik Nepal

Detailed causes, symptoms and treatments for these diseascs have been identified by Amchi Tsampa Ngawang (Ghimn'eet al 1999). In comparison to the above, common diseases reccrded at the District Health Post in Dunai (District headquarters) were found to bc. diarrhoea, worms infection, skin disease, chestinfection, wounds, cuts, injuries and fractures, gastritis, conJunctivitis,bleeding (P. V), tonsillitis(Shrestha et al, 1998b),

85 Sharing Local andNational Experiencein Conservationof Medical and Aromatic Plantsin SouthAsia

(Shresthaet al. 1998; Ghimire et al. 1999, properties through years of intensive 2000, 2001). Diseases encountered during study of the "Gyu-shi" and other medical that period are classified according to texts including training and practice under most common diseases, common the guidance of an experienced amchi. diseases, less common diseases and Much of the training also includes others are given in the table below. These identification of plants in the field, diseases names follow the Tibetan sustainable harvesting of the necessary classification of diseases which relate to plant parts, and preparation of the problems of imbalance between the three medicinal ingredients into remedies to humors namely tripa translated as bile, treat a wide range of illnesses. However, badkan as phiegme and lung as subtle according to Dolpo amchis this knowledge vital energy and more currently known has been declining in recent years due to as wind disease. It is therefore very problems such as the lack of resourcesto difficult to make a strict equivalence buy medical texts and raw materials to between Tibetan diseases classifications make medicine, restrictions on plant and allopathic diseases classifications. It collection and use, and lack of adequate is also important to note that amchis do training in cultivation, collection and not only treat the symptoms of the storage of medicinal plants (Shrestha et diseases but also address behavioural and al. 1998b). psychological patterns related to the The conducted et al. disease. The descriptionsof the diseases surveys by Gurung below have been the (1996) and by this project shows that provided by expert learned amchis of are all above amchis and were transcribed by the Dolpo 50 old. The that hold project sociologist. It is in no way the years knowledge they the best as from the result of diagnosis by an allopathicdoctor. represent acquired All at the THCChave medical texts and their experience with prescriptions given the been in the record bookof the THCC local environment and situation. A kept issue for the amchis is the since its inception. major transmission of this knowledge to able fransfer of knowledge and recent and motivated youth that can continue to changes uphold this unique and relevant tradition of healing (Lama et al. 2001). In Dolpo, as elsewhere in the Himalayas, the amchis are scattered across remote In order to facilitate exchange among the villages where often they are the sole amchis, a workshopof Dolpo amchis was providers of health care services. Most organized in June 1998during which more Dolpo amchis learn the medical practices than 50 amchis from Shey Phoksundo from their fathers and forefathers and National Park and other parts of the very few can afford to go to formal district gathered to share knowledge and medical schools. They learn curative to discuss what aspects of their knowledge

86 Health CareDevelopment and MedicinalPlants Conservationat Shey Phoksundo National Park, Nepal may be safely transferred to the women produced for training women based on in order to improve health care. Based which a series of training in primary on these initial discussions and those at health care have been provided to about subsequentworkshops in 1999 and 2000, 100 women of Phoksundo VDC by the the amchis have now provided a list of Resource Persons and by health care medicinal plants that can be used workers. singularly to treat common ailments by following simple processes (Ghimire et A major decision taken by Dolpo amchis al. 2001). since the beginning of this project has been to re-inforce their profession through At the inaugurationof the THCC in June the setting up of a medical centre, the 2000, amchis from Saldang, Bijer, Dho THCC in Phoksundo VDC (Gangchen and Phoksundo VDC discussed Menkhang). It is felt by amchis that as a classification of plants, their properties group they will have more visibility and and uses and the transfer of knowledge also may have more chance to obtaining to women. formal support. The THCC is also seen as an to createincentives for As of the activities opportunity part capacity building to become amchis. for amchis, important texts on medical younger people identification and Moreover in the context of a clinic, the theory, plant amchis receive a and are not of medicine were also salary paid preparation the However the distributed the amchis at the directly by patients. among clinic also some small benefits Amchis from the generates workshop. neighboring fees and district of a series of through given by patients Mustang provided donations. this in training in medical theory, diagnosisand Following experience Phoksundo, Upper Dolpo amchis from therapy. their own initiative started a new clinic in Regarding women, a survey was Dho Tarap. They were further contacted conducted in 1998 to assess women'sdiet, in 1999 by the Remote Area Development health status and general knowledge Committee of the Ministry of Local relating to use and management of Development which has provided training medicinal plants. This survey was on sustainable harvesting practices and conducted on a very small sample of support for forming associations in remote women from Pungmo. Following this districts and consequently formed an survey, discussions were heldwith Dolpo association of amchis in Upper Dolpo. amchis to decide upon aspects of their This project has played a role in helping knowledge that could be transferred to both the THCC in Phoksundo and the women. Following Dolpo amchis' and association of amchis of Upper Dolpo in the resourcepersons' advices, a Primary reflecting of issues of sustainability of Health Care Training Manual was medicinal used at the clinics.

87 Sharing Localand National Experience in Conservationof Medical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia

A Rapid Vulnerability Assessment 6. PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION: A undertaken by Tripathi and Schmitt COMMUNITY-BASED (Ghimire et al. 2001) shows that 24 out MANAGEMENTMODEL FOR of 136 species needed by the traditional MEDICINALPLANTS health care centre are potentially vulnerable to harvesting. The result of Implementation in the context of Shey the scoring shows that there are varying PhoksundoNational Park has impliedthe levels of vulnerability. Medicinal Plants building of new institutions such as Management Committees following the MPMCs and the THCC which draw upon operational plan of the THCC that is existing customary institutions. Success being finalized will conduct the also lies in finding processes for enabling monitoring of these species. transferof knowledge between specialists

Fig 1 below shows the interactionbetween the different components of the project.

VILLAGES

MEDICINALPLANTS Buffer Zone MANAGEMENT UserCommittee CARE CENTRE COMMITI'EES IONHTH

- Learn from amchis' nowledge of amch profession - Monitoringimpact use ofMAPs by the - Education in Prima Health for women clinic - Improved health se ices - conduct awareness ising at the village - Monitoringconserv tion status of level medicinalplants - Interact with the N ural Park \motion RESEARCH COMPONENT NATIONALPARK

Long term monitoringof the high value/ MAP species Analysing amchis' knowledge (ethnoecology,vernacular taxonomy) Identifying gaps in amchis medical knowledge Rapid vunerabilityassessment

88 Health Care Developmentand Medicinal Plants Conservationat Shey PhoksundoNational Park, Nepal

(amchis) and younger people as well as that some aspects of amchis' knowledge to women. Implementation is founded related to managementof resourcesand on a research component, which provides experiments on the harvesting of results for developing management medicinal plants could also benefit trade guidelines. Finally because many groups collectors. are present with diverging perspectives and perceptions it is important to build Major lessons learnt from this project to linkages between different interest date are: such as between the National groups Consultation of all interest at Park and the Amchi Association • groups (THCC) national and at site levels has led in and village-level committees (MPMCs). major changes in project design, in A pilot Medicinal Plants Management particular proper identification of Committee was set up in Pungmovillage major interest or user groups, full in order to advise and monitor the impact consideration of a local livelihood of use of medicinal plants, both by the need, health care, including the THCC and by villagers. Such committees construction of the THCC and will be formed in other villages of involvement in the training of women Phoksundo VDC and in the buffer zone in primary health care which were not south of the Park. initially planned. Conclusion and lessons learnt • Including local persons and park staff in the research team has enabled the This project has made an attempt to transfer of local amchis' knowledge reinforce linkages between traditional to park staff especially regarding, health care in Dolpo and the sustainable identification, distribution and use of medicinal plants. It has been harvesting techniques and has instrumental in exploring amchis' subsequentlyre-inforced the capacity knowledge and integrating this of both these groups in monitoring. knowledge for the developmentof new The interest of park staff in learning institutions aimingboth at development has shown to the local people that of health care and conservation of cooperation with the National Park resources. could be envisaged. The major threat issue, which is • Identifying and understanding local harvesting for trade has not yet been fully institutions help in conceiving new addressed. Experience gained however institutions which are locally well through workingwith Dolpo amchis will grounded and which may integrate hopefully guide further activities with a new factors such as the need for new stakeholder group which are the transfer of knowledge or for joint trade collectors. In particular it is hoped management.

89 Sharing Local and National Experiencein Conservationof Medical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia

• Baseline ethnobotanical surveys • Both long term research (such as conductedin a participatory manner ecologicalmonitoring) as well as short- by a multidisciplinary team provide term assessments (e.g. RVA) is relevant information (such as necessary. A research component is information on multiplicity of uses, needed to provide sound data for amounts used, geographical locations making decisions and developing of resources, harvesting practices) for sound guidelines. designing conservation programs. • Long term sustainability of the project • Returning of results to the lies on capacity building andlong term community in the form of popular monitoring. It is thus important to booklets and field workshops has have some flexibility in the duration enabled participatory planning and of projects; especially that project adaptive management of project timing fit with local time pace and activities. Returning results at the calendarrather than the contrary. national level is equally important in The authors are share and Acknowledgements: order to experience to IDRCIMAPPA for theinvitation disseminatelessons learnt. grateful to attend the Regional Workshop, • Integrating local indicators for the Pokhara, Nepal monitoring of ecological plots has References constituted an integrative approach of scientific and traditional ANSAB. 1997. Forest products market! knowledge, which will benefit both enterpriseoption study. Final Report, Asia local communities and science. Network for Small Scale Agricultural Bioresources (ANSAB), Kathmandu, Much work on use • pattern, ecology, Nepal. growth rate and conservation status remains to be done on sub-alpine and Aumeeruddy Y. 1997. People and Plants alpine species. Himalayas, detailed country and initial site planning report, Nepal. Submittedto • The amounts of MAPs traded and the European Union. Montpellier, France trends in their trade need to be monitoredto assess the level of threat AumeeruddyY. 2000. Medicinal plants in for a species. the Hidden Land of Dolpo: Working with Himalayan Healers at Shey Phoksundo • Morphological studies especially National Park. Duration: 26 minutes. relating to the growth patterns are Camera, script and direction: Yildiz essential to develop sound guidelines Aumeeruddy-Thomas, available from for theharvesting of medicinal plants. NHBS sales.

90 Health Care Developmentand MedicinalPlants Conservationat Shey PhoksundoNational Park, Nepal

Aumeeruddy-Thomas Y. 2001. Working 38. WWF Nepal Program, Kathmandu, with Tibetan doctors (amchis) for the Nepal. conservation of medicinal plants and Y.C. Amchi T.N. health care development at Shey Ghimire, S.K., Lama, and Y. 2000. Phoksundo National Park, Dolpa, Nepal. Gurung Aumeeruddy. Conservation of resources, In Medicinal Plants Copnservation, plant Newsletter of the Medicinal Plants community developmentand trainingin at Specialist Group — IUCN, Bonn, applied ethnobotany Shey-Phoksundo NationalPark and its buffer-zone, Dolpa. Germany. Final Report-Third Year. WWF Nepal Bhattarai, N.K. 2000. Medicinal Plants of Program Report Series No. 40. WWF Nepal: An Overview. Conservation Nepal Program, Kathmandu, Nepal. Assessment & Management Plan Ghimire, S.K., Y.C. Lama, G.R. at the pre- Tripathi, Workshop. Paper presented S. Schmitt and Y. December 9-10, Dhulikhel, Aumeeruddy-Thomas. workshop. 2001. Conservation of resources, Nepal plant communitydevelopment and training in Bhattarai, N.K. 1997. Biodiversity-People applied ethnobotanyat Shey-Phoksundo Interface in Nepal. In: Medicinal Plants NationalPark and its buffer zone. WWF- forForest Conservation and Health Care. Nepal Program Report Series # 41, Non-wood Forest Product Series II. Food Kathmandu, Nepal. and Agriculture Organization (FAQ) of Gurung, T.N., G.G. Lama, K.K. Shrestha the United Nations (UN), Rome, Italy. and S. Craig. 1996. Medicinal plants and pp. 78-86. traditional doctors in Shey-Phoksundo Edwards, D.M. 1996. Non-timberForest National Parkand other areas ofthe Dolpa Products from Nepal: Aspects ofthe trade District. WWF Nepal Program Report in Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. Series # 26. WWF Nepal Program, FORESC Monograph 1/96. Forest Kathmandu, Nepal. Research and Survey Centre, Ministry C. 1975. : Communautés de of Forest and Soil Conservation, Jest Dolpo Langue Tibétaine du Nepal Eds CNRS, Kathmandu, Nepal. Paris. Ghimire, S.K., D.B. Amchi T.N. Parajuli, Hertog, W.D. 1995. Non timber forest Y.C. Lama and Y. Gurung, Aumeeruddy. products in Dolpa district. Karnali Local 1999. Conservation of resources, plant Development Project (KLDP)/SNV Nepal. communitydevelopment and trainingin appliedethnobotany at Shey-Phoksundo Khangkar D. 1998. Médecine Tibëtaine, National Park and its buffer-zone, Dolpa. la méthode Bouddhiste de guerison,Ed. WWF Nepal Program Report Series No. Guy Trédaniel. Paris.

91 Sharing Localand National Experiencein Conservation ofMedical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia

Kind, M. 1999. Mendrub: A Bonpo Ritual conservation and community for the Benefit of All Living Beings and development. Proceedings of the National for the Empowerment of Medicine Training Workshop in Nepal. Performed in Tsho, Dolpo, 1996. Ph.D. Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Dissertation Submittedto the University Kathmandu, Nepal. of Zurich, 1999. Shrestha, K.K., S.K. Ghimire, Amchi T.N. Lama Y.C., S.K. Ghimire, Y. Gurung, Y.C. Lama and Y. Aumeeruddy. Aumeeruddy-Thomas in collaboration 1998b. Conservation of plant resources, with Amchis of Dolpo. 2001. Medicinal communitydevelopment and trainingin Plants of Dolpo, Amchis' Knowledge and applied ethnobotanyat Shey-Phoksundo Practices, Trade and Conservation. NationalPark and its buffer-zone, Dolpa. Peopleand Plants Initiative, WWF Nepal World Wildlife Fund (WWF Nepal Program, Kathmandu, Nepal. Program), Report Series # 33. WWFNepal Kathmandu, Olsen, C.S. 1997. Commercialnon-timber Program, Nepal. forestry in Central Nepal: Emerging themes and priorities. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Economics and Natural Resources, Royal veterinary and Agricultural University, Denmark. Olsen, C. S. 1998. The trade in medicinal and aromatic plants from central Nepal to northernIndia. EconomicBotany 52(3): 279-292.

Olsen, C.S. and F. Helles. 1997 b. Making the poorest poorer: Policies, laws and trade in medicinal plants in Nepal. Journal of World Forest Resource Management8: 137-158 Parajuli, D.B. 1998. Indigenous system of pasture resource management in Kunasa area within the Shey Phoksundo NationalPark. Report submittedto WWF Nepal Program, Kathmandu. Shrestha, K.K., P.K. Jha, Pei Shengji, A. Rastogi, S. Rajbandhari and M. Joshi (eds.). 1998a. Ethnobotany for

92 Ex-situ Conservation of Medicinal Plants by Backyard Home Garden for Primary Health Care in Bangladesh

Ferdousi Begum

ABSTRACT friends whom we should re-acquaint ourselves with. Unfortunately, these Bangladesh possess rich flora of traditions have been largely eradicated medicinal plants, which grow in widely because of lack of support and recognition distributed wastelands forests, pastures, as well as the rapid destruction of natural and roadsides. more than 500 Although habitats, which have led to a shortage of medicinal have been to plants reported medicinal plants. Self-reliance and self- occur in Bangladesh, none of them have in basic health care has so far been cultivated for help primary systematically therefore become a key requirementthat medicinal purposes. Suppliers of the local needs to be fulfilled so that the citizens Unani and Ayurvedic, Homeopathic drug can lead a life. This self-reliance manufacturers collect the medicinal healthy can be achieved easily on low-cost basis plants from the wild habitats. These are, by reviving and popularizing simple and sometimes, so indiscriminately exploited effectivetrade optimal methods of treating that many important medicinal plants like Rauvolfia and common diseases based on the use of serpentina Andrographis medicinal to build paniculata are now under the threat of plants up backyard extinction. In fact these are now available home garden which is an integralpart of our medicinal only sporadically. This is a very indigenous knowledge alarming Our and situation with regard to natural growth system. grandfathers of medicinal plants in the wilderness in grandmothers are the carrier of this but we are this country. Appropriate steps must knowledge, today not therefore be taken immediately in conserving this knowledge but gradually order to save this situation with loosing them. Conservation and regard to growth, conservation and cultivation of 24 species of medicinal documentation. In a country like plants are being carried on at South Bangladesh, where the majority of people Maguri village of Luxmipur district. These are not wealthy, low cost and safe care is medicinal plants are being used locally to essential. Traditional systems of medicine alleviate many of the frequently occurring are therefore familiar to us, like old disease and ailments.

93 Sharing Localand National Experiencein Conservation ofMedical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia

Introduction The present communication introduces the initiatives taken to encourage the The plants that possess therapeutic or backyard home garden program and exertbeneficial pharmacological effect on establishment of a network of medicinal the animal body are generally designed plant nurseries. as "Medicinal plants". Plants having secondary metabolites like alkaloids, Objectives glycosides, tannins, volatileoils, minerals • Conservation of medicinal and vitamins medicinal endangered posses plant species as a part of biodiversity properties. conservation,

Medicinal plants have been playing • Documentation of indigenous significant roles in providing primary knowledge on medicinal uses of health care services to most rural people. plants, They also serve as important source of raw materials for the manufacture of • Encourage commercial cultivation of medicinal to meet the traditional and modernmedicines. plants growing Export demands. of medicinal plants and their products earn substantial amount of foreign Methods exchange, playing a significant role in the rural and national economies. In • Motivate different stakeholders Bangladesh, huge quantities of medicinal includinglocal communities through plant materials and extracts are being seminars, symposia, workshops and imported for the manufacture of various other communication media, Unani and Ayurvedic, Homeopathic and discussions for medicines. of these are be • Group meeting Many plants motivation, available in the wild, major part of which still remains to be surveyed • Training of rural women, systematically. • Preparation of backyard home garden There are more than 300 Ayurvedic and for selected species used in primary health care Unani drug manufacturing companies in services, the some 500 country producing types • Supplying planting materials to the of herbal About 250 of drugs. species rural communities, the medicinal are used in these especially plants women communities, preparationsmost of which available in the countrywhile considerable quantities • Monitoring and evaluation of the imported from neighboring countries. activities being conducted.

94 Ex-situ Conservationof Medicinal Plants by BackyardHome Garden for Primary Health Care in Bangladesh

Activities and Achievements The Home Garden Campaign has promoted sustainable utilization of Documentation of Indigenous selected medicinal plants in the wild, as Knowledge they are available in the backyards for The indigenous herbal knowledge immediate uses. Kitchen itemslike spices, available in south Maguri village has been vegetable, fruits and even some weeds, documented with the assistance of all having medicinal virtues, have been different Hakim, Kabiraj, and aged included in the list of plants in the home people and other traditional herbal gardens. healers. Conservation The Home Herbal Garden Program For ex-situ conservation, 20 backyard Our initiative in boosting the use of home gardens have been developed at medicinal plants in primary health care SouthMaguri village of Laxmipur district, involved promotinghome herbalgarden mostly using the wastelands. Beds of program and establishing a network of different sizes were prepared for the medicinal plant nurseries. As womenare plantation and 24 species of medicinal highly concerned with the healthcare plants have been conserved following the problems of the familyand work as family backyard home garden concept. physicians by usingmedicinal plants, this has received their active Acknowledgements: Medicinal and program Aromatic Plants in Asia participation to conserve the wild Program (MAPPA), International Development medicinal plants in their environment. Research Centre (IDRC) is gratefully Villagers are encouraged to obtain acknowledged for the financial assistance medicinal plant seedlings from provided for the smooth running of the Development of Biotechnology and present project. Invitation to attend the Environmental Conservation Centre Regional Workshop at Pokhara, Nepal is (DEBTEC) nurseries and plant them in also highly acknowledged. their sites. Villagewomen have also been suggested to collect seeds and other planting materials for their home gardens. Rural peoples are being increasingly convinced that the commercial scale cultivation of medicinal plants is more profitable comparedto the conventional cash crops, and medicinal plants could gain the status of cash crops.

95 Developing Methodologies for Sustainable Management of High Value Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Jumla District, Nepal

Sunil Regmi Sagun Bista

Background common methodologies for sustainable use of endangered and high value More than 100 of Non-timber species medicinal and aromatic plantsin the high Forest Products are harvested (NTFP5) hill districts of Nepal. from the middle hills and high mountains and are mostly traded to Indian markets. To promotethe conservation of MAPs and Most of the high value Medicinal and to encourage sustainable managementof Aromatic Plants (MAP) are collectedfrom MAP resources by local users in Jumla, government managed forest, where the Canadian Centre for International scientific resource management system Studies and Cooperation (CECI) is not practiced. Cultivation of MAPs in conducteda research project (1999-2001) private land and domestication in DevelopingMethodologies forSustainable community forests are not conducted Management of Endangered and High- because of lack of adequate technical value Medicinal and AromaticPlants in The knowledge. Unsustainable management Jumla. project has been supported by for Medicinal and Aromatic Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Program practices in an Plants (MAPs) and increasing market Asia (MAPPA), initiative of International Research demand encouraging intensive over- Development Canada and Ford Foundation. harvesting are leading to a decrease in Centre, the diversity, quality and availability of The project aims to develop best MAPs hills. The in Nepal's high management practices including good are serious for consequences plant harvesting technique, proper harvesting biodiversity and for local harvesters who time for NTFPs, domestication and depend on the trade of MAPs to meet cultivation of NTFPs in Community their basic economic needs. Very little Forests and Private Lands. The project has information is available in Nepalon best documented the indicators for best management practices of MAPs, which managementpractices, has explored the includes good harvestingand cultivation domestication in community forests and practices in community forests and on cultivation in private lands and is private lands. There is a need to develop preparing an extension package for the

96 DevelopingMethodologies for SustainableManagement of High Value Medicinaland Aromatic Plants in Jumla District local communities on the management community economic development, and use of MAPs. natural resource management and also themes like and Introduction crosscutting gender good governance. Medicinal and Aromatic Plants represent The Community Based Economic an important source of income in the Development Project (CBED) is a bilateral Karnali Zone of Mid-western Nepal, where economic are project of the Canadian International opportunities and His severely constrained by low socio- Development Agency (CIDA) economic indicators and poor Majesty's Government of Nepal (HMG/ The CBED is communication infrastructure,including N). Project implementedby the absence of road. Unsustainable CECI in partnership with three Nepali managementpractices for Medicinal and professional NGOs. These partners are Aromatic Plants (MAPs) and increasing Centre for Environment and Agricultural market demand encouraging intensive Policy, Research, Extension and over-harvesting are reducing the Development (CEAPRED) for Baitadi, diversity, quality and availability of MAPs Developme5nt Project Service Centre in the Karnali zone in general and Jumla (DEPROSC) in Dadeldhura and Centre for district in particular. The consequences Self-Help Development (CSD) in Jumla. are serious for plant biodiversity and for CBED is an economic local harvesters who depend on the trade development project of MAPs to meet their basic economic operating in the remote districts of Baitadi, needs. Dadeldhuraand Jumla. The project aims to improve local economy and to CECI/CBED Project strengthen civil society through promotion of community-based Canadian Centre for International Studies Its and Cooperation (CECI) is an organizations (CBOs). primary organization active in developing objective is to build capacity of CBOs countries since 1958. Its main sectors of (Savings and Credit Organizations, Forest intervention are community based User Groupsand Farmers Association) so economic development, social that they can function as viable development, and human rights and institutions, effectivelymanaging natural good governance. CECI has been resources, improving socio-economic operating in Nepal since 1987. The conditions in the community, and interact mission of CECI-Nepal is to contribute with local and district government to poverty alleviation through agencies as well as local and regional empowerment and capacity building of market operators. These CBOs provide civil society. The priority sectors for its specific services and benefits although national programs are sustainable each type of CBOs are different in nature

97 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medical and AromaticPlants in South Asia but all are meant to complement each sustainable management of the other. community forests. In particular there is tremendous for CFUGs to Forest User potential Community Groups (FUGs) income from the sale of non- are one type of the economic CBOs generate timber products includingMAPs. strengthenedunder the existing forestry component of CBED. The general In order to promote sustainable objective of the forestry component is to management of MAPs in Jumla district, support the formation and strengthening CBED has successfully conducted a of the CFUGs so that are they capable of number of studies in different aspects of effectively managingand marketing the NTFPs. In 1997, CBED conducted an forest products. The specific objectives of four values NTFPs like are: inventory high Jatamansi (Nardostachys grandillora), • to strengthen CFUG institutional Sugandhawal (Valeriana jatamansii), Kutki capacity and vision for sustainability (Neopicrorhiza scrophulariifolia) and Padamchal (Rheum australe) in Jumla • to promote the income generation by district as a first step towards the CFUGs, and sustainable management of NTFPs. The of this research was to to the of CFUGs primary objective • strengthen capacity test the methods in the field to address the legal issues. inventory and to assess the availability of the Sustainable utilization of NTFPscould be selected NTFPs in the district. good source of income to make FUGs In 1999, CBED conducted a on "Sub- viable and provide more benefit to the study local collectors. this sector Analysis of High Altitude NTFPs Considering in the Karnali Zone" under HMGN/CIDA/ possibility, CBED has accomplished a number of studies on NTFPs in Jumla in DANIDA funding. This study identified collaboration with other organizations. three key issues for intervention: The concept of community forestry was a. increasing sustainable supply of high value developedby the Ministry of Forest and NTFPs, in Soil Conservation order to improve the b. traders forest increasing competition among management of resources used as in the trade centres like fuel and fodder. Therefore CFUGs were principal and primarily created to ensure a source of Nepalgunj, fuel wood and fodder consumption c. improvements in policy leverage. oriented subsistence products of particular concern to women. However The identified opportunities forleveraged the role ofCFUGs can potentially extend interventions were assigned high, beyond ensuring the effective and medium and low feasibility ratings. The

98 DevelopingMethodologies for SustainableManagement of High Value Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Jumla District opportunities deemedas highlyfeasibility a. identify and prioritise interventions were: b. network and coordinate the forest • Improving the supply the NTFPs resources programme at CFUG, throughmanagement and sustainable government and supporting agencies harvesting, including the handing levels, and over of right over NTFPs to CFUGs, and c. streamline support to entrepreneurs through service providers based on an • Increasing CFUGs the legal agreed mechanism of implementation. awareness and capacity and IDRC/CECI/CBED Project improving the market information system. Currently, CBED is implementing the research The recommendations that project "Developing key emerged for Sustainable from the Sub-sector Analysis are: Methodologies Management of Endangered and High a. Re-examinethe ban on theraw export Value Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in of some NTFPs Jumla District of Nepal". The objective of this study is to develop methods for best b. Local level valueaddition/processing management practices of MAPs and to by the CFUGs should be prioritized initiate cultivation of these species in the c. CFUG members should be made community forests and private farms and to disseminate successful to aware of the NTFP related legal message issues, and their and stakeholders at the local, national and rights levels. responsibilities, and regional Local users and farmers are d. The benefits of market actively improved involved in the research activitieslike site and information intelligence price MAP and data should be available to the selection, species selection grassroots collection from the research sites. The stakeholders. four prioritized MAP species selected In 2000, CBED completed a study on for research and management is "Institutional Assessment of Nardostachys grandiflora (Jatamansi), Organizations Providing Support to Valeriana ja tamansii (Sugandhawal), Forest Enterprises in Nepaland Financial Neopicrorhiza scrophulariifolia (Kutki) Appraisal of Forest User Groups". Based and Rheum australe (Padamchal). The on the findings of the study and effect of differentharvesting practices on discussion with differentstakeholders of these plants, and studies on possibilities the forestry sector, the following of cultivation of these MAPs in recommendations were made: Community Forest and Private Farms are

99 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia beingcritically studied and the final result encouraged to cultivate the MAPs of the research is expected to get soon. under research in their community forests and land. Results obtained so far private Acknowledgements: CECI/CBED is • CBED completed the inventory of to IDRC/MAPPA for the Medicinal four value non-timber forest grateful high Plant project in Jumla. The authors also products in Jumla and assessed the the invitation to attend the current stock of the selected NTFPs acknowledge Regional Workshop, Pokhara, Nepal. quantitatively. • CBED successfullyconducted a study on NTFP sub-sector in the Karnali Zone of Nepal with an objective to increase the stakeholders' knowledge. A report has been published with emphasis on marketing issues, and identified issues for interventionand/or further investigation. • CBED has developed a training manual on NTFP management, marketing and cultivation. A booklet "Alternative to Conservation: NTFP Management and Cultivation" has been published in Nepali language and made available to the CFUGs and other organizations workingin NTFP sector.

• Traditional management system of NTFPs in Jumla district has been documented. Effect of different harvestingpractices on regeneration and yield of plant has been identified. Cultivation potentials of these MAPs are being studied. • The most encouraging achievement of the on-going research project is that the local communities are

100 Action Research on Non-timber Forest Products in Central Mid-hills Region, Nepal

Damodar P. Parajuli

Introduction five ropani (0.25 ha.) of kharbari(grazing land with the dominance of thatch grass, The is based on the present paper Saccharum sp.) and 2.5 percent of them the SAFEConcern experiences gained by hold as high as 20 ropani (1 ha.) of during implementation of the action kharbari. It was, therefore, concluded that research on project medicinal and there was immense potentiality for aromatic plants in the field level. This is non-timber forest in a duration introducing products three-year project being these kharbaris that could provide them fundedby Medicinaland AromaticPlants additional income. All the in respondents Program Asia (MAPPA), an initiative showed to domesticate and of International Research willingness Development cultivate the NTFPs in their kharbaris, Centre Canada and Ford (IDRC), wasteland, forest and even in Foundation. The project activities community their private land. formally started on November 1999 two researches and considering Sixty-four species of medicinal and and implementation sites, Dhungkharka aromatic (MAPs) Nala-Tukuche plants having Village Development commercial viability and local uses have Committees (VDCs) of Kabhrepalanchok been documented from the project sites district, central Nepal. that are being used for various purposes Before the present project was initiated, by the people of these two VDCs. The SAFE-Concern carried out the socio- surveys also revealed that majority of the economic survey in the proposed project respondentswere somewhat familiar with area, which revealed that 90 percent of only few medicinal and aromatic plant the malesand cent percentof the females species available in their surroundings and were involved in agriculture with arable were basically ignorant of the their land. The survey also revealedthat only potentials. All the respondents were 20 percent of the respondents had khet willing to know more about the NTFPs (rice producing arable flat land). 42.5 found in their locality and their potentials percent of the respondentshad less than as an economic resource.

101 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia

Objectives of the project Activities carried out so far The project has been implementedwith Keeping in view the local needs, the the broad aim to upliftthe rural economy following 7 activities were prioritized for through sustainable management of the successful implementation of the medicinal plants and other NTFPs in the project: Mid-hills of of region Nepal. Objectives Documentation baseline data! the are: • of project information 1. To create awareness local among • and Extension people regarding importance of Training Programs MAPs and other NTFPs through • Nursery and Plantation Programs education and training programs about conservationapproaches, forest • Harvesting Technology Development environment and bio-diversity • Market and enrichment. Study Analysis • Networking Activities 2. To find simple technology in increasing the production of • Monitoring and Evaluation medicinal plants to meet increasing demand of raw materials by local The following are the major on-going activities of the users and industry. project: 1. Awareness creation on the 3. To plant suitable medicinal plants in importance forests local of medicinal plants and other NTFPs managedby community, in the rural areas. leasehold forest and private lands to supplement the capacity of the wild 2. Training to the FUG members and resources. local farmers on the cultivation, 4. To local to vegetative propagation, develop partners/NGO's domestication, and support private farmers and forest management harvesting of the NTFPs in their user groups (FUGs) locality. 5. To generate supplementary income to 3. Studytour to FUGmembers and local uplift the socio-economic conditions of the rural farmers particularly focusing on people by producing processing, value addition and valuable resources and developing marketing of the NTFPs. appropriateand scientific harvesting regimeof medicinal plants and other 4. Research, technology generation, NTFPs in the mid hills region of through establishment of varioustrial Nepal.

102 ActionResearch on Non-timber Forest Products in Central Mid-hills Region,Nepal

plots and experiments both in the at the research sites namely Nala and nursery, community forests and the Dhungkharka. These were meant to individual households. produce economically important MAPs planting materials for the local 5. Transformation of theresearch results communities to plant in community and new in technologies developed forests and private lands. Both the other areas that are relevantto NTFPs nurseries are well equipped with skilled to the local communities. nurserymen. Presently, important NTFP 6. Production and distribution of species being developedand maintained in the nurseries are: seedlings of the species having high project value of non- timber like products Amala (Phyllanthus emblica), Bojho Dalchini (Cinnarnornum tarnala), (Acorus calam us), Bhyakur (Dioscorea Lemongrass (Cymbopogan citratus), deltoidea), Chamomile (Ma tricaria Himalayan yew (Taxus wallichiana) charnornila), Churi (Aesandra butyracea), for massive plantation both in the Dalchini (Cinnarnorn urn tamala), community forests and privateland. Sugandha Kokila (Cinnarnornurn Kurilo Major activities/achievements glaucescens), (Asparagus racernosus), Lemongrass (Cyrnbopogan SAFE Concern has produced a training citratus), Loth Salla (Taxus wallichiana), manual in simple Nepali language, Sugandhawal (Valeriana jatarnansii), preparedin consultation with concerning Timur (Zanthoxylurn arma turn), etc. experts. Three NTFP oriented training These nurseries are also serving as programs have so far been conducted demonstration plots besides supplying involving about 100 local participants necessary planting materials to the with a considerable proportion of women communities. participants. A network was formed among different etc. to The NTFP focussed training program CFUGs, organizations, projects, materials and prioritized on providing information on exchange experiences, in-situ and ex-situ conservation, information sharing amongmember FUGs forthe and of MAPs cultivation, sustainable management in promotion marketing and other NTFPs. The member the wild, nursery management, local level prominent in the network are Herbs value addition, storage and treatment of organizations seeds and NTFO Production and Processing Co. Ltd. products, marketing, Asia Network for Small Scale related laws and ethno- (HPPCL), regulations, Bio-resources botanical uses, observation tours, etc. (ANSAB), Nepal Agroforestry Foundation (NAF), Institute The project started with the construction of Forestry (IOF), etc. The project has of two MAP/NTFP nurseries, one each

103 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medical and AromaticPlants in South Asia facilitated in coordinating with HPPCL developed forming a cooperative so and other herbal processing companies that people can work together as an for the sale of the raw and semi processed institution rather than as an NTFPs the villagers produced. The individual. members are now able to find community SAFE Concern is potential markets and buyers for their Acknowledgements: to IDRC/MAPPA for the on specific products. grateful going Medicinal Plant project. The author also Lessons learned acknowledges the invitationto attend the Regional Workshop, Pokhara, Nepal. 1. The human capacity must be greatly strengthened for managing MAPs through education, information dissemination, practical training, observation tours, etc. 2. The strategy for promoting MAPs must be based on people's need so that they are motivated to participation, since participation of the beneficiaries is a must for the success of any program including the conservation, cultivation and managementof NTFPs. 3. The action research needs to explore the various possibilities on creating economic incentives for effective conservation of the locally available NTFPs by local communities. 4. The mechanism for monitoring of the implementation of action research activities must be built in the project document itself for quality outputs and transparency in implementation. 5. The project must facilitate people in initial stage in finding the markets for their products (raw, semi processed and processed). A systematic marketing initiative could be

104 Resource Base and Conservation Strategies of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant in Pakistan

Zahoor Ahmad A. Ghafoo?

Introduction developed major systems of medicine, instead the Unani Due to wild and utilizing system. climate, geographic However, they have contributed a latitudinal variation, Pakistan is endowed valuable knowledgebase of local plants, with rich resource base of flora and fauna. though the efficiency of these has not yet Estimates of number of medicinal plant been scientificallystudied. The hakimsor from 3200 end species very greatly species traditional practitioners are primarily of the to 1000 at the lower end. spectrum concerned with the medicinal plants as (Ahmad and Siraguddin 1996). According to their occurrence and to from National Institute of opposed reports distribution (Shinwari et al. 1996). Health, approximately 80% of the population are benefited from herbal Requirements of medicinal plants reach medicine and about 400 plant species are to collectors via dealers in local names. used extensively in traditional medicines. The collectorsare normally nomadic tribes Although Government of Pakistan has who graze animals that are predominantly actively promoted allopathic medicine, it women. This is manifested in increasing has come to the realization that the tendencies to over collect on an traditional systems also have a key role unsustainablebasis, and ignorance of the to play, particularly with regard to need for seasonal collection of particular primary health care. Although the material. The increasing shortage of dominanttraditional system of medicine medicinalplant supplieswas highlighted in Pakistan is the Unani System but in during a conference organized by National few areas, Amchis and Sanyasis are the Institute of Health, Islamabad in 1991 as hereditary practitioners of somewhat well as two different workshop/symposia secret medicinal systems, which are organized by Pakistan Agriculture basically Ayurvedic in nature. The tribal Research Council (PARC) in 1996. The peoplesin Pakistan don't appear to have causes of this were largely attributed to

* A. Ghafoor, Plant Genetic ResourcesInstitute, National Agriculture research Centre, Islamabad, Pakistan.

105 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservation ofMedical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia over collection, over grazing, and cutting areas (Karakoram and Hindu Kush). of tree for fuel wood, as well as over These forests went though two major population in some areas. structural changes during the last 100 years and the potential forest are has Distribution of Medicinal Plants reduced to about 50%. The common The total area of Pakistan is 87.98 m ha, medicinal plants of this area are Atropa out of which 88% have been classified as acuminata, Angelica sp., Paeonia emodi, arid and semi arid zones. The area Geranium wallichianum, Artemisia spp., covered by forest is 4.579 m ha (5%) out Glycyrrhiza glabra and Ephedra spp. of which l.958m ha is under temperate Sub- conifer forest and 1.702m ha under Medicinalplants of 1opical Foothill Forest subtropical forest. Most of the medicinal used in commercial plants quantities Subtropicalfoothill forests are spread over occur mainly in four ecological regions an area of about 1.702 ha. i.e. and Himalayan Alpine high altitude, temperate foothills are most important areas for montane forest, and subtropical foothills The found here forests and arid and semi arid scrubs. species diversity. species include Terminalia spp., Mallotus Alpine and High Altitude Areas philippensis, Phyllanthus emblica and Butea morlosperma. Most of the medicinal plantsare collected moist alpine and high altitude areas Medicinal plants of Arid and Semi especially from the northwesternvalleys. Arid Areas Most of the medicinal plants growing in these areas are slow The cold arid areas are mainly located in growing perennial the Hindu Kush and Karakoram species, which require several years of vegetative growth for reproduction Mountains in the north of the country. seeds. Most of these medicinal Some important species of medicinal through like plant species occurring in this zone are plants of commercial importance likely to be subjected to threatened or Artemisia spp., Ephedra gerardiana, E. vulnerable status if the current rates of procera,Bunium persicum, etc. are found their collections continue. Endangered in this zone. of this area includes plant species Threatened Medicinal and Aromatic Podophyllum hexandrum, Saussurea Plants of Pakistan cos tus, Picrorrhiza kurrooa, Acontium heterophyllumand Corydalis spp. Although statistics on the degree of of across different Medicinal plants of Temperate endangerment species Montana Forest provinces, ecology and climates do not exist about 700 species of the flora of The secondlargest category of medicinal Pakistan are estimated endangered. plants is collected from Dry Mountain Despite the lack of statistics, there is over

106 Resource Baseand ConservationStrategies of Medicinal and AromaticPlant in Pakistan whelming agreement among exports in parks, covering 10% of the total land area. the country that the most threatened However, as managementand resources ecosystems are temperate forests in the available in these areas are very limited, upland areas. One example taken from over-exploitation of medicinal plants the Swat region vividly illustrates this as continues. Recent funds granted to the shown in Table 1. This is also justifiedby Governmentby the Global Environment the observed rapid loss of arid forest Facility(GEF) are enabling IUCN-Pakistan ecosystems in protected area in and Forest Research Institute to jointly Baluchistan. The other ecosystems under develop management plans for a very threat with regardto medicinal plants are limited number of areas while much areas the desert areas. still remains to be considered. Table 1. Medicinal Plants and their status Ex-situ conservationof the medicinalplant in the Forest Ecosystems of Swat resourcebase does not exist, and in-situ conservation has not yet been effective. Total number of Medicinal 350 In few cases involving hill forests in Plant species northern areas, agreements underway between the forests Number of Endangered 5 provincial and to Medicinal Plant species departments community groups, declare these areas as protected areas Number of Threatened 16 wherebyno extraction of medicinal plants Medicinal Plant species is to be permitted for a periodof six years. This may facilitate the regeneration of Number Vulnerable 18 medicinal plant resources to some extent. Medicinal Plant species However, resourcestenure rights have to Number Rare Medicinal 10 be clarified and the management of Plant species resourcesby local communities and NGO should be fully incorporated into the Source: Ahmed and Sirajuddin 1996 management plan, and strategies for medicinal Conservation of Medicinal Plant developed plant harvesting. Resource Base Major Conservation Projects Althoughvarious efforts for conservation Most of the conservation projects under and sustainable utilization of medicinal operation are focused on environment plant resourcebase has been undertaken rehabilitation and forest conservation. As but not with much impact. The over- medicinal plant resourcebase in the key collection still continues due to various component in environment and forest socio-economic factors. Pakistan has conservation, some important key projects established reserve areas, mainly national and programs that could address the

107 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medical and AromaticPlants in SouthAsia medicinal plant sector as well, area are healthyand rich in biodiversity. With the described below: help of local communities, efforts are being made to keep this habitat free from 1. Environmental Rehabilitationin NWFP commercial and to and harvesting, identify Punjab: and promote alternate sources of income This project covers the upland areas of from it. Pakistan, comprising Murree-Kahuta, 4. Kalam IntegratedDevelopment Project: Gilgit, Dir and Kohistan. The Government of Pakistan is supporting This is a Swiss-funded multi-sectoral this project and Commission of European project, dealing with agriculture, forestry Communities in coordination with IUCN and village development in an integrated has launched this project for the period way. The community has been organized 1996-2003. The main objective of the intovillage and women organizations. The project is to bring a halt to and effect and project has been effective in biodiversity reversal of the on-going processes of management through growing off-season environmental degradation through vegetables. integrated measures of natural resource rehabilitation, sustainable socio-economic 5. Siren Valley Forestry Development development and the sustainable use of Project: natural resources. It is under implementation in the Siren 2. Maintaining Biodiversity in Pakistan valley of Manshera district. The project with Rural Communities: funded by Germany and NWFP Government, aims at sustainable forest The aim of this is demonstrate project to management by adapting a joint forest the conservation of biodiversity by managementapproach. providing technical skills to rural communities to manage naturalresources Acknowledgement: The authoris grateful for sustainable use and derive income to Medicinaland Aromatic Plants Program from trophy hunting, eco-tourism use in Asia (MAPPA), International and the marketing of medicinalherbs and Development Research Centre (IDRC)for spices. It operates in Chirtal, Swat and the invitation to attend the Regional Dir through Wildlife Department, NWFP Workshop. with the financial assistance of Global References Environment Facility (GEF). H. and 1996. 3. Palas Area Conservation Project: Ahmad, Siraguddan Ethnobotanical profile of Swat. In: Z. K. Due to remoteness and its inaccessibility, Shinwari, B.A. Khan and A.A. Khan the natural habitat of Palas valley is (eds.) Proceedings of the First Training

108 ResourceBase and ConservationStrategies of Medicinal and AromaticPlant in Pakistan

Workshop on Ethnobotany and Its Application to Conservation. PARC, Islamabad. pp.202-206. Shinwari. Z.K., Khan, B.A. and Khan, A.A. 1996. Proceedings of the First Training Workshop on Ethnobotanyand Its Application to Conservation. September, 12-21. PARC, Islamabad. pp.227.

109 Conservation and Cultivation of Medicinal Plant Genetic Re- sources in Pakistan

Shakeel Haider Zaidi

ABSTRACT medicinal and aromatic plantsfrom alpine and sub-alpine regions of Hindu—Kush Pakistan is bestowed with rich natural Himalayas, and several products from resources, diverse ecological conditions diverse species within and outside the with ethnic diversity and ancient country the country resulted in the civilization. It has rich flora of over 6000 depletion of this vital forest resource. species of flowering plants reported to Therefore, this is a time to formulate the occur in different provinces including strategy for rational utilization including Kashmir. A very large number is found in authentic identification, - training in northern and north western parts of scientific surveys, collection, grading, the Our of 1000 country. these, plant processing, chemical characterization, species have been documented for phyto- marking and in-situ cultivation of those chemical properties, whereas 350-400 endangered/raremedicinal plant species species are trade in different drug that need conservation for sustainable markets and are used by 27 leading uses. manufacturing units of Gerco-Arabic, Ayurvedic and Homeopathic medicines. Introduction Further more, about 50000-60000 tabibs Medicinal are a valuable natural of Greco-Arabic plants (practitioner medicine) resource and as future of safe and a number of regarded un-registered Sustainable of this scattered in ruraland remote drugs. management practitioners renewablenatural resourceis debatable areas utilize more than 200 a hilly drug issue of and national plants in traditional and folk medicines global importance. as household remedies several It not only provides basic raw material against for the of a number of diseases in primary health care system. preparation allopathic medicines, but also more than Besides, it can be a source of sustained 70% of total population residing in the to the people of hilly and plain areas, plain and remote hilly areas rely on plant- tradersand pharmaceuticalconcerns. The lore and traditionalsystem of medicines current treads in increasing demand for for primary health care.

110 Conservationand Cultivationof Medicinal Plant Genetic Resourcesin Pakistan

The total value of medicine consumed should be paid for conservation of in the country is worth rupees 35 endemic species of pharmacopoeial billions per annum. Out of this, importance, which could be otherwise medicines worth Rs.28 billions are useful for genetic manipulation to restore manufactured, whereasdrug worth than the plant wealth and to improvethe yield 7 billions are This is due rupees imported. of food, fodder and fiber corps.Moreover, to non-development of indigenous many have to industriesover the plants good potential pharmaceutical years develop into life saving and essential to resource As a according availability. medicines. result, a number of national and multinational pharmaceutical firms The existing medicinal plant resourcecan import raw and packing material worth broadly be classified into two categories rupees 18 billions. Thus sustainable namely (1) Naturally occurring drug and utilization of medicinal development plants and (2) Cultivated plants. Plants resourceis of to plant prime importance under firstcategory can be furtherdivided meet demands of growing on the basis of their production as (a) pharmaceutical industries and to earn Plant from the of dried Naturallyoccurring drug plant (b) foreign exchange export as weed remnants in cultivated herbal and their derivatives. growing drugs field. Pakistan occupies a unique position among developing countries. It has a Naturally occurring drug plants veritable of non-wood forest emporium Medicinal plants growing naturally in due to its varied climate and products high-hill forests require a long period of which reflect ecosystems, boi-diversity growth ranging from 3 — 8 yearsto reach and valuable plant heritage. In the recent for commercial there has been consistent maturity exploitation. years, growth Whereas those in the in demand of occurring plains many plant-based drugs as flora with the and several from diverse appearedannually spring plant products of few which are in This has rise to exception perennial species. given large-scale nature. In order to this natural collection, which resulted in the scarcity tap were of a number of valuable medicinal plant resource, qualitative surveys speciese.g. Saussurea costus, Dioscorea conducted throughoutthe country(Anon. deltoidea, Gloriosa superba, Picrorhiza 1956) and listed 350 plant species of kurrooa, etc. and their wide range of recognized medicinal value used in Greco- chemical diversity is diminishing due to Arabic, Ayurvedic system of medicines habitat degradation. Most of the species and many of them are also included in are of global importance and placed in pharmacopoeias. Notable plants among CITES listing due to over-exploitation in these occurring in differentregions of the the past. Therefore, concerted efforts country are listed below:

111 Sharing Localand National Experiencein Conservationof Medical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia

Balochistan (Angoor-shafa), Valeriana jatamansii Aconitum (Asmania), (Mushk-bala), heterophyllum Ephedra gerardiana Juniperus (Atees-talkh), Datura stramonium excelsa (Abhel), Withania coagulans linearis (Datura), Colchicum luteum (Suranjan-e- (Panir-dodi), Thymus (Ban- Ferula foetida Rheum Prunus (Badam- talkh), (Hing), ajwain), amygdalus australe talkh), Berberis lycium (Darhald), (Revand-chini), Podophyllum Perovskia abrotanoides (San-shob) and hexandrum (Bankakari), Viola serpens Zuffa officinalis (Zupha). (Banafsha), Gentiana kurroo (Nilkant), Lavatra kashmiriana (Resha-khatmi) and Sindh Swertia chirayita (Chirata). Cassia angustifolia (Sanna), Ricinus Keeping in view the economic important communis (Castor), Commiphora mukul certain pharmacopoeial plants, Medicnal (Gugal), Citrulus colocyn this (Hantal), Plant Branch of PFI has carried out pioneer Cassia and fistula (Amaltas) Rhazya work (1970-86) on quantitative surveys of stricta (Vena). medicinal plants in their natural habitats in differentforests of Punjab NWFP, Punjab, part of Balcohistan and Northern Areas. This Fumaria indica (Shahtra), Cassia absus work provided basic useful information (Chaksu), Justicia adhatoda (Berg-bansa), regarding local availability of medicinal Datura alba (Dhatura), Plantago ovata plantsin qualitative and quantitative term, (Ispaghol), Ricinus Comm Ufl5 (Castor), which was hitherto non-existent. It also Abutilon indicum (Pili-buti), Solanum facilitated and helped many industrial nigrum (Mako) and Peganum hermala units in the country, e.g. Sandoz, Marker (Hermal). Alkaloids, Kurram Chemical Company NWFP etc., who utilize the indigenous medicinal plant resources as raw material in the Artemisia maritima (Afsantine), manufacture of various medicinal Hyoscyamus niger (Ajwain khurasani), products. It is worth to mention that Dioscorea deltoidea (Kanis), Valeriana survey results of eighties have become jatamansii (Mushkabala), Berberislycium redundant with the passage of time and (Darhald), Atropa acuminata (Angoor- at present these information cannot be shafa), Podophyllum hexan drum used: (Bankakri), Aconitum heterophyllum (Atees-talkh), Bergenia ciliata (Zakham- • to assess their available potential in e-hayat) and Viola serpens (Banafsha). natural habitats, Azad Kasmir • to identify the locality of abundant availability, and Dioscorea deltoidea (Kanis), Saussurea costus (Kuth), Atropa acuminata • to identify endangered species.

112 (oro,ervation and (ultva5on ofMedkwal PlantGenetic Re,ourccs in Pakatan

This survey is essential to formulate abundance in 5 sampledvalleys of Chitral judicious plan of rotational exploitation and these plants are also found in other and regeneration, so that no economic adjaent valleys such as Laspur, Yarkhun, and medicinal importance becomes Zaeet, Reshun, Arkari, etc. [his natural endangered in future resource is not utilized in spite of plentiful occurrence of valuable drug plants. This Survey of medicinal plants in is due to lack of information about Chitral: A case study availability, transportation facilities and In this context a rapid appraisal survey higher collection cost made it of medicinal plants was carried out on uneconomical This area has good 12000 hectares in five valleys of C hitral potential for sustainable exploitation and (BooniGol, Chunarkan, Shishi, Begusht can serve as a source of sustainedsupply and Bomburet) during 1995 97 to of a number of umexplnited drug and determine potential status ofdrug plants aromatic plants of industrialimportance, and their marketing problems. which can be used for the extraction of Information regarding availability and active ingredients and valueadded sustained yield of medicinal plants in products These plants are listed in the different valleys is given lable 1. Fable 2. Survey results indicated that a number Besides, some indigenousdrug plant like of drug plant species are available in Glycyrrhiza glabra, Ferula foetida,

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Bu iu p b 1 P ant G wing as Weeds Ut 1ar h c urr d tu 1 fl W nant out by 1 h i prtnt Af and d di hr, th in fr r x P hno dium Conservation and Cultivation ofMedicinal Plant Genetic Resourcesin Pakistan album (Bathu), Asphodelus ten uifolius land and can be easily grownon marginal (Piazi), Silybum marianum, Celome land as well as in backyard can viscosa (Hulhul), Convolvulus arvensis supplement cash income to the farmer. (Lehli) and Solanum nigrum (Mako) are which canbe collected and sold at Management of medicinal and plants aromatic a lucrative price in the market. plants Cultivationof medicinal and Mountainous regionsprovide a naturally aromatic plants conductive habitatalong with ideal climate conditions suited for the growth of Packages of agro-technology: medicinal flora. For sustainable development of this renewable natural There are a number of wild large plants resource more emphasis has been given used as but a few are cultivated on drug to active ingredients as compare to the the basis of their economic importance yield of the plants. Medicinal plants of and medicinal uses. Cultivation trials high altitudes have limited scope for their carried out at PFIindicated that a number sustenance in wild. There is an and urgent of economic drug plants could be need to save these plants for their cultivated as minor cash to meet crops multiplication by growing them on mass the demand of local increasing drug scale in protected areas of forest markets. These plants could also be enclosures. Therefore, in-situ conservation utilized for the extraction of alkaloids of medicinal used in different profitable endangered plant pharmaceutical species needs to be carried out for preparation. As a result of continuous sustainable reuses in medicine. dissemination of packages of cultivation practices through popular bulletins and The existing medicinal plant resourcecan extension service, a number of economic, be classified into two broad categories for medicinal and aromatic plants are the purpose of cultivation and cultivated on pilot-scale in various parts propagationi.e., plants requiring a long of the country to meet the requirement period of growth (3-8 years) to reach of drug markets. maturity at higher elevation (Group A), and plants which can be cultivated as Some of medicinal are of plants great short duration crops in the foothill and in sizable importance required and plains (Group B). These are listed in quantities, while other required in small Table 4. quantities and obtainable from forests and their cultivation is not economical. High altitude rare medicinal plants Therefore, herbs, which are in great mentioned in Group A cannot be demand and fetch handsome price, can cultivated on commercialscale due to their be taken up for pilot-scale cultivation. long life cycle. These plants are to be These plants do not require cultivated conserved in their naturalhabitats to meet

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needs of local people and to provide a NPK fertilizer and suitable spacing for resource for exploration of new pain getting higher yield of leaves and root killing and life saving drugs. However, were determined. short duration plants mentioned in B can be cultivated on foot-hills Rheum australe and Saussurea costus Group were and and can better economic seedlings successfully raised and plain give for both the return than the traditional crop of the area transplanting techniques species were standardized. Introduction (Khan and Zaidi 1994). and adaptability studies conducted on Conservation of Medicinal and Rheum australe indicated that plant Aromatic Plants required at least five years for development of marketable sized roots, Some preliminary work on in-situ ridge planting in combination with two conservation and regeneration of regular hoeing would give better root yield medicinal plants in the high-hill forests than planting on flat beds and no soil of NWFP and establishment of living working. Similar experiments conducted plant museum for ex-situ conservation on determination of optimum growth carried out by Medicinal Plants Branch, periods and suitable spacing indicated that Pakistan Forest Institute,Peshawar in the Saussurea costus, Podophyllum past under PL-480 project "Artificial hexandrum and Valeriana jatamansii regeneration of some important plants being perennial showed profuse indigenous and exotic medicinal plants vegetative growth and gave higher yield in the hill forests of NWFP". In this of root during 5th year's growth as context, studies were conducted to comparedto root yield recordedin the 3rd develop techniques of regeneration, and 4th year's growth under a spacing of modes of propagation, cultural and 45x30 cm. Introduction, cultural and agronomic requirements and fertilizer trials conducted on Digitalis perpetuation of higher elevation purpurea and D. lanata resulted in the medicinal plant species in the forest standardization of techniques of enclosures of hilly areas of Kuza Gali and regeneration and successful cultivation of Thandiani (2800m). The studies resulted these two exotic species at Galiat forest in the determination of optimum period enclosure. of of Dioscorea deltoidea growth (Kanis). 11ade of Medicinal Plants Another regeneration and agronomic studies carried out on Atropa acuminata Medicinal plants are increasingly used plants, well known for their atropine by the pharmaceutical industries, contents, resulted in the standardized dawakhanas, and as householdremedies. technique of raising nursery seedlings The number of manpower engaged in the and regenerating the plants in their collection, distribution and trade is quite natural habitat. Appropriate doses of sizable. Approximately 350-400 items of

118 Conservationand Cultivation ofMedicinal Plant Genetic Resourcesin Pakistan crude drugs are sold in the local markets bellirica (Bhera), T. chebula (Hareer), depending upon their demand and Centurea behen(Bahman sufaid), Myrtus supply position. cornmunis (Hub-ul-Aas), Ferula foetida of medicinal a (Heeng), Polygonurn amplexica ule Marketing plants present Rheurn australe scenario of diverse problems encountered (Anjabar), (Revandchini), at various stages. It consists of a Phyllanthus emblica (Amla), Withania multitudeof herb collectors and growers coagulans (Panir dodi). to the rural herb dealers, whole-sellers and processors, exporters and importers Category-C and a large number of retailers spread Crude sold between 51-100 tonnes the drugs throughout country. Approximately per annum 5000-6000 poor families residing in the remote hilly areas are engaged in the Arternisia rnaritirna (Afsantine), Cassia collection during summer months. The angustifolia (Sana), Cordia latifolia annual of various herbal consumption (Sapistan), Zingiber zerurnbet (Nar can be dividedinto four drugs categories kachoor), harrnala (Hermal), as below: Paganurn Malva sylvestris (Tukhame khubazi), Category-A Nigella sativa (Kalongji), Cornrniphora mukul(Gugal), Sisymbrium irio (Khaksir), Crude sold than 200 drugs more tonnes Cichoriurn (Kasni), Saliva annum intybus per haemotodes (Bahman-surkh), Mallotus Glycyrrhiza glabra (Mulathi), Carurn philippensis (Kamila), Lallernantia copticum (Ajwain), Valeriana jatamansii royleana (Yukhame-e-balanga) and (Mushk Bala), Cassia fistula (Amaltas), Saussurea costus (Kuth). Punica granaturn (Anardana), Foenicularn vulgare (Sonf), Conandrum Category-D sa tivurn Cuminurn urn (Dhania), cymin Crude sold between 2-50 tonnes Rosa damascena drugs per (Zeera safaid), (Gul-e- annum surkh), Plantago ovata (Ispaghol), Onosma bra ctea turn (Gaozaban), Furnaria indica (Shatra), Swertia Lawsonia alba chirayita Zizyphus vulgaris (Unab), (Chirata), Berberis lyciurn (Darhald), (Hina), Buniurn persicum (Kala Zeera) Nyrnphaea lotus (Nelofar), Althaea and Mentha (Paudina kohi). longifolia officinalis (Tukham-e-khatmi), Category-B Hyoscyarnus niger (Khurasni ajwain), Zanthoxylurn arrnaturn (Timbar), Aloe Crude sold between 100-200tonnes drugs indica (Kauwar Cassia absus annum gandal), per (Chasku), Acornscalarnus (Bach), Nepeta Viola serpens (Banafsha), Adianturn ruderalis (Badar tonia) and Colchicurn capillus-veneria (Persoshan), Terminalia hiteum (Suranjan-e-talkh).

119 SharrngLocal and Slitional Lxpcrient rn Conseivation of M€dial and ArornatK 1'lant in South Asia

Irade in medicinal plants is erratic due agricultural commodities the exports of to standard imposed by the Developed medicinal plants do not find sufficiently Countries. The prices also fluctuate remunerative price at the international due to variation in rates even in level due to the fluctuation in price and greatly of crude in the the same market and it is difficult to supply position drug market, ascertain actual rate of a particular drug plant. Conclusion and recommendations Export I Facilitie for free exchange of germplasm materialof medicinal and Medicinal Plants exported in crude forms aromatic plants may be providedfrom are generally listed in the "Foreignirade the south Asian countries. Statistic of Pakistan". the average data 2. Intormation on the and for the last 5 years are given below. marketing scope of medicinal plants in the Crude drugs valued at 21 8 million rupees international market may be compiled are exported annually from Pakistan Like and freely exchanged

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3. Training facilities to cope with the helpful in enhancing the exiting post-harvesting problems of knowledge of natural and cultivation medicinal plants may be provide medicinal Plants and for to enable the developing countries dissemination of information amongst like Pakistan to improvethe qualities all government organization, of crude drug being exported or "Dawakhanas" and persons engaged consumed with in the country. in this vital industry. 4. Exchange of information on the Acknowledgement: The author is grateful fabrication of extraction plants to IDRC/MAPPA for the invitation to developedby different South Asian attend the Regional Workshop, Pokhara, countries. Nepal.

5. Facilities for testing the quality of References active crude ingredients of drug 1956. A Note on the Plants meant or Anonymous for export consumption of Medicinal Value Found in Pakistan. within the be country may provided Medicinal Plant Branch, Pakistan Forest to avoid adulteration. Institute, Peshawar. 6. of information on the Exchange large Trade Statistics of Pakistan, 1992. scale cultivation of Foreign organized Export and Re-export, April-June, 1992. medicinal and aromatic plants as Federal Bureau of Statistics, Government in some south Asian practiced of Pakistan, Vol. 27(4). countries. Khan, A.A. and Zaidi, S.H. 1994. 7. Establishment of nurseries of higher Medicinal Plants: Their Potential asMinor elevation medicinal plants for supply Forest Producein Pakistan. In: Handbook of seed and stock followed planting of Forestry. Pakistan AgriculturalResearch by pilot-scale cultivation of profitable Council, Islamabad. drug species in the farmer's field for popularization. Thus in-situ Zaidi, S.H. 1996-97. Quarterly Progress cultivation would result in mass Reports on "Medicinal Plant Survey". Bio- production and sustenance in their diversity Project, IUCN, Islamabad. natural abode for future prosperity of inhabitants.

8. Research facilities for development of medicinal and aromatic plants are improved at the Institute through development projects. Such a development programme would be

121 Local Management of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Gorkha District, Nepal

Helle 0. Larsen

ABSTRACT likely to be successful than a purelycentral approach. The potential of local institutions in management of common property Introduction natural resources is widely For many inhabitants of rural not least in which acknowledged, Nepal communities in Nepal, collection and has one of the world's most progressive trade of wild medicinal and aromatic forest policies in terms of forest user plants (MAPs) is one of little income group participation. But high-altitude generating activities. Althoughthe state- medicinal and aromatic plants are rarely led community forestry programme in included in forest management plans, Nepal demonstrates a national meaning that formal management understanding of the importance of responsibilities lie with central collective action in local management of authorities. This paper explores the forests for firewood, fodder and timber practices and potentialsfor management (Arnold and Campbell 1985), this has not of commercially collected high-altitude been extended to include commercially medicinal and aromatic plants in Gorkha collected non-timber forest products District, Nepal. Through 80 semi- (NTFPs)1, such as MAPs (Edwards 1996). structured interviews in seven village Common of committees access property management development having natural resources is widespread in the to connected a spatially alpine area, Nepalese Middle Hills (Jackson 1999; Rai current practices are outlined and future and Thapa 1993; Tamang 1993). Yet MAPs potentials are discussed. It is concluded are assumedto bean open-access resource that most often the current collection is for which centralcontrol is paramount for regulatedin very informal ways, but that sustainable exploitation (Chaudhary 1998; these (with central assistance) are more HMG 1988; Kandel1998; Malla et al. 1995;

The official Nepalese definition is: all productsfrom forests and related land uses except timber, fuelwood and fodder (HMG, 1988)

122 Local Management ofMedicinal and AromaticPlants in Gorkha District, Nepal

Shresta and Joshi 1996). This attitude is of MAPs and district forest office staff. notable in light of the widespreadillegal Additional information was collected collection and trade (Aryal 1993) and the through rapid rural appraisal (RRA) limited data available on which to base exercises, attending village meetings, sustainable management (Kleinn et al. observing collection of high altitude 1996); there is e.g. no national estimate MAPs, and by observations while crossing of the Nepalese MAP resource. the central alpine collectionarea from east to west. The objective of this researchis to assess to what extent MAPs in Nepal can be Through review of Nepalese policies and termed a common property resource analysis of the information obtainedfrom (CPR), and what implications this has for interviews, endogenous and exogenous designing policies conducive to factors influencing how MAP collection management that is both ecologically is organised and carried out are identified. sustainable and socially just. Following major theories in collective action (Oakerson 1992; Ostrom 1990) Methodology analytical emphasis is placed locally on resource socio-economic The research is local attributes, investigating characteristics of the of MAP resources collectors, impact managementsystems of outside influence and resource users' in the central part of Gorkha District, interactions related to rule making. Nepal. In this area the population from seven VDCs2 (Barpak, Gyachowk, Results Kharibot, Laprak, Singla, Sirdibas, Uhiya) has access to one large, spatially A conceptual framework of MAP connected high-altitudearea for grazing collectionin the study area was developed and collection of MAPs. Information was to explain what influences the local altitude MAP gathered during the periods of February organization of high to October 2000, and January to collection, and how. The framework is shown in of November 2001. Interviews in one village Figure 1; presentation research follows the served to form an initial understanding findings category of local collective action mechanisms, and titles in the figure. a checklist for further interviews was Community characteristics developed. Subsequently, eighty semi- structured interviews of30 to 90 minutes The dominantethnic group in the central duration and many informal area of Gorkha District is gurung, in the conversations were undertaken with eastern part with inclusion of some inhabitants from the seven VDCs, traders tamang, and in many villages there are

2An administrationalunit comprising about 5,000-9,000 inhabitants.

123 Sharing Localand National Experience in Conservationof Medical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia

Resource -j 4— —[aflon 1cost-benijdu

I I I I IConununityl > Rules Behaviour tcharacteristlcsl rtp

Figure 1. Conceptual framework ofhow high altitudG MAPcollection is organised. small groups of kami (smiths, scheduled Communities with access to the central caste). The kami do not possess land, MAP collection area are similar with their traditional occupation is forge work respect to norms for co-operation, but current demands are not sufficient heterogeneity (economic stratification) to employ all, and wage labour and and types of conflicts (discrimination of sharecropping are frequent undertakings. low caste village members). Differences The gurung are mainly farmers, they were found in terms of (i) wealth, as some millet and cultivate maize, wheat communities were able to cultivate paddy (cultivation of paddy rice is not possible rice and were located closer to economic in the northern of the central part area), centres; (ii) size, as settlement in some and rear cattle, buffaloes, and sheep VDCs was concentrated in one large theincome with goats. Many supplement village whereas other VDCs had several labour, and collection of wage portage smaller villages and (iii) ethnic MAPs, some engage in local trade and as are not found in some receive from the Indian or composition, tamang pension the eastern part of the district. British army. Access to any of the villages is by foot; the closest market towns are Reciprocity Gorkha and Arughat, ofwhich the latter is accessible by road only in the dry Norms for co-operation in villages of the season. study area are strong, and presentlyboth

124 Local Management ofMedicinal and Aromatic Plants in Gorkha District,Nepal

spontaneous and induced local yarsagumbawas lifted; they had not heard organizations exist. In all villages visited, about the ban on kutki by autumn 2001. decisions and forest regarding pasture The bans on collection have had some as well as management, hydropower, MAP water maintenance and law and order effect on the organization of tap collection. These collection of are made the members at days by community which has a market or elected panchaunle, high public meetings by locally value, continues in a less visible fashion committees. The number of decision- than before, and collected amounts may makers can vary accordingto the nature have decreased. Localleaders of decisions, all individuals officially try generally to the collection,but involved in an issue have the to stop unofficiallythey right express doubt as to the background of the become involved, but some respected ban. After February 2001 yarsagumba is individuals tend to be involved in most collected in areas where it was in a previously decision-making village. not known to occur, and it seems that the ban has drawn collectors' Since traditions for co-operation in lifting attention to the management of common pool resources product. withinthe villagesare strong, individuals Resourceattributes can rationally expect norms of reciprocity, also when new activities or resourcesare Commercially collected high-altitude involved. MAPs are typically found on alpine meadows at around 3500 to 4500m. Legislation Collectionareas coincide with community Current the need pastures, often located 1-2 days from legislation prescribes The commercial collection of for collection permits and royalty villages. MAPs has been undertaken in the study payment (HMG, 1995). MAP collectors area for more than three generations, and are somewhat aware of this, but since it traders deal with this not focuses on four species collected July to paperwork, November much thought is given to the issue. Until (Nardostachys grandiflora, 2001 the collection of two Neopicrorhiza scroph ulariifolia, Aconitum February the plants, Dactylorhiza hatagirea orochryseum, Dactylorhiza hatagirea); and collection of a fifth species, Cordyceps (panchaunle) Cordyceps siriensis is was banned. The ban on sinensis, becoming increasingly (yarsagumba), The are sold to was lifted, and collection of popular. products village yarsagumba traders, road head traders in another MAP, Arughat, Neopicrorhiza Gorkha or on rare occasions in was bazaar, scrophulariifolia (kutki), prohibited. Kathmandu. MAP collectors in the study area are aware of the rules before February 2001, High-altitude MAPs in the centralarea of and also know that the ban on Gorkha District constitute a common

12 Sharing Localand National Experience in Conservationof Medical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia property resourcein as much as there is Rules a defined of a group (the population The current CPR is based or in some cases a of a regime primarily VDC, sub-group on of and access and exclusion excludability non-members, VDC)holding rights rules on collection are few. In one areas with specific to boundaries that are clearly ward of Kharibot VDC an area has been defined and and by ridges rivers, officially handed over for MAP all inhabitants area. recognised by of the management under the community The origins of the boundaries are unclear, forestry program (DFO 2000). Rules for but they have existed for more than three this area include aban on collectionduring generations and are probably related to 1995-2001, nursery establishment and pasture management; the existence of plans for rotational collection from 2002 Nepalese mountainpasture management onwards. Hired guards (paidby an NGO) systems is well-documented (Jackson carry out intensive monitoring, and 1999; Rai and Thapa 1993). Monitoring defection carries fines and confiscation of of the MAP resource is not formally products. In the remaining areas local institutionalized but local shepherds and regulation of MAP collection involves fixed MAP collectors are present in the alpine boundaries, sporadic monitoring, to decide the date area until mid to late October, and they village meetings starting observe and take action intruders for collection and purchase of collection against outsiders. when possible. rights by Members of the more households Collection of MAPs involves removal of wealthy rarely engage in MAP collection, i.e. the the root of the plants, and using the leaders who facilitate most of the of Oakerson the village terminology (1992), decisions regarding the resource do not of the MAPresource is therefore jointness actually benefit directly from it. Among zero (collection by one person directly collectors there is widespread influences the amount of resource understanding that too early collection is available to others). Illegal collection by harmful to regeneration, and although outsiders has been punished with a fine there is no officialrule it is held that early and confiscation of the collected material, collection is unwise. but collectors from one VDC may and individual cost- a to collect MAPs Behaviour purchase permission benefit in other VDCs, just as they may buy permission to graze their sheep. The Generally, MAP collectors are found to MAP resource is most abundant in observethe local rules on boundariesand Barpak, Kharibot, Sirdibas and Uhiya, starting date for collection, whereas the and only in Kharibot are collection official ban on collection of panchaunle permissions not issued to outsiders. often is ignored. Some early collection of

126 LocalManagement ofMedicinal and Aromatic Plants in Gorkha District,Nepal jatamasi by shepherds is admittedto take equitable distribution of benefits accruing place, but it is the general perception that from the resource. most people wait. This may be as much the a of the labour No quantitative monitoring of consequence agricultural MAP resource has been as of concerns. No action Nepalese cycle biological undertaken, and this makes verification is taken collectors, and against early of the first hypothesis difficult. Collectors others do not consider their actions very in the central area of Gorkha District are harmfulas they are few and collect small as to whether MAPs are amounts. disagreeing degraded compared to 25 years ago. NGOs previously working in the central Collectors say that they have stopped area have collectors to collecting MAPs due to three factors: (i) suggested replant less income leaves and upper parts of the roots of demanding generating and kutki in order to facilitate activities, such as trade, are becoming jatamasi scant regeneration. This practice would increasingly possible; (ii) increase collection time three times information on MAP prices makes by collectors unsure where to sell their and decrease yields significantly, and and since collectors are not convinced such products; (iii) the fear of transporting the most work are not profitable product (panchaunle) practices may they applied. to the market. Individual discount rates are influenced In all membersof a the of and principle, community by e.g. expectance reciprocity have access to the alpine pasture, and the need for income. The norms for MAP collection should therefore be an collective action found in this study equitable activity. However, the limited means that discount rates should be low, involvement of the kami suggests some because collectors are certain that fairly inequity. Although all community other collectors will the respect locally members have the nominal right to collect agreed rules. The fact that collectors MAPs, the kami's access is limited by engage in MAP collectiononly when cash tacitly restricted information supply. is needed indicate relativelyhigh discount Furthermore, local rules on MAP rates, but the presence of locally collection are set by local leaders not respected boundaries in the alpine necessarily engaged themselves in the pastures also contributes to making activity whose needs may differ from the collective action a rational strategy. collectors'. Outcome of MAP collection Conclusion

The professed advantages of common High-altitude MAP collection in Nepal is property resource management are said to degrade the resource, and central sustainable resource management and control is argued to be necessary for

127 Sharing Localand National Experiencein Conservationof Medical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia sustainable management. But current only happen if local collectors are central management, as specified in the involved. But given the flaws of local Forest Regulations (HMG, 1995) has a management mentioned above, this needs number of flaws: (i) it is based on very to be supplementedwith knowledgeand limited data on nationalplant occurrence incentives that can only be provided by and plant biology; (ii) it does not take central actors. There is therefore a great information on local plant populations need to combine the two forms of into consideration; and (iii) rules are not management in an approach that enforced (as testified by widespread empowers local collectors to sustainably illegal collection and trade). manage the MAP resource. Such an approach is not easy, but in this Nepal It is assumed in that there widely Nepal can draw on years of experience with the central is no alternative to management Community Forestry Programme. of the MAP resource, but as demonstratedby the current organization Acknowledgement: The author is grateful of MAP managementin Gorkha District to IDRC/MAPPA for the invitation to that is not true. The MAP resource is attend the Regional Workshop, Pokhara, subject to local management, and Nepal. it not be to although may very apparent References outsiders the mechanisms of collective action work for this resourceas for many Arnold, J.E.M. and Campbell, J.G. 1985. others in Nepalese mountainvillages. Collective management of hill forests in Nepal: the Community Forestry Local also has flaws. MAPs management DevelopmentProject. In Proceedings of may be locally overexploited due to the conference on common resource unclear tenure lack of rights, biological management. Washington D.C. April or the need for immediate knowledge 1985. pp. 425 - 454. income. But there are also some important advantages to local Aryal, M. 1993. Diverted wealth: the trade management: (i) it can be based on in Himalayan herbs. Himal Jan/Feb 1993 detailed knowledge about local (9-18). and (ii) rules populations; locally accepted R. P. 1998. in can be enforced. Chaudhary, Biodiversity Nepal: status and conservation. S. Devi. If the high-altitude MAP resource is as Saharanpur. 324 pp. threatened as authors many argue, District Forest office. 2000. Annual radical action is needed to save both report 2000. District Forest Office, Gorkha. important biodiversity values and vital local income sources. Given the flaws of Edwards, D.M. 1996. Non-timber forest the current central management this will products and community forestry: Are

128 Local Management ofMedicinal and AromaticPlants in Gorkha District, Nepal they compatible? Banko Janakari 6(1): status and trade. FRIS Project Paper 4. 3 - 8. Forest Research Information System, HMG and FINNIDA. Kathmandu.27 pp. His Majesty's Government of Nepal, 1988. Forest-based industries Oakerson, R.J. 1992. Analysing the development plan, part II: medicinal and commons: a framework. In Bromley, D.W. aromatic plants and other minor forest (ed.), Making the commons work:theory, products. Ministry of Forest and Soil practice and policy. Institute for Conservation. Kathmandu. 146 pp. Contemporary Studies Press. San Francisco. pp. 41 - 59. His Majesty's Government of Nepal, 1995. Forest Regulation, 2051, official Ostrom, E. 1990. Governing the English translation. Ministry of Forests commons: the evolution of institutions for and Soil Conservation. Kathmandu. 99 collective action. Cambridge University pp. Press. Cambridge. 280 pp. Jackson, W.J. 1999. The dynamics of lekh Rai, N.K. and Thapa, M.B. 1993. forest use in the middle hills of Nepal. Indigenous pasture management systems PhD dissertation. Centre for Systemic in high-altitude Nepal: a review. Research Development, Faculty of Environmental Report Series 22. His Majesty's Management and Agriculture, University Government of Nepal and Winrock of Western Sydney, Hawkesbury. International. Kathmandu. 81 pp. Kandel, P. N. 1998. An interaction Shresta, T. B. and Joshi, R. M. 1996. Rare, between forest and people in Jumla, endemic, and endangered plants of Nepal. District Forest Office. Jumla. 19 Nepal. WWF. Kathmandu. pp. unpublished. Tamang, D. 1993. Indigenous Kleinn, C., Laamanen, R., Malla, S.B., management of natural resources in 1996. Integrating the assessmentof non- Nepal. Winrock International. wood forest products into the forest Kathmandu. 375 pp. inventory of a large area: experiences from Nepal In Leakey, R.R.B.; Temu, A.B., Melnyk, M., Vantomme, P. (eds.), Domestication and commercialisation of non-timber forest products in agroforestry systems. Non-Wood Forest Products 9. FAO. Rome. pp. 23 - 30. Malla, S.B., Shakya, P.R., Rajbhandari, K.R., Bhattarai, N.K., Subedi, M.N. 1995. Minor forest products of Nepal: General

129 Community Oriented Conservation of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in the Garhwal Himalaya, Uttaranchal, India

Arun K. Badoni Kfran Arun

Introduction hatagirea, Didymocarpus pedicillata, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Ephedra gerardiana, Jurinea (MAPs) Mahonia have been a vital role in the macrocephala, napaulensis, long playing aculeata, life supporting systems of contemporary Meconopsis Megacarpaea civilization the of polyandra, Nardos tachys graridiflora, by serving purpose Picrorhiza maintaining good health and well being kurrooa, Podophyllum Rheum Saussurea of mankind. Unfortunately during the hexandrum, australe, Swertia Valeriana past few decades the phyto-diversity is costus, chirayita, etc. Hence the facing several man-made threats. These jatamansii, prioritization included destruction or modification of of in-situ and ex-situ conservation and habit, over exploitation for commercial, cultivation of many medicinal and scientific and educational purposes, aromatic plants(MAPs) have become most overgrazing by domestic animals, urgent. extension of agricultural land, SHER's urbanization and other so-called Approach developmental activitieslike construction The society for Himalayan Environmental of road, development of tourism Research (SHER) has been engaged in industry, mining, etc. The plant several aspects of Biodiversity populations are threatened also by Conservation and Sustainable Stable natural various calamities like flood, Development with particular reference to etc. drought, diseases, medicinal plants within Garhwal region in It includes of Apart from these, commercial India. six districts viz. exploitation of plants has become the Uttaranchal, Chamoli, Dehradun, most serious threat to natural , Tehri, Rudraprauag andUttarkashi. SHER's activities populations, some prominent examples ongoing pertaining to of the over-exploited medicinal plant conservation and cultivation of MAPs are species being Aconitum atrox, Aconitum based mainly on activities like Fact Finding heterophyllum, Allium spp., Bergenia Tours (FFTs), Applied Research (AR) and ciliata, Barberis spp., Dactylorhiza Participatory Action Research (PAR).

130 CommunityOriented Conservation ofMedicinal and Aromatic Plants in the Garhwal Himalaya, Uttaranchal,India

Facts Finding Tours (FFTs) information on 85 plant species being used to treat various diseases and ailments, In order to understandwhat is happening methods of modes of in the environment withinthe drug preparation, Himalayan uses, dose and course. regions of Uttaranchal, SHER has organized several FFTs to various difficult The survey team also collected a number terrains, rich in medicinal and aromatic of old manuscripts written in local plants. These areas included Bhagirathi languages concerning diseases and the Valley, Tons Vally, Mandakini Valley, herbal modes of their treatment. These Yamuna Valley and also alpine meadows local people also assisted SHER personnel (bugyals) such as Panwali Kantha, in surveying their traditional harvesting Madmaheshwar, Kham, Marni, Hathni, localities that helped to understand the Dayara, Gidara, Satopanth, Mahanir, issue in considerable detail. It has been Har-Ki-Doon, Valley of Flowers, Fateh well realized that the only way to keep Parwat, Chyangsheel, etc. In course the traditional healingsystem functioning of FFTs, survey of important is the popularization of in-situ and ex-situ medicinal and aromatic plants following conservation of medicinal and aromatic random sampling technologies were plants in their habitats. undertaken and it was noticed that Research several taxa like Aconiturn atrox, Applied (AR) Aconiturn heterophyllurn, Podophyllurn Considering the importance of hexandrum,Polytgona turn verticillaturn, conservation and cultivation of MAPs, Picrorhiza kurrooa, Nardos tachys SHER initiated the Applied Research (AR) grandiflora, Rheum australe and many program in order to develop cultivation others were on the verge of extinction. practices for selected medicinal and aromatic species. SHER's interest has also been drawn plant towards the investigation on Traditional For this purpose, germplasms were Systems of Medicine (TSM) and assessing collected from different parts of the their status. For this proposeseveral field Garhwal Himalaya. Living plants were visits were conducted covering about 60 transplanted at the Eco-laboratories. villages in 5 districts namely Pauri, Tehri, Plants were also raised from the collected Chamoli, Rudraprayag and Uttarkashi. seeds. Some sees were sown in the eco- During these surveys some 70 laboratory of sub mountainous zone at professional traditional medicine Vikasnagar for experimental purposes. practitioners (Vaidyas), 150 aged people 150000 and 4,25,000 seedlings of having knowledge on TSM, 80 village economically important medicinal plant womenengaged in midwifery and many species were raised in nursery beds at herdsmen were interacted. The Majhota tok in Dhatmir village and information documented included Shirolatok in Sidri village. Experiments

131 Sharing Localand National Experiencein Conservation of Medicaland Aromatic Plants in South Asia pertaining to multiplication of these NIAGARA at 50 ppm concentration species, comprised of vegetative enhanced the sprouting percentage in propagation and seed germination under Podophyliurn hexandrum, Paris different concentrations of hormone, soil polyphyila and Polygonatum texture and sowing depth carried out in verticilia turn. The fresh weightof rhizome nursery sites and observed for sprouting also increasedwith hormonetreatment in of shoot and survival leafy percentage. comparison to control. The best methodswere replicated for the large-scale production of planting Application of STIK and GA3 on cut parts materials. Finally experiments were of dormant shoot buds of Dactylorhiza conducted for the better of production hatagirea showed that the length and useful plant parts. gross weight of roots increased The effect of NIAGARAon tuber cuttings significantly but the natural shape of tuber of Aconiturn atrox at 100 ppm (paw shape) was distorted completely. concentration enhanced the percentage of in middle and lower GA3 at 100 ppm concentration sprouting enhanced the segmentsin comparison to control in the significantly germination nursery site. The fresh weight of tubers percentagein Aconiturn atrox, Aconitum got enhanced under NIAGARA heterophyllum, Saussurea costus and treatmentat the end of first year, but no Selinurn wallichianurn. However, in case effect was observed in case of number of of Rheum australeGA3 treatmentdid not sprout particularly in lower and middle show any correlation. Ga3 treatment segments. Similar studies when reduced the seed germinationpercentage conducted under demonstration site in case of Valeriana jatarnansii. exhibited a large decrease in sprouting percentage under control as well as Germination of Aconiturn atrox and hormonal treatments. Aconiturn heterophyllum, observed under three textural groups of soil, exhibited a The response of basal part of stems correlation. loam was of Aconiturn Aconiturn significant Sandy atrox, found to be most conducive as far as and heterophyilurn, Dactylorhiza and of was under 100 concentration growth development seedlings hatagirea ppm concerned. However seed of NIAGARA showed a considerable germination was observed in increase in percentage in percentage highest silty sprouting loam of soil. In loam comparison to control. 12% of Aconiturn type silty clayey type heterophyilurn plants reached the of soil germinationpercentage was found flowering stage within one year. The to be almost half to that of silty loam. The percentageof flowering was observed to fresh weight of roots also reduced be almost double with NIAGARA gradually from sandy loam to silty clay treatment. loam.

132 CommunityOriented Conservation ofMedicinal and AromaticPlants in the Garhwal Himalaya, Uttaranchal, India

Seeds of Aconitum heterophyllumsown • Organization of several programs on at the depth of 0.5cm exhibited a very Medicinal Plants Conservation high germination percentage in Education (MPCE) for students at comparison to seeds sown at the depth schools, collages, and university of 0.1 cm and 0.3 cm. The percentage of levels, of true as well as fresh emergence • 15 lectures, 2148 weight of roots also increased with benefiting participants, increased depth from 0.1 to 0.5 cm. the status These resulted in the • 8 Essay Contests concerning experiments and conservationof MAPs, of for Himalayan development agro-technologies participated by 95 participants, some promising MAP species, and produced enough planting materials • 5 Quiz Contestswith 25 participants, ready for transplantationin the field. • 6 Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Participatory Action Research: (PAR) (MAPs) species plantation programs at the campusof different institutions, This program has been initiated for enhancing community oriented • 6 Seminars with 790 participants, Sustainable Biodiversity Management. 5 with 130 The local people have been convinced • Workshops participants, that: • 2 Sangosthi with 250 participants, • Medicinal and aromatic plants are • 3 Exhibitions during local festivals important source for their subsistence with 8500visitors, living, • Organization of awareness program • There is a big gap between supply for the advocacy of in-situand ex-situ and demand, the demand exceeding conservation and cultivation of MAPs the supply, and amongst the people of different sects at regional levels, • Local communities are the integral parts of biodiversity conservation and • Organization of Eco-camp for managementprograms, and the local villagers, forest dwellers and tribal people can guide, consul, cooperate communities of the region to or withhold cooperation. understandthe effects of uncontrolled exploitation of MAPs as well as to The main activities following are the generate willingness for the ex-situ regarding the conservation, conservation of important medicinal consciousness on MAPs and their plant species throughcultivation. This cultivation so far conducted under the covered about 25 villages with the PAR program of SHFR: participation of 2000 local inhabitants.

133 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia

Organization of Training for Trainers and rational exploitation of existing (OTFT) for the dissemination of resources for the preparation of technology pertaining to the different products from wild edibles multiplication and propagation of MAPs: like Hippophae, Rhododendron,etc. Five TRUGA Camps organizedso far 5 OTFT at SHER sites with • organized has benefited 160 participants. 120 participants from government institutions and NGOs, Outcomes • 2 OTFT organized at other institutions • More than 21,000 people have been with 50 participants. benefited with knowledge regarding the utility potentials and conservation Organization of Get-together programs needs of MAPs and herbalhealth care for the local herbal (Gosthi) practitioners systems. for sharing their knowledge regarding traditional medicinal strategies and • Preparation of several products from rejuvenationand strengthening of TSM wild edibles coupled with technical based on MAPs: assistance regarding herb cultivation for uplifting the local communities' • 3 Gosthi organized with the socio-economic status has been carried participation of 18 local herbal out. practitioners (Vaidyas). • At present 28 farmers are engaged in Organization of village level meetings, the cultivation of a number of debates and camps for the promotionof important medicinal and aromatic TSM with the help of resource persons plant species like Aconitum atrox, and local herbal doctors: inuia racern osa, Picrorhiza kurrooa and Saussurea costus. • 15 camps organized with the participation of 667 villagers, • Nearly 250 villagers are ready for the initiation of commercial cultivation of of TRUGA for • Organization (Training MAPs on their private land. Rural Gainful Activities) camps related to MAPs in which several Acknowledgements: The financial method of medicinal plants assistance provided by Medicinal and multiplication as well as technical Aromatic Plants Program in Asia know-how obtained from the Applied (MAPPA), International Development Research Program was imparted to Research Centre (IDRC) for this projectis the progressive farmers selected from gratefully acknowledged. The authors are different village during the Eco- also grateful to IDRC/MAPPA for the camps. The participants were also invitation to attend the Regional trainedin the sagacious management Workshop, Pokhara, Nepal.

134 Conserving Medicinal Plants in Southern India

Raw Kumar

Why Conserve Medicinal Plants? Conservation Areas (MPCAs) to the maximum number of value: capture Ecological medicinal Medicinal plants occur in all bio- plants geographical zones. Programs: Cultural value: In-situ Conservation: This will help India has rich medicinal heritage (e.g., conserve inter- and intra-specific Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, Folk, etc.). medicinal plant diversity Economic value: Three Models: Medicinal plants constitutes 50% of the flowering plants; 1. Medicinal Plants Conservation Area (MPCA) model About Rs. 23,00,00,000 turnover/year through export 2. Medicinal Plants Development Area model Conservation and Management (MPDA) Plan (CAMP): 3. Non-Timber Forest Produce Area • A most cost effective and rapid (NTFPP)model assessment to prioritize medicinal Ex-situ Conservation: plantsand assign threat status, based on IUCN guidelines 1. Medicinal Plants Conservation (MPCP) • Experiencegained through successive Program Conservation Assessment and 2. Revitalization of Local Health Management Planning (CAMP) Tradition (RLHT) workshopshas resulted in assigning Red List Status to 110 medicinal Operational Features of the MPCA plants in three southern Indianstates Model • Thisprocesscanbefruitfullyutilized 1. A network of about 10 to 15 to establish Medicinal Plants conservation sites per state

135 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia

(depending on the size of the state), 5. Tropical dry evergreenscrub 200 to 500 hectares each; officially notified as MPCAs 6. West coast semi-evergreen forest 7. deciduous scrub 2. Sites located in relatively undisturbed Dry forests across different vegetation 8. Southern hilltop tropical evergreen types, at different altitude ranges, soil forest types and rainfall 9. Southern thorn forest 3. MPCAsare visualized as "no harvest" sites 10. West coast tropical evergreenforest

In-situ Conservation Sites (MPCA) Field survey: Criteria for selection: • After establishing MPCAs, repeated intensive botanical surveyshave been 1. At least one area in each major forest conductedat all the sites in different type and across different altitudinal seasons so as to collect flowering and zones fruiting material of all the plants

2. Areas easily accessible to public • They were identified in the field — by referring relevant floras 3. Easily manageable, around 200 — 500 ha.!site • Herbariumspecimens were collected, as international 4. known processed per Historically / traditionally standards areas for rich medicinal plant diversity (Kolli Hills, Kutralam [Tamil • Critical identification for certain Nadu], Kodachadri Hills — Kollur species have been done by confirming! [Karnataka], Agastiarmalai [Kerala] matching with the herbaria at MH, BSI and others 5. Should not affect the livelihood of locals • Botanical studies across the MPCA network will reliable MPCA forest provide types: information on the presence, 1. Southern moist deciduous forest distribution and distribution pattern ofmedicinal plants acrossthe various 2. Southern dry mixed deciduous forest forest types in the state and correlate their occurrence with various 3. Southern montane wet temperate like soil forest ecological parameters type, soil pH, rainfall pattern and altitude 4. Tropical dry evergreenforest range

136 ConservingMedicinal Plants in Southern India

• So far 30 MPCAs have been • Medicinal and non-medicinal plants established as conservation sites across 32 MPCAs in southern India

• 6 to 30 Red List species were captured • 20,000 sheets in each site • 8,369 records • To fill the gap in conservation of Red • 2,502 Listed species, several other MPCAs species have to be established • 1,555 Medicinal species • Two more MPCAs have been recently I 80 Red Listed species (out of 110 in S. established India) Kollur Medicinal Plants • This herbarium is supported by Raw ConservationArea (MPCA) Drug Museums (770), Eco-distribution (120), Trade data (1200), Number of species collected: 160 maps Propagation information (278) plus Number of species recorded: 124 visuals (4000) Total number of species 284 Management Focus: (collected + recorded): It is possible to undertake several types Number of medicinal plants: 86 (160) of activities at a conservation site, which have to be managed effectively. These Red listed 30 species: activities are: KulamavuMedicinal Plants Conservation Education focused on ConservationArea (MPCA) • High visitor frequency Number of collected: 170 species • Field Research focus on more of Red Number of species recorded: 148 Listed species Total number of species 318 • Local Community focused on (collected + recorded): Community Participation

Number of medicinal plants: 72 (170) • Nurseryoutreach focus on Easy access to public Red listed species: 24 Conservation Education: Inside the Herbarium Medicinal Plants Conservation awareness has one of the most • FRLHT, today among visitors through: comprehensive medicinal plants herbaria in India I Development of Nature Trails

137 Sharing Local and National Experiencein Conservation ofMedical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia

• Demonstration Gardens biology such as species distribution, population dynamics, reproductive • Centers . . Interpretation biology, genetic variability and • Nature Camps regeneration potential of 45 Red Listed species • Training to women self-help groups (SHGs) to use medicinal plants • These studies aim at developing suitable management strategies plus • Train the local resource persons to guidelines for species recovery serve as guides program by identifying the • Income generation/value addition bottlenecks of species survival and activities mitigating their survival threats Field Research: Nursery Outreach: • Mere establishment of conservation Supplying plantingmaterials to both non- sites will not ensure the conservation commercialand commercialusers through of Red Listed Medicinal Plants a network of medicinal plant nurseries and seed centers. • A systematic attempt to understand the bottlenecks of the survival of Ex-situ Conservation: the Medicinal Plants through • Indirect conservation Conservation Biological Studies help to mitigate the threats and ensure • Managed by NGOs survival of the species • Has components like EMF, HSRD, Research Institutes: Nursery Outreach ATREE, Bangalore Acknowledgement: The author is grateful IFGTB, Coimbatore to Medicinaland Aromatic Plants Program TBGRI, Palode in Asia (MAPPA), International Development Research Centre (IDRC)for Field Research: . . the invitation to attend the Regional Species Recovery: Workshop at Pokhara, Nepal. • For detailed field research activities, 6 research sites were selected (new site at Kulamavu to be assigned to C. fenestratum) • Field research being conducted on various aspects of conservation

138 Threatened Medicinal Plants of Maharashtra State, India

P. Tetali

SUMMARY Acknowledgements: The author expresses his gratitudeto IDRC (MAPPA) The first Conservation Assessmentand for the invitation to present this paper. Management Plan (CAMP) exercise on Mr. Darshan Shankar of Foundation for threatened medicinal plants of Revitalization of Local Health Tra4itions Maharashtra province, India was held (FRLHT), Bangalore is acknowledged for between 24-25 September 1998. Naoroji his support with technical information to Godrej Centre for Plant Research organize the Maharashtra CAMP (NGCPR) organized the exercise in workshop successfully. collaborationwith Department of Botany, University of Pune. Out of 183 species of medicinal plants considered for the CAMP exercise, 26 species belonging to 23 genera and 18 families were considered threatened in the wild and each species was assigned a threat status. Among the 26 threatened species, 1 species is Critically Endangered (CE), 12 species are Endangered(E) and 13 species are Vulnerable (V). Considering the part used, 12 species are harvestedfor their root, 3 species for their leaves, 3 species for their flowers, 3 species for their fruits, 3 speciesfor their seeds, 1 species for its bark and root, and 1 species for its seeds and corms. A comprehensive list of the threatened medicinalplants of Maharashtra hasbeen presented in Table 1.

139 Shaiing I oral and Nation1I xperiencein (.onscrvationof Mcdi ii nid Arornati Flints w 5outh Asia

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140 Sustainable Model for the Conservation and Promotion of Non-timber Forest Product Species: Experiences from Chhatishgarh State, India

J.A.C.S. Rao

SUMMARY pressureson other forest/NTFP rich areas. Hence they are also meaningful to The conservation, promotion and contribute in the conservation of Red propagation of NTFP is very much Listed species. In these sites, sustainable possible in the naturalforest areas as well harvesting can be adopted for fulfilling as out side it. It results in the promotion local needs together with considerable of biodiversity and subsequent rural income generation. income generation activities. An effort The of the model has been made in Raigarh district, major components India to conserve, included in-situ and ex-situ conservation, Chhattishgarh, and of NTFP With manage and develop biodiversity with development grooves. in-situ conservation, the vast stretches of special reference to NTFP through in-situ and ex-situ conservation in biodiversity-rich forests are protected, degraded conserved and In case of ex- waste lands and saranas. Saranas managed. forests, situ conservation forest are the sacred grooves strictly protected biodiversity-rich pockets are managed and promoted and worshipped by the local tribal and multi-tier with ideal of through plantation represent patches biodiversity viable NTFP conservation sites. economically species including herbs, shrubs, climbers and trees. The of the The proposedmodel involves site specific development saranas, sacred into NTFP were operations viz., multi-tier plantations, grooves, grooves which well. All the silvicultural operations involving attempted responded aforesaid have direct community based organizations (CBOs) components impacts for the sustainable use of deformed and on biodiversity conservation, NTFP and local-level income malformed trees, transplantation of NTFP promotion species, seed dibbling and dispersal of generation. the targeted NTFP species in all the In case of in-situ conservation, results potential habitats. These sites function as obtainedwere conspicuous from the very a buffer zone to fulfil major proportion first year of the initiative. Sustainable of local demands and lessen the biotic harvesting was possible along with

141 Sharing Localand National Experiencein Conservation of Medicaland Aromatic Plants in South Asia simultaneous promotion of certain species like Asparagus racemosus, which is in abundance. With the ex-situ conservation initiative, considerable income generation has become possible together with conservation effects. Saranas, the sacred grooves, provided remarkably encouraging responses and they have became enriched centers of biodiversity. The sacred grooves modified into NTFP grooves responded well with patches of NTFP species. The results of all the three componentsare promising. On the whole, the proposed model contributed in the conservation of biodiversity in general and in the conservation, promotion, propagation and sustainable management of NTFPs in particular, enhancing income generation potentialities as well. Acknowledgement: Invitation from IDRCIMAPPA for participation in the Regional Workshop, Pokhara, Nepal is highly appreciated.

142 POSTER PRESENTATIONS

STRATEGIES FOR EQUITABLE COMMERCIALIZATION Commercial Use of Biodiversity and Equity: Are They Compatible?

Bhishma P. Subedi HemantR. Ojha*

ABSTRACT I. Introduction

Subsistence use biodiversity alone is not Forest resources are an integral part of adequate to address the issue of rural livelihood support system in Nepal, livelihoods and create incentives to where an overwhelming majority of the stakeholders in conservation. The 20 million people live in the interface growing global demand for natural betweenforest and agriculture. Thereare products including medicinal and very few economic opportunities for the aromatic plants (MAPs) is posting both population of hill mountain areas, non- opportunities and challenges for the timber forest products (NTFPs) play a sustainable and equitable use of these crucial role in the livelihood strategy of resources. This paper examines the these people. relationship between commercialization and social equity in this sub-sector. The demand for Nepal's NTFPsis growing Equity within community as well as in the natural products markets at the betweencommunity and other business regional as well as global level. The stakeholders in the sub-sector is analyzed commercializationof these productsoffers by reviewing the various forms of an opportunity to not only local community-based enterprise initiatives communities but a number of business that exits in Nepal. The paper stakeholders that adds value to the concludes that mere market-driven products and delivers the end products commercialization does not guarantee to the hands of consumers. If community without favorable equity policy members do not feel the benefits are being environment and technical appropriate distributed fairly there will e less incentive services. to product the natural resources. The Key words: commercialuse, biodiversity, overall raw material source could become equity, medicinal and aromatic plants, threatened as well as the commercial Nepal activity and the biodiversity.

* Mr H. R. Ojha, Asia Network for Small-scaleAgricultural Bioresources(ANSAB), Kathmandu, Nepal

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This paper attempts to address the categories of ownership structure exist following key questions: (sole, FUG, coop, private limited, limited company). A consortium of FUGs is • Who are the business stakeholder somewhat different from FUG alone and in the NTFP sub sector and groups FUGs have as a how do these in terms coop. emerged very groups very local institution for of socio-economic characteristics? strong facilitating economic activities in the group as well • What is the businessfunction scales, as nearby communities. Some of them opportunitiesand challenges of each have undertaken well-planned enterprises of these stakeholders? while others have carried out discrete activities that enhance the economic well • Whatis the current of benefit pattern being of the community members. FUGs distribution among these are owned and a two- stakeholders and what are the factors managed through tier structure of Assembly and Executive determining the pattern? Committee, and are legally recognized as Overviewof NTFP Enterprises: self-governed institutions managing community forests through approved Global market for NTFPs are Nepal's big forest managementplans. and the demandtrend for these products is increasing, as more and more people In terms of linkage to raw materials, most from developedcountry are attracted to economic and enterprise activities are natural products. An ANSAB survey based on raw materials drawn mainly found that about 100 entrepreneurs from state controlled national forests and handledapproximately 42 thousandtons, community forests. A limited supply consisting of more than 100 different comes from private land. NTFP items in 1995. This amounted to more than 1.5 billion Nepali Rupees Many of the community-based enterprises (equivalent to US $26 million) in 1995 focus on domestic markets. Most products (Subedi 1997). Even this conservative are exported abroad to Europe and estimateshows that commerce involving America by a few processors and traders. NTFPs is contributing significantly to the Regional and national enterprises differ Nepalese economy. from community-based forestry enterprises in terms of scale of production, NTFP enterprises exist in various target market (usually focusing modalities, which can be outlined in internationalmarkets) and sophistication terms of to ownershipstructure, linkage of management. raw materials, target market, seasonality of operation, technologicalsophistication, In respect to products lines, enterprise management structure, product types initiatives exist in almost all possible and similar characteristics. Five main products lines that include essential oils,

147 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medical and AromaticPlants in South Asia

Ayurvedic preparations, cosmetics, dependingon whether they are residents toiletries, handmade papers, medicinal of communities where NTFPs are and aromatic products, wild mushrooms, produced. Local harvesters, community herbal teas, spices and other NTFPs. forest user groups (FUG), villager level Several processors and manufacturers traders, local NTFP cooperatives and local (such as HPPCL, Singha Durbar level processors are internalstakeholders. Vaidyakhana, Dabur, NPI, Gorkha Road-head/airport traders, regional Ayurveda Company) produce a number traders, large-scale processors, of items with internationalmarkets. manufacturersand retailers are external stakeholders. From the technological point of view, many use simple and locally available All stakeholders are linked through a technologies. Some process and value chaininvolving the flow of products manufacture the products physically (originating from natural resourcesbase) while others add value simply by and the money (originating from the end changing the trade location, such as the user). There are also other stakeholders Janaki FUG. The more sophisticated the in the sub-sector that facilitate or regulate technology, the more difficult it becomes the business functions in the value chain. for the community to manage the More relevant in equity analysis are enterprise. business stakeholders. Issues of equity also differ in terms of should be analyzed both within and Enterprises between these stakeholders. seasonality of operation. Those that collect NTFPs and sell the crude form to Equity is an economic variable, in terms traders have a limited operationseason, of how evenly benefits are distributed confined to few wintermonths. usually a among business stakehlders. Equity Papermaking enterprises generally should have some normative component, in the summer and other operate sunny a fair pattern of benefit distribution. An if the raw material is days supply equitable benefit distribution pattern plentiful. should favor low-income groups and II. Business Stakeholders and stakeholders producing socialbenefits and Equity Dimensions pay adequate for the value of the biodiversity. It may be argued that an The NTFP sub-sector involves business equitable NTFP industry favor the low stakeholders who might be positively or income groups such as local harvesters, negatively affected by the sub-sector and! village tradersand other internalbusiness or have influenced it at varying degrees stakeholders who represent social groups of scale, power and interest. These of the lower income bracket. From the stakeholders can broadly be groupedinto social benefit point of view, local internal and external categories harvesters and FUG are engaged in

148 r t t f r ii h n I th

1 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia they obtain from their NTFPs should also nights in caves, climbing steep slopes and include the value of the resource, not coping with extreme cold with insufficient merely the cost of extraction. clothing. Sometimes customary laws do not allow lower caste groups to collect Internal Stakeholders natural productsin specificlocations (such commercialization should as Malika area, Bajhang district). Lower Ideally, yield caste better returns to groups undertake cleaning, drying proportionately and of collected in the community-based stakeholders. A storage products houses in a traditionalway. comparative analysis of socio-economic characteristicsof these stakeholders, their Scale of business goes up to an annual business positions and functions is sales turn over of generally RslO, 000 to summarized in Table 2. A brief 50,000. Several risks that surround the description of this analysis is also business included changes of accidents presented. (wildlife, calamities), damages and loss (due to decaying, wastage, leakage), risk The stakeholders living in the if sale and price reductions. communities closest to the sources where NTFPs; are produced are generally poor, Forest user groups (FUGs): FUGs are self- local institutions and living at or below the poverty line, and governed user and heavily dependent on the surrounding recognized legitimate manager natural resources such as forests and of community forests. They earn money from NTFP trade as taxes as well as pastures for their livelihoods. revenues, and spend the moneyin variety Local Harvesters: Local harvesters live of community services. Economicallyand within communities near natural politicallyheterogeneous members within resources areas. They representpoor and FUGs have diverse needs and medium classes including children, expectations. The common and often women, elderly and disadvantaged formal rules hardly favor the interest of people. They meet a significant portion the specific NTFP interest groups, which of the household incomes from NTFR includeharvesters, small tradersand local collection. This seasonal employment herders. FUG leadershipusually has poor generates about 30/50% of their total representation from the poor and household incomes (that supports 3-6 disadvantaged group. Therefore, services months requirement for food, festival created through FUGinvestments are not expenses and the two basic food items always equally accessible to all income within the More to be purchased — salt and cooking oil). groups community. consolidated equity sensitive enterprises Local harvesters collect NTFP from and strategies need to be adopted by forests, alpine pastures and rocky areas. FUGs to achieve a more favorable equity They often walk 2-5 days passing the impact.

150 Commercial Use ofBiodiversity and Equity

Most FUGs have yet to incorporate NTFP well as road-head or airport traders, and provisions into the forest management sometimes with regional traders. Usually, operational plans (OP), and hence have they provide skills and techniques (such practically no control over such as harvesting, drying and storage) to commercial products. In such cases, FUGs and local harvesters. Overall, local outside traders get local harvesters to communities have mixed impressions of extract the products from community these traders, in some cases as cheaters forests under DFO permissions. FUGs and in other cases as contributors in with NTFPs with NTFPs incorporatedin marketing of NTFPs. They operatein low the OP can issue permission to local profit margin (ANSAB 1999) and the harvesters, and in some cases (such as business scale is generally a working FUG in the far-western Janaki Nepal) capital of Rs 50, 000. to 1000,000. conduct organizedtrading of raw NTFPs to regional traders (such as those in Local Processors: A FUG, a village trader Nepalgunj). Other business functions or a community-based company may do that FUGs started to undertake include local processing. FUG and village trader local processing and marketing. Despite cases have already been mentioned. a few sporadic initiatives, business Community based companies thinking and motivation has been a undertakingprocessing functions are also complex issue FUGs. increasing in numberaround the country. The on Traders: traders are equity implications depend how Village Village source raw relatively well-off members of the enterprises employ people, materials collectors, to whom communities, have strongersocial capital through in terms of with downstream they sell the products and to whom they linkages with in terms of raw traders and have a good compete materials fairly exposure as well as sales. to NTFP marketing channels level. The procurement product Business scale prime economic objectives of village reaches up to Rs. 1,500,000. traders are partly higher up to the need Local NTFP This structure to the local Cooperatives: hierarchy compared of collectors harvesters. also fall into the represents organizedgroups They poor (generally formed through outside and deprived group in the national context. interventions), usually registered and eligible for certain state subsidies but not They generally do not invest money of generally encouraged to do export their own, and they operate like agents business. They also represent poorer of road-head and regional traders. They community groups. Examples of this often provide some advancedpayments group include Praja NTFP Coop in and also obtain products in credit from Chitwan and Allo Cloth Production Club harvesters. They have relationships with in Sankhuwasabha. Their main business particular groups of local harvesters as functions include collection, processing

151 Sharing Localand National Experience in Conservationof Medical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia and trading. The business has generally positioned at points where bulk a scale of up to Rs 100,000. transportation is possible. Their scale of business runs to Rs 500,000. External Stakeholders up Regional traders: They represent traders The stakeholders in this are category with a higher investment capacity and generally economically well off and / or often are members of traditionalbusiness in politicallypowerful people the national often have context. Their trade or has a groups. They multiplesupply enterprise linkages with local harvesters, village goal of earning money to meet comfort traders and road-head traders. can and basic needs. These They luxury beyond exercise high political influence and have groups are generally educated, have smooth access to business services/inputs. exposure to the national as well as often form cartels to their international environment and They safeguard marketing interests. Association of can exercise better to Jari-Buti Nepal political power is an of this form of their business interests. (JABAN) example safeguard trader's association. Their main business NTFP business is one of several options functions include packaging and selling for them, particularly forregional traders. out to manufactures and Indian traders. Manufactures and exporters are generally They may also directly exportto the third public or private companies enjoying the countries. Their business scale can be as protection of business in national and high as Rs 20 million. internationaldealings. They do not have direct with the resourcebase Exporters: This group includes a few any affinity educatedand traders of the products. Their innovations in professional having terms of a new market, international market access. Thesetraders finding have have on international developing new products and others can exposure market and and skills also have a bearing on the distribution knowledge handling of benefits between themselves as well export and import regulations including the issue of certification. often have as between them and community based They business stakeholders. specific market linkages. Their transactions and communications are Road-head and Airport Traders: This sophisticated and involve the use of category represents wealthy, educated electronic media. They often have a good and local elite (political leaders, service business cultureand professionalism, and holders and businessman) who has the this gives them a competitive advantage ability to work in complex administration to deal with international buyers. They environments. They have a good undertake grading, cleaning, drying and exposure and knowledge of NTFP packaging before exportingthe products. markets, and often operate in strong Their business scale is around Rs. 25 horizontal competitions. They are million.

152 Commercial Use ofBiodiversity and Equity

Big Processors and Manufacturers: withinthe countryto local harvesters. The Processing and manufacturing is still in current pattern of distribution is uneven its infancy in Nepal. They represent with a generally high return to external national companies, both public and stakeholders, and a low return to external private. There include HPPCL (products stakeholders. from essential oils), NPI and BCP At the international (products from hand-made Nepali level, Iqbal paper), Gorkha Ayurveda, SDBK, and Choudhary (1995) found the striking Dabur Nepal (Ayurvedic preparations). pattern that developing countries are the They have strong legal backing but most major producers and exporters of raw of of them are facing internal(management) semi-processed and developed, and external (marketing) challenges. industrialized countries are the major They have a great scope of providing importers and enjoy high profits. and new natural employment developing At the nationallevel, based on an products that can fetch better prices in average internationalmarkets. of 13 products traded from catchments in the far-west, central and east Nepal, Retailers: Retails vary form small Edwards (1996a) found that harvesters of businesspeople exclusively dealing with NTFPs receive only 32% of the final price herbal medicines and spices to large in India. In a recent sub-sector analysis business houses dealing with finished based on data from the Karnali zone, goods, partly or wholly composed of regional traders followed by airport NTFPs, in large cities. Examples include traders generate the largest profit (Table Ayurvedic medicine shops, groceries 3). It is astonishing that one villager containing tea, herbal dyes, bambooand trader's profit is 58 times higherthan that rattan product retailers, sal leaf plate of a harvester. A road-head trader earns retailers around temples and more than 1000 harvesters of 17 village and others. As the marketplace, traders can earn. Likewise, regional consumer from NTFPs are products trader's profit is 4307 times higher than the of these limited, presence that of a harvester, 73 times of a village stakeholders is also low in Nepal. The trader of road-head trader. Given the scale of business from a few may vary similarity of the context, similar pattern thousand to a million rupees. of benefit distribution can be found in Current Pattern of Benefit other parts of the country in the sub- Distribution sector. For some products the price received by local harvesters is less their The present socio-economic, regulatory, labor charges. technological and marketstructure is not providing the fair share of profits to all Note: The total profit was estimated after national stakeholders generally and evaluating the total quantity of NTRPs

153 o I to 1 i in n Ii M I fl o P1 n 11 uth A i

ot

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0 I)19 traded in the Karnali zone. It was found in table 4 and an analysis of how assumed that for the selected species, these factors are relatcdto the distribution Karnali zone was the only supply source of benefits from the enterprises is for Nlepalgunj traders [he profit pcr presented in the following pages. ihe person is given by the total estimated analysis is based on the limited profit di iding by the estimated number observations strictsense, and it should be of actor in each part of participants taken as propositions for further inquiry. Furthermore some of these factors are LII, FactorsAffecting Benefit interrelated and the equity implication Distribution from the interactive effects of group factors may greatly differ from the sum As presented in the pervious sections, of their individual effects the distribution of benefits and burdens from an enterprisesis not fair from both Stakeholder Characteristics social and conservation of view. point both within and [his canbe from the Equity implications explained prevailing between the business stakeholders due business cnvironment is the subs€ctor the and characteristics the characteristics of prevailing positions including of stakeholders have been discussed in stakeholders themselves, policy and the section. Additional environment, markct previous regulatory characteristics that may have implications and available and conditions, technology are presented below services. Ihe factors that may affect the distribution of benefits within and Social structure: Egalitarian social between enterprises stakeholders are structure (such as Gurung, Magar Commercial Use ofBiodiversity and Equity

Table 4. Factors Affecting Benefit own benefits. More hierarchical social Distribution Among Business structure with class and caste distinction Stakeholders within a community may limit the access of certain group of people to resources I. Stakeholdercharacteristics for enterprise activities resulting into the • Social structure inequality. For example, members of some • Leadership disadvantagedcastes are not allowed to • Caste and ethnicity enter certain religion parts of the forest • Education in Bajhang. • Political/ideological homogeneity • Social values Leadership: Our observations throughout • Occupationalstructure Nepalindicate that where local leadership • Awarenesson enterprise opportunities is strong, committed and participatory, • Entrepreneurship culture the enterprise benefits to disadvantages • Remoteness section of the community are enhanced. 2. Market structure Examples could be found in Deudhunga • Vertical as well as horizontal Distillation and Bhitteri forest product competition • processing deprived community members Researchand invention and volunteer tremendous • Product community cycle works create distribution of • Scale of business to equitable benefits. • Value ofproducts 3. Policy and regulatory environment Social values and belief: Communities • Change in resource access regime have much stronger traditional values • Business access/propertyright than the other who have a • stakeholders, Business entry constraints wider socio-cultural exposure. • Tax and rent seeking Communities in Bajura and Mugu, for • Enterprise registration example, have a strong feeling for boiling 4. Business servicesand infrastructure before sell or distribute. This Availability honey they severely degrades the equality of honey and hence cannot be marketed. This and communities) favors equity within several other such social values in other FUG in Dhankuta community. Chapehit communities have limited scope of local has made arrangement for poorest benefits from the trade of NTFPs. community members to have equitable access to commercialforest productssuch Community homogeneity: Community as Cardamom and Amriso. In hierarchical members vary in terms of wealth, income, community structure, the higher caste education and beliefs, and the more a dominated leaders generally design and community is homogeneous in these implement systems that maximize their parameters, the more they likely to devise

155 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medical and AromaticPlants in South Asia equitable mechanisms. Nirmal Pokhari number of regional traders (usually FUG of Kaski is a strong case of exporters) who also control the price homogenous group where economic information. Involvement of the benefits are evenly distributed among the government parastatals furtheraggravated memberswith a special consideration for the market structure, which also enjoys the poorer members. the privilege from the state. The high concentration of the trade in culture: Local regional Entrepreneurship centers creates an oligopoly situation that harvesters and village traders generally is difficult to overcome. do not like to invest in improving the quality of business whichwould provided Competition is a positive force that helps more return to them, such as buying of balance the market, but the lack of access quality packing material. This lake of to information and capital found in the entrepreneurship culture also reduces NTFP sub-sector results in inefficiencies, their profits. Traders downstreammake most often to the detriment of poor decisions more business basis and hence producers. The high degree of control by are in a position to capturebetter returns. the regional traders in the trade could be balanced the for Market Structure by increasing competition NTFP export. To achieve this goal, airport Information and infrastructure: Internal traders or local marketing groups would and external business stakeholders have to learn about the export procedures have different access to marketing and establish business links with Indian information and infrastructure. The traders. The trade could be legalized and marketing infrastructure in rural areas is monitored. very poorly developed. The local Difficulties in market and traders reliable matching harvesters do not get requirementsby suppliers due to several market information and lack storage uncertainties such as production capacity. Usually there are many fluctuation, decreased collection due to with small of suppliers quantities early snowfall, inconsistent quality of products. Access to market intelligence productscoming from many sources, etc., is poor, and it is difficult for the collectors are also contributing to the low profit and local traders in Nepal to increase their margins of local harvesters and local share of the final selling price, but also traders. reduce the total output generatedby the sub-sectoras a whole. Karnali sub-sectorstudy showed that the main risk is created by the high price Competition: There is high competition fluctuations. With a high number of among local harvesters as well as village intermediaries, marketing costs are high. traders but the regional market is Changing weather conditions and the imperfect. There are only a limited unstable political/security situation in

156 Commercial Use ofBiodiversity and Equity

Karnali also have a negative influence on in Table 2, and a brief explanation of key the capacity to collect and transport the issues is given below. forest This is products by airplane. and restrictive The furtheraggravated by the limited number Complex procedures: of between Karnali and present regulation contains a set of flights Nepalgunj and restrictive to (even worse for then complex procedures passenger flights obtain and to extract and utilized for Cargo services). permits forest products. These procedures lack Changes in product values: Another institutional support and the provisions trend is the traditional collectorsand local for public goods (such as information, traders are marginalized when the research, technology, infrastructure and businessbecomes more profitable as the finance) to private and community value of product goes up. It is generally enterprises. Inconsistencies and the poor section of society who collects contradictions found withinand between NTFPs when the price is very low in the Forests Act, Regulations, Executive order to cope with their economic Orders and Circulars also complicate the hardship. But other members of society situation. Consequently, this law is may control the business, as these frequently circumvented. Most NTFP products become more valuable. trade occurs in the informal sector. Policy & Regulatory Environment There are no policy goals to facilitate commerce. Product regulations are control Considering the existing policy oriented. The restrictive are environment as the regulations (such government's not commitment to apparently by-passed, generally poverty alleviation, enforced, and to the progressive community forestry grant power and the economic regulating authorities to extract rents legislation importance and HelIes Subedi of NTFPs to the poorest segments of the (Olsen 1997; 1998; rural, remote, mountain and hill Kanel 1999). Under such conditions only the resourceful and influential populations) the goal of the new big traders should be to the are able to manage the business tactfully legislation improve at livelihoods of mountain populations by good profit. In the context of an supporting efficient and sustainable use imperfect regulatory environment and of these resources. However, the existing market structure, the more resourceful acts and regulations are still restrictive operatingat the marketcenters and rent- in nature. The role of government seekers often enjoybenefits at the expense agencies is perceived to be a controlling of the resource base, as well as local authority rather than an agency that harvesters and traders that have limited enables local environments. A list of access to information, market and other regulatory issues and their implications resource. Localcollectors, forest users and in the distribution of benefits is presented village level traders are not getting a fair

157 Shaiuig I ocal and Nitional I xpcricnct in C onwrvation ot MeduaI anI Arornai Plaifl in S uth Asia share from trade nor is the regulatory or multinational) companies are exerting environment providing incentives for an influence for creating constraints for sustainable harvest, Lack of knowledge few enterprises by imposing stringent on legal provisions, market information requirements. I his is more prominent in and are property rights arrangements this subsector For example, a wmpany the situation even worse making in Lurope may ask to provide the Business entry constraints: With the radioactive substance test rcsult before increasing trend of globalization, there accepting a valueadded product (suchas are many entry constraints for new herbaltea) from Nepal, which is too costly enterprises. The established big (national for a Nepalese entrepreneur to afford.

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Property rights: While the rights and roles activities where availability of business of local communities have been development services is far from reality. recognized for several years through The business development services and participatory forestry programs such as the type of external support can make a community forestry in Nepal, emerging positive contribution in social equity. With business stakeholders are yet to be the support from ANSAB, local FUGs in recognized as legitimate actors creating Humla enthusiastically developed and social benefits. The business in forestry implemented a conservation plan once products is considered a second-class they realized they could generate and is accessible to that activity, people substantial cash for group funds, as well can mobilize immense political and as the increased cash income of collectors. financial forces. In areas of many Nepal Some of the policy challengers faced by with the community forest in place, the FUG turn into prospects with access of some traditional local appropriate external support. harvesters, especially the poor and disadvantaged, to NTFP collection is With the establishment of a community reduced or stopped. owned processing company and improvement in marketing system, An analysis on the effect of ban on collectors began to tap the extra income distribution ofincome is presented in the from the NTFPs collected in a planned following chart (Fig. 1) using the case of a Kutki roots and the way. Collectors' selling price of (permittedproducts) valuable Jatamasi rhizomesand roots (banned for commercially plant (Jatamasi) doubledand the collectors' annual income export without processing). As Jatamasi from NTFPs from Rs and Sugandhawalroots were banned for tripled 2,665,436 to Rs 10,096,725 $ export in their unprocessed form, and like (US$ 39,783) (US The FUGs forest areas manyillegal products, margins and profit 150,697). having are high. It is very difficult for other formally handed over to them started traders, especially small ones, to enter receiving fees on the NTFPscollected from this illegal business. The oligopoly theirforests. The FUGs of Humla collected position of the small number traders a total of Rs 2,187,314 (US $ 32,646) in the makes price collusion likely. Thus, period of three years from 1996 to 1998 Nepalgunj tradersmake the highestprofit (Subedi 1999b). margins, about 50 percent. Comparisonof profit Margins for Business Services and Different Operators of Legally and Infrastructure Illegally Exported NTFPs The communities in more remote This mechanism provided equitable locations are in worst position in terms returns to local collectors and community of getting benefits form NTFP enterprise groups and hence created incentives for

159 'hanng I ocal and National fpcncncein C onse valon ofMethcal and Aromatic Plants in South Asia

F'igure I Comparison of profit margins for different operators of legally and illegally exported NTFPs,

KI FKI:Example of legally exported NTIP

Indian fraders loflettors 50 .... . Village fraders 195

Nepalgunj fraders i2°o

Jianla Airportfraders 430,

JATEAMANSI: Example of legally exported NTFP

Collectors 70, 4epaIurij fraders 52°o Village fraders 3°,

Jumla Airport fraders

conserving their resource base. TUGs opportunitics to make use of the funds have been utilizing their fund for (Subedi 1999d). strengthening the capacity of their members on resources management, watchmen's salaries in order to paying Nature and application of technology also forest areas from the protect illegal affect the equity Although technological harvesting, infrastructure of their requirement for the NFP enterprise villages, and other natural resource seems straight forward, the bulk of NTFPs management activities, Sonic of the FUGs are exported, mostlyto India,in raw from. that have generated funds have been As their function is limited to move the discussing ways and exploring products without any value addition, local

6O Commercial Use ofBiodiversity and Equity harvesters and traders receive only a real value of the product and the costs small portion of the total benefits. Most incurred, not to mention their livelihood of the available technologies are not needs and the level of efforts they put as appropriated for increasing the share of stewards of the naturalresource base that benefits to locals. They usually require yields commercial NTFPs. high level of skills, investment and An of variations in which is not analysis equity maintenance, usually scenarios indicate that innovative policy affordable to local entrepreneur. intruments with local, national or international and their effective IV. Conclusion provisions implementation with the provision for external technical and business Despite limited public efforts and absence inputs of business oriented could create favorable equity impacts. any outstanding These factors have interacted with other innovations in promotingthe NTFP sub- factors (as listed in sector, the economic values of determining equity unveiling table 4) to influence benefit and business on favorably consequent opportunity distribution among the stakeholders. a number of products have attracted More attention to the factors that can be several business Located at groups. manipulated may create more favorable various nodal points of the sub-sector equity in the NTFP sub-sector in Nepal. value chain, these groups have drastically different socio-economic characteristics Acknowledgements:We would like to thank Dr. Madhav Karki for us and are bestowedwith varying business inviting contexts, which in turn determine their to prepare the paper for the Regional differential access to business Workshop. Thanks are also due to ANSAB' and field staff who services and program development opportunities. contributed their experience and As a result, they share the money paid in a in-house end users in a participated one-day equity by strikingly inequitable analysis workshoporganized by ANSAB. pattern. References The issue of withinand between business groups is less appreciated. Internal ANSAB/CBED, 1999. Sub-sector analysis stakeholders in general, and local of high-altitude NTFPS in the Karnali harvesters in particular, have not their Zone. A study Report submitted to Based Economic fair share, local harvesters, who represent Community of CECI. poorest members of community, live Development project Kathmandu, Nepal. below the poverty line, are not paid enough. The prevailing marketing Edwards, D.M. 1996. Non-timber forest structure does not guarantee paymentof products from Nepal: aspect of the trade

161 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medicaland Aromatic Plants in South Asia in medicinal and aromatic plants. New Programs ( Draft Report). ANSAB FORESC Monograph 1/96. Forest and SNV, Nepal. Research and Survey Center, Ministry of Forests and soil Conservation, Kathmandu, Nepal. Choudhary, M. I. 1995. A study of trade restrictions affecting international trade in non-wood forest products. FAQ, Rome, Italy. Subedi, B.P. 1999. Non-timber forest products sub-sector in Nepal: opportunitiesand challenges for linking the business with biodiversity conservation. ANSAB, Kathmandu, Nepal. Subedi, B.P. 1999. Socio-economic and institutional impacts of community based ecosystem management project in Humla, Nepal. A socio-economic monitoring reports to BCN. ANSAB! EWW/SEEPORT, Kathmandu, Nepal. Subedi, B.P. 2000. Policy and regulatory environment for the conservation and utilization of Himalayan medicinalplants. ANSAB, Kathmandu, Nepal. Subedi, B.P., Koonz, A., Binayee, S., Divis, J., Ojha, H., Croucher, J. Enterprise Development for Natural Products Manual. ANSAB and EWW, Kathmandu, Nepal. Subedi, B.P., Ojha, H. R., Nicholson, Ken., Binayee, Surya B. 2001. An Assessment of Community-Based Forestry Enterprises in Nepal: Case Studies, Lessons and Implications for

162 Conservation of Non Timber Forest Products in the Mid-Western Terai Community Forests of Nepal: A Participatory Approach-

Rna B. Rawal

ABSTRACT emblica), Barro (Terminaliabellirica), etc. Thus, technically and socially sound The Terai tropical forests are historically operational plans (management plan) of the most diverseof Nepalecosystem, but the community forests has to be has deforestation greatly reduced forest developed and adapted in order to see area the population of many species and the expected results in terms of of Plant habitats. Over the verity period sustainable forests management. In long of 30 years the Terai was transferred run, this leads to conservationof the NTFP the of mostly densely populated region resource as well as maintains bio-diversity It is to know Nepal. interesting that, and providesgood economic return to the to hill not a forest compare system single community. area of Terai has been recognized for the traditional management system. I. Background Recently, His Majesty's Government of Nepal is handing over forests to the The bio-diversity situation in the Terai communities to manage such forests by ecosystems are global importanceboth in them under the forest act and by-laws the view of the number of globally 2051 (1993) which is an appreciable step threatened flora and wildlife elements as for the NTFP conservation in the Terai. well as the diversity of ecosystems Communities are becoming more aware contained within the area. The Terai area of the importance of the NTFPs and comprises mainly of three board ecological biodiversity conservation. Now, it is belts; the Churia Hills, Sub-tropical flat realized that if the community forests are lands and Wetlands along the rivers and managed properly, it can provide them water-course/bodies. Apart from many NTFPs such as Sarpagandha cultivated area these ecosystems comprise (Rauvolifaserpentina), Kurilo (Asparagus of national parksand its buffer zone areas, recemosus), Pipla (Piper longum), Sikakai community forests, and national forests, (Acacia rugata), Bet (Calamus tenuis), which are very rich in bio-diversity. The Bidipatta (Diospyros tomentosa), BaeI Terai where the population is in increasing (Aegle marmelos), Amala (Phyllanthus trendby about 3% per year is animportant

163 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia human habitat and for fauna and flora II. Present Scenario as well. The obvious contend between human and the wildlife in the Terai Populationtrend and status of the forest: resulted the observable deforestation of The eradication of malaria in late 1950s forest at faster rate which can only be and the completion East-west high way resolved by realizing the economic in later years led to widespreadsettlement benefits of the bio-diversity along with in the Terai by migrants from mid-hills. sustainable use of subsistence forest Except within the national parks, the products. ecosystems in Terai are intensively dominated by human being. Over the This paper focuses on the Terai of Mid- period of 30 years, the Terai was western Development Region of Nepal. transformed into the mostly densely Forests hand over to user group in the populatedregion of Nepal. Morethan 46% Terai has recently begun. For instance, of Nepal's population lived in Terai in 1991 in Banke, Bardia districts of Environment and it is excepted to exceed by more than and Forestry Enterprise Activity Project 48% in 2006 (MOPE/HMGN 1998). (EFEA) the total number of community Unsustainable exploitation of the forests Forest Users Groups is 113 with 5305ha. to meet the demand for the subsistence of handed over forests. The total products of the increased population covered forests caused a large-scale deforestation. Forest population by community area in was is about 15 in Banke and 19 the Terai plain reduced by only percent ha. in from in Bardia districts. These are far 99,000 twelve years 1978/79- percent with an deforestation rate below than those of the four hill districts 1990/91, average of 1.3 percent per year (FRISP 1994). and one inner Terai (Dang) of Rapti zone, where handed-over forests (EFEA Forest resources and use with respect to Annual Report 1999/2000) respectively NTFPS: cover about 73 and 79 of percent percent Terai and located total It is to note Siwalik Forests on the population. important forms border that in Terai forests that are handed over sub-tropical plain Nepal's with India and the row of ecologically to community were close to the high-fuel sensitive hills that rise from here have not and timber demands of urban and suburb been handed over at the same rate as area, which were already degraded. But, those in the hills. The Terai forests are CFUGs have vigilant about protecting still relatively rich in timber, which have and managing these forests as decrease often served as the bank account of the in theft, increasing regeneration of socially and politically corrupt elite of various species that were almost vanished Nepal. There are many valuable tree in prior years along with increased crown species in the Terai of Nepal. Most density is observable. importantly species like Sal (Shorea

164 Conservationof Non TimberForest Products in theMid-Western Terai CommunityForests of Nepal robusta), Khair (Acacia catechu), Champ the fruits as the sources of cash incomes. (Micheliachampaca) that have been more In EFEA area about 50 types of NTFPs exploited and thus Department ofForest, have predominantly been collected and HMG Nepal has put ban on harvest. sold annually which shows the potential Along with these many other species in to enhance rural incomes through the Terai forest that are disappearingare appropriate intervention in these areas. for example, Bamboo, Asparagus, and The value of NTFP sales in EFEA Terai Fern of which shoot are used as area is about NRs. 27 million (Rs. 25 additional food (mostly for vegetables). million in Dang and about one million In addition, there are also many NTFP each in Banke and Bardia) used for different purposes such as medicinal, cosmetics, dyes paints etc. are Opening and program support: become rare in the area. Despite o above facts, no efforts have There are many communities such as been made in Terai for management of Tharus and Chepangs who are highly Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) dependent in the different kind of forest through for past few years there have products in Nepal. Chepangs live in the been some efforts made for hills with forest of Chitwan and Makwanpur for regardto management of medicinal plants about six months during winter and species. It is surprising that till now spring supplementing their foods with not a single forest area of the Terai forest products (tubers, seeds/fruits and has been well recognized for the various plant shoots, includinganimals). traditional management system. The Similarly, Tharus in Chitwan area are Forest Department applied some highly dependent on such kind of forest forest management till 1960s. Many products. In Terai, besides the timber management plants for harvesting and species people do not see much improvement were prepared during later importance of medicinal plant species! decades but never implemented. It is NTFPs that are equally valuable from the encouraging that now the Departmentof point of view of ecologicaland economic Forest is handing over the forests to the consideration of the region. One of them, users, which is a good step to conserve for example is Sikakai (Acacia rugata), forest resources in Terai as well. Although which could be a good source of cash a slow progress, so far now 157.079 ha income to community. Until few years (55% of POCF) of forest are handed over back most of the community thought is to Terai communities. The "Community as a useless climber affecting the trees Forestry Program" in Nepalis thematically growth. Pipala (Piper longum) had progressive and an approachto conserve similar history. Recently value of these the forests through people's participation. products has been realized and The Forest Act of 1993 and the by-laws communities have been conserving it for provide the legal basis for community

165 Sharing Localand National Experiencein Conservationof Medical and AromaticPlants in South Asia forests development that secure user's potential community forests in current right to manage and harvest resources. OFMP has become disconcerting Nepalhas recognized community forestry guideline to DFO's for expediting as a major dual strategy to improve the community forestry program. If condition of the forests and fulfill the designated POCFarea (particularlyBanke, rural population's basic needs for the Bardia and Pyuthan) is very small, then resourcesfound in them (HMGN 1998). the land use pressure on national forests Within a short history communities are cannot be reduced through community also becoming more aware of the forestry, as people will still require the importance of forests and its biodiversity. goods and services of non-community forest areas. This will remain constant as Issues withregard to CF implementation: a function of hectares available for Some issues need to be taken care for management regardless of hand over the smooth implementation of rates. in Terai. community forestry program III. Some case studies in relation to The is government increasingly refusing CF management in Terai to consider petitions for Terai community forests to be handed over without Some of the cases and lessons learned in sufficient evidence to prove or disprove theTerai during the last four years of work that the community forests model is (1996/97 — 1999/2000) by the development indeed a right approach for Terai. The program, Ban Udyam — Biodiversity other issue is about the field SupportProgram/New ERA, EFEA are implementation guideline for areas summarized as follows: earmarked for Potential Community Case 1. Conservation of Natural Forest (POCF). The forest area designed Species, as POCF in Community Forest Pipla (Piper longum) Directives and Development (CFDD) Even with a very small intervention, Operational Forest Management Plan early recognizable income-based released (OFMP) guideline recently by conservationapproach is workable with the is not consistent. For government communities and that could be an entry in Banke and the forest example, Bardia, point to foster long-term sustainable area for forest is designated community forest-based economic development. very small. Thearea slated for community forest in current OFMP is rather smaller There has been hand over of the national than the POCF area designated in earlier forest to the community people for CFDD. Althoughthe Forest Act and by- community management and use. The laws do not forbid the hand over of any latest available statistics shows that 9,061 area of nationalforest to appropriate user CFUGs have been formed in last two group, forest areas that are slated as decades (CFUG program was started in

166 Conservationof Non Timber Forest Products in the Mid-Western Terai CommunityForests of Nepal late seventies). A total of 657,864 hectares handed over to the 685 user households of forestland is handed over to 9,061 in 1993. Prior to hand over the forests was CFUGs having 1,008,237 beneficiary degradeddue to heavyextraction of forest households. These handed over forests products by local people as the adjoining are managed by the users as per the villages such as Sati, Narayanpur, operational plan approved by HMG/N. Dhansinghpur. The local people For the management purpose, cleaning (traditional users) realized the fact of the weeding, pruning and thinning etc. are degradation and came up with the common practices adopted by the community approach. They started CFUGs. In EFEA-Ban Udyam project area protecting the forests and as a result the one interesting observation wasmade e.g. observable regeneration and the growth CFUG members used to cut and throw of rattan sp.(Calamus tenuis) together the natural Piper longum plants (vines) with other species such as Sissoo, forest during cleaning process. Catechu, Albizia was encouraging to the communities and two C. The users did not know the plant and rangers (Mr. and S. in the did not realize its important use for Chaudhary Paudel) working medicine, food ingredients, and large area. They all worked togetherand found commercial market. Bio-diversity out market potentials and prepared the conservation being one of the objective, management plan for rattan as an the EFEA-Ban Udyam project started opportunityto initiate conservationof this awareness program on the use, protection plant along with associated species. and conservation of this species in CFs a. (started in Sishwara CF in Bardia district Activity: in 1988). After realizing the importance • Rattan and its associated naturalspecies of this natural high value plant, forest and conservation in the 4 blocks (total users in this particularCF have createda area of 139 ha.) pipla plot of hectare inside a 45-hectare community forest. From this small area, • Sissoo plantation and conservation they could harvest 145 kg of pipla fruits • Khair, Sins, Ficus, Vetiver, Satiwan, etc. worth NRs. 20,000 (localprice) = US$ 275. The total value is not as important as the b. Management: realization of its importance and conservation of wild species. Conservation, harvesting, market management etc. all are done by Case 2.Natural "Rattan" Conservation community themselves. Utilization in Sati Karnali CF: c. Product Marketing: This community forest is located at NarayanpurVDC in Kailali district. The The incomes from this conservation forest area is above 298 ha which was activity have remarkably been increasing

167 1iaring LoL1and National Lxpnenc in (onscrvitionof Medial and AiomatK Plants in South Asia

t o , dfu

important use of this grass is to make ropes for domestic purposes. In the rural areas when that's houses are pre- ( dnrninant, this rope is extensively used in typingroofs, walls, and fencing as well as in making cots and bullocks carts. In I the FF1 ABan Udyam project area this practice is very common, particularly with [haru (an indigenous ethnic and disadvantaged group of Nepal) C community, which constitutes considerably high proportion of households in the project area, particularly in Dang, Banke and Bardia districts.

i The traditionalpractice of making ropes ifr from the grass is by hand which takes lot of time besides wearing the palm. Realizing this fact, a group of 12 Tharu women is supported by the project to a makeropes by a small, manually operated a machine, which hardly costs US F 70. Maintenance of the machine is so simple that the local women do it by themselves, This women group is running this activity as a smalFscale enterprisein their village. Following benefits are realized by the community people' • Gainful utilization of the N1FPs from their community forest (C F)

168 Conservationof Non Timber Forest Products in the Mid-Western Terai CommunityForests ofNepal

• Opportunity for employment generation in the from of grass management for economically viable collection, rope making and NTFPs (even minor products as Sal marketing leaves) while working withsuch groups to foster long-term objectives that meet • Women empowerment generation, self-defined progress and long-term decision-making and marketing biodiversity conservation goals • Time saving for other domestic work Nepalese forests of tropical and sub- and workers' palms are saved from tropical belts have high quality Shorea being worn robusta in it. A total of 233,698 hectares of this of forest handed over to the • Better of obtained as type quality rope as the comparedhand made community community manages forests and gets benefits from it. This is Income generation: On an average 20 kg obvious that there will be ample amount of rope is producedin a day (one woman of Sal leaves in these leaves. Thereis very working for eight hours). So gross income high potential for making different types =20kg x Rs. l4kg=Rs. 280=US$ 4 of plants from these leaves. These leaf approximately. The average cost of plates are commonly used by Nepalese productionis estimated as Rs. 6.50/kg x people at different occasions such as 2Okg= Rs. 130= US$ 2 approx. The rituals, marriage party (in rural areas), amount in monetary value may look worship, festivals and by fast food service negligiblebut when compared with other providersin urban areas. Presently most available opportunities (wage labor) of these plates come to Nepal from India, where one woman can earn Rs. 50-60 at least in the borderingtowns. (Kantipur only in a day which is less than a dollar. Daily, July 18, 2000 quotes that the leaf This shows that there is up to one plates worth about US$ 25,000 is annually hundred percentmore earning this small, imported to Nepalgunj from India) and in the hills and locally establish, community oriented and mountains people make NTFPs based enterprise. them by hand as per their family need. Case 4. Small Scale Based on Since the raw material for this product is Enterprise in Sal (Shorea robusta) leaves locally available ample quantity, rural labor is only partially employed and Communities have potential to capital requirementis also quite small, its organize themselves for managing production by manually operated machine utilizing their resources, they only was realized as an important intervention. need exposure and initial technical Therefore, the EFEA-Ban Udyam project supports. There is opportunity for is supporting a women group in development worker to enrich forest producing and marketing, the manually operated machine made leaf plates for

169 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservation ofMedical and AromaticPlants in South Asia rural income generation. Various benefits IV. Promoting income generation realized by the community people through biodiversity conservation through this small-scale enterprise are: Considering the observable facts given in • Capacity building of the community this paper, a specific implementing people in organizing themselves strategy need to be in operation for Use of their conserving biodiversity while allowing • unutilized, locally forest users to forest for income available nature resources/NTFP manage generation beyond subsistence. • in the safe Help supporting of Model environment use of these Implementation Operational through Plan: disposable and degradable plants in place of non-degradable items. Community forest operationalplan (UP) is a for community forest • Women empowerment requirement agreement. Generally most of the OP are • Helping nation in substituting the adequate to meet subsistence needs, but imports leaf plates do not provide adequate information/ to allow forest users to in the prescription mange • Employment opportunities forests for income from of leaves "Lafa" generation beyond collection, subsistence. This is evident in more than one especially preparation (joining the area of non-timber forest leaves to a products together loosely, give conservation particular size) and marketing. (NTFPs). Bio-diversity through integrationof income generating Income Generation: Leaf plates of activities is very important. Thus, OP different shapes and sizes are produced needs to be guided to include the by the manually operated machines as sustainable harvesting and biological per the market demand produce leaf monitoring prescriptions of the forest plants of different shapes and sizes. resources especially NTFPs. The Presently, three types of plants(small and experience of the forest management medium size, used for snacks and big activities in the past shows that without ones used for dinner/lunch) are being income objective community participation made by this women group. On an for conservation of the diversity of the average, it is estimated that women group species is minimal. The OP should include id receiving a benefitof appox. 50% over the key subsistence products (fuel wood, their production cost. Maximum margin poles and fodder), NTFPsand also timber of obtained in medium type of plates management strategiesas appropriate. For (Tapari)where net income of higher than the successful conservation OP need to average of all three types of plates address CFUG management capacity as together. well as provide prescriptions for good

170 Conservationof Non TimberForest Products in theMid-Western Terai CommunityForests of Nepal forestry. A community based M&E keeps users interestalive. In addition, system needs to be developed as the there are numerousCFUGs which are integral part of the OP implementation active and growing more empowered; in order to address resource's trend and collect information for CFUG members c. Tropical belt forest responses quickly or decision-makers for more sustainable to management, which encourages resources local people towards conservation management: activities. • Applied research that supports transfer and/or d. The transportation network is technology generates better for market access- information with regard to naturally relatively grown NTFP management, forest- ability. based micro-enterprise development, V. Conclusion and related income generating activities needs to be given greater Community forestry offers an priority. unparalleled opportunity to promote economic self-suffciency, a greatly • Building linkages between improved natural resources base, community forest and conservation increased biodiversity value and locally based enterprise development in the focused democratic processes undertaken Terai. in Nepalover the last ten years. However, much remains to be done to assure that • Priority needs to be given to those activities which foster initial, and largely successful, models are linkages not weakened. between forest user groups and private sector entities that deal with It is true that the future of the forest sector NTFP processing, marketing, development largely depends upon the seedling production and sales, etc. sustainable management of the ecology and of the Terai. The rich The reasons are as follows: economy biological diversity of the Terai has to be a. Much of the existing and potential managed for the long- term benefits. The community forest area is degraded facilitation of the technical assistance in and br withold plant, which means identifying the management prescriptions ample opportunityfor forestry sector of the forest resources for the improved development facilitatorsto work with forest managementshould be given due communities for improving consideration for greater and better biodiversity; impact. The progressive approach of the government ofNepal towards shifting the b. There are many species with local forest management responsibility to commercialization potential that the local communities is an appreciable

171 Sharing Local and National Experiencein Conservation ofMedical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia

step. The technical input in terms of Strategy for Nepal. NPC, Singha Durbar, identification of diverse forest ecosystem, Kathmandu, Nepal. resources estimation, documentation The of and of as well as local HMG/N, Ministry Population socio-economy, Environment1998. biophysical information is necessary to PopulationProjection for Nepal, 1996-2016. enhance and conserve biodiversity. The lessons learned and the methodologies Kantipur, Daily Newspaper, July 18, 2000. generated and documented by the Kathmandu, Nepal. various developmentorganizations need Coordinator's Environment to be built up and used in the community Project Office, and Forest Annual forest management practices for the Enterprises Activity. sustainable economical return Progress Report of NFY 2056 /57 (1999/ considering biodiversity conservation. 2000). B. and Acknowledgements: The author is Rawal, R.B., Bhatta, Paudyal, A, 1999. Non-Timber to IDRC/MAPPA for Workshop Proceedings, grateful providing Forest Products : Production, Collection opportunity to attend the Regional and Trade in Mid-western Development Workshop, Pokhara, Nepal. Region of Nepal. EFEA-Ban Udyam References Project, Tulsipur, Nepal. Situation Analysis of Banke and Bardia Amatya, D. 1999. Biomass Report of districts, 1999. A Forest EFEA area. for Enterprise Report prepared BSP/ Ban Development Perspective, NewERA, Udyam-Biodiversity Support Kathmandu, Nepal. Program,EFEA, Nepalganj, Nepal. CFUG database record, April 3, 2000. MIS, Departmentof Forest, Kathmandu, Nepal. FRISP, 1994. Deforestation in the Terai Districts: 1078/89-1990/91. Publication No.60, Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation, Kathmandu, Nepal. HMGN, 1995. Forest Rules 2051. Nepal Rajpatra Vol.44, Chaitra 20, 2051/No.54, HMGN, Kathmandu, Nepal. HMGN and IUCN, 1988. Buildings on Success: The National Conservation

172 Motivating Actions to Sustain the Medicinal Plant Resources of the Indian Sub-continent: Reports of the Medicinal Plant Stakeholders' Meets

Pushp K. Jam

EXECUTIVE SUMMERY H). Following important points were made at the Meet: TRAFFIC India has been executing a three-year project"Motivating Actions to • Poor availability or non-availability of Sustain the Medicinal Plant Resource of several medicinal plants to which the Indian Sub-continent'. Besides there is added problem of numerous research and field based adulteration. TRAFFIC India activities, has organized • The need to enhance the availability three Meets so far in the projectnamely of medicinal plants by cultivation. Medicinal Plant Stakeholders' Meet (14- Development of cultivation 15 December 1998), Meet of the technology for largely and commonly Practitioners of ISM for Conservation and used plants and particularly for Sustainable Use of Medicinal Plants (26 endangered plants. The technology July 1999) and Medicinal Plant Trading needs to be easily and practically Communities' Meet (6-7 December 1999). transferable to field. All these were held at WWF meetings • for collection, value India Lodi New Delhi. Cooperatives Secretariat, Estate, addition and trade. Medicinal Plants Medicinal Plant Stakeholders' Meet has a three tier cooperative structure comprising of primary cooperative at The first national-level Medicinal Plant village level, union at district level and Stakeholders' Meet was organized on 14- federation at state level. The 15 December 1998 in New Delhi. The Cooperatives in Medicinal Plants face participants included representatives of problem due to unregulated and often stakeholders like government agencies, destructive collectionof large number research institutions, practitioners, of medicinalplants, often at the behest cultivators, traders, industry and NGOs. of middlemen, while the industry The chief guest was Dr. Shanta Shastry, prefers to buy from the middlemen Secretary, Departmentof Indian Systems and does not encourage value addition at the or of Medicine and Homoeopathy(DISM & village level contribute in

173 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medical and AromaticPlants in South Asia

conservation. It was suggested that • Study of shelf life of herbs and there should be franchise medicine and mention of expiry dates arrangement between cooperatives on the same and industry for value addition and collaboration between and • Survey and documentationof status industry of medicinal and governmentintuitions. plants species quantification • National Board for Medicinal Plants the reliable on — One solution to numerous • Finding figures point volumes of trade and problems and issues related to the consumption sector. • Agro-technology • Sustainable use and conservation of • Development of silviculture medicinal plants should be the techniques for sustainable harvest responsibility of all the stakeholders, from forest. more so of industry as their very survival depends on the consistent • Database on medicinalplant trade availability of the resource. There The Practitioners Meet were suggestions of creation of scared groves, gram van and gram vatika The Practitioners' Meet (The role of compulsory for every village. FRLTH traditional systems of medicine in has facilitated the establishment of 50 sustainable utilization and conservation of conservation sites in Karnataka, medicinal plants) was organized on 26July Kerala and Tamil Nadu. 1999 at New Delhi in which practitioners from Unani, Siddha and Tibetan Three were created at Ayurved, working groups systems of medicine from all over the the Meet, namely, Legislation and country participated. Dr. D.N. Tiwari, Regulation; Research and Education; and Member, Planning Commission and Trade, Industry and Enterprise. Chairman, Medicinal Plant Task Force" of Government of India chaired the The Suggestions of the Working Groups meeting. Balendu Prakash in the • All CITIES listed Indian be Vaidya Triguna plants theme address suggested that the included in the schedules of Wildlife should realize their Protect Act practitioners responsibility towards sustainability for • National Policy for Bio-resources in the use of drugs and act by mobilizing general and medicinal plants in and motivating the community and the medicinal particular government for cultivation of plants. • Strengthening of enforcement Vaidya Devendra Triguna suggested the • Faster patenting process. emulation of the example set by China,

174 MotivatingActions to Sustain theMedicinal Plant Resources ofthe Indian Sub-continent where the medicinal plant sector is highly nurseries, gene banks, agro-techniquesfor developed due to political will. He felt cultivation, export regulation, creation of bans wouldn't work. He suggested that Protected Areas for medicinal plants, the production should be increased by public awareness, and creation of National cultivation. Board of Medicinal Plants.

Dr. D.N. Tiwari informed the meeting Two working groups - I. Ayurved and II. that the National Bio-ResourceBoard has Unani, Siddhaand Tibetan System - were already been created and National constituted to deliberate on the "Role of Medicinal Plant Board would be notified Practitioners in the Sustainable Utilization in about 3-4 months. Dr. Tiwari felt that of Medicinal Plants". The finding and there are numerous medicinal plant rich recommendations of the Working Groups pockets in the country which need to be were as follows. identified and special managementplans Groups Findings prepared for prepared for these sites for Working conservation and sustainable utilization. • Availability situation alarming and the medicinal are as a In the notes on Siddha, plants dwindling key Ayurved, resource Unani and Tibetan Systems of Medicine vis-à-vis Medicinal plant Resources, • Non-availability of certain medicinal virtually all the practitionershad similar plants is not having impact because views regarding the availability and adulterants and substitute are sold quality of medicinal plants and their conservation. It was felt that about 50 • Quality of drugs in the market not species of medicinal plants are rare while assured and genuineness is always another 50 species are threatened. Over- suspected. exploitation, non-scientific harvesting Poor of the and and other biotic the • implementation Drug many interference in Cosmetic Act. wild, non-availability of cultivated material and increased demand for Working Groups Recommendations medicinal plants all over the world are raw some of the reasons for endangerment • Certification of material source of some medicinal plants. This generally and date of collection results in of sub-standard production • Improve educational standards medicine due to use of sub-standard material and substitutes. • Creation of reference centers! museums For conservation of medicinal plants they recommended for National Policy on • Cultivation with community Medicinal Plants, in-situ and ex-situ participation in the agro-climatic zones conservation,network of medicinal plants where they naturally exist or existed.

175 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medical and AromaticPlants in South Asia

• Cultivation of medicinal tree species for modern medicine systems) out of should be the responsibility of the which 19 are from India Forest Department • Madhya Pradesh experiment on • The communities and NGOs should cooperatisation of medicinal plant prioritize cultivation of the identified trade along with NTFP trade is a importantspecies of medicinal plants promising model required by practitioners and • There is an across the board concern industry. amongst all stakeholders regarding Medicinal Plants Trading falling standards of quality of Communities' Meet medicinal plants currently available in the market Medicinal Plants Trading Communities Meet (Traders, Exporters, Importers, • Thereis an earnest desireamongst the Cooperatives and Cultivators) was stakeholders for self-regulation of organizedon 6-7 December 1999 in New unfair trade practices for ensuring Delhi. Eminent Scientist, Prof. S. S. quality products Handa, Director, Research Regional Problems Center, CSIR, Jammu chaired the Meet. Lack of One full day was devoted to • quality products presentations by two key participants • Lack of practical standards! each, from the above identified trading specifications community groups on 'Opportunities and Problems'. • Short supply of key medicinal plants Opportunities • Sudden increasein demand results in adulteration • Demand (domestic as well as export) for medicinal plants is growing at a • Lack of standard cultivation fast pace techniques • Promotion of medicinal plant • Lack of education and training of enterprises has good opportunities collectors and cultivators for rural employment generation • Problems with government • There is a global craze for herbal regulations, especiallyat the field level products (e.g. Woodland herbal where the greatest harassment of shoes) traders takes place • WHO has identified 42 medicinal • Research in government institutions plantsworldwide (which are essential does not reach the field and seldom

176 MotivatingActions to Sustain theMedicinal Plant Resources ofthe Indian Sub-continent

keeps pace with the changing market • Ensure better availability of scenario information about medicinal plant identification, use, cultivation and need of a or • Urgent body (university in the from of books, National Medicinal Plant Board) to processing reports and other educational material oversee actions for development of the medicinal plants sector in the • Scientific Laboratories at the major country trading centers to test purity of the herbs at the time of • Cooperative set up is adversely purchases affected by excessive government • Training of the medicinal plant presence, and politics leading to cultivators in the best cultivation mismanagement and corruption methods, improved post harvest and and • Poor regulation by the Forest technology, scientific modern Department results in collection, methods of storage and other related transit and trade of banned medicinal practices also. plants • Awareness through media and related • Lack of data on availability, collection, resources, and use of computer- demand and supply, etc. technology and mass media advertisement • Destructive harvestingfrom the wild • Specifications of Standards (easy to • End users not making contribution understand and for raw for conservation implement) and semi-processed herbsare required Four working groups, namely, a) traders; and made popular b) exporters and importers;c) cultivators • tests needs to be and were created at the Simple, inexpensive d) cooperatives developed Meet. These working groups had deliberated on the theme • Regulation to make it obligatory for "Standardisation, modernization and best large and medium traders (excluding practices". small traders) to state as to from where they are procuring their raw material, Suggested actions for various and its and standard medicinalplant stakeholders quality • Simple, certification service - transparent • Quality improved packing, system needs setting up either in the delivery schedules, quality/quantity private or the public domain commitment, etc. • Check on adulteration • Willingness for investing in modernization • Control on quality

177 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medical and AromaticPlants in South Asia

• Avoid harmful harvesting practices species of the Thar desert. Mr. A.A. Boaz, (e.g. destructive harvesting of Amla Conservator of Forest promised to make (Phyllanthus emblica) in Madhya available the Draft State Policy for Pradesh state of India) SustainableUse of MedicinalPlants within six months and IndiraKurana, CSE, New • Special attentionfor the conservation Delhi assured to the of study Madhya endangered species (mainly Pradesh model of Cooperative Efforts for flora) short- Himalayan disregarding medicinal plant conservation and report term profit considerations the same. • Realistic Government policy Acknowledgement: The author is grateful regarding collection and trade of to Medicinaland AromaticPlants medicinal Program plants in Asia (MAPPA), International • Coordination between various groups Development research Centre for in the medicinal plants sector providing opportunity to attend the Regional Workshop on Medicinal and • Agro-techniques at reasonable fee Aromatic Plants at Pokhara, Nepal. • Crop Insurance • Awareness regardingIndian Systems of Medicine, medicinal plants, herbs and conservation right from primary education level • Lack of qualityconsciousness among traders as well as industry • Need of well defined standards and specifications There was much excitement and some participant made pledges in the interest of sustainable use of medicinal plants such as Dabur Research Foundation promisedto publish a booklet on "Good practices forPost Harvest Handing of Key Medicinal Plants". Narayan Das Prajapati, Researcher and Cultivator promised to develop cultivation technology and promotion of commercial cultivation of five rare medicinal plant

178 Conservation and Sustainable Use of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants: IUCN's Efforts in Nepal

Mohan Siwakoti Sagendra Tiwari*

ABSTRACT conservation and sustainable use of MAPs by developing a mechanism to link Nepal's wide altitudinal variations and conservation with rural livelihood. diverse climatic conditions provide suitable niche for 5,833 species of Background flowering plants. Out of these, about 700 Plants are the main sources of medicine species are reported as medicinal and aromatic Rural on which majority of Nepal's population plants (MAPs). health care. to communities for their health care rely for According WHO, primary 80% of the of have used several of these population developing species plants countries on traditional medicine since a long period of time. Collection of rely MAPs and sale to Terai based traders for mostly plant drugs for their primary to India is a health care needs (Uniyal et.al 2000). The export regular phenomenon utilisationof as medicine dates back of mountain peoples for subsistence. plants Sustainable conservation of these to Vedic period (4500 BC to 1000 BC). In definite of resources is gradually recognized as Ayurveda, properties plants highly potential for mountain based on drugs and their uses have been described which and development. But, majority of these Vaidhyas Kabirajs MAPs is under threats due to habitat followed. It is believed that the knowledge destruction, unsustainable harvesting, of Ayurveda was accessed by Nepali inadequate regulating mechanisms, Vaidhays as early as about 879 AD when impracticable royalty rates and poor Susruta Samhita Sahotara was hand database. The problem is further written by some Nepali physician (IUCN- exacerbated due to ineffective Nepal 2000). management practices to the loss of is all valuable MAPs in The Nepal home for types of agro- general. paper bioclimates some of the efforts of IUCN from tropical to alpine and highlights arctic. Withina of not more than Nepal's as a catalytic agent to integrate territory

*Mr. S. Tiwari, ICUN-Nepaloffice, Kathmandu, Nepal

179 Sharing Localand National Experiencein Conservationof Medical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia

0.1 percent of the worlds land surface, helped to generate over NRs. 26 million Nepalclaims over 2 percent of the world's as the government royalty. Sustainable flowering plants. Nepal is 22 times conservationof non-timber forest products smaller than India and 70 times smaller (NTFPs) including MAPs is gradually than China, but the figure of floral ratio being recognized as highly potential for is 1:3 with India and 1:5.5 with China mountain development. Development (Shrestha, 1998). The country has set interventions geared towards rural aside over 18.8 percent of its territorial societies need to realise that neither the surface as protected area system, which forests are just groups of trees, nor trees includethe highestterrestrial ecosystems are just mass of wood. Since, forests of the world. The existence of the diverse contain a large number of biological ecological zones in Nepal has made a species including valuable medicinal suitable niche for 5,833 species of plants. Habitat destruction from human flowering plants. A total of 700 species encroachment, unsustainable and over- of medicinal plants has been estimated harvestingpractices remain as the major from the country, of which over 100 threats to medicinal plants in Nepal. species are in trade. In terms of Inadequate policy and regulations for distribution pattern of medicinal plants, access and tenure over the resources in 49% is found in the tropical region(below public lands, impractical royalty rate, lack 1000 m), 54% in the sub-tropical region of expertise on MAPs in regulating (1000-2000 m), 36% in the temperate agencies, poor database and ineffective region (2000-3000 m), 18% in sub-alpine management practices are further region (3000-4000m) and 7% in the alpine contributingto the depletion and loss of (above 4000 m) region (Malla and Shakya valuable medicinal plants of Nepal The are 1985). highland species widely to Conventionon known for high value products. Nepal being signatory Biological Diversity (CBD) and Collection of medicinal herbs for export Convention on International Trade in to Indian markets and manufacturing Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and companies is still a fact of life Flora (CITES), is committed to implement for mountain people. The proper their respective obligations. Nepal has conservation and management of the legal provision under Forest Act, 1993 to Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) ban collection, use, sale, distribution, could play a significant role in Nepalese transportationand export ofDactylorhiza economy which presently contributes hatagirea, Neopicrorhiza scrophulariifolia about 5 percent in the Gross Domestic and Jugland regia. Six species of plants Product (GDP) of Nepal. The District are banned for raw export (Nardostachys Forest Office records show that mountain grandiflora, Rauvolfia serpentina, peasants collected 11,554 tones of Cinnamomum glaucescens, Valeriana medicinal plants during 1996/97 and jatamansii, Taxus wallichiana and Lichen

180 Conservationand SustainableUse ofMedicinal and AromaticPlants spp.) and 6 species are banned for felling, to develop mechanism to link transportation and export (Acacia conservation with rural livelihood. catechu, Shorea robusta, Michelia IUCN is committed to assist champaca, Bombax ceiba, Nepal Nepal Pterocarpus in natural resources marsupium, Dalbergia latifolia). Since conserving through a of sustainable Its February 2001, ban on Cordyceps sinensis process development. is driven as the need of (Yarsa Gumba) is reviewed and program per members permission is provided to harvest and government, non-government and IUCN worked export. The reviewed royalty rate of partners. Nepal jointly with the of Forests and Soil Cordyceps sinensis is Rs. 20,000 per kg. ministry Conservation to establish and Shrestha and Joshi (1996) enlisted 108 (HMG/N) develop a National Biodiversity Unit threatenedplants under the IUCN threat - of these 47 are (NBU) the country focal point for categories, species conservation. IUCN has also endemic to Nepal. The IUCN Red List biodiversity assisted the HMG/N to a (1997) includes 20 species (0.3 of total) preparing National of Medicinal Plants from Nepal that are globally threatened. Register aimed at securing the knowledge base on IUCN 's Approach in Nepal biological resources. The preparation of the national register provided a means to IUCN made its presence felt as a establish the mechanism for the conservation in in mid- meeting partner Nepal third objective of CBD i.e. fair and 1980s when it assisted His Majesty's of benefits out Government of in equitable sharing raising Nepal (HMG/N) of the utilisation of genetic resources, preparing the National Conservation access to for IUCN including by appropriate genetic Strategy Nepal. officially resources(article 15), into account launched the Office on taking Nepal Country all rights over thoseresources; appropriate 1995. IUCN Nepal has been working to transfer to relevant fulfil the IUCN mission technologies (article global by 18 & 19) taking into account allrights over with various developing partnerships those resourcesand to and; line as well as with technologies government agencies by appropriatefunding. non-governmental organisations to carry forward its activities to conserve Nepal's The National Register of Medicinal Plants natural resources. IUCN provides is only an initiation towards this direction, technicalsupport to generatethe scientific it is an authentic source of information knowledgebase for the improvement of for establishing nationalsovereignty over management and assists to prepare the medicinal plants on the basis of country report on Red Data List, CITES indigenous knowledge of traditional uses. and CBD. It also works for awareness The Register is a synthesis of knowledge building at grassroots and policy levels. contributed by various experts and A major focus area of IUCN in Nepal is stakeholders. A nationalforum of experts

181 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia and stakeholderswas formed to identify less than their labour cost. IUCN Nepal the issues related to conservation and is working with the communities of six development of Nepal's medicinal and VDCs of Jorayal Range Post (Chattiwan, aromatic plants. After various Saraswotinagar, Laxminagar, consultations a consensus was built for Ghanteshowr, Gadseraand Nirauli) since the preparationof National Register. The 2000. The main purpose of this project is Register describes 150 species out of 700 to assist local communities and enhance species of medicinal plants from Nepal. their capacity under an action research The National Register will be updated approach to learn and gain experiences accordingly. IUCN believes on sharing as to what working modalities could be knowledge and expanding networks on adopted to establish a community MAPs at regional and global levels. For conservation and sustainable use of instance, IUCN Nepal facilitated a field NTFPs having high potential in the far- visit for Sri Lankan IUCN team during westernhill districts. The project has been 1999 to exchange the experiences on assistingthe communities as a facilitator, cultivation, production and processing of coordinator and technical supporter. The medicinal plants for sustainable project has adopted following four development. Since 2000, JUCN has strategies/modalities. started working with communitiesat local level in order to integrate the conservation • in-situ conservation in government of medicinal plants with the livelihood and community managed forests. of the rural people focusing on women • domestication and and disadvantageddependent upon the promoting natural resources. intensivecultivation of suitable NTFP species in barren communal lands. In order to learn realities of policy-field • in NTFP conservation,IUCN Nepalinitiated promoting sporadic plantation a participatory action research project in gardens. a NTFP potential area of district. The • demonstrating conservation and ground reality of the project area is that sustainable use. NTFP has a significant role in rural economy. However, in absence of Field test on these modalities has been alternative options and increasing market initiated by organizing NTFPs dependent demand, a competition exists there for communities into NTFP user groups. exploitation of these resources. Under the guidance of project, the user Consequently, the quantity and quality groups have been involved for in-situ of the resource is rapidly depleting. conservation and cultivation of some high Owing to market monopoly of some Tarai marketable and threatened species in based traders the actualresource owners community forests, marginal and or collectors get very little benefit even wastelands. These species are Acorus

182 Conservation and SustainableUse ofMedicinal and AromaticPlants calarnus, Bergenia ciliata, Swertia generating off-farm incomes for the chirayita, Valeriana ja tarnansii, people living in far and remote areas. Cinnarnornurn tarnala, Sapindus There is a greater potentiality for income mukorossi, Phyllanthus emblica and generation and poverty reduction through Zanthoxylurn armaturn. The target the proper management of the wild groups of project are landless poor, resources. Sustainable conservation and disadvantaged and women. For uses of the MAPs can address to certain strengtheninglocal capacities, a number extent the problems of poor, women and of training for cultivation, sustainable disadvantaged groups depending upon and of medicinal harvesting marketing the MAPs. However, MAPs are being and other NTFPs have been plants over-exploited and threatened. The root conducted. Since most NTFP species take causes are lack of standardizedresources several before could be years they and assessment, conservation harvested on sustainable basis. It inventory is for sustainable harvest and that 5 to 7 guidelines expected during coming years, conservation awareness the different issues related to sustainable among stakeholders. IUCN is NTFP would surface to Nepal working promotion up towards a role to provide feedback to policy improvement. playing catalytic integrate conservation and sustainable use of MAPs It is anticipated that the experience gained with the livelihood of the people by through the implementation of this developing mechanisms for technically project should form the basis for sound management, socially equitable designing a much bigger community arrangementsand legally enabling policy management of NTFP project for Far- framework in Nepal. Western hill districts. The approach adopted enables IUCN to work with and Acknowledgement: The former author learn from the rural communities in acknowledges the invitation from MAPPA enhancing their knowledge base, to attend The Regional Workshop at empowering them and building their Pokhara, Nepal. for conservation of resources and capacity References sustainable use subsequently to contributing good governance. Malla, S.B. and P.R. Shakya (1968). Conclusion MedicinalPlants and Vegetationof Nepal. Paper presented at the seminar on The The diverse ecosystems of Nepalharbour Ecology of Tropical Highlands, HMG/N numerous species of medicinal plants, and UNESCO, Kathmandu, Nepal. which are highly used by rural societies for their healthcaresince ever. These are Shrestha,T.B. (1998). Plant Conservation also gradually being recognised as one in Nepal. Paper presented at the of the important wild resources for Conference of IndianSub-continent Plant

183 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservation ofMedical and Aromatic Plantsin South Asia

Specialist Groupheld at Corbett National Park. India.

IUCN Nepal (2000). National Register of Medicinal Plants. Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation and IUCN Nepal. Kathmandu, Nepal. Shrestha, T.B. and R. M. Joshi (1996). Rare, Endemic and EndangeredPlants of Nepal. WWF Nepal Programme, Kathmandu, Nepal.

184 Promotion of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants by Small Farmers Through 'framing and Capacity Building: Experience of HPPCL, Nepal

DhruvR. Bhattarai Pradip Maharjan

Introduction Herbs Production and Processing Company Limited, Nepal Nepalis a small country, well known for its rich biological diversity. Forest The Herbs Production and Processing comprises the major component of its Company Limited (HPPCL) was natural resources, occupying about 39 established in 1981 AD under Ministry of percentof the land area and contributing Forest and Soil Conservation, His to about 14 percent in the GDP. The Majesty's Government of Nepal. The country harbors 35 types of forest with developmental mandate and role of this 7000 species of flowering plantsincluding organization has been defined as a some 700 species of medicinal and facilitator in commercial utilization of aromatic plants. medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) for sharing equitable benefits among the Rural livelihood is mainly based on forest public and the government sectors. products, and products like honey, Industrial utilization of MAPs for value mushrooms, fruits, nuts, tuber, and added production in the country was vegetables are regularly collected for initiated only after the inception of this subsistence. Wild plant resources are also organization. At present, it is the leading contributing in the economy of the rural producer of cultivated MAPs and exporter people. Most rural people are engaged of herbalproducts like essential oil, herbal in the collection, transportation and extractsand raw medicinalherbs in Nepal. marketing of medicinal and aromatic HPPCL: Activities and Achievements plants (MAPs) and other non-timber forest products (NTFP5) found in various HPPCL has introduced farming, physiographic zones of the country. processing and sustainable collection of About 100 species of NTFPs including MAPs in its herbal farms and processing about 70 species of MAPs are currently centres, and community and private lands in the export trade. About 10 to 15 as well involving local farmers and thousand tons of MAPs are exported community forest user groups (CFUGs). every year from the country. It has been assisting local communities in

185 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medical and AromaticPlants in South Asia establishing sustainable practices for the HPPCL is engaged in the commercial wild-growing MAPs. Community level cultivation of important medicinal and training on sustainable collection, aromatic plants like Mentha, Palmarosa, cultivation, processing and marketing has French basil, Citronella, Chamomile and been conducted in 25 rural districts Lemongrass in its cultivation farms of Nepal under the Special Area situated in 5 districts (viz. Tamagadhi Development Program of HMG/Nepal. HerbalFarm, Bara district; Belbari Herbal Tarahara Herbal With the financial assistance of MAPPA/ Farm, Morang district; Farm, Sunsari district; Herbal IDRC, HPPCL has successfully trained Tikapur the FUG members of 11 Farm, Kailali district and Lamahi Herbal community These herbal farms forests in Udaipur district. The training Farm, Dang district). program included identification, are also assisting local communities in the cultivation of medicinal herbs with the conservation and sustainable harvesting technical of MAPs in the wild, nursery raising provision of seeds/seedlings, techniques for selected medicinal and assistance and a guarantee of purchasing aromatic plants, plantation of medicinal their produces. The commercial scale plants in community forests and private cultivation of MAPs like Palmarosa, land and their subsequent management Citronella, Lemongrass, Mentha, French procedures. Some 15,000 seedlings of basil and Tagetes, with the active plants like Cinnamomum tamala (Tejpat), participation of local farmersas well, has Sapindus mukorossi(Ritha), Asparagus justified these as profitable cash crops. racemosus (Kurilo), Rauvolfia serpentina These crops have been recorded to yield (Sarpagandha), etc. have been produced an average profit of NRs. 12000 per in the community managed nursery and annum/per hectare to the participating transplanted in the community forests farmers. The company produces essential and community lands. One of the most oils and medicinalplant extracts from both noteworthy achievements of the MAPPA! the cultivated and wild sources of raw IDRC project in Udaipur is the materials for industrial use and export. establishment of an essential oil distillation facility by one of the MAPPA/ The results obtained from the agro- IDRC/HPPCL project trained local forestry models with fast growing trees CommunityForest User Groupmember. and medicinal plants in selected The distillation unit is processing community forests of Banke and Bardia Cinnamomum tamala leaves. Major districts have been encouraging. HPPCL proportion of the produced essential oil has also initiated the commercial is being purchasedand assisted in further utilization of local MAP resources at the marketing by HPPCL. Previously, tons community level by supporting in the of cinnamon leaves used to be exported establishment of community-based herbal from the district with nominalincome to processing units. In addition, supports to the collectors. cooperatives and private entrepreneur in

186 Promotionof Medicinal and Aromatic Plants by SmallFarmers Through Training and Capacity Building rural areas for processing locally available MAPs such as Gaultheria fragrantissima (Wintergreen), Nardostachys grandiflora (Spikenard), Juniperus recurva (Juniper) and Rhododendronanthopogon are also being carried out. Such activities are currently functional in remote districts like Jumla, Humla, Dolpa and Ramechhap. The supports provided for the improved collection/cultivation of MAPs and local level value addition/processing has been extended to the community level establishing community-based cooperatives. The result, 10 small-scale essential oil distillationunits are currently functional in Dolakha and Ramechhap districts. These cooperatives have been networked with HPPCL for technical and marketing assistance. Acknowledgements: HPPCL is grateful to MAPPA/IDRC for the financial assistance in implementing the "Study on medicinal and aromatic plant resources of Udaipur district, Nepal" project. The authorsare also grateful to MAPPA/IDRC for the invitationto present this paper in the Regional Workshop at Pokhara, Nepal.

187 An Overview of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Resources in Humla District, Nepal

PremN. Kandel

Introduction served as the District Forest Officer for two-and-a-half years. His stay in the Humlais one of the most remote districts district was intensive of the at accompanied by Nepal, nearest road-head lying field observations, interactions with the about two weeks trek from the district NTFP collators, traders, processors, at Simikot. It is the second headquarters District Administration Office personnel, largest district of the countrycovering an District Committee area of km. The altitude Development 5,655 sq. ranges personnel, forestry-sector NGOs, etc. from about 1300m to 7200m. Thirteen Short duration field visits were also percent of the district is under forest, conducted in connection with different dominated the Sub- by temperate type. aspects of NTFP research, after he was alpine and alpine grasslandscover 23%, transferred to District Forest Office,Jumla. cultivated land 1% and 43% of the area belongs to other categories like snow- Commercial NTFPs and MAPs of covered area, rocky area, rivers, etc. Humladistrict Due to its remoteness and lowpopulation Based on the last five years record, some density, the district is rich in forests and 20 species of NTFPs and MAPs are being forest resources. The local inhabitants harvested in the district for commercial 2 the share about 1.9 ha. of forest per person. purposes (Table 1). Table shows Some 2897 households (41%) are trends in royalty collections from NTFPs in differentfiscal in Humla district. currently managing13165.25 ha (18%) of years the forest as (4.4 ha/household) During the fiscal year 1996/1997, 72.057 Community Forests (CF). The collection tons of different NTFPs were collected for and trade of various forest products, commercial purposes from the district. dominated by high-altitude and high- This provided an income of Rs. value NTFPs and MAPs, are playing 2,34,13,000 to the collectors and traders. major roles in the local livelihoods. During 1999 and 2000, the author This paper is based on the authors field conducteda study on Forest Users Group experiences in the district. The author (FUGs), NTFP collectors and traders in

188 (1 1 11

f

'U

7

0

Fable 2. Irend of royalty collection from NIFFs in different fiscal years.

the district to find out the quantitative ollected N I I F's I hc important findings and economic contributions of the are prescnted in Iabk 3

I1W Sharing Local and National kxperiencein Conservationof Medkal and AromaticPlants in South Asia

Table 3. Quantity of NTFPS Collected and Traded from Humla during the fiscal year 1999-2000 (055-056)

Community Forestry District Forest Office has handed over the authority to collect revenue from the CFs is in an Community Forestry Program to the Forest User Group. This has, on infant stage in Hurnia, The handing over the one hand initiated the conservation of the government forests the user and sustainable use of their resources communities started some six years while on the other it has become a steady before and about 40 forest parches have source of income to the Community Forest been handed over to the communities for User Groups, the community-based local use and management (lable 4). The organization.

I iii lu I I I

Acknowledgement: I he author is grateful present this paper in the Regional to MAPPAIIDRC for the invitation to Workshop, Pokhara, Nepal.

I90 International Conventions and Non-wood Forest Product 1)ade: Implications on Conservation of Biodiversity

Padam P. Bhojvaid

ABSTRACT medicinal plants) management, development, conservation and trade to In today's complexglobal economic order, safe guard their interest. international agreements sometimes become the tools of undueadvantage for The direction of trade in NWFPs is from developednations. The real objective of developing to developed nations. The any particular agreementis defeateddue significant destinations are countries of to internal policies and legislation European Union, Germany, USA and favouring interest of rich nations. Japan. The import policies of these major Simultaneous existence of WTO (which players are biased and encourage illegal asserts trade without discrimination) and trade. This illegal trade negates the RegionalEconomic Groupings (which are expectations that NWFPs raise for social just a new face of the MFN clause of the upliftmentof these poor nations and also pre-GATTera) highlights such a burning affect the biodiveristy due to unscientific dichotomy. over exploitation of these resources. Therefore, some attention is on Non-Wood Forest Products of required (NWFPs), the of nations to examine which medicinal are part developing plants prominent, if these international agreements, de facto, are understood to have the potentialities put them on somewhat 'safer plank' while to conservation, safeguard bio-diversity trading with developednations. of foreign exchange earnings for developing countries, and of providing This paper is a critical examination of the IPR and direct pecuniary benefits to national and internationaltrade in NWFP indigenous people for equity in in South Asian Countries and other economics of these nations involved in relevantinternational agreements reached NWFP sector. Policy documentssuch as to date, in the overall context of the CBD, WTO and CITES provide the developednations' hegemonic ambitions international legal platform over which over their developing counterparts with the individual signatories will build up respect to conservation and development their own system of NWFPs (or precisely, of NWFPs.

191 Sharing Localand National Experience in Conservation ofMedical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia

Introduction However, in most countries of South Asia the realization of projected potentialfrom The and uniquephyto-geographical agro- NWFPs has been a dream particularly for of South Asian ecological diversity the forest dwellers or the ecosystem Countries endows them with a rich (natural habitatof NWFP species) people. repository of biological resources. This has been attributed to various factors Differing life forms, besides their such as inappropriate harvesting, ecological and intrinsic value, represent and trade a considerable processing, marketing practices socio-economic and and poor information asset valueas these are management monetary actually schemes. Furthermore, these nationshave and for potentially important signed all main internationalconventions developments in the fields of food, such as Convention onBiodiversity (CBD) medicine, textiles, energy, recreation, and Trade Related of Intellectual tourism and more. Aspects Property Rights (TRIPR) to ensure Furthermore, the Non-wood forest conservationand sustainable management of The nations are also products (NWFPs)play an important role biodiversity. in the socio-economic life of forest members of World Trade Organisation which asserts trade without dwellers than the other major forest (WTO), discrimination and Economic produce, timber in all these nations. Regional are a new face of Timber base has a longergestation period Groupings (which just the MFN clause of the and is subject to governmentregulation pre-GATT era). from time to time. Hence, there is a The purpose of this paper is to analyse natural revival in these countries, of the effect of these conventions interest in NWFP, due to the increasing on conservation and equitable recognition of their immense social, commercialization of these resources, environmental and industrial which are a major component of the development possibilities. This has also biodiversity of this region of globe. In the raised visionary expectations that a more first part of paper the characteristics of sustainable utilization of NWFPs will NWFP trade in the producer countries and contribute to better forest management, different stakeholders along the value more equitable sharing of forest benefits chain in the national and international betweenall concerned stakeholders, and trade is presented. It is followed by the an improved conservation of the forest effect of international conventions on resources by the rural people, including these different stakeholders and their their participating support to the implication on biodiversity conservation maintenance of the biological diversity of and sustainable management of NWFP in the forests (Planning Commission 2000). these nations.

192 International Conventionsand Non-woodForest Product Trade

Overview of the NWFP trade and such finished products to developing enterprise nations results in further loss of precious foreign exchange. There is no systematic national level comprehensive study on trade related • NWFP trade is marked by issuesof NWFPsin India, Nepal,Bhutan, conspicuous absence of 'Green Sri Lanka and Pakistan. Many small Certification' of such products as sample studies, have indicated that compared to that of timber, which approximately 150 NWFPs, including 26 leads to ban on imports and boycotts, essential oils and a large number of by consumers mainly in developed botanicals (ranging between 4,000 to countries. On the contrary extraction 6,000), enter national and international of the NWFPs has been argued as a markets. The trade in NWFPs has been panacea for protection and sustainable referred to be as exploitative and management of tropical forests by may dominated by unhealthy and exports. unorganizedmarketing practices. Some salient features of trade in NWFP can be • EC, USA and Japan collectively account for 90% of world trade pointed as follows: import in NWFPs. In the importing nations • The value of world trade in NWFPs (approximately 45 % of NWFPsdo not was of the order of US $ 11 billion in face duty) due to non-availability of 1995. The trade is expected to grow these in importingnations. However, annually at a rate of 5-10 % between honey, maple syrup, palm leaves, 2000-2010. rattans, and flour meal of sago face higher custom tariffs to protect • Countries of SEA contribute internal maximum to the world trade of productions. NWFPs. Recently, China has • The exporting countries (developing emerged as leader in world trade of nations) have imposed high custom NWFP. India, Indonesia, Malaysia, dutieson exportand import of NWFP. Thailand and Brazil are other major These are up to 65 % in China and supporters of NWFP to the world between30-60% in India (ad Valorem). market. This is obvious as these nations have tendencies for for internal Most NWFP are in protection • imported market and revenue earning. unprocessed and semi processed form from developed countries to • Export tariffs are very common on developed nations. This results in NWFP commodities in developing creating more jobs and greatervalue countries. However, pressures on additions opportunities in the ecosystem people due to poverty (as importing nations. The import of in case of Gum Arabic in Sudan and

193 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia

Medicinal plants in hills of Nepal and • The volume of secret and informal India) makes these tariffs counter (illegal) trade is significantly higher productive and result in cross border than that of organized trade done smuggling. either through the government sponsored agencies or co-operative • In terms of linkage to raw materials, societies. most economic and enterprise activities are based on raw materials • The product lines range from essential collected by unskilled people from oils, natural fragrances, health foods, state owned natural forest areas. cosmetics, herbal cosmetics, spices, Despite the efforts of the national gums and resins and Ayurvedic governments the commercial preparations. cultivation of these species is still in Most of traders make use of its infancy and contributes very little • simple to over all national and international technologies for drying and grading. trade. The value addition if any happens away from the natural ecosystem of • There are no reliable data about the these plants. volume of trade in these countries. However, a large number of site- • The business activities in raw plants specific studies have indicated that and plant parts are seasonal in the the NWFP contributions to the local ecosystem, where primary collectors and national economy are operate during a limited season. The significantly higher than that of off site business is constant through timber and timber products. out the year, though there are occasionalfluctuations due to demand • Four different types of trade is driven internationalpressures. prevalent in the developing countries: a) Firstly, the trade is in local or • It is believed that the over exploitation regional markets of commodities of many botanicals of medicinal value consumed in day to day life by the is a threat to their existence (though ecosystem people, b) Second category there is an absence of scientific of trade is domestic and is restricted assessment for inventory of resource). within the nation for consumption in Consequently, the national and state nationalindustries, c) the trade across governments have put many such the political boundaries of other species in the REDlist based on IUCN countries of south Asia and d) criterion. However, imposition of ban fourthly the trade with other has in no way reduced the collection continents, which may include both of these plants. On the other hand the raw material and finished the fear psychosis amongst the products. poverty-strickenecosystem people has

194 International Conventionsand Non-wood Forest Product Trade

resulted into secrecy of trade, which of quantitative ecology. Similarly, where affects the equitable distribution of the whole plant or roots and rhizome of usufruct and conservation of plants. perennials are used, the decision of the authorities to enlist such Resource status and conservation regulating species as threatened is automatic based The sustainable management and on the notion that such collection is more conservation of NWFP requires and a damaging to plants than those where sound knowledge of the resource collectionis done for leaves, stems, seeds, inventoryand the affect of harvestingon flowers and buds. A common belief about the regeneration of these species. NWFP resource status in all South and Numerousstudies have been undertaken East Asian countries is: in the southeasternAsian countries with • These are open access resources main emphasis on identification, habitat types, distribution, phenology, parts • Collectors are unaware about the used, principal chemical constituents and conservation status local uses etc. of such species. Some manuals have also been preparedthough • Collectors use destructive harvesting in English, which contain information on methods the mentioned above. Such aspects • Resource degradation is due to manuals, however, are of limited use commercial collection either to the millions of illiterate forest only dwellers that are dependent on these Once again such statement, which are plants or to thousand of field forest based on case studies rather than scientific officials employedto regulate extraction methods and canbe questioned to warrant and ensure the protection of resource. generalizations to a national level. One Since no comprehensive quantitative of the advocates of CBD is that "the inventory recording occurrence and potentially irreversible threat to resource density of medicinal and aromatic plants extinction should not result in postponing on a national level has been carried out, the required preventingmeasure even in it is not possible to monitor the resource the absence of full scientific certainty". and its sustainable management. Consequently, national authorities in Therefore, the notion of resource India, Nepal, Pakistan, Bhutan and Sri- depletion comes from indirect case Lanka have bannedcollection and harvest studies, which are based on oral of many medicinal plants and restricted interviews with collectors of NWFPs the export of such botanicals. However, (conclusion are drawn by probing imposition of bans has become a boon for changesin walking distances to resource smugglers and illegal traders as it creates areas for plant collection) rather then a fear psychosis amongst poor and actual field studiesbased on the methods illiterate ecosystem dwellers.

195 Sharing Localand National Experiencein Conservationof Medical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia

Business stakeholders analysis in the period is utilized for collection of NWFP trade in SE Asian countries botanicals and other NWFP from natural forests, while collecting fuel wood. The Numerous actors are involved in the collect the while value chain of NWFP trade. shepherds plants grazing These their and cattle. adult stakeholders can be into sheep Furthermore, broadly grouped men and womenand of two on whether children, mainly categories depending are in the are of of NWFPs disadvantagedgroups engaged they part ecosystem collection activities. meet a distribution. Local harvesters, They level local significant portion of the household community village traders, incomes from NWFP collection. This NWFP cooperatives and local level seasonal about 30- processors are ecosystem people. While employment generates 50 % of their total householdincomes the traders, (that regional exporters, large-scale 3-6 months' for processors, manufacturersand retailers supports requirement are off site stakeholders. food, festival expenses and the two basic food items to be purchased salt and These actors are linked through a value cooking oil). chain, with flow of products (from Their main are about ecosystem) and the money (originating strengths knowledge the distribution of its seasonal from large metros and multinationals). resource, The income accrued to these stake- variations, knowledge of identification and with holders along the chain is governed by acquaintance geography. They many socio-economic, ethno-cultural, often walk 2-5 days passing the nights in political, and regulatory forces. forests, climbing steep slopes and coping Characteristics of ecosystem people are with extreme cold with insufficient included as this group is directly clothing. Their weaknesses include poor connected to biodiversity conservation. financial status, inaccessibilityto markets, lack of bargaining capacity and lack of The stakeholders living in the understanding of regulatory laws communities closest to the areas where governing extraction and debt traps at the NWFPs grow are generally poor, living hands of middlemen. The ecosystem at or below the poverty line, and heavily collectors face a threat from cultivated dependent on the surrounding natural supply and synthetic substitutes of resources such as forests and pastures botanicals. Several other risks that for their livelihoods. These people are surround the collectors include chances illiterate and have none or bare mostly of accidents (wildlife, calamities),damages minimum access to facilities of housing, and loss (due to decaying, wastage, health and are public systems, schools, leakage), risk of sale and price reductions. located faraway from the public transport system. Their land hoarding are either Village traders are the second link in the very small or none. Therefore, the lean value chain of NWFP trade. This group

196 International Conventionsand Non-woodForest Product Trade has alternative source of income such as powerful people in the national context land, small merchandise etc. The village of the South Asian Countries. Their traders have some level of formal enterprisehas the main objective of profit education, stronger social linkages with for luxury beyond basic needs. Such downstream traders and have a fairly groups represent educated people with good exposure to NWFP marketing sufficient exposure to the national channels at the national level. The prime markets. These entrepreneurs have economic objective of village traders international links with business houses getting involved in trade is to meet across thepolitical borders of the countries requirements for cloth, children's of their abode and can exercise better education, and others. They generally do political powerto safeguard their business not invest money of their own, and stakeholders. Furthermore, this category operatelike agentsof offsite middlemen. of wealthy, educated and local elates They often provide some advance (political leaders, service holders and payments and very often obtain products businessman)have the ability to work in as repayment from collectors. They hire complex administrative environments help for drying and grading of products with reference to the permit systems and and thus provide some employment to export import policies of these nations. ecosystem people. Theseare represented They often have multiple supply linkages by some organized groups of collectors either directly with ecosystem collectors (generally formed through outside and local harvesters or through village interventions), usually registered with traders and road-head traders. They can intervention of state governments and exercise high politicalinfluence land have NGOs. They also represent poorer smooth access to business services/inputs. community groups and their formation They often form cartels to safeguard their has the sole objective to achieve equitable interests. Their main business functions distribution of profit. There are many include packaging and selling out to examples from Nepal, India and Sri- national exporters, manufacturers and Lanka with main business functions other Asian traders. They may also including collection, processing and directly export to countries outside Asia, trading. Such groupshave, however, met through agents in Hong Kong and with mixed success and occasionally Singapore. With the exception of India, become proxies for middlemen.This has processing and manufacturing is still in been attributedto the complicated official its infancy in countries of the south Asia. in procedures, which cause delay Thereare national companies, both public payment to collectors. and private like Dabur, Zandu,Vaidyanath and Hamdardin HPPCL Off site people India, (products from essential oils), Natural Products This group of stakeholder is generally Industries (NPI), Gorkha Ayurveda (GA) economically well off and/or politically and Singha Durbar VaidyaKhana (SDVK)

197 Sharing Localand National Experiencein Conservation ofMedical and AromaticPlants in South Asia in Nepal are facing internal under threat. More and more of the (management) and external (marketing) favoured species, because of commercial challenges. These possess a great scope harvesting, are vanishing from their of providing employment and developing natural eco-system. A sense of insecurity new naturalproducts that can fetch better due to this precarious nature of the pricesin international markets. Retailers planet's ecology on the one hand and a vary from small businesspeople desire to have access to, viewedby many exclusivelydealing with herbal medicines as economic fortune from, the South's and spices to large business houses abundant genetic resources on the other dealing with finished goods, partly or hand have inspired an initiative for the wholly composed of NWFPs in large conservation of global biodiversity. The cities. Examples include Ayurvedic developing world's biodiversity, instead medicine shops, groceries containing tea, of being treated as common property of herbal dye bamboo and rattan product theindigenous communities, has in recent retailers, sal leaf plate retailers around years been recognised as the common temples and marketplaces, and others. heritage of the whole of humankind. In response, an initiation was made by Analysis of International UNEP in the year 1988 that culminated Conventions with the adoption of the Convention on in 1992. This Statisticalinformation is in Biological Diversity (CBD) sorely lacking in force from 1993 with 168 of NWFP resource base. convention, respect members is a However, whatever information is including India, big leap forward in the fair and equitable sharing available indicates that the general flow of benefits from the use of genetic of trade in NWFP species is directed resources. mostly from the resource-rich and technology-poor South to the One necessary approach to encourage biodiversity-poor and technology-rich nations to preserve their biodiversity has North. The total world trade of NWFPS been through the provision of economic is of the order of US $ 11 billion in terms incentives. Some of such incentives must of its value, of which U.S.A., Japan and very well go to the ecosystem people. But, European Community imports about as the exemplary collaboration between 60%. New market preference in general the INBio of Costa Rica and Merck of for natural products has also enhanced USA, a case of advance payment of cost the demand of NWFPs in national and of genetic resource, has shown, the people internationaltrade. The trend of growth were not a part of the accord at all. A in demand for herbal medicines in the natural corollary is that the ecosystem North has led to significant changes in people's right to self-determinationhas got the traditional patterns of medicinal plant to be recognised before they are prepared harvesting and has placed some species to enter into negotiations over access to

198 International Conventionsand Non-wood Forest Product Trade their resources. The Convention on unorganized. International trade of course Biological Diversity has a provision for is controlled and regulated by various equitable sharing of results of research trade measures. Both the tariff related and and development and the benefits arising the non-tariff-related measures regulate from the commercialutilisation of genetic the trade. The developed countries have resources. There is a need to actualise more tariff regulations over exportof the this provision and this calls for a finished goods while more liberal is the wholesome study of the existing legal policy of import of natural resources mechanism nationally in order to coming mostly from the South. The safeguard the rights of the indigenous developing countries have such people. provisions the other way round. Opening of India's removal of the Another aspect related to conservation economy, and commercialisation of NWFPs is quantitative restrictions in import and over all in the trade of prohibition of patenting of life forms. The globalisation has much wider provisions made in the Trade Related agricultural produce on NWFP trade. The Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights impact complexity of this scenario calls for a close (TRIPS), an agreement signed by 124 member countries in 1994, though examination of the regulations of WTO exclude plants and animals other than as well as the new IPR regime. micro-organisms from patenting, The advent of and are biotechnology global biotechnologyproducts and processes of intellectual in the broadest sense. uniformity property protected possible standardsare issuesthat need to be taken This raises a conflict. While IPR potential as these are to covers of the of very seriously likely regime protection rights on conservationissues in innovators, the traditional indigenous impinge general. Access to resources, if knowledge itself cannot be protected. tropical genetic One controversial instance of this is the denied, would limit innovation. Unrestricted access their case of the neem tree. Two US companies would trigger destruction and extinction. What is got patents for derivatives of the active principle, and the rights of the required is to look for a mechanism for indigenous people were sidelined and regulating the access so that the ambitions they were never compensated for their of the developedand also the developing traditional knowledge. This conflictneeds nations can be achieved simultaneously. to be examined if the use of property The scenario has been rights is to become an incentive for present creating conservation of resources in the confusion as regards conservation of genetic resourceof countries. developing countries. genetic developing A fear is being raised that the valuable The trade in NWFPs within national indigenous wealth will be takenaway and boundaries is highly secretive and exploited commercially by the resource

199 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medical and AromaticPlants in South Asia and technology-rich multinational while India continues to debate and pharmaceutical companies. "UNDP discuss the issue, other countries are estimates that medicinal plants and using scientific explanations for the microbial from the South contribute at traditional knowledge and applying for least $3 billion a year to the North's patents. And in the bargain, India islosing pharmaceutical industry. If developing control over its existing wealth of countries are to become economically knowledge" (Sharma 2000). strong, they need to capitalise on their The of conservation of NWFP unique bio-assets. In order to achieve scope is factors in the this, they need to have systems that will species facing limiting provide them benefits from global developing countries, which is closely development and marketing of their related to the population growth. "The medicinal plant resources"(Nair 2000). population of the developing countries has expanded from 1.7 billion to 4.4. Many have estimated the quantum of Billionpeople; more than a 150% increase. trade in medicinal plants, though it But this is not to say that more people shows only a fragment of the volume that must necessarily mean fewer species actually crosses national boundaries. habitats. Manyother variables are at work, However, India undoubtedly is amongst notably poverty, inefficient agriculture, the most important resource collection poor land-use planning, inadequate centres of genetic resource as well as technology and deficient policy strategies traditional knowledge. "Such has been among other significant factors of the growth over the years that their exist countries concerned; plus adverse 7843licensed manufacturers of traditional exogenous factors of aid, trade, debt, drugs in India" (Sharma 2000). The investment and South/North relationships practitioners of Indian system of generally. There are abundant linkages medicines including Ayurveda, Siddha that make the picture far more complex and Unani never tried for documentation than a simple population/biodiversity or classification of the country's equation"(Myers 1995). Obviously, the diversified resource of plants and factors influencing conservation of species animals, and as such the protection of diversity are beyond the factor of geographical indications of our products population dynamics. have become too difficult. A question is raised about how to provide protection Awareness about the intellectual property of patents to the formulations and laws is increasing in India and the Indian products, which were developedover a industry in private sector has responded period of hundreds of years. "It remains positively to the new demands of a fact that hundreds of patents are being intellectual property laws taking taken out on traditional medicines the appropriate steps for protection. "An world over. The difference being that average growth of 23.4% per year hasbeen

200 International Conventionsand Non-wood Forest Product Trade observed during the period (1995-1999) those with the longest record of in filing of the number of applications accomplishment in the most locations. for patent" (IPR Bulletin 2000). Many of the more pharmacologically (commercially)interesting medicinal plant Althoughtrade in medicinal plants from in use around the world are countries has increased in species developing employedin more than one community, past few decades with more drugs and often in more than for if one country, developed, little any benefits accrue to uses. In order to avoid the source countries and the traditional multiple depletion of existing repository of medicinal plants communities. Numerousmedicines have countries have established been derived from the of many knowledge of traditional forest and there departments pharmacopoeia tropical people clearly to this will be more in the future. This alone is implement policy. reason enough for all programmesto be With the growing interest in research in concerned with the conservation, the medicinal plants, policy-makers and development, and protection of tropical stakeholders are beginning to recognise forest regions. One of our primary the need for an ethical policy regarding commitments to maintaining biological the appropriationand use of indigenous in the diversity tropics requires knowledgeand resources. Many believe the value of acknowledging indigenous an Intellectual Property Rights system and the of knowledge importance could be the best way to achieve these traditional medicine to people throughout ends, for financial the allowing appropriate tropics. compensation for the use of indigenous It is worthwhile noting that at the ethnobotanical knowledge. A greater of internationallevel, no exhaustive plan of understanding indigenousknowledge control and evaluation of the resources itself is imperative if any system of rights of medicinal plants have yet based upon that knowledge is to been proposed. The international compensate the indigenous populations. pharmaceuticalindustry in developing The role of propertyrights and countrieshas started interest developing traditional knowledge in medicinal plants. The pharmaceutical industry has come to consider traditional For natural genetic resources to be medicine as a source for identification of preserved, chiefly among the developing bioactive agents that can be used in the countries, one essential step is through preparation of synthetic medicine. the provision of economic incentives. The However, they are not looking for the case of traditional knowledge of study of rare plant species; they want to indigenousand local peopleshas opened test the most commonly used species. debate on the adequacy and ethics of The valuable medicinal plants are intellectual property protection. The

201 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia

debate (particularly the absence of Biodiversity (INBio), a non-profit, semi- consensus on whether and how to extend public organization. Under the intellectual property protection to agreement, over a two-year period,Merck traditionalknowledge) has so far shown received 10,000 plant samples. The, that issues of intellectual property samples were supplied with information protection of traditional knowledge are about their traditionaluse. and controversial. This is complex partly INBio to establish facilities for because of differences in conceptual agreed treatment and often lack of of the collectionand processing of plants,insects clarity and environmental from Costa two concepts of traditional knowledge samples and intellectual It is also Rica, to hire and train staff for the purpose property. and also to in Merck because a scanty body of information is provide training facilities. Merck on its part agreed to available to those responsible for policy and law at both national and provide research funding of $1.0 million making in two and to establish international levels. In addition, these years processing at the of Costa Rica. issues are often debated in isolated laboratory University Merck also to evaluate the UnitedNations, business sectorand non- agreed samples for as health and conferences potential activity governmental organizations' A was - each with its distinct sectoral interest agricultural compounds. system to for which and focus in the The WTO agreed identifying products, subject. could earn regime has not confronted the royalty. implications of its TRIPS agreement to The agreement has been criticised by a the protection and use of traditional number of public interest NGOs. "In the knowledge. debate about the protection of traditional the beneficiaries of The debate on intellectual knowledge, implied property this are traditional But oscillate between two extremes: protection peoples. regimes the truth of the is one that advocates for extension equation actually quite position clearly spelt out in an industry viewpoint: of intellectualproperty protection to cover No no "In traditional even patents, benefits"(Singh 1999). knowledge, including legal terms, the scheme is based on and ofthat and another patenting knowledge, assertion of legal ownership in the natural that the status position promotes quo habitatas 'tangible' property. In addition, where such is treated as a knowledge it permits the 'property owner' to public good. establish a range of subsidiary legal INBio-Merck collaboration arrangements, such as providing for contractual rights to carry out prospecting In 1991, Merck, a US company, entered activities in a particular territory. Access into a bioprospecting agreementwith the to genetic material is thereforecontrolled Costa Rican National Institute of both by legal agreement and in practical

202 InternationalConventions andNon-wood Forest Product Trade terms, through the separation between mandate of WIPO to promote and the party who 'prospects' for material implement the dominant intellectual and the party which develops any property rights regime and to assert that subsequentproduct"( Walden 1995). This intellectual property rights is the only collaborationis a policy case study, which viable path to protect traditional can be pursued by a developing country. knowledge," said Tauli-Corpuz. WIPO versus the Indigenous She said, "Other forms of protection People: A Debate should be explored and developed in with and Leaders of partnership indigenouspeoples indigenous people's other traditionalknowledge holders. Any a WIPO organisations attending effort to negotiate a multilateral Roundtable meeting in November 1999 framework to and on intellectual and traditional protect indigenous property traditional knowledge should consider have criticised the WIPO knowledge indigenous practices and customary laws approach in attempting to impose an used to and nurture intellectual protect indigenous property rights regime on in the local, national, and traditional called on knowledge knowledge. They regional levels." Tauli-Corpuz reiterated WIPO, and other governments the call of indigenouspeoples all over the multilateralorganisations to explore other world of life-forms and to and against patenting ways protect promote indigenous life-creating processes, referring to the and traditionalknowledge outside of the statement of over a hundred traditionalIPR indigenous regime. people's groups opposing patentingof life More than a hundred indigenous peoples in TRIPS, which she said was consistent organisations separately issued a with several proposals put forward by statement calling on governments to developing countries during the WTO amend the TRIPS Agreement, Article27.3 preparatory process for Seattle. "We believe there is serious conflict on the (b), to mandate for ban on the patenting a of all life-forms, all naturally occurring rights and obligations of member-states processes, and of traditional knowledge between the two treaties, particularly related to the use of biological resources. between Article 8 (j) of the CBD and Near the end of the WIPO Roundtable, Article 27.3 (b) of the TRIPS Agreement," the Indigenous Peoples' Caucus issued she said. statement that was a orallypresented by Access to NWFP The to Victoria of the Tebtebba species: right Tauli-Corpuz people Foundation,an internationalindigenous people's research centre based in Absolute rights to the natural resources Philippines. "It seems that this was located in proximity of a community primarily organised to reinforce the cannot be granted exclusively to that

203 Sharing Local and National Experiencein Conservationof Medical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia community not only because the natural information on supply and demand is resourceis a common property meant for often insufficient. It is not knownwhether not a limited community, but also that a the plants are abundant, scarce, if under single community may not be equipped cultivation then whether the technique is enough to conserve biological diversity. proper, gaps in market linkages, and However, communities in developing whether they are endangered or countries have continued access to their threatened. And if so, what conservative local natural resources as a right measures would be appropriate. that most centralised "Considering Undoubtedly, conservation approach in countries of the governments, specially needs considerable policy support. At have failed to South, miserably safeguard times samples are collected for screening, such access of even to viable provide ineffective marketing methods are alternatives, it is difficult to distinguish are between the to survivaland the applied, packaging arrangements right right and the have a limited to local al. No poor, products very resources"(Singh et 2000). shelf life. The situation asks for harsh laws doubt that the state is the ultimateowner of conservation. ofall and against infringements resources the ultimateright has "The for to to the local policy requirement endangered apply state, though is different from wild communities may be enabled and species certainly so that can act stocks that are not abundant in supply empowered they and of collectively as responsible custodians of high regenerative potential" the biodiversity that is situated in their (Swanson 1995). For conservation geographical proximity. Biodiversity and traditional of the NWFP it will be futile to species, knowledge: India's experience follow a policy of debarring communities from access to the natural resourcethat India is one of the twelve mega- they requiredfor their very survival. The biodiversity countriesof the world. With policy of restricting their access to the only 2.4 per cent of the land area, India diversity in natural resources has to be already accounts for 7 per cent to 8 per rational, and to be taken with utmost care cent of the recorded species of the world. and transparency. The rationale for this This number is based on the survey of 65 policy "must be shared both with to 70 per cent of the total geographical independent experts and with the area of the country. Over 47,000 species affected communities. They must be of plants and 81,000 species of animals given full opportunity to challenge this have been recorded by the Botanical rationale. (Singh 2000). Survey of India and the ZoologicalSurvey of It is that Perspectivesin conservation india, respectively. anticipated some of the remaining areas (e.g., Most of the NWFP species includingthe Himalayan region, Andamans & Nicobar medicinal plants are used locally and the Islands) may be far richer in biological

204 International Conventionsand Non-woodForest Product Trade diversity than most of the areas already species, specially the medicinal plants, of surveyed. India is also one of the twelve the country. centres of of cultivated primary origin Conclusions plants and is rich in agricultural biodiversity. India is equally rich in Discussions in the previous sections traditional and indigenous knowledge, indicate that 'Povertyamidst Plenty' is the both coded and informal. reflectory statementabout collectors. The of NWFP in from In the recent there havebeen several availability ecosystems, past, the is a cases of bio-piracy of traditional managerial standpoint big However, under knowledge from India. First it was the opportunity. prevailing socio-economic, and patent on wound-healing properties of regulatory ecological forces the collectorswill continue to suffer haldi (turmeric); now patents have been obtained in other countries on at the hands of business houses both national and multinationals. This is hypoglycemic properties of karela (bitter further absence of an gourd), brinjal, etc. An important aggravated by apex criticism in this context relates to institution in the countries of south East Asia, which has a clear mandate of foreigners obtaining patents based on Indian materials. There is also coordination between collectors, biological and the view that the TRIPS Agreement is governmental non-governmental the of bio organizations and industrial houses. aiding exploitation diversity by Furthermore, of privatizing biodiversity expressedin life simplification legal forms and The of regulatory mechanisms such as a national knowledge. problem transit for bio-piracy may not be resolved with such permit, support price produce revocation actions and domestic and backward and forward linkages, which ensure back and biodiversity legislation alone. There is a buy speedy to collectors is essential for need to provide appropriate legal and payment institutional means for the conservationand sustainable management recognizing of NWFP in these counties. rights of tribal communities on their Moreover, higherfinancial gains and their ploughing traditional knowledge based on biological resources at the internationallevel. back are a central solution to a triangular barricade of development, sustainability The attention of multi-national and participation. NWFP sector is an area pharmaceutical companies is drawing where producersneed to fetch maximum towards indigenous genetic resource of financial benefits with minimum sales. the developing world includingIndia. It Apart from reducing various costs, a has become imperative to safeguard the higher price margin for the dwellers is the conservation measures as well as the key for this. Higher prices are not going traditional knowledge related to NWFP to be offered by the users of these

205 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medical and AromaticPlants in South Asia produces automatically but a strategic DevelopmentMonitor. 5 November 1999 planning is called for. [Source: Third World Network, Geneva; http://www.twnside.org.sg] Acknowledgements: The author likes to thank IDRC/MAPPA for the invitation to Srivastva, J. Lambert, J. and Vietmeyer, participate in the Regional Workshop at N. 1996. MedicinalPlants: An Expanding Pokhara, Nepal. Role in Development. World Bank Technical Number 320. Literature cited Paper Swanson, T. M. 1992. Economics of bio- FAQ, 2001. The state of world's forests. diversity convention. AMBIO21 (3): 250- FAQ, Rome, Italy. 257. IPR Bulletin 2000. A bulletin from TIFAC 6 (9): 1-3.

Myers, Norman. 1995. Population and Biodiversity. AMBIO 24 (1): 56-57. Nair, M.D. 2000. Winning the War against Bio— colonisation. The Hindu, 17th May, 2000: 21.

Planning Commission 2000. Report of the Task Force on Conservation and Sustainable Development of Medicinal Plants. Planning Commission, New Delhi, India. Sarkar, S., 1996. Medicinal Plants and the Law. Qccasional Paper Series (3). WWF- India, New Delhi, India. Sharma, D, 2000. Patently Wrong on Medicinal Plants. Invention Intelligence, Nov.-Dec., 2000: 253-255.

Singh, S. Sankaran, V., Mander, H and S., Worah, S. 2000. Strengthening Conservation Culture. UNESCO, Paris, France.

Singh, S. 1999. Traditional Knowledge under Commercial Blanket. South-North

206 Conservation and Commercialization of Medicinal Plants of the Terai Region, Nepal

Rabindra N. Shukia

SUMMARY examples of over-harvested medicinal plant species are Aistonia scholaris, Nepal is a small country with wide Asparagus racemosus, Rauvolfia altitudinal and climatic variations within serpentina, Curculigo orchioides, short distances. Terai is the southernmost Ephemerantha macraei, Piper Iongum, belt of plain land stretchedalong the east Tinospora sinensis, etc. In many -west direction and about 13% occupies instances, the extent of exploitation is so of the land of the Forestsin the country. sever that many species havebecome rare Terai is dominated Sal region by (Shorea in many localities. The second category with associates like Adina robusta) of medicinal plants is the Bornbax commercially cordifolia, Aegle marmelos, under-harvested ones despite their ceiba, Acacia catechu, Butea fair availability in the wild. Prominent arborea, Mallotus monosperma, Careya examples of this are Phyllan thus Terminalia bellirica, category philippensis, em blica, Terminalia bellirica, Terminalia Terminalia chebula, etc. chebula, Aegle marmelos, Cassia fistula, Terai region is rich in medicinal and etc. The third category includes medicinal aromatic plant resources. These have plants that are available in the wild in been supporting the rural people considerable quantities but their considerably in their health care services commercial harvesting have not so far and livelihoods. Although a large been notably initiated. Some prominent number ofmedicinal plant speciesin the examples are Butea monosperma, Terai regions are collected for household Holarrhena pubescens, Mallotus or local uses, only a limited number of philippensis, Justicia adha toda, Tribulus them have so far been harvested for terristris, Woodfordia fruticosa, etc. commercial purposes. It is highly imperative that a database The commercial medicinal plants in the of medicinal plants available in the Terai region can be broadly divided into Terai region of the country be prepared three categories: over harvested, under- to facilitate information on their harvestedand not harvested.Prominent identification, uses and status in the wild.

207 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medical and AromaticPlants in South Asia

This effort is likely to assist in the conservation of resources as well as provide alternatives to wild medicinal plant-based sustainable economic development in the Terai region. Acknowledgement: The authoris grateful to IDRC/MAPPA for providing opportunity to attend the Regional Workshop, Pokhara, Nepal.

208 POSTER PRESENTATIONS

IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF TRADITiONAL MEDICINE Tengboche High-altitude Herbal Medicine Project: Experiences in the Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal

Kate Armstrong Michaci W. Schmitz* HelenCawler

ABSTRACT medicinal uses as well as effort to develop guidelines for their conservation, In recent years it has become apparent cultivation and sustainable use. that the influx of tourism in the Sagarmatha National Park of Nepal has Key words: medicinal plants, high Tibetan Khumu not only brought increased wealth, but altitude, medicine, also a gradual extinction of traditional region, Nepal healthcare, namely Tibetan medicine. The Introduction natural environment too has begun to suffer. In view of this, the Tengboche This has been the first year of an on-going Development Project of Tengboche project to boost the status of traditional Monastery has initiated a program to Tibetan Medicine in the Khumbu region strengthenthe role of traditional medicine of Nepal. The program was begun at the in Khumbu through the opening of a request of the abbot (Rinpoche) of the Tibetan clinic in Namche Bazar and the Tengboche Monastery, who was development of a high-altitude medicinal concerned about the dwindling availability plant propagation center. In the firstyear of traditional medicine as well as the of this project we have managed to demise of the local environment. Our photograph most of the herbaceous goals have primarily been to supplement plants found in the park, as well as local healthcare by re-introducing the document their uses in the Tibetan amchi (Tibetandoctor) system throughthe medical system. We have also been establishment of a traditional Tibetan successful in the germination and medical clinic in Namche Bazar and to cultivation of select locally available documentand cultivate importantlocally species. This research is a preliminary availablemedicinal plants for use in herbal survey of medicinal plants utilized in the formulas at our proposed pharmacy. "Tibetan medicine of Khumbu, Nepal, Within this vein, we are also trying to including their identification and promote conservation and awareness

*Michael W. Schmitz and Helen Cawley, ClO GTZ/PVB/CIM, P.O. Box 1457, Kathmandu, Nepal.

211 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medical and AromaticPlants in South Asia about medicinal plants and the local Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Sa ussurea costus, ecosystem. Inula racemosa, Meconopsis grandis, Salvia via from root The hians) transplantation Tengboche Development Project's and rhizome. Species were chosen based are to: goals on their local availability and usefulness. • Make Tibetan medicine available to In addition, germination tests were also those in need conducted on available local seeds (Aco- nitum spp., Podophyflum hexandrum, • Gather data on the abundance Salvia hians, Meconopsis horridula, (occurrence, availability, distribution, Meconopsis simplicifolia, Meconopsis etc.) of medicinal plants occurring in paniculata, Notholirion macrophyllum, Sagarmatha National Park Incarvillea maireiand Anemone rivularis among others) with a high success rate • Gather data from the cultivation of for Aconitum, Salvia, Notholirion and altitude medicinal high plants Incarvillea. Most of the plants in the na- tional were and • Develop strategies for the sustainable park photo-documented in some cases were collected. management and conservation of specimens We are in the of identi- medicinal plants, while supporting currently process appropriate resource use in the fying photographed plant specimens for traditional practice of Tibetan their ethnobotanical properties. medicine Next year we plan to expand our cultiva- tion scheme on the Debouche with • Provide raw plant materials for the plot the addition of a and more fabrication of Tibetan pill formulas, greenhouse which will be administered in the beds, as well as additionalspecies, based clinic on the availability of their seeds. We have also proposed the installation of plots in • Provide a model which can be Namche Bazar and Thame, as well as the replicated in other areas, to promote construction of a traditional pharmacy. the cultivation of high altitude The addition of a pharmacy/medicine medicinal plants processing unit would enable the herbal medicines to be locally produced and dis- Background tributed rather than bringing them from Medical Institute in India. This year, with a limited budget, we Chagpori were able to set a small up high-altitude Challenges and lessons learned nursery (at approximately4800m altitude) for the propagation of selected species In implementing our cultivation program, of medicinal plants (namely Podo- the availabilityof seed has been a limiting phyllum hexandrum, Neopicrorhiza factor. Ideally seed would be harvested scroph ulariifolia, Bergeniapurpurascens, in the fall from the national park, but not

212 TengbocheHigh-altitude Herbal Medicine Project: Experiences in the SagarmathaNational Park, Nepal all plants which are needed for Tibetan providedand excellentmicro-lab in which pill formulas are found locally. In to test germination of the seeds. Other addition, they are not readily available experiments using the same technology from other sources without having a seed have reported success rates of 90% and collection expedition. This perhaps is better while only investing a fraction of what will be needed to jump-start the the cost, time and space of more program. Ideally, once the cultivation traditionalseed germination techniques. scheme intensifies, it will be self- This research has the to make sustaining in that the plantation itselfwill potential seed for further important contributions to the produce enough sowing of and possibly sharing. At that point it development germination/cultivation for also be possible to select stock with techniques valuable, high altitude, might undomesticated medicinal Until higheractive principle content plantation. plants. Thus, this is an area to which more now, very little conclusive research has been done in this field. attention should be given. Thus, any headway made would provide a Germinating certain wild high-altitude germination methodology, which could seeds can also prove to be a difficult be duplicatedand implemented in similar matter, and the conditions and regions throughout the country for the techniques for this process need to be cultivation of hitherto uncultivated more closely examined and developed. medicinal plants. Every plant species has a mechanismfor until the seed is On another note, our clinic has been delaying germination and successful in dispersed. Therefore, any difficulties with extremely popular quite its first with 60-80 germinationcan be overcome when one year approximately visitors week. However, our knows the delay mechanisms of the per to be cultivation scheme has received very little species germinated. Temperature interest fluctuation moisture and from locals even though it is cycles, light, meant chemical inhibitors are some of the to be a community project. Local disinterest can most be attributed variables presented. Stem and root likely to the wealth that tourismhas brought to cuttings can also raise the efficiency of the area. As with most community propagation but this method does not allow for variation of projects it is generally believed that if they genetic offspring, are linked to a cultural establishment such to of the eventually leading weakening as a the be cultivars. monastery, project should more successful. In our case this has not Inour first trial year we had some success necessarily been true. Thus, it can be said with a simple technique, "seed bags." that theinterest taken in a project depends The use of thin polyethylene bags and upon the economic status of the people wet heavy strength paper towels especially in case of medicinal plants. In

213 Sharing Local andNational Experience in Conservationof Medical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia other areas where the local villagers are Acknowledgements: The lead author is less economically stable, the cultivation grateful to IDRC!MAPPA for providing of medicinal plants offers an opportunity opportunities to attend the Regional to supplement their income. Workshop, Pokhara, Nepal. Another challenge is operating withinthe boundariesof a nationalpark. Although there are supposed to be rules in place to re-regulate the coliectionof plants, they are not often strictly enforced. Plants in the Sagarmatha National Park have not yet been threatened by over-harvesting (other than grazing by yak). As previously stated, this is mainly because tourism has proven such a lucrative business that local people have not looked towards medicinal plants for supplemental income as in other parts of the Himalaya. In this sense, tourism has protected medicinal plants. However, now that we will be setting up a pharmacy to produce medicine, a new pressure will be placed on medicinal species within the park. This new challenge and demandfor local plantshas instigated the development of our plantation scheme. Since in the beginning, demand may out weigh availability, we are faced with the challenge of how to provide raw materials and not depletethe naturalenvironment, making it imperative to put conservation strategies in place before our "solution" creates a problem. In the next and coming years we hope that both the strengths and obstacles of this initial year can be translated into lessons learnedand a technology that can be shared.

214 Quality Control of Ayurvedic Medicines Produced in Ritigala Area, Sn Lanka

Lakshmi Arambewela Suraj Perera* Menuka Arawwawala* Priyanthi Dissanayake*

ABSTRACT prepared for Cough syrup (2 items), Thalisadi Churnaya (8 items), Navaratne Plant materials are used all over Sri Lanka Kalkaya (16 items), Kalukumara oil (35 as home and traditional and remedies, items), Ashwagandha Arishtaya (19) items raw materials for the pharmaceutical and their ingredients. The specifications industries. Titigala Strict Nature Reserve and parameters for Kessa Peniya, (SNR) is located in North Central Nawarathna Kalkaya, Thalisadhi Province of Sri Lanka and is rich in Churnaya, Kalukumara Thailaya, medicinal plant diversity. At present, Aswaganda Arishtaya have been about 36 herbal drugs are prepared in established and will be compiled into a small quantities by Ritigala Community monograph for each drug. Based Developmentand Environmental Management Foundation (RITICOE) for Introduction the treatment of around villagers living Strict Nature Reserve is SNR. Titigala (SNR) Titigala located in North Central Province of Sri Quality control of Ayurvedic drugs is Lanka and is rich in medicinal plant difficult as they contain several plant diversity. Ritigala Community Based materials. Therefore it is necessary to Development and Environmental establish acceptable guidelines for Management Foundation (RJTICOE) is an assessing their quality. Efforts have been NGO operating in North Central province initiated to standardize the formulation, of Sri Lanka. One of the main objectives improve the quality, initiate large scale of RJTICOE is to involve the local production and enhance marketing of 6 community to protect the unique Ayurvedic medicines being producedby ecosystem of Ritigala SNR, which is well Ritigala Community Based Development knownfor its varieties of medicinal plants. and Environmental Management About 200 species of medicinal plants Foundation (RITICOE). TLC profiles were have alreadybeen documentedfrom the

* Industrial TechnologyInstitute, 363 Bauddhaloka Mawatha, Colombo 7, Sri Lanka.

215 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medical and AromaticPlants in SouthAsia

area, many of which are endemic to Sri recipes. The mode of actions of most of Lanka and a few of them to Ritigala these drugs is not fully known. These proper. poses further difficulties in bioassays, for and measurement RITICOE has launched testing consistency development of of the herbal in the of to bioavailability drugs. programs villages Ritigala Therefore, it was felt necessary to lay educate the children and support the down some standardsfor medicinal plants villagers in the cultivation of medicinal and herbal drugs by establishing plants, preparationof Ayurvedic drugs, acceptable guidelines for their minor irrigation tank rehabilitation, assessing promotion of forest gardens, quality. development of micro-enterprises, etc. The present communication is based on Plant products are used all over Sri Lanka the findings of the IDRC-funded project as home and traditional remedies, and 'Value Added Products from Medicinal raw materials for the pharmaceutical Plants for Community Based Rural industries. Quality control of Ayurvedic Development Program' which is being drugs is difficult as they contain several jointly carried out by Industrial materials and their chemical nature plant Technology Institute (ITT) and Ritigala are not well defined. Furthermore, the Community Based Development and chemical constituents in plant parts vary Environmental Management Foundation with season of locality, harvesting, stage (RITICOE). One of the main objectives of of harvesting, duration and conditionof the project is Standardization of storage, manufacturing processes, etc. formulations, improvement of quality, Sometimes there are even in problems industrial production and marketing of the raw materials obtained identifying Ayurvedic medicines by from sources. produced plant RITICOE. The present communication deals with the control of 5 At present, about 36 herbal drugs are quality prepared in small quantities by Ritigala Ayurvedic drugs currently produced by Community Based Development and RITICOE. Environmental Foundation Management Methodology (RITICOE) for the treatmentof villagers living around Titigala SNR. Most of the Quality control methods for medicinal drug are now prepared in the houses of plant analysis, referred by WHO,has been villagers or at RITICOE resource center followed. Ayurvedic physician confirmed under the supervision of an Ayurvedic the identity of the plant-based raw physician. Most of the drugs are prepared materials. Photographs and herbarium according to traditional Ayurvedic specimens were prepared together with pharmacopoeia while some drugs are consultation of relevant literatures for prepared according to traditionalnative further confirmation of the raw materials.

216 Quality Control of Ayurvedic Medicines Produced in RitigalaArea, Sri Lanka

The drugs and the raw materials were Thalisadhi Churnaya extracted using appropriatesolvents and Moisture 6.54% TLC the finger print patternsfor all drugs and raw materials were recorded. The Foamingindex Less then 100 Tannin content 3.77% above-mentioned and parameters finger Water extractablematter 680 were for mg-i print patterns kept as standard Volatile oil content 3.3% each to drug control batch-to-batch Totalash content 11.64% variations. Acid insoluble ash 19.94% Results Watersoluble ash 0,42%

A. Specificationsfor Kessa Paniya (Cough C. Specificationsfor NawarathnaKalkaya syrup) List of raw materials: List of raw materials: 1. Trachyspermum roxburghianum (S. 1. Coleus amboinicus (S. Asamodagum) Kapparawalliya) 2. Glycyrrhiza glabra (S. Weimi) 2. Zingiber officinale (S. Inguru) 3. Cedrus deodara (S. Devdaru) 3. Sugar 4. Eugenia caryophylla (S. Karabu) 5. Ferula asafetida Kessa (S. Perunkayam) Paniya 6. Nigella sativa (S. Kaluduru) 7. index Less than 100 Cuminumcyminum (S. Sududuru) Foaming 8. officinale 5.09 28.7 Zingiber (S. Inguru) pH (at C) 9. Relative 1.341 ml Piper longum (S. Tippili) density g 10. Vernonia anthelmintica Sugar content 55.6 g sucrose/ lOOml (S. Sanninayan) Tannincontent 1.25% 11. Picrorhiza kurrooa (S. Katukarosana) Chloroformextractable matter 0,1636% 12. Terminalia bellirica (S.Balu) 13. Volatile oil content 1.75% Terminalia chebula (S. Aralu) 14. Myristica fragrans (S. Vasawasi) B. for Thalisadhi 15. Myristica fragrans (S. Sadikka) Specifications Churnaya 16. Bee (Powder) honey List of raw materials: NawarathnaKalkaya 1. Abies webbiana (S. Talishapatra) Moisturecontent 23.44% 2. Piper nigrum (S. Gammiris) Foamingindex Less than 100 3. Cinnamomum zeylanicum (S. Kurudu) Tannin content 6.32% 4. Elettara repens (S. Enasal) Waterextractable matter 118.03 mg.g-1 5. Zingiber officinale (S. Inguru) Volatile oil content 2.3% 6. Piper longum (S. Tippili) Totalash content 1.79% 7. Cinnamomumcamphora Acid insoluble ash content 0.59% (S.Una-Kapuru) Water soluble ash content 0.61% 8. Candy

217 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medical and AromaticPlants in SouthAsia

D. Specificationfor Kalukumara Thailaya 29. Zingiber officinale (S. Inguru) 30. nigrurn (S. Gammiris) List of raw materials: Piper 31. Alliurn sativurn (S. Sudulunu) 1. Kudumihiriya Oils 2. racernosus Asparagus 32. Castor oil (S. Hathawariya) 33. Sesame oil 3. Datura metel (S. Aththana) 34. Neem oil 4. Hemidesmusindicus (S. Iramisu) 35. Madhuca oil 5. Ocimum santurn (S. Maduruthala) 6. Atalantia mossionis (S. Paburu) Kalukumara Thailiya 7. Glycosmis pantaphyfla(S. Welmi) 8. Vernonia antheirnintica (S. Specific gravity OO.8934(at3OC) Sanninayan) Refractive index 1.4696 (at 302C) 9. Atalantia ceylanica ( S. Yakinaran) Iodine value 51-53 10. Citrus sinensis (S. Dodan) 11. Alternanthera sessilis (S. Sudu E. Specificationsfor AshwagandhaArista wellangiriya) 12. Kalu wellangiriya List of raw materials: 13. moonhi sudu Capparis (S. 1. Withania somnifera (S. Amukkara) wellangiriya) 2. orchioides 14. Crataeva unilocularis (S. Lunu- Curculigo (S. Bintal) Warana) 3. Rubia manjith (S. Welmadata) 15. Vitex negundo (S. Vela) 4. Terrninalia chebula (S. Aralu) 16. Calotropis gigantea (S. Wara) 5. Curcurna dornestica (S. Kaha) 17. Gyandropsis gyanandra (S. Vela) 6. Cosciniurn fenestra turn (S. Venival) 18. Citrus aurantifolia (S. Dehi) 7. (S. Welmi) 19. Terminalia chebula (S. Aralu) Glycyrrhiza glabra 20. Terminalia bellerica (S. Bulu) 8. Ipomoea mauritiana (S. Kiribadu) 21. Phyllanthusemblica (S. Nelli) 9. Terminalia arjuna (S. Kubuk potu) 10. rotundus Dry raw materials Cyperus (S. Kalandura) 11. Operculina turpethurn (S. Tirastawalu) 22. Nigella sativa(S. Kaluduru) 12. Hemidesrnus indicus (S. Sudu — 23. Cuminurn cyminurn (S. Sudu — duru) Hanhun) 24. Trachysperrnurn roxburghianurn (S. 13. Hemidesrnus indicus Kalu — Asamodagum) (S. 25. Piper Iongurn (S. Tippili) Iramusu) 26. Euginia caryophylla (S. Karabu) 14. Santalurn album (S. Sudu — Handun) 27. Myristica fragrans (S. Vasawasi) 15. Pterocarpus santalinus (S. Rat- 28. Myristica fragrans (S. Sadikka) Handun)

218 Quality Control of Ayurvedic Medicines Produced in RitigalaArea, Sri Lanka

16. Acorus involucrate (Wadakaha) 17. Alpinia calcarita (S. Aratta) 18. Woodfordia fruticosa (S. Malitha) 19. Plumbago indica (S. Ratnitul) 20. Bee Honey 21. Water

AshwagandhaArista

MoistureContent 61.40% PH 3.57 (at the 25.52C) Specific gravity 1.5078 Alcohol 4.93% Sugar content 27.lOgsucrose I lOOm! Total solid content 38.60%

These Quality control studies of herbal drugs is expected to facilitate safe and effective healthcare system, sustainable use of naturalresource and conservation and management of wild medicinal plants. Acknowledgement: The financial assistance provided by Medicinal and Aromatic Program in Asia (MAPPA), International Development Research Centre (IDRC) for this project is gratefully acknowledged.

219 Sustainability of Traditional Herbal Medicines Practiced in Andhra Pradesh, India

S. Vedavathy

Background district adjoins Tamilnadu state and is located in the Paini river The 80% of the world is valley. Nearly population Tirumala hills, which surround Tirupati traditional medicines for dependentupon town, are a part of northern tip of the health care. Some of the primary practices Eastern Ghats, a mountain range with rich of local and have indigenous peoples biodiversity. The predominant tribal remained unmodified and kept secret population in the district is Yanadi, over long periods of time. In the face of Yerukala, Nakkala and the Irula. The industrialization and modernization the Yanadis is endemic tribe of the Chittoor indigenous knowledge base has begun and Nellore district with a population of to erode. Plants which once abundant approximately 267,200. There are about became scarce and their uses forgotten. 1500 villages in the district. It was this loss of knowledge that prompted the present study to document The first phase of the project began the ethno-medico-botanical information with the following objectives: at its source and raise awareness and To collect ethno-medico-botanical assist in cultivation of medicinal • plants information on medicinal plants in in meeting their own needs and for Chittoor district income generation. • To the medicinal uses of area and register plants Study people used by the villagers, particularly: (a) home remedies from women, The study on traditionalhealth practices (b) of the rural of Chittoor traditional healers having long people district, and Andhra Pradesh in the experience with herbal medicines (A.P), began year tribal in 1994. It was the (c) peoples experienced financially supported by ethno-medicine and the collection of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Program wild medicinal plants for subsistence in Asia (MAPPA), a joint initiative of and trade. International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Canada and Ford • To investigate and record the Foundation. The projectarea in Chittoor distribution and growth patterns of

220 Sustainabilityof TraditionalHerbal Medicines Practiced in Andhra Pradesh, India

plants, their harvesting seasons and community members. For the survey the traditional methodsof medicinal uses team used either a snowball sampling method or, when necessary, went door To establish a research centre in • to door to identify key respondents. Chittoor district to investigate the traditional uses of herbal medicines Participants' observation for justification and refinements, and act as a resourcecentre for Participants observation often played a training, role in the research. The networking, and dissemination of significant coordinator of the V. Mrudulawas research findings. project also in the process of completing her Methodology doctoral studiesin anthropology focusing on the ethnomedical practices of the as the author was in the Fortunately Yanadi tribe. As a component of her she could mobilize teaching profession, studies, she lived amongst the Yanadi of the the support students who were tribal for over 4 months, building rapport from rural localities. the mostly Besides, and trust amongst several villages that an and a project staff, Anthropologist participated in the HFRC project. Her trained Taxonomist, she along with experiences were critical to the student community and with the support development of the phase II proposal. The of local NGOs surveyed 400 villages that field assistants and the author also are in the fringe area of the forest. The frequently stayed in the villages for a villages surveyed are remote and devoid number of days and accompanied the of modern health facilities. The survey participants to forest areas in order to was unique because the students gauge the availability of each species, to belonging to the same community went observe the growing conditions and to to the village, introducedthe author and collect samples of each species. information. This also facilitated gathered results the project staff to conduct research Survey activities with ease the next during visits. Documentation of herbal therapies: During 1994-96 several field visits were made and key informants interviewed to The survey documented approximately get information on medicinal plants and 500 medicinal plants used in various herbal medicines. In communities where ailments and one thousand herbal there is no NGO or student, the research formulations that go into the therapies. team contacted the head of the village! Publication of the findings sarpanch!VSShead to host a focus group in order to introducethe project's goals, The book "Tribal Medicine of Chittoor objectives, and methods and to build District, A. P. (India)", containing the rapport between the research team and findings of the survey conducted during

221 Sharing Localand National Experience in Conservationof Medical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia

1994-96, has been published. Among the participated in the ethnomedico-botanical documentedinformation, information on survey or by community liaisons about 200 medicinalplants with their uses participating in other aspects of the has been provided in the book. In project. In each case study both the addition, a number of publications practitioner and patient were interviewed followed in regional languages. involving documentation of the case history, diagnosis, treatmentand recovery Establishment of the Research Centre of the patients. A Research known as Herbal Centre, People's Clinic Trust Folklore Research Centre (HFRC), has developed as a resource centre for People's clinic trust (PCT) is a local NGO training, networking and dissemination that works for the health-related issues of research findings. of the rural people. In collaboration with this NGO (PCT), HFRC conducted a Establishment of medicinal plants garden number of case studies. An Ayurvedic a and a A demonstration of medicinal doctor, general physician garden all services as has been established with 150 psychologist, providing plant consultants to the of wild and rare medicinal project monitored samples plants results of these case studies. Most of the collected during the field surveys. folk practitioners are from marginalized Establishment of the Herbarium communities. Many of them are spec:ialized in specific disease or a group A herbarium has been set up at HFRC of diseases. The majority was not including plant specimens collected compensatedfinancially for their services during the field surveys. A preliminary but received in kinds as payments and seed bank has also been initiated. supplement their income as agriculture labour. Conductionof case studies Validation tests 30 case studies of the popular therapies of the area were conductedby the HFRC Conductedsafety and efficacy studies on in Chittoor district. The objective of the selected folk therapies having anti-fertility case studies was to document details on properties at Indian Institute of Chemical traditional treatment methods through Technology, Hyderabad. Out of the ten interviews with the patients and by samples, five did not show significant observation of the overall treatment. results. Out of theremaining five samples, Staffs of the HFRC were introduced to three samples showed anti-implantation reputed vaidyas in each village by activity and was recommended forfurther community leaders, members who had histopathological studies.

222 Sustainabilityof TraditionalHerbal Medicines Practicedin Andhra Pradesh, India

Phase II Herbal Health Kits (Herbal toothpowders, crack creams, dietary supplements, cough After the of the first completion phase syrups, hair oils, herbalpastes for topical the project staff involved in the survey for various skin ailments, and concluded that the on application knowledge herbal decoctions for digestive ailments) traditional medicines and home remedies are in the hands of older people in the Traditional health care system The is villages. younger generation is in the of unaware of this The Training provided diagnosis knowledge. youth common ailments, in identifying disease depend mainly on the elders in the village landmarksand the associated time tested who has expertise. The old people are herbal treatments. An Doctor also adamant and do not their Ayurvedic divulge conducts Training. HFRC is developing a unless see faith knowledge they genuine manual of synonyms of diseases in local and in their medication. As such respect language and English) the knowledge base is slowly going towards extinction. The decline in Identification, cultivation and use of availability of specificplants primarily due medicinal plants to to meet the over-harvesting increasing is on the and to Training provided cultivation, demand for trade lack of access sustainable harvest methods and forest land have forces the simple secondary technologies for processing local herbal people to loose confidence in their own remedies.The students and trained staff of medication. This has made the system of HFRChold training in the identification Centre to take afresh, awareness and cultivation of at the HFRC to plants campaigns in selected localities demonstration garden at Mukkoti, strengthenthe traditional health practices Chandragiri or in the forestland of and provide training in cultivation of participating communities. Materials like medicinal and aromatic plants to the seeds and seedlings needed for the women and herbal healers in Chittoor cultivation of commonly used medicinal district starting from January 2000. At plants are distributed to the local people present, HFRC is working for the to cultivate in their farms, community combinedobjectives of improved health gardens and for plantation in the infrastructure and the conservation and degraded forest areas. sustainable use of medicinal plants Demonstration and through a number of activities. garden, nursery Herbarium Improved primary health options: The demonstration serves as an Training and awarenessraising garden experimental farm for standardizing It includes raising awareness in traditional methods of cultivating and domesticating and local health systems by distributing wild species. The garden has a nursery,

223 Sharing Localand National Experience in Conservationof Medical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia which supplies plant samples to participating communities, HFRC is participants for planting in community encouraging in-situ conservation activities and kitchen gardens. The nursery as well. HFRChas conducted basic studies includes 40 varieties of medicinal plants on the sustainable harvesting of wild used in primary health care with 5000 medicinal plant stocks and, where saplings prepared for free distribution. possible, the reintroduction of wild The samples of the live plants found in species in the forest areas in collaboration the demonstration garden have been with the existing joint forest management included in the herbarium, which is programs. comprised of approximately 450 varieties of medicinal plants used in and around Plant reintroductionin forest areas Chittoor district. The HFRC has begun the process of Kitchen gardens liaison with the leaders of NGO's, volunteer organizations and village HFRC began the distribution of plants leaders in communities where VSS exists from the nursery during phase I of IDRC and JFM is underway, in order to funding. The objective was to encourage encourage them to reintroduce native individuals and communities to cultivate medicinal plants and trees into the medicinal plants in kitchen gardens and degraded forest areas. thereby ensure their access to safe and affordable alternatives for treatment of Conclusion common ailments. This objective was in Indigenous health practices are confined particularly important extremely to remote where there are isolated and communities only villages marginalized no communication and transport facilities. where no formal health care options The are the medicinal existed. To date HFRC has practitioners using encouraged plants that are available in and around the propagation of MAPs in kitchen the vicinity of the villages and the value gardens in 20- 30 villages. of other medicinal plants are not being Toxicity and validation tests put to use by them as they are not easily available. Henceit is time now to educate The validation of herbal therapies for the folk healers to know more about the safety and efficacy are continued with medicinal uses of herbsthat are not locally modern scientific methods. available and the need to conserve them. It would become difficult for a researcher Biodiversity conservation or any organization to bring the traditional In addition to ex-situ cultivation of healers to a particular place and educate medicinal plants in the HFRC them as they mainly depend on medicinal demonstrationgarden, nursery, kitchen plants and herbal-based treatments for gardens and community gardens in their livelihood. It is difficult to get things

224 Sustainabilityof TraditionalHerbal Medicines Practiced in Andhra Pradesh, India change overnight, reforms and refinements in the preparation of drug and administration methods suited to modern technology. They may also feel that the dissemination of their traditional knowledge and information may hamper their livelihood. The duration of healing process consumes more time than the administration of allopathic medicines. Allopathic doctors dissuade the patient not to use herbalmedicine though herbal cure is permanent in most cases. It is necessary to collect the profiles of traditional healers and there by differentiate them from quacks and businessmen.

We can achievethe goal of strengthening the indigenous health practices by regular interaction with different healers assuring them their livelihood and acquiring more knowledge in the healing process that will help them to have a better living. Last but not least it is the sustainability of medicinal plant resource base that plays a vital role in keeping the herbal treatment system alive. Acknowledgements: The author acknowledges the support provided by IDRC/MAPPA to undertake this research work. The author profusely thanks Dr. Madhav Karki and Ms. Carolyn Switzer for their advice and guidance.

225 Sustainable Medicinal Plants Conservation in the JFM Areas: A Case from Madhya Pradesh, India

Prodyut Bhattacharya Bhaskar Mitra*

Background with the protection and the management of forest and forest products without any Lack of income has been the disposable clear-cut action plan for their economic bane of the rural communities as far as improvement. And, in most cases it has one can remember. Most rural been found time and again that the two development programs have therefore core issues of resource and income focussed on the generation of income enhancement are inter-related, and that with resource as along regeneration very focussing on the former without involving of their important components programs. the latter often produces inappropriate The Indian Forest Policy of 1988 and the results. subsequent resolutions on participatory forest management emphasized the need In the past few decades, the demand of for people's participation in naturalforest medicinal plants the world over has been management. The policy documents growing very rapidly as a result of asserted that local communities should renewed interests among the urban elite be motivated to identifythemselves with for natural products. But according to the development and protection of the WHO, over 80% of the world's population, forests, from which they derivebenefits. or approximately 4.3 billion people, still The policy therefore envisages a process rely upon such traditional plant-based of joint management of forests by the systems of medicine for primary health state governmentsand the local people, care. Marginalised people, who are unable which would share both responsibilities to financially or logistically access formal for managing the resource and the healthcare systems, are especially benefits that accrue from this dependent on these herbal medicines. management. But income generation Over a million practitioners of the Indian optionsherein too has been very limited. Systems of Medicine, in the oral and Under Joint Forest Management (JFM) codified streams use around 8000 species village communities have been entrusted of plants in preventive and curative

* Mr. BhaskarMitra, Indian Instituteof Forest Management (IIFM), P. 0. Box 3.57, NehruNagar, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India.

226 SustainableMedicinal Plants Conservation in the JFMAreas applications. At the same time, medicinal agentswho work for largerindustries. As and aromatic plants have also become a result, the collectors, who are the critically important in supporting farthest from the market are paid the livelihood options for millions of rural lowest share of the market price. people as a source of income. In India alone, it is estimated that collection and That almost 70% of the Indian rural of medicinal contribute population still depends on the medicinal processing plants in to at least 35 million workdays of plant some way or the other and that all the for commercial employment annually to the poor and supply comes from the natural underemployed workforce, a majority of consumption which is in no whom are women, tribal and the very forests, way inexhaustible, their future seem to be rather dim. While poor (IDRC 2001). Over the years, bio the demand for medicinal is prospecting has led to the increased plants some of them are usage of locally available extracts growing, increasingly plant threatened in their natural habitat for manufacturing herbal remedies. being (Ramprasad and Bhattacharya 2001). Due About 95% of the medicinal plant to the over-exploitation of medicinal requirements of the Indian herbal drug plants for commercial purposes, many of industry are met from the wild medicinal them are on the verge of extinction plants. The raw material coming from the (Pandey and Bisaria 1998). As a wild is almost entirely collected by the precautionary step the DirectorateGeneral tribal and other forest dwelling of Foreign Trade has therefore banned the communities, collection of medicinal export of 46 such plants which are on the plants has remained whose sole means verge of extinction. In view of the soaring of livelihood. This provides a fair idea export markets and increased domestic about the potential of the medicinal demand coupled with uncertainty and plants in sustaining tribal and village scarcity of raw materials, adulterated communities, not only health-wise but materials obtained through traders and also economically. These medicinal and government restriction on some species other non-wood forest products play a collected from the wild, some of the big crucial role in the economy of the tribal pharmaceutical manufacturers have now dominated areas. The poor collectorsand begun to opt for cultivation. As part of producers sell the raw materials to the process, a number of companies in different types of markets ranging from the private sector are engaged in nursery weekly stalls in villages to well development, generation of planting established industrial markets in the material and seeds, development of larger cities and abroad. The system agricultural techniques for cultivation of however, is quite disorganized and medicinal plants and also initiating inequitable in that the collectors mostly encouraged cultivation of medicinalplants work as wage laborers for contractors and by contracting them to farmers. Studies

227 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medical and AromaticPlants in South Asia carried out under the agricultural council Cashcrop like soybean grownby farmers have promoted'isabgol', 'senna', opium, in the area has also faced successive years liquorice, 'tulsi', 'muihatti', periwinkle, of failure due to weakening in its gene 'sarpgandha', etc. for cultivation. Crops pool. Furthermore, there has been two like 'sanai', 'aswagandha', lemongrass, successive years ofdrought in the region, palmarosa, 'safed mush', etc. have been which has literally crippled the economy found to be particularly suitable to the of the region and increased seasonal agro-climatic conditions of Madhya migrations to the levels existing a decade Pradesh (CEDMAP 1998). Cultivation of ago. medicinal both traditional and plant, Land in the is commercial on tribal farmers land holding region highly species, thus an and organized harvesting of forest fragmented making agriculture uneconomical proposition. In addition, produce would therefore be the best the soil also has a tendencyto form a hard strategy to provide the much-needed surface pan if not watered frequently. And boost to the tribal economy (Shukla and water has been a persistent problem in Shrivastava 1993, Bhattacharya et al. the region in the past two years. Many 2001). small and marginal farmers have even left The project area and its forests their field fallow in the absence of water for irrigation. Only crops like 'kodo' and The project area consists of seven villages 'kutki', which are minor millets, are in the Ghoradongri Development Block grown by the farmers in the degrading of Betul district in Central India. undulating land in the region mitigating Ghoradongri is located almost 200 kms their subsistence needs and not their from Bhopal, the state capital ofMadhya economic needs. Pradesh, on the Bhopal- Nagpur railway line. The work was initiated in three The forests in the region being of the dry is home to a wide villages — Kanhawadi, Arjungondi and deciduous nature of medicinal like Kharagondi but was later expanded to variety plants some other villages in the region. Chlorophytum borivilianum, Gloriosa superba, Costus speciosus, Asparagus The agriculture in this region is of the racemosus, etc., all of which hold dryland agriculture type depending immense market value. This has resulted extensively on rain fed irrigation. in the over-harvesting of medicinal plants Therefore, there are limited numbers of found in the area, probably to the extent crops to choose from when it comes to of being endangered in the region. Over- agricultural practices. A number of harvestingon one hand has degraded the interventions in the area of agriculture medicinal plant habitat and on the other have been carried out in the region but affected its regeneration potential. These their impacts have been very limited. medicinal plants are collected from the

228 SustainableMedicinal Plants Conservation in the JFMAreas wild by the poor collectors whereby in the region. The Forest Departmenthad through a channel of middlemen reach created most of these committees way their final destination, be it the export back around 1996-1997, but most of these market or the herbaldrug industries. The societies have had very little role to play collectorswho collect medicinal plantsfor as far as the conservation of medicinal commercial sale also do so on behalf of plants are concerned. Many from these the tribal medicine men in the region. A societies have been making a living number of medicinal plants like 'Kakai', through the collection and sale of 'Budwarkand', 'Buddikand', medicinal plants. 'Bhasmkand',etc. are now almost extinct There is ample scope and an immediate in this region, because of its overuse by need for conservation of medicinal the tribal medicine men. plants with a view to improving the socio- to and Seth's economic conditions of the rural poor and According Champion the demands made on forests classification, the forests of the offsetting myriad these plants in their natural state. The Betul district fall into 4-A Southern that a tribal Deciduous with project hypothesized Tropical Type presence aware of the needs for of two classes viz. C-i Teak forest population Dry conservation of medicinal would and C-2 mixed deciduous forest. plants Dry also readily take to its cultivation as From ecologicalpoint of view, the forest alternate means of economic can be divided into the upliftment. following types: With this urgency, IIFM began its work - 1. Moist deciduous teak (with mixed on a project funded by IDRC titled bamboo) 'Community based Sustainable Management of Medicinal Plants in 2. Dry deciduous teak (with or without Madhya Pradesh', the objectives of which bamboo) are as follows -

3. Mixed Type: Terminalia tomentosa, 1. Gather information and assess the Phyllanthus emblica, Terminalia ecological and socio-economic status arjuna, Aegle marmelos, Pongamia of medicinal plantsin the project area. pinnata, Anogeissus latifolia, 2. Prioritise and select five medicinal Madhuca Ailanthus indica, excelsa, with local value and etc. plants high commercial demand for cultivation. 4. Salai (Boswellia serrata) dominated Test and develop models for cultivating them in cultivable land. 5. Bamboo dominated 3. Study the impact of present Forest Protection Committees created conservation and harvestingsystems under the banner of Joint Forest on productionand biodiversity status Management are found in most villages of medicinal plants.

229 Sharing Localand National Experience in Conservationof Medical and Aromatic Plantsin South Asia

4. Collect and analyse information The selected farmers were provided regarding survival, collection, training from CEDMAPin Betul only after marketing and potential for value which cultivation was carried out. added processing of medicinal plants Motivational techniques for attitudinal cultivated and collected. changes have been used extensively for involving the villagers in the cultivation 5. Based on the analysis of data, to of some commercial medicinal plants as holistic recommend a model for also for adopting sustainable harvesting promoting cultivation of MPs in practices while collectingmedicinal plants. degraded forests Exposure visits to medicinal farms in the areas were made for the Methodologyused in the project nearby village youth and women regarding cultivation The methodology adopted had been of medicinal plants. They were also taken primarily dictated by the information on study tours to commercial medicinal and essential needs of the project, which in turn were plant cultivation areas oil dependent on the objectives to be extraction units to provide interaction with achieved. A mix of and non- persons experienced in the cultivation of participatory medicinal and aromatic and participatory methods was used. Data plants had been collectedfrom both and exposure to such small-scale industrial primary units. Raw materials for cultivation and secondary sources. Primary Information were from like has been gathered from villagers nursery procured places Bhopal, Betul and as far as places like (includingmedicinal practitioners), Forest Pratapgarh in Uttar Pradesh. Department, Panchayat, and an NGO called Society for Rural Upliftment, Betul The traditional medicine men were given (SRUB), our local partner workingin the due importance throughout the project area. period. Suchindividuals, being respected persons in the region, had a good sway medicinal in Exposure visits to farms the over the communities. Along with them, area were made for the nearby village the most progressive of farmers among youth and women regarding cultivation the communities was also involvedin the of medicinal plants. They were also taken various decisions made at the village level on visits to essential oil extraction units while the collectors groupswere consulted to provide exposure in the similar line. for framing sustainable harvestingrules. Secondary sources of information This ensured that the roles and included data from available literature, responsibilities of each stakeholder groups WorkingPlan of the Betul ForestDivision, were clearly chalked out and assigned Census Office and the Centre for after due consultation with the group. EntrepreneurshipDevelopment Madhya Society for Rural Upliftment Betul (SRUB) Pradesh (CEDMAP). had been assisting in the day-to-day

230 Sustainable MedicinalPlants Conservationin theJFM Areas project implementation activities at the 2. Identification and establishment of field level. forest plot at Arjungondifor monitoring Results and discussion For monitoring the ecological status of medicinal plants, a patch of the During the process of implementation of forest as the the several activities were carried Arjungondi suggested by project, villagers of Kanhawadi and Arjungondi out in the last two and half The years. was found suitable by the project team. activities carried out under the project are The themselves selected 10 sites with their villagers briefly presented along impacts for the monitoring plots and they in the area. All the activitieswere carried themselves are carrying out Participatory out with active and support co-operation Forest Resource Assessment activity. The of the local communities. To ensure a Forest Department has also started a sensitized participation of the on medicinal in communities, were trained in seven-year project plants they the same patch where the monitoring had relevant aspects like cultivation of been A medicinal sustainable ongoing. long-term monitoring plants, harvesting carried over a temporal span would of medicinal etc. plants provide vital information regarding 1. Establishment of Demonstration Plot ecological status of important medicinal at Kanhawadi and the resulting plants especially the ones that are awareness generation threatened. A demonstrationplot was established in 3. Training of apprentices by medicine the village, where small-scale cultivation men of medicinal both local and plants, Traditional knowledge is being gradually commercial, was done. The land for the eroded due to lack of interest the demonstration was donated the among plot by younger generation among traditional herbal practitioners. Mentha, Lemon communities. To revive and continue the Grass, 'Keokand', 'Neem', 'Suarkand', age-old knowledge system, apprentices 'Buddikand', Turmeric, 'Sanai', 'Adrak', were selected by the medicine men for 'Bach', 'Sarpgandha', 'Lehsun', 'Khus', training under themselves through the 'Chachar Gothi', 'Jungli Haldi', 'Kali ancient system of 'Guru-Shishya Mush', 'Bhasmkand', 'Sitafal', etc., were Parampara'. They were selected on the planted in the field. The idea was for the basis of their interest, initiative and farmers to see for themselves the results commitment towards medicinal plant of such activities before they could try it conservation. They were then imparted on their own cultivable lands. Another training on identifying wild medicinal purposeserved by the demonstration plot plants, diagnosing diseases and was the establishment of a nursery and preparation and prescription of seed bank. medicines. They were also taught

231 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservation ofMedical and Aromatic Plants in SouthAsia sustainable collection techniques of used by the more renowned medicine medicinal plants. More such groups are men, who supply them to the medicine being trainedfrom amongst the members men. Similarlythe collectorgroups for sale within the community to widen the in local and regional markets collect human resource base with the similar medicinal plants of commercial knowledge. Such knowledgeable importance. It was consistently observed individuals would also be efficient that such collectors had little regard for caretakers of their healthcare in systems the sustainability of the plant during their the absence of run Public government collection exercises. This was having a Health Centres. negative impact on the regeneration The 4. Sponsoring apprenticesfor Training capacities of the species concerned. in MAP cultivation organised by collectors were subsequently trained in CEDMAP appropriate collection techniques to ensure the survivability of the plants after A few village youths were also sponsored the collection of the desired parts. Herbal the by project to undergo a six week practitioners were also providedthe same in training 'Entrepreneurship information so that they could ensure that in Medicinal Plants' held Development their respective collectors groups adhered by the Centre for Entrepreneurship to the collection norms. Development in Madhya Pradesh (CEDMAP)at Betul. Morevillage youths B. Patient proffle register are being trained by the project on various aspects of the cultivation of medicinal Patient profile registers of patientsvisiting plants. Efforts are being made to some of the medicine men is being encourage other farmers who are not maintained at the village level. The record being covered by the project to take up so maintained has generated a profile of similar training programsthat specialize the patients and diseases being treated by in the cultivationof medicinal plants. This Bhagat Baba. The records have revealed training providedthem vital information that people come to them from different regarding the cultivation, marketing and parts of India. They are treating a wide value addition options important in range of illnesses ranging from cancer to enterprise development. fertility to jaundice and many other common and diseases. This A. of collectors are complex Training group (who reveals the role the involved in for commercial register possible harvesting Traditional Medicinal can in and as well as for the medicine Systems play purposes even modern health care needs men) mitigating as people who come to them are the ones Their designated collectors, livingin far- that have been spurned by the allopathic flung villages collect the medicinal plants system of treatment.

232 Sustainable MedicinalPlants Conservationin theJFM Areas

C. Establishment of village level sowed their fields in the last week of information centres January 2000 and the first crop was harvestedin the month of June/July,2000. Two village level information centres have The returnsfor the first three farmers have been established in Kanhawadi villages been provided in table 1. and Kharagondi. These were established for the disseminationof information on Mentha arvensis had been chosen as it the cultivation techniques of medicinal had better market potential. The planting plants. Inquisitive villagers have been material was made available by the coming from far off places with their project. Mr. Mukesh Chourasia, a inquiries on the cultivation of medicinal progressive farmer and a medicinal plant plants. Youths who have received trader from Betul, had assured to buy the trainingin cultivation of medicinal plants produce from the farmers. It was felt that have been put in charge of these centres. mentha, given the circumstances then, Villagers interested in medicinal plants had a better chance of succeeding than now have the opportunity to receive any other species. And from the point of information on its cultivation aspects view of the project, it was important that from their own people. The youths can these early innovators achieved success also provide information on the with their efforts. This would increase harvestingand marketing aspects of the their confidence in the projectand would commercial medicinal plants. Reference also motivate other farmers, who were material on cultivation of techniques keen but conservative regarding their medicinal plants in local language has initiatives. been provided at such centres for dissemination. Video shows, Farmers in this regionpossess large tracts photography display, slogan and poster of area, which are largely wastelands or displays were carried out in the area for degraded lands, but which can support public awareness related to conservation an annual crop of coarse millet. Such areas and sustainable utilisation of medicinal are now being targetedfor the cultivation plants. of such medicinal plants that are capable of growing in degrading lands. As a part D. Cultivation ofMedicinal and Aromatic of the therefore Plants in farmers field program 'Sanai', 'Dedawal' (Mucuna pruriens) and A few villagers showed interest in the 'Aswagandha' are being introduced. The commercial cultivation of Medicinal and wastelands that were not capable of Aromatic plants after the initial supporting anything more than 'Kodo' motivationperiod. Of these, four farmers and 'Kutki' for self-consumption, can be carried out the cultivation of Mentha used to grow economically rewarding arvensis, while the rest preferred to wait species if appropriately tapped. A few for the results. Three of the farmers bottlenecks have however been recently

233 Sharing Local and National Experiencein Conservationof Medical andAromatic Plants in South Asia

Table 1: Profile ofReturns from Mentha Crops in Kanhawadivillage

Source:Primary data observed in the cultivation of these two resultinginto a storehouse ethnobotanical crops. Due to untimely rains in the information, The study revealed that root, region, these seeds (primarily of the dry barks and tubers are the most common land variety) that were distributed to the plantpartsthat are used as medicines (fig. farmers have been observed to rot after 1) which also Corresponds with the fact germination due to sudden rise in soil that the most common method of moisture levels. collectionof medicinal plantsis by digging 2). More the study E. Ethnobotanical (fig. importantly, study revealedthat most of the frequentlyused An ethnobotanical survey was carried out and important medicinal plants were among the medicinal plant practitioners grown by the medicine men in their using a questionnaire. Information on kitchengardens to assure easy availability medicinal plants and their usage for a in times of need. particular disease was documented,

Fig. 1: Plant parts used for medicinalpurposes

tem1%4 Flower 2°o

Seeds 9% root Fruits 3% 28%..( r / tuber 16%

bark 17%

234 Sustainable MedicinalPlants Conservahon in the JIM Areas

Fig. 2: Method of collecting various plants

cutting i bo Digging42%

Breaking 26%

Scaling Bark 16%

F. Preparation of household nurseries plants within the village as well as the importance of its conservation. Herbarium The concept of household nurseries is are in the now the specimens deposited being propagated amongst information centers in the village so that for like villagers growing plants improved the villagers as well as outsiders can use varieties of 'aonla', mango, 'achar' and them, The apprentices along with the 'mahua', The seeds are being provided SRUB staff have been provided training by the project. The individuals in herbarium preparation. developing the nurseries have been allowed the freedom to keep them or sell H. Networking of herbal practitioners them off at a price. Efforts were being made to develop as many nurseries as Anetwork of medicinalplant practitioners possible covering different medicinal, residing in 18 villages of the area have fruit and fodder species. The farmer been established to provide them with a partners have been encouragedto adopt forum for voicing joint concerns over agroforestry practices to fulfil the ecological status of medicinal plants and subsistence needs from their own lands. information sharing over its availability and usage. This has also provided the G. Herbarium tribal preparation by communities the much-neededsay over youths the use of the resources available in the Herbarium of all the medicinal plantsthat region especially those having medicinal are being used by Bhagat Baba as well as importance. They have also prepared and those available in the surrounding areas shared a list of dos-and-dont's during the is being prepared, so that their harvesting season of medicinalplants. The identification would not be a problem in herbal practitioners meet regularly to the futureand help in conservation efforts discuss their day-to-day problems. The as well. The herbarium has also helped network, consisting of practitioners who in building awareness about medicinal are reputed persons in the region, can

235 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medical and AromaticPlants in South Asia

Information shared by herbalpractitioners during one of themeetings on sustainable harvestingpractices 1. Bark:: Use onlyhalf the bark. The rest of the bark would then re-grow after a period. 2. Tuber yielding plants: a. Plants having multiple tubers: Half of them could be removed. b. Plants with single tuber: They could be removed carefullywithout destroying the plant. 3. Collect seeds only after maturation. Ensure toleave enough seeds for naturalregeneration. 4, Use leaves only when they have matured. Leaves should not be collectedin the lean and dry season. 5. For collection of fruits, branches should notbe lopped which reduces followingyears yield. thus hold sway over the community and the soil moisture levels and relative control the degradation resulting from humidity conditions. This experience, if over-harvesting for meeting the successful, could fuel further plantation commercial requirements. activities which was hitherto not undertaken on account of the dry I. Plantation work in farmers' land conditions prevailing in the region. The of the is not a The farmers carried out plantationwork process refilling pitcher big in their land that were degraded and no problem. cultivation was being carried out. In such Conclusion lands 'aonla' and mangowere planted in alternate rows. Those farmers who had The results obtained from the project developed householdnurseries provided initiatives clearly shows that there is great the seedlings for the plantation. These scope for cultivation of medicinal plants plantations had some mortality due to at community level in backward areas. water shortage in the area. To prevent further mortality an experimentis being The project experience also revealedthat conductedby using water filled pitchers national and local level variation in market with a smallhole at the bottom dug under prices cannot be ignored and steps must the ground for providing moistureto the be taken to ensure that the cultivators are soil and thereby to the plant roots. A eventually not losers in the process. The pitcher full of water can provide the Joint Forest Management Committees growing plant the much-needed moisture (JFMCs) or other similar village level through capillary action and by means institutions could play assistin marketing, of the small hole made at its bottom. This thereby enhancing the collective technique ensures water availability to the bargaining power of the rural growing plant for a week, dependingon communities.

236 Sustainable Medicinal Plants Conservation in theJFM Areas

In this context the project has therefore Planning Commission. 2001. Report of aimed to attain the twin objectives — that Working Group on Medicinal and of propagating sustainable harvesting Aromatic Plants in India. MoEF, New practices on one hand and propagating Delhi, India. cultivation of medicinal plants on the other. In doing so, the project has Prasad, Ram and Bhattacharya P. 2001. addressedthe issueof the rural economy, Sustainable Harvesting of Medicinal Plant the demands of the herbal drug industry Resources.In S.B.Roy (ed.) Contemporary and aboveall the continuity of medicinal Studies in Natural Resource Management plants threatened to extinction by mans in India. Inter India Publications New insatiable greed. Delhi, India. Shukia P. Acknowledgements: This paper is an K. and Shrivastava J. L 1993. Medicinal Plant as an tool for outcome of the project 'Community Important Based Sustainable Management of Development of Tribal Economy. Journal of 253-258. Medicinal Plants in Madhya Pradesh', Tropical Forestry 9(111): carried out with financial support from Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Program in Asia (MAPPA), International Development Research Centre (IDRC), New Delhi, India.

References

Bhattacharya. P. Mittra B, & Sen H.B. 2001. Mid-Term Report of the project 'Community Based Sustainable Harvesting of Medicinal Plants in Madhya Pradesh'. Submitted to IDRC, New Delhi, India (Unpublished).

International Development Research Centre, 2001. http:/!www.idrc.ca!saro/ research!

Pandey, A. K. and Bisaria A. K. 1998. Rational Utilisation of Important MedicinalPlants: A tool for Conservation. Indian Forester.

237 Ethno-biotic Alternatives to Modern Brooding Techniques

KrishnaKaphie

ABSTRACT their controlled counterparts. The combined efficacyof the three techniques Brooding is a vital and complicated part viz, antiseptic application and trickling, of modern poultry farming. The skim milk powderand biotic incorporation complications and small error in this in the chick feed, administration of holy period of life in chicks can have basil, tea and sugar in the early drinking detrimental effect in latter stage of water was superior over the controlled growth. The exiting brooding practice is ones, which comprised of modern dominatedby reckless and excessive use technologywith the use of antibiotics.The of antibiotics to combat early chick alternative techniques are however less mortality. The birds are genetically effectivein certain areas and needs further engineered to meet high productionlevel verifications. Based on the outcome of the and are under stress from the very results these techniques can be taken as beginning. Excessive use of antibiotics alternatives to modern approach where from the very beginning has resulted in fear the drug residues and allergy drug resistance and other undesired manifestation in humans by its position effects in chicks in their later stage of life. on the top of food chainis alarming. The An ethnobiotic approach for the exciting aim of the present study was to highlight brooding techniques has beenattempted. the danger and cost of antibiotics used in The incorporation of some potent herbs, chicks from the very beginning and skim milk powder, lactobacillus identifies the efficacy of herbal products organisms and manipulation of chick's for sustainable poultry farming. belly by mild trickling to enhance peristaltic movement of the intestineand Key words: poultry, brooding,alternative application of antiseptic in the umbilical techniques, herbal extracts, ethnobiotic, opening has been tried in commercial tulsi. level in farms at farmers different Introduction locations of Nepal. The alteredbrooding techniques have variable results on their Brooding, in modern poultry technology, independenttrails but were superiorover indicates proper raising of day old chicks

238 Ethno-biotic Alternatives to Modern BroodingTechniques

(DOC) to the stage of their self- and farmers, dealers and middlemen were sustainability. Poultry development in interviewed. Several subsequent visits, Nepal has faced many up and downs. evaluation of their records and telephone The existing modern techniques are inquiries collected the feed back of the but are with widespread expensive study. The study at Chitwan valley was after effects as well. In natural possible conducted by personal supervision of and wild conditions mostly the avian several flocks under varied female under the influence of management prolactin conditions. The conditionsof chicks with hormonechanges her physiology to meet the chick's of heat and care. emphasis on parameters like early requirement unevenness and The concept however has changed its morality, weight gain course to the modern shape where was monitored, and the findings were complications overshadow this period. compiled. The brooding period is vital event to the chicks as well as its raisers. Existing Technology The of The country has a developing poultry developing poultryindustry Nepal with hatcheries located at is still following the traditional way of industry major brooding where use of antibiotics and Kathmandu and Chitwan. Chitwan, vitamins are considered a necessary located in the central part of the country beginning. This research is an attempt has the most numbers of hatcheries with to stress on the management and high capacity output. The chicks are alternative techniques of brooding for hatched on twice a weak basis and better results. dispensed according to the orders received. The dealers are mostly Objectives responsible for providing the necessary The study aims at: brooding arrangementof farmersoutside Chitwan valley. A small room or part of • knowing the existing trends in the farm in itself is isolated and prepared as brooding Nepal, the brooding site after washing and • recording the field-levelresults for the disinfecting. The use of plastic or canvas alternative approaches, and make the to surround the area to prevent the loss farmer aware of the importance of this of heat is considereda must. The litter's period on chick's life. depth varies from season to season. On • exploring the potentiality of medicinal the floor is the rice hulls. The old plant resources in line with organic newspaper and in some cases paperbox poultry farming. cover act as a carpet over the litter to prevent the chicks from playing and Methodology swallowing rice hulls. The medium and A trip of the eastern, central and southern large scale farmers have now opted for poultry pockets of Nepal was executed gas brooders as the source of heat with

239 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia great success, howeversmall farmers still the maize grits on the floor or provide rely on electric bulbs, sawdust furnace bamboo plates (Nanglo) as feed trays. In (Bhakari) and kerosene heater as the case of large farmers plastic chick-trays source of heat. Dispensing starts after the and chick-drinkers are used to serve food farmer obtains his share of ordered chicks and water. Thus the brooding starts with and medicines, which he has been antibiotics, vitamins and electrolytes routinely using. The medicines used at provided to the chicks on varying doses, the brooding period comprised of some and followed by routine vaccinations electrolyte mixtures, some anti-stress starting with Bi, (Fl) on the very first vitamins, antibiotics ranging from week. The survey of early chick's mortality Furaldaltone, Enrofloxcacin, Cephalexin, on different farms at different seasons Chiortetracycline, Suipha groups and revealed high mortality on winter. A others. Some farmers provideliver tonics medium scale farm comprised of one to and vitamin B groups and multivitamins five thousand chicks while those having along with water sanitizer as early source. more than five thousand chicks are The small-scale farmers use maize grits considered large-scale farmers. The and maize power as the early sources of disease surveillance round the year feed while large-scale framers have now leading to early chick mortality from farms turned to complete ground Layer or aroundChitwan valleyhas been presented Broiler Starter. The smallfarmers spread in Table 1.

Table 1. Diseases resultingin complications and mortalitybasic during broodingstage

- E ------iosecuriesand shed c ire - - .s. 2. Aspergillus 10 Mostly during winters, due to damp walls and wet newspaper resulting out of spillage of drinking water. 3. Mycoplasmosis 6 Mostly due to high E. coli and parental background. It is also as a result of multiage farming practices. 4. Salmonellosis 8 Only few breeding farmers have regular salmonellamonitoring techniques, complicatedof by E. coli. 5. Pasty Vent 10 Dehydration and over heating accompaniedby negligence on drinking system and as a consequenceof omphalitis. 6. Lameness 6 Due to disturbance of Ca:P ratio and vit D3 in breeders as well as in chick feed. M. synoviae and reo attack has also precipitated the outcome 7. Piling 14 Inadequate and non-uniformheat distribution, sudden noise, power failure, etc. 8. Unspecific 6 Due to toxicity, malnutrition, predators, transportstress, stepping over and other unspecificcauses.

240 Ethno-bioticAlternatives to Modern Brooding Techniques

Regardless of the cause high early chick nutrient contentof the yolk sac was found mortality has been a common routine on to be drained quickly post manipulation all level of farms. The negligence and resulting from increased peristalsis. The inadequate precautions of middle level manipulation is executed by picking up farmers have indicated an average high the chicks and movement of index finger brooding mortality on their flocks. The as an act of trickling. small-scale farmers in of limited spite The antiseptics commonly used are spirit, knowledgeand technology labor hard to iodine and herbal The such The povidine products. prevent complications. large results have been in small and farmers have to satisfactory enough provisions medium farms where chick countingand prevent such moralities. The frequent introduction to water beak outbreak of coccidiosis and Infectious drinking by dipping is practiced pre release into the Bursal Disease (Gumbaro) are common brooding area. In few trial farms of on flocks with of history early brooding Chitwan valley, the incidence of mortality mortality and complications. and final body weight was better to the controlled ones under Alternative Approaches compared this approach. Three alternative to the approaches Precautions existing brooding techniques have been followed: The picking and manipulation may stress in the chicks. The Applying antiseptic on the umbilical produce concentration of chemical antiseptics opening and manipulatingthe intestine should not be strong enough to damage The idea was derived from the high cases the soft tissue of the chicks. The bird of omphalitis and inadequate care for should not have weight feathers and any disinfecting at farm level. It was detected attractive features for flock mates to that many chicks did posses long dry initiate picking. It is also advised to cut thread of umbilicus, which attracted other the umbilical cord by a skilled technician flock mates. The tendency to pull the in aseptic conditions. thread resulted in and other omphalitis Replacing antibiotics by skim milk complications. powder and Lactobacillus The oval naval openingalso facilitated the organisms of E. coli and other entry pathogens Five farms with capacity of 2000 chicks on the litter. The idea of present each was selected and normal brooding the intestine was to hasten manipulating managementwere executed for both the the of from the sac into drainage yolk controlled and the treatedflock. The only the intestine via the stalk. The vital manipulation was with the incorporation

241 Sharing Ioral and National Lxperincein Conservationof Medical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia of lactobacillus species (Protexim, days. The use of boiled water with holy Lactosacc) and skim milk powder in the basil (tulsi, Ocimum sanctum) and tea feed of trial groups and antibiotics in the leaves with sugar was provided for 1-5 controlled ones. The use of electrolytes days. The farmers boiled 5 liter of water and vitamins in the drinking water was together with 15 leaves of tulsi, teaspoon provided to both the trial and controlled each of tealeaf and sugar, and sieved to group. The result obtained has mixed serve for 1000 chicks. The resultant response and needs further trial on decoction was then warmed during winter poorly managed farms as external and cooled by addingice cubes in summer microorganismsseems to have influenced beforefilling the chick drinkers. The chick the flock provided with no antibiotics. was to dip beak into this solution before releasing. This was provided for 1 to 2 Use of Holy basil, tea and sugar in hours in the followed the water early morning by drinking electrolytcs, vitamins and other results were Only few farmers provide boiled water accessories. Positive reported from different farms considered. to the day old chicks. Water cultured in poultry the laboratory from randomly sampled Results poultry farms of Chitwan provided positive results for microorganisms. A The performance of flocksunder different number of farmers were encouraged to approach compared to the controlled ones use the alternative continuously for 3-5 has been presented(Table 2). Thevariation

I ) n (

( b I ( )

1 + 0) Ethno-bioticAlternatives to Modern Brooding Techniques in management and farm conditions of different trialhas provideddifferent FCR and final body weights. Studies on the controlled groups of the same management level have also been executed. The result of all the approaches has been encouraging over their respective controlled flocks under same management and farm conditions. The result of approach one and three combined over its control indicates the benefitof combined approach. Inspiring results has been achieved with the alternative approach over the existing techniques. Precautions Incorporation of excess of tea or tulsi leaves may result in a solution bitter enough to be consumed by the chicks, which may result in dehydration. Law- grade tea or excess sugar may sometimes result in diarrhea. The improper sieving may result in choke due to ingestion of tulsi leaves or tea leaf/granules. Too hot water may damage the beak and tongue of the chick, creating psychological fear for water throughout its life. Acknowledgement: The author proffers his gratitude to MAPPA/IDRC for the invitation to attend the Regional Workshop in Pokhara, Nepal.

243 Medicinal Plants of Nepal in the Ayurvedic contexts

Narendra Nath Tiwari

SUMMARY In order to assure conservation, management and development of the Ayurveda is one of the oldest treaties in Ayurvedic medicinal plant sector of the medical Science. Medicinal and aromatic country, the following four inevitable Plants are the main basis of Ayurvedic steps are suggested to implement for therapy. Hundreds of species of higher promising results: plants are used in Ayurvedic system, most of them available wild in the Indian a. Preparation of database of medicinal sub-continent. plants; b. Conservation of habitats in general Nepal's climatic diversity and variations and those of threatened medicinal in altitudes offers to a grounds grow large plants in particular; number of medicinal and aromatic plant species in the wild. These are providing c. In-situ and Ex-situ conservation of primary health care facilities in rural areas commercially important medicinal in the form folk or household remedies. plants with emphasis on their Majority of these locally used medicinal cultivation; and also the plants is used in Ayurvedic d. Research efforts focussed on medicinal that is system currently practiced mostly plants with aims at developing simple in the urban and sub-urban localities of identification the propagation techniques, country. of active principles, existing and potential uses and possible substitutes Most of the locally used medicinal plants on enough scientific grounds. including those used in the Ayurvedic system are increasingly facing different Acknowledgement: The author is grateful levels of threats on account habitat to IDRC/MAPPA for the invitation to destruction accompanied by the of lack attend the Regional Workshop at Pokhara, management practices, over exploitation, Nepal. etc. These factors are posing serious threats to their existence in future.

244 EVALUATION AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary of Participants' Comments

The comments below havebeen compiled stakeholder issues (Prof. M. Iqbal from the participant comment sheets Choudhary, HEJ Research Instituteof submitted to IDRC at the end of the Chemistry, Karachi, Pakistan) Market Day Poster Session on Sunday, as the January 21, 2001. Participants outlined a • MAPs are coming up number of insights gained from the alternative, and need strict and Market Day session as well as some judicious use (Dr. Krishna Kaphle, project areas that they found particularly IAAS, Rampur, Nepal) and relevant to their own interesting • A holistic approach is required for work. Participants also mentionedthings M. that had to see in the session sustainability (Prof. Iqbal they hoped Research Institute of but didn't as well as research areas that Choudhary, HEJ Karachi, Pakistan) they would have liked to see more Chemistry, information on. • Good linkage is necessary (Dr. P. Centre for Plant The are 'take home lessons' or Tetali, Naoroji Godrej following Research, Pune, India) insights that the participants gathered from the Market Day Poster Session: • The community should be involved for effective conservation and • Recognition, documentation, and dissemination of about management of MAPs (Pradip knowledge HPPCL, Kathmandu, MAPs and their potential in private Maharjan, lands and community forestry in Nepal) and tropical, sub-tropical temperate • Central decision-making may not be climates are urgently needed. There appropriate at local levels (Plenary) is the need for a collaborative effort on this from government, donor, • MAPs have high potential for research and academic institutions (S. improving the livelihoods of people P. Dahal, MOFSC, Nepal) (S. P. Dahal, MOFSC, Nepal) • The MAP sector is complex, • Local communities are the true multidisciplinary, and has multi- resource managers with vested

247 Sharing Local and National Experiencein Conservationof Medical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia

interest in the conservation and MAPs (Pradip Maharjan, HPPCL, sustainable use of their resources (Dr. Kathmandu, Nepal) Nirmal Bhattarai, DPR, Kathmandu, Nepal) • Expertise needs to be developed in particular areas, e.g. large-scale • Collection is related to social propagationmethodologies by tissue cooperation of ethnic groups (Dr. S. culture, etc. (Dhruv Raj Bhattarai, HerbalFolklore Research Vedavathy, HPPCL, Kathmandu, Nepal) Centre, Tirupati, India). • In an open-access system, cultivated • MAP projects must recognize both materials cannot with wild local health care needs and the need compete harvested materials (Plenary) for income generation (Plenary) It is commercial that • Action research needs to create • mostly species are domesticated for their sustainable economic incentives (Dr. S. and (Dhruv Vedavathy, HerbalFolklore Research availability production Raj Bhattarai, HPPCL, Kathmandu, Centre, Tirupati, India). Nepal) • Training and building capacity 'Small is Beautiful' P. programsat the community levels are • (Dr. Tetali, the only viable solutions to conserve Naoroji Godrej Centre for Plant and manage forest resources (Dr. Research, Pune, India) Nirmal Bhattarai, DPR, Kathmandu, • NGOs are doing better jobs (Dr. P. Nepal) Tetali, Naoroji Godrej Centre for Plant • International funding is playing a Research, Pune, India) role in local in the catalytic projects of MAP sector M. • The Department Forest plays (Prof. Iqbal roles in Choudhary, HEJ Research Institute important promoting medicinal in South this is of Chemistry, Karachi, Pakistan) plants Asia; lacking in Sri Lanka (Lakshmi • Research should be headed towards Arambewela, ITI, Colombo, Sri Lanka) the applicable and economically viable ventures only (Pradip • Poster session is very attractive and Maharjan, HPPCL, Kathmandu, useful. Much interaction has been Nepal) possible with the researchers within short time (Dr. Nirmal Bhattarai, DPR, More research and is • development Kathmandu, Nepal) needed in the development of propagation methods, materials for • The number of MAP speciesrecorded endemic and commerciallyimportant in Nepal has increased from 700 to

248 Summaryof Participants' Comments

1624 species (Dr. Krishna Kaphie, • The concept of backyard herbal IAAS, Rampur, Nepal) garden presented by Dr. Ferdousi Begum is a very practical solution to • Traditional knowledge should be face the growing shortage of validated (Plenary) frequently needed medicinal plants Nirmal • Interaction should be encouraged (Dr. Bhattarai, DPR, throughout a meeting (Dr. Tom Kathmandu, Nepal) Hammett, Virginia Tech., USA) • Conservation, cultivation, and domestication issues and MAP Participants found the information Narendra Nath presented on the following topics ecology (Dr. Tiwari, T.U., Kathmandu, particularly interesting and useful to their Ayurveda Campus, own projects: Nepal) • The and • The ex-situ conservation of medicinal general descriptions home excellent pictures of diffirent MAPs plants by backyard garden Malla, DPR, Kathmandu, (Krishna Kumar Pant, IAAS, (Kuber Jung Nepal) Rampur, Nepal) • The conservation assessment and • The natural stock of important MAPs has to assessed for further management plan preparation of get MAPs and initiatives (Dhruv Raj Bhattarai, HPPCL, planning development Kathmandu, (Prem Narayan Kandel, District Nepal) Forest Office, Humla, Nepal) • The medicinal plant conservation as undertaken by FRLHT (Rabindra • Networking with organizations! Shukia, HPPCL, Nepalganj, Nepal) projects focusing on MAPs (Charles Pradhan, Canadian Coorperation • SHERs success in propagating Office, Kathmandu, Nepal) Aconitum heterophyllum from rhizome cuttings is a good guideline • The number of people/organizations for identical efforts in at sustainable use of Nepal (Dr. looking Nirmal Bhattarai, DPR, Kathmandu, medicinal Jam, plants. (Pushp Nepal) TRAFFIC-India,New Delhi, India) • Information on in-situ cultivation of • The utilization of information MAPs (Shakeel HaiderZaidi, Pakistan resources in and programs projects Forest Institute, Peshawar, Pakistan) (Charles Pradhan, Canadian Coorperation Office, Kathmandu, • Techniques for the propagation of Nepal) MAPs through rhizomes cuttings

249 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia

(Krishna Kumar Pant, IAAS, Karnataka states in India (Dr. Nirmal Rampur, Nepal) Bhattarai, DPR, Kathmandu, Nepal) • The different models of medicinal • Good information on ethnobotanical plantscultivation being experimented uses of indigenousplants (Dr. Nirmal with by IIFM/Indian Environment Bhattarai, DPR, Kathmandu, Nepal) TRAFFIC-India, Society (Pushp Jam, • Rapid vulnerability assessment to be New Delhi, India) used in traditional health care systems Haider • Information about the cultivation of (Shakeel Zaidi, Pakistan Forest Institute, Peshawar, Pakistan) Aconitum heterophyllum in Garhwal (Kuber Jung Malla, DPR, • The names and categories of red-listed Kathmandu, Nepal) plantsin Karnataka (Kuber Junj Malla, DPR, Kathmandu, Nepal) • Information about proper methodologies of domestication • Non-timberforest products in Nepal (Prem Narayan Kandel, District (Shakeel HaiderZaidi, Pakistan Forest Forest Office, Humla, Nepal) Institute, Peshawar, Pakistan) • The leasing of government land in • The method of preparation of forests for growing medicinal plants herbaceous samples using computer to small farmers (Dr. Zahoor Ahmed, (Lakshmi Arambewela, ITI, Colombo, Pakistan Agricultural Research Sri Lanka) Council, Islamabad, Pakistan) • Interesting information on high- altitude obtained from • The marketing of MAPs for ethnobotany income and Dr. Yildiz and Kate Armstrong (Dr. community generation Nirmal Bhattarai, DPR, Kathmandu, resource utilization (Rabindra Shukia, Nepal) HPPCL, Nepalganj, Nepal) • Thin layer chromatographyfor MAP The awarenessof local collectors for • evaluation (Dr. Krishna IAAS, sustainable collection and Kaphle, marketing Rampur, Nepal) issues (Prem Narayan Kandel, District Forest Office, Humla, Nepal) • The presentationand display of clear and informative posters (Dr. S. • Information on different medical Vedavathy; Herbal Folklore Research systems under one roof (Krishna Centre, Tirupati, India) Kumar Pant, IAAS, Rampur Nepal) The followingare things participants were • Valuable information on the looking for but didn't find in the Market threatenedplants of Maharashtra and Day Session:

250 Summaryof Participants Comments

• Full paper concerning presentation • Participation of the user groups (Dr. and reference/publication lists of the Narendra Nath Tiwari, Ayurveda concerning research organizations (S. Campus, T.U., Kathmandu, Nepal) P. Dahal, MOFSC, Nepal) • Participation of commercial partners • Simplehandouts at every posters (Dr. (Prof. M. Iqbal Choudhary, HEJ Tom Hammett, Virginia Tech., USA) Research Institute of Chemistry, Karachi, Pakistan) • Sign up sheets for those who were interested in receiving more • Citation of botanical names at many information from posters presenters instances (Prof. V.P.K. Nambiar, Arya (Dr. Tom Hammett, Virginia Tech., Vaidyasala, Kottakkal, Kerala, India) USA) • Address of institutions and • Presentation of some brief case organizations involved in in-vitro and studies (Prof. M. Iqbal Choudhary; in-vivo study of MAPs (Dr. Krishna HEJ Research Institute of Chemistry, Kaphie, IAAS, Rampur, Nepal) Karachi, Pakistan) Participants would have liked to see more • Result-oriented information, which information on the following topics: was shown by very few posters. This may result in the lack of existing • Monitoring elements for sustainable information to the participants use of MAPs (Plenary) (Dhruv Raj Bhattarai, HPPCL, • of conservation and Kathmandu, Nepal) Analysis economic aspects of MAPs (Charles • Basic research studies focused on Pradhan, Canadian Cooperation number of MAP species, area, Office, Kathmandu, Nepal) resourceinventories, etc. (Plenary) • Samples of medicinal plant-based • MAP studies looking at biodiversity processed/semi-processedproducts and whole system impacts (Plenary) (Dr. Nirmal Bhattarai, DPR, Kathmandu Nepal) • Documentation of ethnic people's knowledge (Dr. Narendra Nath • Cultivation techniques of more useful Tiwari, Ayurveda Campus, T.U., and high value medicinal plants Kathmandu,Nepal) (Kuber Jung Malla, DPR, Kathmandu, Nepal) • A tie-in of the programme with farmers and user organizations (Prof. • Agrotechnology of cultivation of V.P.K. Nambiar, Arya Vaidyasala, tropical MAPs (Rabindra Shukla, Kottakkal, Kerala, India) HPPCL, Nepalganj, Nepal)

251 Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservationof Medical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia

• MAP cultivation and marketing (Dr. • Value addition and medicinal plants Tom Hammett, Virginia Tech., USA) (Lakshmi Arambewela, ITI, Colombo, Sri Lanka) • Markets and marketing chain/channel (Dr. Nirmal Bhattarai, DPR, • Commercial-scale propagation Kathmandu, Nepal) techniques for Dactylozhiza hatagirea (Pradip Maharjan, HPPCL, • Income generating activities through Kathmandu, Nepal) medicinal plant management and • Germination and markets cultivation (Kuber Jung Malla, DPR, techniques for MAPs (Krishna Kumar Pant, Kathmandu, Nepal) IAAS, Rampur, Nepal) • Micro-enterprises based on NTFPs • Propagation of endemic, threatened, (Rabindra Shukia, HPPCL, and economically important species Nepalganj, Nepal) (Plenary) • Marketing of medicinal plants(Kuber • Quantitative estimation of NTFPs in Jung Malla, DPR, Kathmandu, Nepal) nature (Dr. Nirmal Bhattarai, DPR, Kathmandu, Nepal) • Marketing and marketing methods (Lakshmi Arambewela,ITI, Colombo, • Artificial propagation and plant Sri Lanka) potency (Krishna KumarPant, IAAS, Rampur, Nepal) • Marketing of NTFPs from communities in a collective way • The reliability of traditional systems (Rabindra Shukia, HPPCL, in the face of changes (mutation) in Nepalganj, Nepal) plantsover time (Krishna Kumar Pant, IAAS, Rampur, Nepal) • Market information on internationally Enrichment traded MAP species (Dr. Nirmal • planting (Plenary) Bhattarai, DPR, Kathmandu, Nepal) • Inter-cropping of MAPs with other (Dr. Zahoor Ahmed, Pakistan, • Appropriate market price information crops Agricultural Research Council, systems (Rana Rawal, Ban Udyam- Islamabad, Pakistan) BSP/ NewERA EFEA) • to introduce native Value added and Technologies • product technology species in farmers fields for income information on avenues marketing enhancement (Plenary) and buy back arrangements (Dr. S. Vedavathy, Herbal Folklore Research • Agrotechnlogy of high attitude MAPs Centre, Tirupati, India) (commercially exploited species) (Rana

252 Summaryof Participants' Comments

Rawal, Ban Udyam-BSP/NewERA The following are the questions most EFEA) commonly asked by visitors to project stands: • Sustainable harvestingmethods (Dr. S. Vedavathy, Herbal Folklore • What is the list of medicinal plants Research Centre, Tirupati, India) looked at? (Shakeel Haider Zaidi, Pakistan Forest Institute, Peshawar, • Harvesting technologies (Dr. P. Tetali, Pakistan) Naoroji Godrej Centre for Plant Research, Pune, India). • How much research work has been carried out on in-situ conservation of • Processing packages (Dr. P. Tetali, medicinal and aromatic plants in the Naoroji Godrej Centre for Plant country? (Shakeel Haider Zaidi, Research, Pune, India). Pakistan Forest Institute, Peshawar, Pakistan) • Processing techniques and post- harvest care as well as different • What are the namesof over-exploited aspects of medicinal plant medicinal plant species? How many conservation (Shakeel Haider Zaidi, are there? (Dr. Zahoor Ahmed, Pakistan Forest Institute, Peshawar, Pakistan Agricultural Research Pakistan) Council, Islamabad, Pakistan) • Information on major chemical • What are the difficulties in motivating constituents found in high value local people/communities in the MAPs like Nardostachys grandiflora, management of MAPs? (Pradip Neopicrorhiza scrophulariifolia, Maharjan, HPPCL, Kathmandu, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, etc. (Pradip Nepal) Maharjan, HPPCL, Kathmandu, How are MAPs on the Nepal) • impacting livelihoods of rural people in Humla, • The chemical composition and the Nepal? (Prem Narayan Kandel, active constituents of MAPs used in District Forest Office, Humla, Nepal) traditional (Dr. Krishna healing • How far does the forest resources Kaphle, IAAS, Rampur, Nepal) sustain the economy of the rural • Tissue culture work on certain people of Humla? (Prem Narayan medicinal plant species (Prof. V.P.K. Kandel, DistrictForest Office, Humla, Nambiar; Arya Vaidyasala,Kottakkal, Nepal) Kerala) • What are the socio-economicimpacts • Efficacy study and trials for zoo- of MAPs in the project area? (Rana technical efficacy (Dr. Krishna Rawal, Ban Udyam-BSP/NewERA, Kaphle, IAAS, Rampur, Nepal) EFEA)

253 Sharing Localand National Experiencein Conservation ofMedical and AromaticPlants in SouthAsia

• Why haven't these MAPs been Vaidyasor healers? (Dr. S. Vedavathy, commercialized, and how can this be Herbal Folklore Research Centre, done? (Rabindra Shukla, HPPCL, Tirupati, India) Nepalganj, Nepal) • Are the medicines that the • What are the Red Listed plants of communities prepare standardized your country? (Rabindra Shukla, and quality controlled? (Dr. S. HPPCL, Nepalganj, Nepal) Vedavathy, Herbal Folklore Research • What are the threats due to non- Centre, Tirupati, India) commercialization?(Rabindra Shukla, • How do you select and prepare the HPPCL, Nepalganj, Nepal) herb for medicinal use? (Dr. Krishna • What is the use and extent of Kaphle, IAAS, Rampur, Nepal) sustainable harvesting practice of • How much research work has been commercially important MAPs? carried out on the chemical (Pradip Maharjan, HPPCL, characterization of these plants? Kathmandu, Nepal) (Shakeel Haider Zaidi, Pakistan Forest • What are the substitutes or Institute, Peshawar, Pakistan) adulterants of high-value medicinal • Can you evaluate the changes in plant plants? (Pradip Maharjan, HPPCL, compounds, and are you doing any Kathmandu, Nepal) work in evaluation the active of the Krishna • Is sustainable harvest possible? components plant? (Dr. (Rabindra Shukla, HPPCL, Kaphle, IAAS, Rampur, Nepal) Nepalganj, Nepal) • How can I get copies of your • How do you provide the knowledge organization's publications? (Dr. Tom to the collector for sustainable Hammett, Virginia Tech., USA) harvesting methods of MAPs? Here are some other comments (Dhruv Raj Bhattarai, HPPCL, participants had about the market Day Kathmandu, Nepal) poster session: Is the traditional are • knowledge you • The to the scientific or not? Is there high priority given posters documenting is a move the The to that this great by organizers. any study prove presenters are excellent and knowledge is scientific? (Dr. and a wide Narendra Nath knowledgeable diversity Tiwari, Ayurveda of used in the T.U., Kathmandu, media/techniques poster Campus, Nepal) session made it very interesting. As • How could you get the traditional an added incentive to get everyoneto medicinal information from the visit all the posters you cOuld have

254 Summaryof Participants' Comments

each visitor get his/her form signed extension, training, and action in by the presenters and then use the MAPs (S. P. Dahal, MOFSC, Nepal) form as an form for a raffle of entry Excellent of draw (Dr. Tom Hammett, Virginia • way exchanging information Rawal, Ban Tech., USA) (Rana Udyam-BSP/NewERA,EFEA) • It was important to see the high • That was an excellent session. I was priority given to the posters. At most able to learn many related to other meetings, posters are given low things MAPs (Krishna Kumar Pant, IAAS, priority (Dr. Tom Hammett, Virginia Rampur, Nepal) Tech., USA) Excellent information • The Market was effective • sharing. Every Day process stall should have their activities for one-on-one discussion in a limited project time and allowed outlined in a brief note to distribute presenters to to visitors Canadian more detail to interested (Charles Pradhan, convey Cooperation Office, Kathmandu, parties than in a short presentation Nepal) to the whole group. It wasvery useful for participant interaction and • Market day provided an opportunity information exchange and allowed for informal interaction (Pushp Jam, different points ofview to be debated TRAFFIC-India, New Delhi, India) (Plenary) • There is still some confusion over • This meeting provided good what has been done in MAP related opportunity for the exchange or fields and what strategy needs to be knowledge during the market day taken for the future (Prem Narayan among researchers in the MAPs Kandel, DistrictForest Office, Humla, sector both within the country and Nepal) abroad. It is indeed a good endeavor HPPCL, • Research should be linked both (Pradip Maharjan, to viable Kathmandu,Nepal) directly economically answers/ventures, and to the • The workshop provided a good propagation of endemic and opportunity for the sharing of ideas commercially important species. and for gaining familiarity with Market information for international research work carried out in South trade is also needed and will be a Asian countries (Shakeel Haider valuable piece of future workshops Zaidi, Pakistan Forest Institute, (Dr. Tom Hammett, Virginia Tech., Peshawar, Pakistan) USA) • It is a very good opportunityto share • While issueson the domesticationand regional experience and research cultivation practices of MAPs have

25 Sharing Localand National Experiencein Conservationof Medical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia

been highly stressed, more study on the composition and pharmacological parameters of MAP is needed (Dr. Krishna Kaphie, IAAS, Rampur, Nepal) • At least the issues of MAPs (i.e. conservation, management, and uses) are becoming highlighted. Sub- sectoral issues should be taken very seriously (Dhruv Raj Bhattarai, HPPCL, Kathmandu, Nepal) • Proper understanding, commitment, and involvement are needed when the work taken up is linked with ethnic groups and communities. (Dr. S. Vedavathy, Herbal Folklore Research Centre, Tirupati, India) • People are not interested in our traditional knowledge documentation, and it is a big problem to know how much natural resources we have (Dr. Narendra Nath Tiwari, Ayurveda Campus, T.U., Kathmandu, Nepal) • The arrangementof participantsinto small groups of 5-7 participants as a Delphi Techniquefor the presentation might have been helpful (S. P. Dahal, MOFSC, Nepal)

256 Workshop Reccommendationsfor The Sustainable Management of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs)

• Ecological, socio-economicalimpacts • Need to develop appropriatestrategy of unsustainable harvesting uses for certification of products to should be studied; strengthen markets; • Appropriate harvesting and • Need to develop cost-effective regulations considering seasonality certification process; and critical regenerationperiods; • Need for mechanisms for micro- • Prioritization of species should finance for local enterprise include community criteria, needs development; and local priorities; • Need to develop more secure land and • Community monitoring systems in resourcetenure system; and manner transparent participatory • for regional cooperation for indicator Strategies (e.g. key species); conservation and management should be • Cultivation techniques should be adopted; based on local and should practices • Increased understanding of market be in overall integrated management chain involving all stakeholders; of MAPs; • Donors to be persuaded to support • Need to identify strategies to link conservation; indigenousand scientificknowledge; • Recognize issue of validation and • Recognition and protection of IPR develop appropriatestrategy such as (e.g. Peoples' Biodiversity Register); self-regulating bodies for systems of medicine (e.g. Malaysia); • Need for technologicalinnovation for value additionin different levels (e.g. • Develop strategies for training such primary processing); as centers for excellence in key areas

257 Sharing Localand National Experience in Conservationof Medical and Aromatic Plants in South Asia

such as authentication of MAP species; • Development of information database on species, market, and health and dissemination of knowledge using appropriate communication means; • Influencing policy makers to give higher priority to traditional systems of medicine; • Policy on royalties for cultivated products should be reviewed and enforcementshould be facilitated; • Support traditional healers to organize.

258 Vorkhop Fva kiat urn by I he Part k ipants

( ne

1 1 Li'.ti.i. 'ttid 1 I I

— I

Opening Session 1 2 3 4 5 I 1 8 Procc'-, I) 3 8

MarketDay 1 2 3 4 5 ( Oflt(:nt (1 21 12 Proce 0 0 18 14 ThemePaper Presentation 1 2 3 4 5 content 1 1 12 14 I U 19 8

Summary and Recommendation 1 2 3 4 5 content U U 19 Ptoccs I U 9 16 Closing 1 2 3 4 5

Content 0 1 2 16 6 E'rocess U 3 1 16 6 Workshop Evaluation by the Participants

Working Groups Scale: 1 = Poor 2 = Unsatisfactory 3 = Satisfactory 4 = Good 5 = Excellent

Working Group: 1 2 3 4 5 Conservation and Sustainable Use Content 0 0 3 8 3 Process 0 3 4 5 2

Working Group: 1 2 3 4 5 Equitable Commercialization Content 0 0 0 3 8 Process 1 0 0 8 2

Working Group: 1 2 3 4 5 Traditional Medicine System

Content 0 0 3 3 1 Process 0 1 3 1 2

Working Group: 1 2 3 4 5 Unspecified

Content 0 0 1 2 1 Process 0 0 0 3 1 Logistics 1 2 3 4 5 Preparation 0 1 1 11 18 Venue 1 1 2 10 19 Travel Arrangements 1 1 2 10 13

260 Workshop Evaluation by the Participants

Overall Workshop

Scale: 1 = Excellent 2 = Good 3 = Satisfactory 4 = Unsatisfactory 5 = Poor

Logistics 1 2 3 4 5 Workshop preparation 20 4 4 0 0 Information about the workshop 15 6 6 1 0 Accommodation, food and 25 3 0 0 0 other facilities Workshop process 9 15 4 0 0 Workshop Content 1 2 3 4 5 Expertise made available 17 10 1 0 0 Selection of participants 14 10 4 0 0 Geographic/gender representation 15 11 2 0 0 Stakeholder representation 11 9 5 3 0 Quality of facilitation 12 12 4 0 0 Working group composition 17 10 1 0 0 Time allotted for discussion 13 11 4 0 0 WorkshopResult 1 2 3 4 5 Relevant 20 6 2 0 0 Applicable to the 16 8 4 0 0 problem being addressed Satisfactory 11 10 7 0 0

261 Notes Notes IDRC CRDI

IIII/IIIIllIIIiI/tI/III/qIIIIIiIiiiij2407 Notes MAPPA Publications

The Medicinal Plants Sector in India by Jason Holley & Kiran Cherla Priority Species of Medicinal Plants in South Asia by Madhav Karki & I.T. Williams Priorities for Medicinal Plants Research and Development in Pakistan by J.T. Williams & Zahoor Ahmad

Tribal Folk Medicinal Plant Resources of South Asia by Radhika Johari & Madhav Karki

The Role of Medicinal Plants Industry in Fostering BiodiversityConservation and Rural Developmentby Madhav Karki & Radhika Johari Some Important Medicinal Plants of the Western Chats, India- a profile by P.K. Warner, V. P. K. Nambiarand P.M. Ganapathy CAMP Report, Nepal by Dr. Nirmal Bhattarai, Mr. Vinay Tandon & Madhav Karki This publication is a compilation of the papers presented at the Regional Workshop on "Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservation of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in South Asia" held in Pokhara, Nepal from 21st to 23rd January 2001. The book reflects the richness and diversity of the projects, developmentexperiences, innovative ideas and both modern and traditionalpractices documented and presented by the policy makers, researchers, resource managers, conservation scientists, field workers, developmentplanners and community farmers of different countries in South Asia.

The proceedingshave the recommendations on future strategies for improving the thrust, focus and impact of the external support to sustainable use of medicinal and aromatic plant resources of South Asia. The technical information and institutional frameworks documentedin the publication, we believe, lay a strong foundationfor the systematic conservation and sustainable development of medicinal plants in the Himalayas. The book will be a good and useful source of information on medicinal plant research projects, institutions, individual researchers and bibliographic literature.

Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Program in Asia (MAPPA) 208, Jor Bagh, New Delhi 110003, India Tel.: 91-11-461-9411 Fax: 91-11-462-2707 [email protected]/saro This publication is a compilation of the papers presented at the Regional Workshop on "Sharing Local and National Experience in Conservation of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in South Asia" held in Pokhara, Nepalfrom 21st to 23rd January 2001. The book reflects the richness and diversity of the projects, development experiences, innovative ideas and both modern and traditionalpractices documented and presented by the policy makers, researchers, resource managers, conservation scientists, field workers, development planners and community farmers of different countries in South Asia.

The proceedingshave the recommendations on future strategies for improving the thrust, focus and impact of the external support to sustainable use of medicinal and aromatic plant resourcesof South Asia. The technical information and institutional frameworks documented in the publication, we believe, lay a strong foundationfor the systematic conservation and sustainable development of medicinal plants in the Himalayas. The book will be a good and useful source of information on medicinal plant research projects, institutions, individual researchersand bibliographic literature.

Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Program in Asia (MAPPA) 208, Jor Bagh, New Delhi 110003, India Tel.: 91-11-461-9411 Fax: 91-11-462-2707 [email protected]/saro