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A Review of Kikuyu Grass (Pennisetum Clandestinum) Poisoning in Cattle

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A Review of Kikuyu Grass (Pennisetum Clandestinum) Poisoning in Cattle avj_168.fm Page 261 Wednesday, June 20, 2007 10:56 AM PRODUCTION ANIMALS ABlackwell Publishing Asiareview of kikuyu grass (Pennisetum clandestinum) poisoning in cattle CA BOURKE New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, Orange Agricultural Institute, Forest Rd, Orange NSW 2800 [email protected] PRODUCTION ANIMALS selected until a fertile seed producing variety was produced and Key words: poisoning, cattle, Pennisetum clandestinum this was released in 1969 as ‘Whittet’ kikuyu.6 Fertile bisexual Aust Vet J 2007;85:261–267 doi: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.2007.00168.x plants of Common kikuyu were also selected and the seed from this selection was released in 1972 as ‘Breakwell’ kikuyu.6 In 1972, cold tolerant common kikuyu plants were selected from a pasture ikuyu grass (Pennisetum clandestinum) is a perennial at Camden, New South Wales, propagated and subsequently pasture species with a spring to autumn growth habit. registered as a variety and distributed as ‘Crofts’. A cross between Although it is usually grazed without ill effect, spasmodic Breakwell and Whittet, called ‘Noonan’, was produced at Grafton, K 1 New South Wales, in 1972 and later released commercially incidents of poisoning in cattle and, to a much lesser extent, sheep2 and goats,3 have been encountered. The aetiology and because of its good tolerance to the fungal disease kikuyu yellows. pathogenesis of kikuyu poisoning remains poorly understood. The production of kikuyu pasture seed in commercial quantities Outbreaks are characteristically acute to peracute, lethal, sudden proved very difficult, but a successful seed production system in onset, spasmodic in occurrence, restricted in geographical was established by one seed producing company, at Quirindi, distribution, and short in duration. Detailed investigations of New South Wales in 1971, which since then has remained the cause and effect have been problematic, with new lines of inquiry only national and international producer of kikuyu seed. Most typically not formulated until after an outbreak has ended. of the seed produced by this company has been Whittet, with occasional small amounts of Noonan. In the late summer and autumn of 2003, episodes of kikuyu grass poisoning were investigated in cattle on six farms in the Although kikuyu pastures have been established internationally central and northern coast districts of New South Wales. Of the since 1921, outbreaks of poisoning were not reported until the 1,7 278 at risk animals, 143 were clinically affected and 89 of these early 1960s and occurred in New Zealand, Kenya, Rhodesia 8,9 died. The unpublished results of these investigations, which are and South Africa. In 1973, poisoning occurred in Western 10 11 held in the laboratory records of the New South Wales Depart- Australia and in 1980 in New South Wales. Cattle deaths on ment of Primary Industries, are reviewed here, together with kikuyu in the mid 1950s in Queensland were surmised to be 12 available published accounts of the disease, to give a composite nitrate/nitrite poisoning but were possibly the first recorded picture of the disease and of factors contributing to its aetiology cases of kikuyu poisoning internationally. Kikuyu poisoning was 13 14 and pathogenesis. The assessment of the significance of some suspected in Queensland in 1988 and confirmed in 1991. aspects is limited by the small amount of data available from If kikuyu poisoning was indeed absent before 1955, and not just some outbreaks and the variability in what observations were unrecognised as a separate entity, its subsequent appearance and considered by earlier authors to be worthy of record. distribution internationally suggest the involvement of changes in the management of livestock or pastures; for example, the History of kikuyu and livestock poisoning increase in the use of pasture legumes and nitrogenous fertilisers Kikuyu grass is indigenous to Kenya and three different ecotypes after about 1950. are recognised there.4 It has been introduced to several other Variation in potential toxicity between cultivars has not been African countries, notably Zaire, Zimbabwe, and South Africa. determined. Poisoning in Western Australia first occurred10 on Kikuyu was introduced to Australia as seed from the Belgian Whittet pastures (JG Allen personal communication) and in Congo in 1919,5 and all but one of these seeds failed to germinate.4 New South Wales on the Whittet seed-producing farm at Quir- The vegetative propagation of this single plant produced all of indi.11 However, Whittet was not grown in New Zealand until at Australia’s ‘common’ kikuyu, the majority of which consists least 1971, several years after the first cases of kikuyu poisoning. of sterile plants. Common kikuyu was distributed throughout New Zealand kikuyu was established from a single source cultivar Australia and to New Zealand in 19205 and remained the only and circumstantial evidence would indicate this was Australian cultivar in commercial use in Australia and probably New Zealand common kikuyu. Whittet,5 writing in New South Wales in early until at least 1969.6 In 1960, kikuyu seed was introduced from 1921, stated that common kikuyu propagated by the New South Kenya to New South Wales and subsequently propagated and Wales Department of Agriculture between 1919 and1920 was © 2007 NSW Department of Primary Industries Australian Veterinary Journal Volume 85, No 7, July 2007 261 Journal compilation © 2007 Australian Veterinary Association avj_168.fm Page 262 Wednesday, June 20, 2007 10:56 AM PRODUCTION ANIMALS Table 1. Morbidity and mortality data from nine outbreaks of kikuyu poisoning in cattle on 40 farms in New Zealand, Australia and South Africa. Outbreak report No of farms Number of cattle Affected/at risk (%) Deaths/at risk (%) Deaths/affected (%) 1969a NZ1 4a 45/174 (25.9) 43/174 (24.7) 43/45 (95.6) 1969b NZ22 23 30/56 (53.6) 5/56 (8.9) 5/30 (16.7) 1973 NZ7 14 na/518 85/518 (16.4) 85/na PRODUCTION ANIMALS 1974 Aus10 2 12/54 (22.2) 5/54 (9.3) 5/12 (41.7) 1978a SA8 1 6/24 (25.0) na/24 na/6 1978b SA17 1 17/125 (13.6) na/125 na/17 1983 SA18 1 77/120 (64.2) na/120 na/77 1987 Aus11 9 na/1370 213/1370 (15.5) 213/na 2003 Aus 6 143/278 (51.4) 89/278 (32.0) 89/143 (62.2) Range (%) (13.6–64.2) (8.9–32.0) (16.7–95.6) na = No data available. aData for individual farms not available for multiple-farm outbreaks. distributed as rooted cuttings in the spring of 1920 to many Table 2. Frequency of observation of clinical signs in affected cattle in nine 15 outbreaks of kikuyu poisoning on 40 farms in New Zealand, Australia and locations, including New Zealand. Elliot, writing in New South Africa. Zealand in 1925, recorded that the kikuyu in that country was propagated from a consignment of rooted cuttings received by Frequency of Clinical sign the New Zealand Department of Agriculture in the spring of occurrencea 1920. Some have referred to these rooted cuttings as being of 1,7 High (7–9)b Drooling saliva, incoordination, abdominal pain, Rhodesian origin, but Australian common kikuyu originated recumbency, dehydration, sham drinking. in the Belgian Congo. Medium (4–6) Depression, respiratory distress, cardiac distress, abdominal distension, rumen stasis. Incidence and clinical signs A synopsis of the morbidity and mortality data reported for Low (1–3) Inappetence, limb paresis, elevated temperature, tongue paresis, high-stepping gait, aimless kikuyu poisoning is shown in Table 1 and the clinical signs wandering, terminal coma, convulsions. in Table 2. The clinical findings are based on nine reports of outbreaks and refer to 2719 at risk cattle on 40 farms. The total aNo data are available on the number of animals displaying any particular sign, number of cattle affected was more than 628 (23%), of which at or on the number of farms on which that sign was observed. least 440 (16%) died. Signs of toxicity appeared within 1 to 8 d bNumber of outbreaks in which any of the listed signs was recorded. Absence of of cattle first grazing a toxic pasture (average 3 d) and once deaths observation or recording does not necessarily mean that sign did not occur at some stage. had started they continued over another 1 to 8 d (average 4 d), regardless of animals being moved off that pasture. From Table 2 it can be seen that the majority of clinical signs was a curious, but inconsistent, finding and may have resulted recorded were consistent between outbreaks. These included from chronic panting. It might also have contributed to an drooling of saliva, dehydration, abdominal pain, sham drinking, inability to swallow and thus to excessive drooling of saliva. depression, incoordination, and recumbency. Many reports also Limb weakness, incoordination, depression, abdominal pain, noted that affected cattle had a distended abdomen, rumen aimless wandering and intermittent periods of recumbency is stasis, a normal or elevated temperature and both cardiac and consistent with the presence of a major abdominal crisis, but may respiratory distress. All of these signs are consistent with a give a false impression that there is a central nervous dysfunction. peracute to acute abdominal catastrophe. Genuine nervous signs only occurred in advanced terminal cases, Excessive drooling of saliva could indicate the ingestion of an presumably as a result of renal failure or hypoglycaemia. oral or pharyngeal mucosal irritant, an inability to swallow, The combination of severe rumen distension and recumbency excessive panting following an elevation in body temperature, or would be enough to cause respiratory distress and, as a conse- excessive distension of the forestomach. The last seems the most quence, rapid but shallow respiration, a rapid heart beat, and a likely. Sham drinking is consistent with concurrent dehydration weak pulse.
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