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Film Exhibition at Indian Residential School, 1930-1969 Joel Hughes A

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Film Exhibition at Indian Residential School, 1930-1969 Joel Hughes A Film Exhibition at Indian Residential School, 1930-1969 Joel Hughes A Thesis In the School of Cinema Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Film and Moving Image Studies) at Concordia University Montréal, Quebec, Canada June 2016 © Joel Hughes, 2016 CONCORDIA UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES This is to certify that the thesis prepared By: Joel Hughes Entitled: Film Exhibition at Indian Residential School, 1930-1969 and submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Film and Moving Image Studies) complies with the regulations of the University and meets the accepted standards with respect to originality and quality. Signed by the final examining committee: Chair Dr. Elena Razlogova Dr. Zoë Druick External Examiner Dr. Monika Gagnon External to Program Dr. Thomas Waugh Examiner Dr. Luca Caminati Examiner Dr. Haidee Wasson Thesis Supervisor Approved by Chair of Department or Graduate Program Director Dean of Faculty iii ABSTRACT Film Exhibition at Indian Residential School in Canada, 1930-1969 Joel Hughes, Ph.D. Concordia University, 2016 This dissertation examines the pedagogical imperatives informing film exhibition within the Indian Residential School System in Canada between the years 1930-1969, and argues the medium was specifically employed to facilitate the system’s culturally genocidal ideology and curriculum. Archival in methodology, I utilize a range of administrative documents from the Canadian government and varying religious organizations to write the history of film exhibition at residential schools. I situate this research in concert with postcolonial theory, suggesting the films exhibited intended to reimagine Indigenous identity in ways beneficial to the colonial powers dictating Canadian culture and privilege, and then to transfer this identity to the students through educational positioning of film. My introductory chapter outlines a brief history of the Indian Residential School System, and situates my study in conversation with scholarship on educational and colonial uses of cinema. Chapter One illustrates how film was incorporated into the residential schools, beginning in 1930 with the earliest reference to the medium’s use, and extending to the late 1960s, in which rental receipts from schools in Ontario and Quebec suggest film’s later prevalence throughout the system. Chapter Two examines the themes and patterns of the films exhibited, focusing on the frequency with which Hollywood Westerns, and films depicting indigeneity around the world, were screened. Chapter Three employs archival materials to demonstrate the interrelationship between the National Film Board of Canada and residential schools. I show that the Film Board’s “rural circuit” method of distribution had contact with the schools, and that its films were positioned to educate the students regarding the distinctly Canadian identity of the system intended they adopt. Chapter Four concludes this dissertation by aligning film with a iv public relations campaign undertaken by the residential school system, Churches, and Indian Affairs. This campaign was meant to mislead Canadians, and thereby maintain, public support for the culturally genocidal institutions in their midst. Film and moving images, as I demonstrate throughout the entirety of this work, engaged a complex and multifaceted interaction with the residential school system, its assimilative efforts, and culturally genocidal ideology. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ~ This dissertation would not be possible without the support and input of the numerous people there to help along the way. Without the careful and thoughtful editing of my supervisor, Haidee Wasson, I think I may have found myself lost during the writing process. She kept me on track, she engaged with my ideas, she repeatedly pointed me to relevant and useful sources, and, on more than one occasion, she steered me away from doubt and insecurity. Thank you, Haidee, for your time and effort, your care and concern. I would like to thank all the members of my committee for reading and considering this work. Especially, Luca Caminati and Thomas Waugh who, during the defenses of my Synthesis Exam, and Dissertation Proposal, left me full of new ideas and ways to move forward. Although I have spent most of my time as a PhD Candidate living in Toronto, which has limited my engagement with my colleagues, when I was able to converse with them over a beer, a coffee, or during a conference, it was always rewarding. Thank you to Kester Dyer, and Zach Melzer, in particular, our academic affinities made discussing our work and methodologies especially fun. Thank you to Steve and Janice for all your love and support. In the moments when I was feeling the most overwhelmed, you were always there to encourage and cheer me on. Thank you to my parents who have always supported me. Whether it was listening to me ramble on about what I was writing, driving to Ottawa on more than one occasion to pick up resources for me, or co-signing a bank loan, they, as always, were there to lend support. My father’s willingness to help comb through the seemingly endless archival materials deserves a special thanks. He was a great, and necessary, research assistant when lack of funds made hiring someone impossible. Thank you to my daughter, Ruth Hilda Brickey-Hughes, for being the sweetest person in the world. I love riding bikes, swimming, telling jokes, playing soccer, and so on and so on with you! vi Thank you to Sam my dog for forcing me to take breaks, to get out in the fresh air and to relax a little. Most importantly, though, Alyson Brickey, you have seen every part of this dissertation, the good, as well as the bad. I will never forget your relentless support, and your utter belief in me. Thanking you to the end of time for all your help, practically and emotionally, would be woefully inadequate, and our coming through these PhD’s side- by-side has only reinforced the infinite love I feel for you. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS ~ INTRODUCTION: “The Cowboys won:” Film Exhibition, the Indian Residential School System in Canada, and the Visual Approach to Cultural Assimilation 1 CHAPTER ONE: The Necessary Equipment: 16mm Film Exhibition at Indian Residential School 35 CHATPER TWO: “Gently pressed through the sieve of civilization:” Assimilative Entertainments and the Colonial Use of Film 64 CHAPTER THREE: No Longer Vanishing: Nationalism, Assimilation, and the National Film Board of Canada at Indian Residential School, 1939-1969 103 CHAPTER FOUR: Filming the Indian Residential School System Through The Eyes of Children: Moving Images as Public Relations 128 CONCLUSION: Assimilation and Film Study: Historicizing the Indian Residnetial School System as an Articulation of Canadian Culture 148 LIST OF FILMS EXHIBITED AT INDIAN RESIDENTIAL SCHOOL 155 WORKS CITED 167 INTRODUCTION ~ “The Cowboys won1:” Film Exhibition, the Indian Residential School System in Canada, and the Visual Approach to Cultural Assimilation In the classrooms of Canada’s Indian Residential School System (henceforth IRS), often the sound of a 16mm projector could be heard. Typically a “Cowboy n’ Indian” (Miller 281) film was being exhibited, delivering all sorts of racist, and problematic lessons to the students. Gordon James Pemmican, a former student of the Pelican Lake Indian Residential School in Sioux Lookout, Ontario, for example, recalls the Hollywood Westerns he and his classmates watched, noting they were often the ones in which “Indians never won.” He correlates this exposure to a post-screening behavior, stating that when “we went out to play cowboys and Indians, none of us wanted to be the Indian” (Survivors Speak 57). The fact that the children would reenact filmic content, but do so by associating themselves with the white-cowboy onscreen, must have been viewed by teachers as a successful outcome. They must have witnessed the medium’s ability to not only push students to affiliate with the dominant authority, but also to solicit their articulating a sense of not wanting to be “Indians.” The “Indians” they were avoiding, of course, were created by the dominant culture and its entertainment industry; those horribly violent characters terrorizing caravans of white people for no good reason, those who “attack with the cunning of the wolf,” ensuring the white settlers always fear for their “scalps” (Kit Carson 1940). Despite the fact that these images offer gross misrepresentations of First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples, and likely run counter to the child’s own cultural experiences, the filmic “Indian” appears to have confused, to varying degrees, the students’ sense of 1 Published in the 1964 edition of the Gordon Indian Residential School student journal entitled Peekiskatan. The larger quotation reads, “The junior girls watched T.V. on Friday nights. We watched Cowboys and Indians. The Indians tried to catch the Cowboys, but the Cowboys ran away from the Indians. 2 themselves and their cultures. This is precisely what the Indian Residential School System sought to do: to define the many and varied First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples and cultures in general and negative terms, and to transfer this information to the students in the hopes they would eventually come to see themselves as the “Indians” they never wanted to be. Former student, Bev Sellers, for example, recounts her experience with film exhibition at St. Joseph Mission Indian Residential School in British Columbia. She attended the school between the years 1962 and 1967, and remembers “Movie Nights” as typically shaped by plenty of derogatory remarks about Indians in western movies…we saw many westerns. Of course, at the time, I could not see it for what it really was: stupidity on behalf of racist fools right down the line from the produces who created the films to the administrators who chose them for our “entertainment.” Instead, I cringed and the shame I felt at being Indian went deeper and deeper each time I heard a derogatory comment about Indians.
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