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Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced xerographically in this copy. Higher qualify 6” x 9” black and white photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order. Bell & Howell Information and Learning 300 North Zeeb Road. Ann Artx>r, Ml 48106-1346 USA mvQ800-521-0600 CONESTOGA WAGONS TO THE MOON: THE FRONTIER, THE AMERICAN SPACE PROGRAM, AND NATIONAL IDENTITY DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Susan Landrum Mangus, B.A., M.A. ***** The Ohio State University 1999 Dissertation Committee: Apj^roved by Professor Michael J. Hogan, Adviser Professor Mansel Blackford Professor William Childs Department of History invn Number: 9951694 Copyright 1999 by Mangus, Susan Landrum All r^hts reserved UMI Microform 9951694 Copyright 2000 by Bell & Howell Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. Bell & Howell Wbrmation and Learning Company 300 NorthZeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, MI 48106-1346 Copyright by Susan Landrum Mangus 1999 ABSTRACT In the late 1950s and 1960s, the United States committed to a national effort to explore space. The space program's timing and sense of urgency were directly linked to the Soviet Union's early space achievements, but Cold War considerations failed to account for most Americans' enthusiasm for space exploration. Manned space flight, and particularly the goal of landing a man on the moon, captured Americans' imaginations. Space exploration was an extension of tiihe nation's frontier heritage, with the same economic, political, and social benefits of past American frontiers. NASA incorporated frontier language into its discussions of the American space program, targeting presidents, the Congress, and the general public. Just as the majority of Americans connected the frontier past to the nation's character, NASA's leadership believed that the frontier had molded the 11 nation's identity, making the United States unique within the world. This belief permeated the agency's discussions of its mission. Administrators introduced a version of Frederick Jackson Turner's frontier thesis to describe the benefits of the new space "frontier" and employed popular frontier images to make the space program more exciting for their audience. Presidents, the Congress, and the majority of American citizens agreed with the agency's perceptions of the frontier's importance in United States history and were convinced that space was the nation's new frontier. Despite growing opposition to space budgets by the late 1960s and 1970s, most Americans still accepted NASA's view of America's frontier legacy and its connections to space. The Cold War provided a nurturing environment for the American space program in the 1950s and 1960s, but United States' competition with the Soviet Union cannot fully explain why Americans chose to explore space. The nation faced many challenges during this time period, not only from the Soviet Union but also as a result of domestic changes, such as the Civil Rights and the Women's Movements. In many respects, i i i Americans faced an identity crisis. Americans in the 1950s and 1960s looked to the space frontier as the solution to their problems- XV Dedicated to Michael Mangus and Mercury ACBCNOWLEDGMENTS A number of people have provided support and guidance as I worked on this manuscript, and I want to thank them for their assistance. First are the members of the dissertation committee. Professor Michael J. Hogan directed my work and provided me with valuable suggestions and assistance. In addition to providing many insights into the historiography of the American West, Professor Mansel Blackford critiqued my early analyses of NASA's frontier rhetoric. Professor William Childs helped me to develop more insight into my topic during both the early and late stages of the dissertation process. Numerous other people have given me support as I worked on this project, and I thank them for sharing their time, patience, and wisdom. Professor Mark Grimsley's encouragement at an early stage gave me the courage to tackle this project, and Professor John Burnham likewise provided support. My fellow graduate VI students, especially Amy Staples and Glenn Dorn, listened to me as I thought through many parts of my research and provided many suggestions which greatly improved the manuscript. The staffs of several archives cheerfully retrieved documents and furnished me with valuable leads. I would especially like to thank those dedicated individuals at the Library of Congress Manuscript Division, the Smithsonian Archives, the National Air and Space Museum Library, the Archives of American Aerospace Exploration at the Virginia Polytechnic and State University, and the Johnson Space Center Archives at Rice University, Houston, Texas. The staff of the NASA Historical Reference Collection at NASA's headquarters in Washington, D.C., were extremely supportive, especially archivist Lee Saegesser and historian Roger Launius. The Graduate School at The Ohio State University provided financial support for some of my research through a Graduate Student Alumni Research Award. I would also like to thank my family, who have consistently provided support throughout the long years of research and writing. My parents have always vii made me feel their pride in my accomplishments, even if they occasionally wondered if I would ever finish. My grandparents and my sister were always interested in my progress as well, asking how things were going each time we talked. My new family-by-marriage also provided welcome support. Finally, one person and one cat deserve special recognition, and thus I dedicate my dissertation to them. My husband, Michael Mangus, has been many things to me throughout the dissertation process: friend and confidant, editor and critic, psychologist and cheerleader. I do not have words to express what I feel about his help and encouragement. I must also thank Mercury, the dissertation mascot cat, who always seemed to know when I needed a little inspiration and support. vixi VITA July 17, 1970 .............Born - Kirkwood, Missouri 1992 B.A. History, The University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina 1994 M.A. History, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio PUBLICATIONS 1. Susan Landrum Mangus, "Although the timing of the space program was due to Cold War considerations, Americans' fascination with space grew out of their beliefs about their frontier heritage," in History in Dispute, vol.11, Post World War 11, ed. Robert J. Allison (Columbia, SC: Gale Research, Inc., 1999). FIELDS OF STUDY Major Field: History Studies in: United States Diplomatic History Modern United States History European International History IX TABLE OF CONTENTS Page A b s t r a c t ........................................... ii Dedication......................................... v Acknowledgments....................................vi V i t a ................................................iv Introduction....................................... I Chapters : 1. The Frontier Myth Takes Root: The Evolution of the Intellectual and Popular Frontiers . .18 From Frontiersman to Cowboy: The Frontier Myth to 1890 ............................ 19 The Frontier's Growing Significance: 1890-1930 .............................. 27 Competing Frontier Visions: From the 1930s to the 1960s ............................ 39 Con clusion....................................51 2. NASA and the Space Frontier: Connecting American History to Space Exploration .... 63 NASA's Roots and the Frontier Tradition . 65 Selling Outer Space .......................... 69 Audiences Targeted .......................... 95 NASA's Motivations and Budget Challenges . .106 Conclus io n ...................................115 3. Balancing Space and the Budget: Presidential Ethetoric and the Space Frontier 137 Eisenhower as Space Scrooge: His Lack of Frontier Imagery ..................... 138 Kennedy as Prophet and Hero: Establishing the Frontier Metaphor for Space . .144 Johnson, the Space Frontier, and Vietnam . .155 Nixon's Interest in the Space Frontier . .166 The 1970s and Beyond: In Search of Inspiration............................ 173 Conclusion...................................177 4. Congress and Space Exploration: Political Realities Collide with the Frontier Dream . 190