Psychological Skills Training in Portuguese Professional Soccer: Reality Or Utopia? the Views of Elite Soccer Coaches and Players

Psychological Skills Training in Portuguese Professional Soccer: Reality or Utopia? The Views of Elite Soccer Coaches and Players

Simão Pedro Fernandes de Freitas

Orientadores / Supervisors : Cláudia S. L. Dias, PhD António M. Fonseca, PhD

Dissertação de doutoramento em Doctoral dissertation in Sport Ciências do Desporto apresentada Sciences presented to the à Faculdade de Desporto da University of Porto, Faculty of Sport, Universidade do Porto de acordo according to the Decree-law nº com o Decreto-lei nº 74/2006 de 24 74/2006 from March 24th. de Março.

Porto, 2013

Freitas, S. (2013). Psychological skills training in Portuguese professional soccer: Utopia or reality? The views of elite soccer coaches and players. Porto: S. P. F. de Freitas. Dissertação de Doutoramento em Ciências do Desporto apresentada à Faculdade de Desporto da Universidade do Porto.

KEY-WORDS: PSYCHOLOGICAL SKILLS TRAINING, PSYCHOLOGICAL TECNHIQUES, PORTUGUESE SOCCER, ELITE, COACHES, PLAYERS.

This thesis is dedicated to my Parents, Dete and Antonieta Ochoa

Thank you very much for the endless support and encouragement

Esta tese é dedicada aos meus Pais, à Dete e à Antonieta Ochoa

Muito obrigado pelo incansável apoio e incentivo

iii

Agradecimentos

Em primeiro lugar tenho que agradecer aos Professores Doutores Cláudia Dias e António M. Fonseca pela orientação, partilha de conhecimento e disponibilidade evidenciada ao longo desta dissertação. Foi um enorme privilégio ter sido orientado por dois profissionais de excelência na área da Psicologia do Desporto. Agradece-lhos profundamente o enriquecimento pessoal e profissional que me proporcionaram.

A outro nível tenho que agradecer ao meu amigo e «companheiro de batalhas», Rui Bento, por todas as experiências práticas, pela compreensão e incentivo durante todos estes anos.

Um agradecimento também muito especial ao Antero Henrique e ao Luís Castro pela compreensão evidenciada ao longo da elaboração da presente tese. Um grande obrigado ainda pelos exemplos práticos de liderança que contribuíram indubitavelmente para o meu desenvolvimento pessoal.

No mesmo sentido tenho que agradecer as importantes conversas que tive oportunidade de privar com treinadores que eu considero como referências no contexto futebolístico, nomeadamente o professor Jesualdo Ferreira e o «mister» Jorge Jesus. Muito obrigado por todos os ensinamentos valiosos bem como pelos vários conselhos práticos transmitidos ao longo destes anos.

Ao professor Vítor Frade que «com os seus textos e quadras; potenciou e muito todo o meu saber; ao invés de um teorema de Pitágoras; ensinou-me um operacionalizar para vencer».

Uma palavra também de reconhecido agradecimento para todos os prestigiados jogadores e treinadores, que tão generosamente contribuíram para esta investigação. Sem a sua prestimosa colaboração a concretização desta dissertação não teria sido possível.

Gostaria ainda de deixar um agradecimento profundo à «minha faculdade» - Faculdade de Desporto da Universidade do Porto - na pessoa do Professor Jorge Olímpio Bento, não só pela formação académica mas também por todo o apoio evidenciado ao longo de todos estes anos.

E por fim, às pessoas mais importantes da minha vida… aos meus pais e à Dete por tudo aquilo que fizeram por mim e à Antonieta Ochoa por tornar a minha vida plena de sentido. Apesar de ser muito difícil expressar por palavras tudo aquilo que vocês significam para mim, deixo-vos um…Muito obrigado por tudo.

Simão Freitas

Contents

List of figures ………………………………………………………………… v iii

List of tables ...... ix

Abstract …………………………………………………...…………………… xi

Resumo ………………………………………………………………………… xiii

List of abbreviations ………………………………………………………… xv

General introduction ………………………………………………………… 17

Paper I Psychological skills training applied to soccer: A systematic review based on research methodologies …………………………………………………… 29 Paper II What do coaches think about psychological skills training in soccer? A study with coaches of elite Portuguese teams ……………………………… 47 Paper III How do elite soccer coaches prepare their players and teams psychologically? A study with coaches of elite Portuguese teams ………. 71 Paper IV Elite soccer coaches use of Psychological techniques ……………………. 93 Paper V Psychological skills training in Portuguese premier soccer league: Players’ perspectives and experiences ………………………………………………... 121 Paper VI Elite soccer players’ use of psychological techniques. Where, when and why ………………………………………………………………………………. 139

General discussion and conclusions ……………………………………. 161

References …………………………………………………………………….. 169

vii

List of figures

General introduction Figure 1. Vealey’s framework for understand psychological skills in sport 21

Paper II Figure 1. Soccer coaches’ educational background in Sport Psychology 55 Figure 2. Soccer coaches’ perspectives about psychological skills training on soccer players and teams ………………………… 57 Figure 3. Soccer coaches’ perspectives about psychological skills training on soccer coaches ……………………………………… 60 Figure 4. Soccer coaches’ perspectives on sport psychologists ………. 62

Paper III Figure 1. Activities, exercises and strategies used by coaches with their players and teams ……………………………………………….. 83 Figure 2. Psychological techniques employed by coaches with their players and teams ……………………………………………….. 86 Paper IV Figure 1. Hierarchical structure of the self-talk general dimension ……. 104 Figure 2. Hierarchical structure of imagery general dimension ………… 108 Figure 3. Hierarchical structure of goal-setting general dimension …… 110

Paper V Figure1. Soccer players’ perspectives’ about the importance of psychological skills training ……………………………………... 129 Figure 2. Soccer players’ perspectives’ and experiences regarding PST interventions ………………………………………………………. 130 Paper VI Figure 1. Hierarchical structure of the self-talk general dimension ……. 150 Figure 2. Hierarchical structure of the goal-setting general dimension … 152 Figure 3. Hierarchical structure of imagery general dimension ………… 155 Figure 4. Hierarchical structure of relaxation general dimension ………. 156

viii

List of tables

Paper I Table 1. Year overview and journals …………………………………...… 37 Table 2. Research designs ………………………………………………... 38 Table 3. Data collection ……………………………………………………. 38 Table 4. Sample characteristics …………………………………………... 40 Table 4. PST focus category …..…………………………………………... 41

Abstract

Despite the research on psychological skills training (PST) applied to soccer has increased considerably in recent years, there are few studies regarding the PST perspectives of elite soccer coaches and players - key elements of PST process. This gap in literature is even more critical in Portuguese professional soccer reality. Therefore, the purpose of this dissertation was to identify the most frequently used methods (i.e., sample, research approach, and data collection methods) in research on PST applied to soccer, as well as explore the views of elite soccer coaches and players regarding the PST process in Portuguese premier soccer league. To accomplish these aims we conducted a systematic analysis of selected studies in the field of PST applied to soccer (i.e., 28 articles), and developed five qualitative studies to explore the perspectives of top-elite coaches (n=13) and players (n=16) concerning several aspects of PST. Overall, the studies showed that the majority of soccer coaches and players acknowledge the importance of PST process, and revealed receptiveness for PST interventions. Nevertheless, the participants mentioned they didn’t use PST programs systematically in their soccer routines. Data of the studies were discussed and practical implications / recommendations were highlighted.

KEY-WORDS: PSYCHOLOGICAL SKILLS TRAINING, PSYCHOLOGICAL TECNHIQUES, PORTUGUESE SOCCER, COACHES, PLAYERS.

xii

Resumo

Apesar do estudo do treino das competências psicológicas (TCP) ter florescido nos últimos anos, existe uma clara escassez de investigações acerca das perspectivas dos treinadores e os jogadores de futebol relativamente ao processo de TCP. Esta lacuna é ainda mais evidente quando analisa á luz do panorama do futebol profissional em Portugal, onde os estudos conduzidos nesta área são praticamente inexistentes. A presente dissertação procurou identificar as metodologias de investigação mais frequentes nos estudos na área do TCP aplicado ao futebol, bem como explorar as visões de treinadores e jogadores de elite sobre o TCP na primeira liga Portuguesa de futebol profissional. De modo a atingir os objectivos anteriormente definidos realizou- se uma análise de revisão sistemática de artigos seleccionados (n=28) na área do TCP aplicado ao futebol e desenvolveram-se cinco estudos qualitativos para explorar o conhecimento sobre as perspectivas de alguns treinadores (n=13) e jogadores (n=16) de elite. De um modo geral, os estudos evidenciaram que a maioria dos treinadores reconheceram a importância do TCP e revelaram receptividade para intervenções a este nível. No entanto, os participantes mencionaram que na prática não utilizam programas de TCP. Os resultados dos estudos foram discutidos e as implicações / recomendações práticas foram destacadas.

PALAVRAS-CHAVE: TREINO DAS COMPETÊNCIAS PSICOLÓGICAS, TÉCNICAS PSICOLÓGICAS, FUTEBOL PORTUGUÊS, TREINADORES, JOGADORES

xiii

xiv

List of abbreviations

AAASP: Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology

FA: Football Association

FIFA: Fédération Internationale de Football Association (English: International Federation of Football Association)

PP: Psychological Preparation

PPC: Psychological Preparation for a Competition

PST: Psychological Skills Training

SPs: Sport Psychologists

TCP: Treino de Competências Psicológicas

TTM: Transtheoretical Model

UEFA: Union of European Football Association

USA: United States of America

xvi

General introduction

______

General introduction

Since the earliest days of sport psychology , one of the most important issues addressed by sport psychologists has been related to the psychological skills training (PST) intended to aid people in making their performance more effective (Gould & Eklund, 2007). Thus is not surprising that the PST in sport has significantly evolved in in the last decade as the knowledge based has expanded with a plethora of books describing the practice of PST as well as journal articles focusing on psychological skills, PST interventions, and professional practice issues (Vealey, 2007). Due to the availability of these applied materials, the PST programs have increased substantially in quantity and quality (Daw & Burton, 1994).

From early interventions to programmatic intervention models According to the sport psychological literature, the Soviet Union was the first country to systematically engage in psychological training with athletes and coaches in 1950s (Ryba, Stambulova, & Wrisberg, 2005, Vealey, 2007, Williams & Straub, 2006). In this context, one of the earliest contributing figures to the field was the Russian Avksenty Cezarevich Puni who formalized their theory in an applied model called Psychological Preparation for a Competition (PPC; see: Puni, 1969, 1973), which included self-regulation of arousal, confidence, attentional focusing, distraction control, and goal setting. The Puni's theory continued to shape the development of psychological training in the Soviet Union for over 50 years and his influence persists to the present day in Russia and other East European countries (Ryba et al., 2005). Despite the systematic practice and study of PST in sport in North American did not emerge until the 1980, several pioneers began to work in this field prior to this time (Vealey, 2007). In 1938, P.K. Wrigley, owner of the Chicago Cubs professional baseball, hired the “father of sport psychology in United States of America (USA)” – Coleman Griffith – to help improve the team’s performance. Griffith and an assistant filmed and measured the players’ skills, attempting to build a psychological training program for the team (Green,

2003). Their intervention included practice management strategies for enhanced learning and automation of skills, communication skills for coaches, team dynamics and leadership development, goal setting, confidence building, competitive simulation, a battery test for measuring players’ basic physical and “visual” skills, and a recommendation that psychological testing and observation to be included in scouting (Green, 2003; Vealey, 2007). Another historical figure in this field was Dorothy Hazeltine Yates who worked with a collegiate boxers team in the early 1940s (Kornspan, & MacCracken, 2001, Vealey, 2007). Yate’s work with boxers consisted of an intervention called the “relaxation set-method” (see Kornspan, & MacCracken, 2001). Furthermore, Yates also engaged in controlled experimental investigations of the effectiveness of her psychological intervention, with positive results (Vealey, 2007; Yates, 1943, 1957). During the late 1970s, an interest in psychological training with athletes emerged in the United States. The term PST was coined to describe techniques and strategies designed to teach or enhance psychological skills that facilitate performance and a positive approach to sport competition (Vealey, 1988). A major premise of PST is that psychological skills (like physical skills) can be taught and learned to a certain degree (Vealey, 1988). Interest in PST has proliferated in North America during the 1980s (Vealey, 1988, 2007). Several books outlining various PST approaches have been published, a professional association (Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology- AAASP) has been formed for researchers and practitioners interested in PST applications (Vealey, 1988), and two new applied journals (The Sport Psychology in 1987 and the Journal of Applied Sport Psychology in 1989) were establish. The evolution of PST in sport in the last years is impressive as the knowledge based has grown and psychological practice has become more sophisticated (Vealey, 2007). A plethora of books (e.g., Brewer, 2009; Hardy, Jones, & Gould, 1996; Murphy, 1995; Smith & Bar-Eli, 2007; Tenenbaum & Eklund, 2007; Weinberg & Gould, 2011) and journal articles focusing on PST and professional practice issues have been published, the PST programs have increased substantially in quantity and quality (Daw & Burton, 1994), and a

20 variety of models and frameworks has been advanced and discussed on PST literature, over the last decades (e.g., Hardy, et al., 1996; Vealey, 2007). Nowadays it is widely recognized that the PST involves a comprehensive and complex process as opposed to the simple application of psychological techniques. PST has matured form early interventions that focused on the random application of psychological techniques, such as imagery and goal setting, to programmatic intervention models (Vealey, 2007).

A closer look at the Vealey’s framework for understanding PST in sport

Figure 1. Vealey’s framework for understanding PST in sport

As illustrated in figure 1, Vealey (2007) argued that the PST process is a complex, multilayer and integrative approach to developing psychological skills in athletes and coaches. The mainly targets for PST are foundation, performance, personal development, and team skills. According to Vealey (2007), these types of psychological skills are very important for success and well-being in athletes and coaches. As shown in figure 1, the PST process is made up of hierarchical layers that define the consultant’s approach to enhance psychological skills. The first layer in the PST process is the consultant philosophy or the consultant’s beliefs and values concerning the nature of psychological skills and PST. According to Poczwardowski, Sherman, and Ravizza (2004), professional philosophy significantly shapes the consultant’s approach to the essential elements of the consulting process such as gaining entry, assessment, conceptualization of the issue and the intervention, implementation, evaluation, and bringing closure to the consulting relationship. These authors have conceptualized a hierarchical structure of professional philosophy for sport psychology service delivery that is consistent to the hierarchical layers point out in the Vealey framework (2007). Several examples of consultant’s philosophies are available in the sport psychology literature (e.g. Gordon, 1990; Loehr, 1990; Nideffer, 1989; Orlick, 1989; Ravizza, 1990; Salmela, 1989). According to Vealey (2007) the three main philosophical differences in PST in sport have been: educational versus clinical approaches, programed-centered versus athlete-centered approaches, and performance enhancement versus development approaches. The second layer in the PST process, emanating from philosophy, is the model of intervention, or the overarching thematic framework from which specific psychological strategies and techniques are developed and utilized (Vealey, 2007). The PST literature abounds with the description of multiple models of intervention (see Murphy, 1995; Vealey, 2007). The third layer of the PST process is the strategies that emanate from the consultant’s philosophy and intervention model. For Vealey (2007), the strategies are “the organizational plans of action that operationalize how the intervention specifically works, typically using sequential steps, multiple phases,

22 or the practical packaging of mental training techniques into a coherent, integrative program” (p. 294). The author (2007) cited several examples of psychological strategies that included the Five-Step Strategy (Singer, 1988), the four-phase psychological skill program for close-skill performance enhancement (Boutcher & Rotella, 1987), P3 Thinking and goal mapping (Vealey, 2005), centering (Nideffer & Sagal, 2006), competition focus plans (Orlick, 1986), the five-step approach to mental training using biofeedback (Blumenstein, Bar-Eli, & Tenenbaum, 2002), and visuo-motor behavioral rehearsal (Suinn, 1993). The final layer of the PST process is the techniques or methods used in a PST strategy (Vealey, 2007). Examples of psychological techniques include imagery, goal-setting, self-talk, relaxation, biofeedback training, performance profiling, etc. Finally, it should be noted when PST is coordinated by consultants, their interpersonal (e.g., listening skills, being able to relate to athletes and coaches, being open, flexible and trustworthy) and technical skills (e.g., ability to relevantly apply concepts to create concrete, useful strategies for athletes and coaches, the ability to adapt psychological training strategies and techniques to fit specific personalities and situations) are critical in the effectiveness of the PST process (Vealey, 2007). For the author, effective PST requires interpersonally and technically skilled consultants, who are able to personally and professionally fit PST programs to meet the special needs of athletes, coaches, teams, and organizations.

As reviewed, significant advances have occurred in the last decades regarding PST on sport. Nowadays, the PST literature abounds with the description of multiple models and frameworks which give important guidelines not only for gaining a better understanding of this complex process but also for designing more specific and effective programs that better promote the attainment of elite performance. In this regard the framework for understanding PST in sport, presented by Vealey (2007) has been considered a valuable tool for understand this complex process. Obviously other models and frameworks

23 are available in this field, but the intent has been to stimulate critical thinking about this important service delivery component of sport psychology.

PST applied to soccer Currently, it is widely accepted that psychological skills play a crucial role on soccer performance (e.g., Johnson, Hrycaiko, Johnson, & Halas, 2004; Thelwell, Greenlees, & Weston, 2006, 2010). The analysis of public and private statements made by soccer players, coaches, directors or fans, shows the underpinning role of psychological dimension to the determination of outcomes or performance levels shown by players and teams. Indeed, there is not a single game where psychological factors are not evoked in an attempt to predict, describe or interpret a player or team performance (Fonseca, 2004). In this sense, it would be expected that PST plays a privileged role in elite soccer. But is that what really happens? Is this acknowledgement related to the importance of psychological factors translated into what is practiced on the field? Does this area constitute one of the priorities of the training process? And how exactly is that training implemented? What goals does it aim to achieve? On the other hand, it is important not only to think about the training of players/teams’ psychological skills but also to consider the psychological preparation of the soccer coach. The social-sportive framing of the soccer coaches exposes them to a high psychological pressure since they are usually subjected to a constant public exposure of their decisions, permanent demanding of sports outcomes, unpredictability of the competition, among other factors. The soccer coach is also constantly exposed to behavioral and emotional fluctuations, on one day experiencing moments of frenzy glory and on the other living moments of frustration, isolation and contempt. Coaches are not machines at the service of a soccer club and thus it is worth noticing that they are indeed affected by several factors which may influence their performance. Based on the previous considerations, it would be expected that PST also assume a crucial role in coaches’ psychological preparation. But is this a reality? Do the coaches invest on their own psychological preparation? Do the

24 coaches contemplate the training of their own psychological skills? And, in which molds is this training is processed? And, what are the goals that this training aims to pursue? Regarding the Portuguese soccer reality, several authors (Barreiros, Silva, Freitas, Duarte, Fonseca, 2011; Fonseca, 1997; 2004) stressed that sport psychology is not yet sufficiently valued which seems to compromise PST. Furthermore the existence of a sport psychologist in Portuguese elite soccer teams is the exception and not the rule (Fonseca, 2004). The same author stated that in 2004 there were only three psychologists in the Portuguese Premier soccer league and this was the highest number ever found. Taken the aforementioned considerations, several pertinent questions may be posed: Why the inclusion of sport psychologists has not become an acquired procedure in Portugal? What are the reasons/barriers to the inclusion of these specialists into Portuguese soccer teams? Almost a decade of Fonseca’s (2004) statement, are we still facing the same reality? Or can we find a growing number of sport psychologists working in Portuguese soccer? Are the coaches and players receptive to this kind of collaboration/intervention? Are coaches and players aware of what can be done by the sport psychologists? Given the importance of PST on sport performance and the relevance of the previous questions, we would expect a high number of scientific studies associated with PST applied to soccer. However, although recently PST literature applied to soccer have increased in the number of experimental studies supporting the positive influence of PST in soccer performance (e.g., Johnson et al., 2004; Thelwell, et al., 2010; 2006), there is still a considerable lack of studies that examine soccer players and coaches’ perceptions regarding this issue. This gap in literature is even more critical in Portuguese soccer reality. Indeed, we could only identify one study that investigated soccer coaches’ perceptions concerning different aspects of the psychological dimension (see Barreiros, et al., 2011). According to Côté, Salmela, & Russell, (1995), evolution comes from the description of specific work experiences. For these authors, a profound analysis concerning the knowledge of coaches and players may constitute an important contribute since success models may

25 provide insightful information to the improvement of current understanding on this matter. Therefore, is a need to assess the views of Portuguese soccer players’ and coaches’ regarding PST process. As Gilbert and Trudel (2004), stated: “the development of any profession relies on research, training programs and innovations in practice” (p. 388). Given the above, the main purpose of this dissertation was to examine the current state and use of PST in Portuguese soccer through the views (perspectives) of elite soccer coaches and players.

Outline of the Doctoral Dissertation This doctoral dissertation incorporates a group of papers that focus on the research questions that underpin the thesis. We tried to organize this dissertation with an evident research rationale that connected all the articles in order to achieve the main goal of the thesis. Therefore, the dissertation is organized into three sections, each of them with specific goals, as we explain bellow. In section I, we conducted a systematic review of research methodologies employed in PST studies in soccer (paper I). We considered it valuable to develop the dissertation according to the most up-to-date information about the research methodology frequently used by investigators. This is an important step to identify gaps in literature and suggest new directions for further research. The following research questions were raised in this first section: 1 – What are the sample characteristics of the studies in the field of psychological skills applied to soccer (e.g., sample size, gender, mean age, level of competition, participant´s focus, nationality) (paper I)? 2 – What is the research approach more frequently used (i.e., research design) (paper I)? 3 – What are the data collection methods most preferred by the researchers (paper I)? In section II, we focused attention on the coaches’ views of PST. The coach is an inseparable element of the training process and has great influence

26 on the psychological skills of players and teams. Additionally, the coach needs to maximize his own psychological state in order to enhance his coaching effectiveness. Buceta (1998) mentioned that the coach has a double function, stimulating interpersonal skills that positively influence the psychological preparation of their athletes, and regulating personal skills to optimize their own psychological state. Thus, our aim was to explore the perspectives’ of elite Portuguese coaches regarding (i) the psychological preparation and training of psychological skills of soccer players and teams, as well as, (ii) their own psychological preparation and training of psychological skills. This provides valuable insights about the current state of PST in professional Portuguese soccer. Therefore, we investigated the following research questions: 1 – What is the educational background on sports psychology of Portuguese elite soccer coaches (paper II)? 2 – What are the coaches’ perspectives on the importance of PST of soccer players and teams (paper II)? 3 – What are the coaches’ role on PST of their players and teams (paper II and III)? 4 – How do soccer coaches prepare their players and teams psychologically? What strategies do they apply? Where and for what purposes do they apply it (paper III)? 5 - What are the coaches’ perspectives’ on the importance of PST of soccer coaches (paper II)? 6 – Do the coaches use psychological techniques to improve their own performance (paper IV)? Where, when and why do they use it? 7 – What are the coaches’ perspectives’ about the role of the sports psychologists in soccer (paper II)? In section III, we focused on soccer player’s views on PST. The soccer player is the key element of the whole process of PST and he is the major beneficiary of the improvement of psychological preparation. The goal was to explore and analyze the perspectives of elite soccer players regarding their psychological preparation and training of psychological skills. This analysis aims to complement the knowledge already exposed in section II, providing a more

27 complete “frame” of the PST study. Therefore, the main research questions of this section were: 1 – What is the importance assigned to PST by Portuguese elite soccer players (paper V)? 2 – What are the player’s personal experiences regarding PST interventions (paper V)? 3 – Do the player’s use psychological techniques in their soccer routines? Where, when and why do they used it? (paper VI) 4 – What are the soccer players’ perspectives about the role of a sport psychologist in soccer (paper V)?

At the final part of the dissertation the final conclusions are presented, as well as some practical implications and recommendations for the future of the PST in professional soccer.

Paper I

Psychological skills training applied to soccer: A systematic review based on research methodologies 1

______1 Accepted for publication at the Review of European Studies: vol.5, nº5, December 2013

Abstract The purpose of this study was to provide a systematic review of studies on psychological skills training (PST) applied to soccer from 1980 until the end of 2012. A total of 28 studies were evaluated and reported in five sections: year overview and journals, research designs, data collection, sample characteristics and PST focus category.PST articles applied to soccer were spread throughout a wide range of journals and had a considerable growth during the 2008-12 period. Results also indicated that most of the research on PST applied to soccer was experimental, longitudinal and combined quantitative and qualitative data. Furthermore, the majority of studies focused on non-elite players with a age under 16 and were conducted in North American countries. Critical and innovative reflections were made in order to highlight potential research gaps and to suggest new perspectives for further investigation.

Key-words: psychological skills training, soccer, research design, data collection, sample characteristics .

Introduction Soccer is undoubtedly one of the most popular sports in the world, engaging people worldwide as players, spectators and TV viewers (Haugaasen & Jordet, 2012). A survey by the Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) in 2006 reported that 265 million people regularly play soccer (FIFA, 2007b), making soccer one of the most highly participated sports in the world. In addition, large soccer events have in recent years drawn more TV viewers than most other sporting events. The world cup tournament of 2006 had 27 billion accumulated viewers and the final alone attracted an audience of more than 700 million (FIFA, 2007a). For Joseph S. Blater, FIFA president, soccer popularity remains undiminished and is actually increasing (FIFA, 2007c). This global access to soccer requires an optimal performance from all of its practitioners, particularly, soccer players. In order to boost soccer players’ performance, researchers all over the world have actively studied these practitioners in different areas of sports sciences, including sport psychology. In this context, Psychological skills training (PST) research has emerged as an important tool to support the psychological preparation of soccer players in the accomplishment of higher performances (Thelwell, Greenlees, & Weston, 2006, 2010). The development of any profession relies on research, training programmes and innovations in practice (Gilbert & Trudel, 2004). A detailed analysis of published research provides a resource for those conducting research in the area and for those reading the body of literature (Silverman & Skonie, 1997). In order to overcome the limitations of traditional reviews or narrative summaries, several authors (Littell, Corcoran, & Pillai, 2008; Noblit & Hare, 1988) had promoted the development of systematic methods (i.e., systematic reviews and meta-analysis). Craig et al., (2008) stressed the benefits of conducting systematic reviews in developing interventions and designing future studies. According to Craig et al., systematic reviews allow researchers to use the best available evidence and appropriate theories to develop future research directions and intervention strategies, as well as to

32 raise awareness of the range of research methods employed in the study area. However, systematic reviews analyzing research methods employed in PST studies applied to soccer are clearly undeveloped. In fact, to our knowledge, no research was identified with this specific purpose. There are different ways to conduct research (i.e., experimental or descriptive; cross-sectional or longitudinal; qualitative or quantitative), and different research designs can provide different views about the same research topic. Therefore, when it comes to answering specific questions, researchers have to be critical about the advantages and disadvantages of each research methodology and decide about the most appropriate research tools. In addition, research quality is influenced by sample characteristics, particularly the level of competition, nationality, gender and age of participants. If research trends exhibited their focus on only one type of sample characteristic instead of setting the parameter characteristics of the wider population, the research data would have to face several limitations, since poor sampling is unhelpful for the researcher (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2007). Given the above, it seems useful to conduct a systematic review of PST studies applied to soccer in order to identify current knowledge of area under study and future research directions. Thus the purpose of this study was to provide a systematic review of studies on PST applied to soccer, focusing on research designs, data collection methods, sample characteristics and focus category. It should be noted, that we do not intend to appraise the quality or suitability of the research methodologies developed by the investigators but to examine the multiplicity of approaches employed.

Method The current research design was based on similar recent systematic reviews of literature on athletes’ career transition out of sport (Park, Lavallee, & Tod, 2013) and self-talk-performance relationship (Tod, Hardy, & Oliver, 2011).

Search strategy The search strategy included the use of the following electronic databases: Google Scholar, PsycARTICLES, PsycBOOKS, PsycINFO, SPORTDiscus, and Web of Knowledge. In addition to the computerized database search we conducted a manual search of journals, including International Education Studies, International Journal of Sport Psychology, International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, Journal of Sport Behavior, Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, Journal of Sports Sciences, Psychology of Sport and Exercise, Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, and The Sport Psychologist. The following search terms were used in combination with “football” or “soccer”: PST, mental training, psychological preparation, psychological strategies, psychological techniques, psychological skills, imagery, self-talk, relaxation, and goal-setting Inclusion criteria for the present investigation were as follows. Studies had to be: a) related to PST on soccer, b) based on soccer population (groups of soccer populations), c) written in English, and d) published in peer-reviewed journals. The focus of this search was only on research published in journals, because it represents “a record of an area’s scholarships and provides a foundation to understand research trends” (Silverman & Skonie, 1997, p. 300). We acknowledge that other sources (e.g., dissertations, books, conference proceedings) exist and should not be overlooked when seeking to understand, or study the PST process. Nevertheless, “master’s theses and doctoral dissertations are not easily accessible, and a rigorous review process is not always required for books” (Gilbert & Trudel, 2004, p. 389). Finally, based on the previous recommendations on conducting systematic reviews (Knipschild, 1995), we do not include the studies that had been published as abstracts or conference proceedings.

Procedure and analysis Hard copies of studies were collected and assessed against the inclusion criteria. Once studies met the selection criteria, we analysed their content based on similar systematic review procedures used by several authors (Goodger, Gorely, Lavallee, & Harwood, 2007; Park et al., 2013; Sallis, Prochaska, & Taylor, 2000; Tod et al., 2011). Each study was listed alphabetically according to the first author and assigned with a reference number. All papers included in the current systematic review are indicated in the reference list with an asterisk (*). Data tables were developed to reflect published research articles, research designs, sample characteristics and PST focus category. Three authors familiar with the field of PST and with experience at employing a variety of qualitative analysis techniques coded the data independently and crossed results. Every time disparities were spotted, the researchers discussed the most suitable changes. Through discussion, a consensus and final coding of the data were agreed between all three researchers.

Results Results are presented according to: (a) year overview and journals, (b) research designs, (c) data collection, (d) sample characteristics, and (e) PST focus category.

General findings Following the aforementioned search strategy, 46 studies were initially identified as being potentially relevant for the review. However, an initial screening procedure excludes 18 papers for the following reasons: i) book chapters (3), ii) unpublished dissertations (3), iii) unpublished documents (4), iv) non-English written papers (8). Consequently, a final count of 28 studies was considered for the purpose of the data collection.

Year overview and journals Table 1 provides an overview of the publication year and journals. PST articles applied to soccer were spread throughout a wide range of journals. The first PST articles applied to soccer emerged in the early 1990s. Since then, this kind of study clearly experienced a large increase in the annual publication mean, from 0.5 articles published yearly in the early 1990s to 4.0 articles published annually most recently. During the 2008-12 period the number of articles published had considerable growth. PST articles applied to soccer were spread throughout a wide range of journals.

Research design Table 2 depicts results regarding the research design employed in the selected studies. The present review highlighted a marked imbalance between the experimental and descriptive studies, with a large predominance of the former over the latter. At this level it is also important to note that 11 of the experimental studies did not use a control group (i.e. quasi-experimental studies). Investigators used longitudinal designs more frequently than cross sectional methods. Over half of the PST studies applied to soccer employed mixed methods. In addition quantitative methods were used in nine studies while only three studies employed qualitative research methods.

Data collection As seen in table 3, the majority of the studies collected data via questionnaires and observation. The most frequently used questionnaire was the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ: Hall, Mack, Paivio, & Hausenblas, 1998; and SIQ-C: Hall, Munroe-Chandler, Fishburne, & Hall, 2009;) employed in three studies (Jordet, 2005; Munroe-Chandler, Hall, Fishburne, & Shannon, 2005; Veraksa & Gorovaya, 2012) and two studies (Munroe-Chandler, Hall, & Fishburne, 2008; Munroe-Chandler, Hall, Fishburne, Murphy, & Hall, 2012) respectively.

Table 1. Year overview and journals

Characteristics Reference of studies Articles n (%)

Year Overview

• 1992 – 1995 1, 23 2 (7.1) • 1996 – 1999 7 1 (3.6) • 2000 – 2003 2, 28 2 (7.1) • 2004 – 2007 9, 10, 13, 16, 19, 20, 25 7 (25) • 2008 – 2012 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 11, 12, 14, 15, 17, 18, 21, 22, 16 (57.2) 24, 26, 27 Note: The years were delineated into 4-year periods for comparison across equal periods of time

Journals

• Journal of Applied Sport 3, 5, 6, 10, 23, 25 6 (21.4) Psychology• The Sport Psychologist 7, 9, 17, 18 4 (14.3) • Journal of Sports Science 1, 14 2 (7.1) • Journal of Sport Behavior 26, 28 2 (7.1) • Asian Journal of Sports Medicine 8, 24 2 (7.1) • Psychology of Sport and Exercise 15 1 (3.6) • European Journal of Sport 16 1 (3.6) •Science Journal of Sports Science and 4 1 (3.6) •Medicine Journal of Applied Behavior 2 1 (3.6) •Analysis International Education Studies 22 1 (3.6) • Perceptual and Motor Skills 19 1 (3.6) • Journal of Human Movement 20 1 (3.6) •Studies Imagination, Cognition and 13 1 (3.6) •Personality Journal of Education and Practice 21 1 (3.6) • Physical Education and Sport 12 1 (3.6) •Pedagogy Procedia - Social and Behavior 27 1 (3.6) •Sciences Scottish Journal of Arts, Social 11 1 (3.6) Sciences and Scientific Studies

Studies’ reference numbers: 1 (Blair, Hall, & Leyshon, 1993); 2 (Brobst & Ward, 2002); 3 (Burton, Gillham, & Glenn, 2011); 4 (Edvardsson, Ivarsson, & Johnson, 2012); 5 (Gucciardi, Gordon, & Dimmock, 2009a); 6 (Gucciardi, Gordon, & Dimmock, 2009b); 7 (Hale & Whitehouse, 1998); 8

(Hashim & Yusof, 2011); 9 (Johnson, Hrycaiko, Johnson, & Halas, 2004); 10 (Jordet, 2005); 11

(Kerkez, Kulak, & Aktas, 2012); 12 ( Maitland & Grevis, 2010); 13 (Munroe-Chandler & Hall, 2004); 14 (Munroe-Chandler, Hall, & Fishburne, 2008); 15 (Munroe-Chandler, Hall, Fishburne, Murphy & Hall, 2012); 16 (Munroe-Chandler, Hall, Fishburne & Shannon, 2005); 17 (O & Munroe- Chandler, 2008); 18 (Pain, Harwood, & Anderson, 2011); 19 (Papaioannou, Ballon, Theodorakis, & Auwelle, 2004); 20 Papanikolaou, Nikolaidis, Patsiaouras, & Lazou, 2004); 21 (Papanikolaou, Voutselas, Mantis, & Laparidis, 2012); 22 (Sadeghi, Omar-Fauzee, Jamalis, Ab-Latif, & Cheric, 2010); 23 (Salmon, Hall, & Haslam, 1994); 24 (Seif-Barghi, Kordi, Memari, Ali-Mansournia, & Jalali-Ghomi, 2012); 25 (Thelwell, Greenlees, & Weston, 2006); 26 (Thelwell, Greenlees, & Weston, 2010); 27 (Veraksa & Gorovaya, 2012); 28 (Voight & Callaghan, 2001b)

Table 2. Research designs

Characteristics Reference of studies Articles n (%)

Research design

• Descriptive 3, 6, 12, 14, 22, 23, 27/1 7 (25) • Experimental 1*, 2, 4*, 5*, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11*, 13*, 15, 16, 17*, 18, 19*, 20*, 22 (78.6) 21*, 24*, 25, 26, 27/2*, 28

• Cross-Sectional 3, 6, 7, 12, 14, 22, 23, 27/1 8 (28.6) • Longitudinal 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 24, 25, 21 (75) 26, 27/2, 28

• Qualitative 6, 12, 22 3 (10.7) • Quantitative 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 14, 19, 21, 23 9 (32.1) • Mix Methods 1, 2, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 24, 25, 26, 271, 28 16 (57.2)

Notes: * Studies using experimental and control group Paper 27 reported multiple studies and consequently we assigned it with an additional the same sub number: 27/1 ( Veraksa & Gorovaya, 2012, study 1), 27/2 ( Veraksa & Gorovaya, 2012) 271 - 27/1 + 27/2

Table 3. Data collection

Characteristics Reference of studies Articles n (%)

Data Collection • Interviews 6, 9, 10, 12, 18, 22, 24 7 • Observation 1, 2, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 24, 25, 26, 16 27/2, • Questionnaires 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 23, 25, 26, 19 27/1, 28 OSSTPQ 3 TSCI 3 TEOSQ 3 MPS 3 SAS 3, 4 OSDBQ 3 LESCA 4 ACSI-28 4 AFMTI 5 DRS 5 DFS-2 5

Table 3. continued Characteristics Reference of studies Articles n (%) CEF 5 CSAI-2 7, 14 POMS-A 8 SIQ 10, 16, 27 SIQ-C 14, 15 SEQ-S 14 MIQ-R 15, 17 MIQ 18 FSS 18 BMRI-2 18 IUQ-SP 23 TTCT 27 CEF 28 Social validation 2, 5, 25, 26 Not validated 1

• Others 1 1, 4, 7, 11, 15, 18 6

Notes: Each article may have included more than one method of data collection, and, therefore, the sum of the category total is greater than the 28 articles in the database. Others 1: Stopwatch; daily record; polares; MP3; biofeedback instruments (galvanic skin response – GSR; heart rate variability - HRV).

Sample characteristics The analysis of the PST literature applied to soccer allowed a clear picture of the types of samples that researchers have employed (Table 4). As a result, we are able to highlight sampling gaps. The majority of the studies included or relied exclusively on soccer players. Regarding the gender analysis, approximately one third of the studies did not provide gender information. When gender was identified, 11 of the studies contained male participants only, six contained both genders and seven contained female participants only. Inspection of table 4 also reveals that nearly one third of the studies (32.1%) employed samples with a mean age under 16, while none of the studies reported samples with a mean age over 25. With respect to the competitive level, the studies included a range of competitive levels, but focus was mainly on non-professional players. The majority of the studies were conducted in North American countries (n=11) (particularly in Canada and USA). Eight

39 studies had been conducted in Europe, while five studies did not identify where data originated.

Table 4. Sample characteristics

Characteristics Reference of studies Articles n (%)

Participant type • Players 1, 3, 4, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12,13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 24 (85.8) 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28 • Players and coaches 2, 9 2 (7.1) • Players, coaches and 5, 6 2 (7.1) parents

Mean Age • Under 16 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 15, 16, 20, 27 9 (32.1) • 16-20 1, 4, 12, 17, 28 5 (17.9) • 21-25 7, 10, 18, 19, 21 5 (17.9) • Range Given 2, 11, 13, 14, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26 9 (32.1)

Participant level • Competitive travelling 13, 14, 16 3 (10.7) • High school / University 1, 2, 4, 7, 17, 18, 21, 22, 25 9 (32.2) • Club Regional level 3, 9, 26, 27, 28 5 (17.9) Youth leagues 5, 6, 15, 20, 24 5 (17.9) • Professional / Elite 10, 12 2 (7.1) • Mixed 19, 23 2 (7.1) • Not Specified 8, 11 2 (7.1)

Gender • Females 1, 2, 3, 9, 13, 16, 28 7 (25) • Males 5, 7, 10, 11, 18, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 27 11 (39.3) • Both Genders 4, 12, 14, 15, 17, 23 6 (21.4) • Not specified 6, 8, 19, 26 4 (14.3)

Location • North America 1, 3, 9, 13,14, 15, 16, 17, 21, 23, 28 11 (39.3) • Europe 4, 7, 10, 11, 12, 18, 19, 26 8 (28.6) • Asia 22, 27 2 (7.1) • Australia 5, 6 2 (7.1) • Not identified 2, 8, 20, 24, 25 5 (17.9)

PST focus category An overview of the PST focus category is presented in Table 5. All of the PST studies were targeted at soccer players. In addition, the majority of the research occurred in a training or competition context, while only two studies occurred within laboratory conditions.

Table 5. PST focus category

Characteristics Reference of studies Articles n (%)

PST Target

Toward soccer players 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 28(100) 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28 Toward soccer coaches - 0 (0)

Environment / Context

Competition 5, 10, 18, 24, 25, 26 6 (21.4) Training 1, 3, 11, 14 , 15, 16, 17, 19, 20 9 (32.2) Training and comp. 2, 9, 2 (7.1) Laboratory conditions 4, 8 2 (7.1) Not specific 6, 7,12, 13, 21, 22, 23, 27, 28 9 (32.2)

Discussion The present study aimed to provide a systematic review of the research methodologies employed in PST studies applied to soccer. Although PST research proliferated in North America during the 1980s (Vealey, 2007), our findings showed that PST soccer research only had a consistent development since 2004. Indeed, before the Nineties, PST research applied to soccer seems to be almost non-existent. One possible explanation is that the majority of PST research until the 1990’s was targeted for athletes in general rather than athletes of specific sports (Vealey, 1988). A further explanation may be related to the lower popularity of soccer in the USA (where the first sport psychology journals emerged). In a content analysis of PST approaches published in North

America between 1980 and 1988, Vealey (1988) stated that 74% of the studies were targeted for athletes in general and only 26% were targeted for athletes in specific sports. PST approaches targeted for specifc sports included golf (Keogh & Smith, 1985; Rotella & Bunker, 1981), body building (Kubistant, 1988), skiing (Loudis, Lobitz, & Singer, 1986), basketball (Mikes, 1987) and tennis (Weinberg, 1988). Boutcher and Rotella (1987) emphasize that PST must be structured according to the specific characteristics and demands of a particular sport to be effective. However sport-specific programmes are more the exception than the rule (Birrer & Morgan, 2010). “This is remarkable, bearing in mind that the performance-relevant tasks of say a soccer player and a 200m breaststroke swimmer are very different” (Birrer & Morgan, 2010, p. 79). Toward this end, PST soccer articles have been published in several academic journals, particularly in the last few years. This can be considered a positive trend for researchers, as there appears to be a broad spectrum of journals from which to select when submitting PST studies applied to soccer. However, this increase of PST soccer studies also creates a new challenge for researchers and practitioners because new substantial contributions to specific scientific knowledge are required. Therefore, it seems important to assess current research methodologies employed in PST studies applied to soccer (“what was done”) and to reflect on new directions or approaches that researchers may have to adopt to contribute to the growth of this field (“what needs to be done”). In terms of research designs our findings highlighted a prevalence of experimental over descriptive studies. Although experimental designs are a useful strategy for the examination of different variable relationships, they do not explain in detail the state of art about a specific phenomenon. Therefore, more descriptive studies are needed in the study of PST in soccer. Furthermore, descriptive research allows a measure of status, which is useful to develop the theoretical framework on which experimental research is based. On the other hand, the examined studies pointed out a dominance of longitudinal approaches. Take into consideration the issue of the present review, i.e. PST, this finding can be considered a positive trend. Longitudinal

42 studies provide rich data that can trace changes overtime with great accuracy (Cohen et al., 2007). These types of studies describe a variety of designs that are conducted over a period of time on the same sample group. For example, longitudinal designs are crucial to determine if the soccer players properly learned to use their psychological skills. In addition, longitudinal designs are also crucial to examine the influence and efficacy of PST interventions over time. Over half of the PST studies applied to soccer used mixed methods, which is in agreement with the recommendations of several authors (Gratton & Jones, 2004; Page, Martin, & Wayda, 2001; Robbins & Dummer, 2001). Gratton and Jones (2004) stressed the importance of mixing methods combining quantitative and qualitative data. Triangulation of data (i.e. the use of multiple means of data to examine a single phenomenon) can strengthen the validity of the research. Another advantage is the complementary of both qualitative and qualitative methods, providing a global and in-depth exploration of the phenomenon simultaneously (Gratton & Jones, 2004). If research about a specific phenomenon shows an imbalance between the use of quantitative and qualitative methods, it is possible that findings may be biased. The high reliance on questionnaires and systematic observation pointed out in the present review emphasizes the need for researchers in this field to use a more diverse array of research methods. A theoretical and applied context would be profitable with a diversity of multi-method approaches. Questionnaires and quantitative methodologies alone are not enough to completely understand this phenomenon (i.e. PST in soccer), and qualitative instruments must also be employed. The use of interviews, for example, provides the researcher with a more holistic and contextualized knowledge about the problem and produces relevant information which is not always provided by other assessment methods (Valles, 1999). For the Vealey (1988) “information such as this can facilitate the development of salient and appropriate PST approaches that truly meet the needs of athletes” (p. 332). The deep understanding of athletes’ self-perceptions, beliefs and opinions about their knowledge of, use of, and importance placed on PST, could enhance the

PST interventions and increase the number of soccer players adhering to intervention programmes. What is the importance assigned to the PST by soccer players? Which psychological skills they considered most important for their performance? What are the psychological strategies that they used in their soccer routines? Where, when and why do they used them? Are they receptive to PST interventions? What are their personal experiences regarding PST interventions? Regarding sample characteristics, the majority of reviewed studies comprised a sample composed of young and non-elite soccer players. Targeting youth soccer players can be considered a positive trend. According to several authors (Cruz, 1984; Vealey, 1988), the perspectives of adhesion and success of this type of programme will be radically different if, instead of focusing on experienced athletes, it is geared to younger athletes. In addition, “PST with younger athletes can be especially effective rewarding as a means of helping youngsters develop appropriate psychological skills for sport competition” (Vealey, 1988, p. 323). As Orlick (1982) stated if we expose youngsters to stressful situations such as organized competitive sport, we have a responsibility to teach them strategies to cope with that stress. On the other hand a possible reason for the lack of studies with elite soccer players could include the extreme difficulty for contact between researchers and these practitioners. Indeed the great popularity of elite soccer players make them practically inaccessible for the majority of the researchers. It should be noted however, that the study of elite athletes can provides useful insights into the current state of PST in a specific-sport (Calmels, d’Arripe- Longueville, Fournier, & Soulard, 2003; Fletcher & Hanton, 2003), as well as valuable information for practitioners (Bull, 1991; Leffingwell, Durand-Bush, Wurzberger, & Cada, 2005). Therefore, more studies with elite soccer players are needed in the study area. The official survey of FIFA revealed that in 2006 only 26 million (10%) of the 265 million players actively involved in soccer worldwide were women and girls (FIFA, 2007b). Indeed women's football has shown slow growth, mainly due to social and cultural barriers that restrain women’s participation in this

44 sport (FIFA, 2007d). Surprisingly, the results from the present review showed a balance between participant gender patterns. It should be noted, however that this finding may be connected with the high number of studies conducted in North America countries, specifically in Canada and USA, where women’s football have large popularity. The considerable number of studies devoted exclusively to female samples can be considered important to emphasise the need for PST, as well as to help this gender to overcome some of the social barriers that they still face in some of the countries. Another relevant finding highlighted by the present review was the expressive interest that researchers have on PST studies targeted for soccer players. It is widely recognized that the soccer player is a central figure in the PST process. However we cannot forget that several other practitioners, particularly the soccer coach, have a large influence on this process. According to Vealey (1988), coaches “have been long viewed as a key in the PST process, as they must enthusiastically endorse the skills and techniques being taught and implemented with their athletes” (p. 323). Therefore, future research should try to overcome this evident lack of literature. What is the opinion of soccer coaches regarding the training of psychological skills in soccer players and teams? What is their role in this process? How do they prepare their players psychologically? What psychological strategies and techniques do they often employed? Where, when and why they use it? Are they receptive to work with sport psychologists? Additionally, it should be noted that the coaches also needs to maximize his own psychological state in order to enhance his coaching effectiveness. Gould, Greenleaf, Guinan, and Chung (2002) stated “that coaches are often required to deal with difficult situations (e.g., selection, tactics, team and athlete performance-related issues, decision making) while ensuring that their own psychological and emotional states remain optimal” (p. 38). It is clear that coaches have special needs of their own and would benefit from PST programming specifically designed for them (Vealey, 1988). Thus, a more detail understanding of this specific area of research (i.e., PST programmes toward to soccer coaches) is also necessary. What are the soccer coaches’ opinions

45 about the PST toward to themselves? What else they do to prepare themselves psychologically for their job? Do coaches use psychological techniques in their coaching routines? Where, when and why they use it? Are they receptive to sport psychologist interventions? Finally, the results from our review showed a balance between the research employed in training and competition settings. This is an encouraging finding, because sport psychology research (Gould, Flett, & Bean, 2009) has exposed the equivalent importance of training and competition in psychological preparation. Further research should explore more fully the use and effects of PST in different time frames (before, during and after) of both environments. There are a number of limitations associated with the current study that ought to be acknowledged. Indeed, the search terms employed and the exclusion of the non-English studies may have resulted in the omission of relevant, high-quality literature. Furthermore, it is also possible that the exclusion criteria were too many or too restrictive.

Conclusion Research in the area of PST applied to soccer has increased considerably in recent years, as reflected in the growing number of studies. To date, investigators have contributed to a better understanding of PST in soccer, however there is still much to explore and further research is needed. The current systematic review reported the current research methodologies employed in PST soccer studies (“what was done”) and highlighted limitations in this field (“what needs to be done”). Suggestions for future directions for PST applied to soccer have been pointed out. These suggestions have included targeting expert and elite soccer players, targeting coaches in addition to soccer players, increasing descriptive designs to explore in detail the state of art of the PST process in soccer, develop multi-methods for examining the PST process, explore more deeply the use and effects of PST in training and competition settings. It is hoped that these suggested directions may facilitate productive growth and development in the PST applied to soccer research.

Paper II

What do coaches think about psychological skills training in soccer? A study with coaches of elite Portuguese teams 2

______2 Freitas, S., Dias, C., & Fonseca A. (2013). What do coaches think about psychological skills training in soccer? A study with coaches of elite Portuguese teams. International Journal of Sports Science, 3(3), 81-91. doi: 10.5923/j.sports.20130303.04

Abstract It is widely recognized that the coach is a key element in the psychological skills training (PST) process. However PST research targeting coaches is very limited, specifically in a soccer context. Therefore, 13 elite coaches from Portuguese Premier Soccer League were interviewed to explore their thinking about PST process. It was also our aim to examine the coaches’ educational background in sport psychology, as well as their opinions about the role of sport psychologists in soccer. Content analysis of the data revealed that participants acknowledge the importance of PST and the role of the sport psychologist in elite soccer. Nevertheless, participants seem to be unprepared to implement and conduct PST programs. A list of barriers to PST interventions in soccer also emerged from the data. Findings provide several applied implications for practitioners (coaches, directors and sport psychologists). They also serve as a guide to future research and contribute to the development of more specific and effective PST interventions with soccer players and coaches.

Key-words: psychological skills training, elite soccer, sport psychologists .

Introduction The main goal of psychological skills training (PST) is to assist sport participants in the development of psychological skills to achieve performance success and personal well-being (Vealey, 2007). PST comprises of a systematic and consistent practice of psychological skills for the purpose of enhancing performance, increasing enjoyment, or achieving greater sport and physical activity self-satisfaction (Weinberg & Gould, 2011). In order to enhance the psychological preparation of athletes, coaches and teams a systematic PST is required (Figone, 1999). According to several studies, PST programs have been shown to be an effective strategy for improving athletic performance in a wide variety of sports (Blakeslee & Golf, 2007; Thelwell & Greenlees, 2001). In this sense, the study of PST has emerged as one of the main topics in sport psychology. A successful implementation of PST programs is dependent on the head coach because he or she is the manager of the team. Therefore a need exists for an examination of coaches PST knowledge. An in-depth examination of expert coaches’ knowledge would enhance the development and standards of PST programs for coaches and athletes (Côté, Salmela, & Russell, 1995). According to Côté et al., it becomes important to examine in more depth the knowledge domain of expert coaches in order to provide useful insights to sport psychologists and new coaches concerning the art of intervening with athletes. It is also important to think not only of the psychological preparation of athletes and coaches in general but also the PST programs for a specific sport. In fact, the different psychological skills, variables and techniques do not exert the same influence in achieving success across the different sports. Thus in attempting to prepare specific PST programs for a certain sport it is crucial to examine the knowledge of the coaches of this sport. In this regard some PST studies were conducted with tennis (Gould, Medbery, Damarjian, & Lauer, 1999) and netball (Grobbelaar, 2007) coaches. Grobbelaar reported that despite the fact that 89,9 % of the netball coaches regard PST as very important, only 46,43% implement PST programmes themselves or made use of sport psychologists. This same author also found

50 that goal-setting, self-confidence, and concentration were the most frequently implemented skills by the coaches who implemented PST programs. Similarly, Gould et al., (1999) indicated that enjoyment/fun, focus/concentration, self- confidence, emotional control, honesty/integrity, motivation/passion, and positive self-talk/ thinking were the most important psychological skills for junior tennis players to develop. These authors stated that while the junior tennis coaches felt that they were fairly knowledgeable in sport psychology their PST knowledge was more influenced by the experience of working with the players rather than by formal courses or books. According to several studies, trial-and- error learning becomes a common procedure among strategies for psychological preparation (Gould et al., 1999; Sullivan & Hodge, 1991). Although PST is recognized as an invaluable training tool by coaches of various sports (Gould et al., 1999; Grobbelaar, 2007; Ottley, 2000; Sullivan & Hodge, 1991), it is often excluded from coaching practices because some coaches can be unwilling to implement PST programs and express a negative view point towards using a sport psychologist. Possible explanations for this trend include several stigmas toward PST. A lack of PST knowledge was suggested to be a primary reason why coaches often fail to implement PST programs with their athletes (Gould et al., 1999; Grobbelaar, 2007; Ottley, 2000). In this context, a recent study showed that 98,4% of coaches of elite athletes recognized a need for more support in the area of PST (Reade et al., 2009). The lack of time for the coaches to teach psychological skills is another frequent barrier to justify the lack of psychological interventions (Gould et al., 1999). The lack of finance is also identified as a common barrier for the inclusion of sport psychologists within a team’s staff (Voight & Callaghan, 2001a). Another recurrent barrier that sport psychologists have to face is the stigma that links the sport psychologist to a “shrink”. Martin, Wrisberg, Beitel, and Lounsbury (1997) stated that the athletes that approach a sport psychologist may fear being stigmatized by the coach or team-mates for having psychological problems. According to Hanrahan, Grove and Lockwood (1990) better results could be reached if a sport psychologist was responsible for conducting the PST

51 program. Since the coaches have the power to allow or not allow the interference of external collaborators (e.g., sport psychologists) in their coaching process (Morris, 1997), their attitude regarding to the sport psychologist will interfere with the degree of adherence in PST programs expressed by athletes. Although the aforementioned studies (Gould et al., 1999; Grobbelaar, 2007) offer valuable insight into the PST with athletes, it should be noted that they do not include the psychological preparation of the coaches. According to Gould, Greenleaf, Guinan, and Chung (2002), coaches are often required to deal with difficult situations (e.g., selection, tactics, team and athlete performance related issues, decision making) while also ensuring that their own psychological and emotional states remain optimal. For Vealey (2007), the purpose of PST is to assist athletes and coaches in the development of psychological skills to achieve performance success and personal well-being. Therefore, a more detailed understanding of this area of research is necessary, because as Thelwell, Weston, Greenlees, and Hutchings (2008a) stated, “the coach can, or should be considered a performer” (p. 38). Despite being the centre of much public interest and media attention worldwide, little is known about the PST knowledge of expert soccer head coaches. For Potrac, Jones, and Cushion (2007) it could be suggested that there is a certain degree of “mystique” surrounding the top-level soccer coaches and the means and methods that they utilize in their respective quests to produce successful soccer players and teams. Given the above, a need exists to examine the expert soccer head coach’s knowledge and opinions regarding the PST in soccer. Thus, the present study with coaches of Portuguese elite teams was designed to examine their: a) educational background on sport psychology, b) perspectives on PST with soccer players and teams (including importance of PST, crucial psychological skills, ability to conduct PST programs, and roadblocks to PST), c) perspectives on PST with themselves, and d) receptiveness to work with sport psychologists.

Method Participants The sample of the current study was composed of 13 male professional Portuguese high-level soccer coaches, who ranged in age from 43 to 63 (50.6 ± 5.8 years; mean ± SD). Their experience as soccer coaches ranged from 10 to 29 years. The sample was selected based upon the following criteria: i) have worked, or currently work with “elite-level” athletes’ (Hanton, Fletcher, & Coughlan, 2005), ii) be employed by their respective governing bodies of sport (national squads) or by professional clubs (Thelwell et al., 2008b), and iii) had a minimum of ten years of soccer coaching experience (Bloom, Durand-Bush, & Salmela, 1997; Sedgwick, Côté, & Dowd, 1997). At the time of the interview, all the participants occupied head coach positions in Portuguese Premier League soccer clubs. Furthermore all of the soccer coaches had the highest level of the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) coaching qualification: UEFA Pro License. This research was reviewed and approved by the commission responsible for the ethical issues. All coaches gave their informed consent to participate in the study.

Instruments A semi-structure interview guide was used to conduct the interviews. The interview guide was developed based on the interview protocol of Taylor and Schneider (1992) and was organized into five sections. Section 1 contained demographic information and other introductory comments. In this section participants were informed about the purpose of the study and the structure of the interview. Several brief key definitions (e.g., “sport psychology”, “psychological skills”, “psychological techniques” and “psychological skills training”) were clarified for the participants in order to establish rapport and to orient them to the interview process. Section 2 analysed the coaches’ educational background on sport psychology (e.g., Did you have formal education in sport psychology? Where did your sport psychology knowledge come from?). Section 3 examined the importance assigned to PST in soccer (e.g., What is your opinion about the importance of PST in soccer? Which

53 psychological skills do you consider crucial for soccer players and the team’s performance? ). Section 4 explored the coaches’ perceptions regarding the sport psychologist services in soccer (e.g., What is your opinion about the importance of sport psychologists in soccer? Are you receptive to work with these experts?).The last section of the interview guide provided the opportunity for any final comments and summary questions from both the interviewer and interviewee.

Procedures All interviews were conducted face-to-face by the first author of the present investigation. The interviewer had previous experience as assistant soccer coach in the Portuguese Premier League and was therefore familiar with the history, experiences and terminology used by the participants. For Lincoln and Guba (1985), this was one method of ensuring the trustworthiness of the data collection. Each interview lasted between 60 and 90 minutes and was conducted face to face in an environment comfortable for the participants. Nine of the 13 interviews took place in the coaches’ office before or after a training session. Of the remaining interviews, three were conducted in the coach’s home, and one in a hotel room.

Data analysis Interviews were analysed in a process of inductive-deductive content analysis (Patton, 2002), which consisted of several steps. First, interviews were transcribed, read and reread by the first author in order to become completely familiar with the content. Second, raw data themes i.e. quotes or paraphrasing to represent a meaningful point or thought, were identified and coded. Different levels of coding were developed to refine categories until saturation of data was reached. First-order subthemes, second- order subthemes and general dimensions were established according to a progressive level of higher abstraction. Next, in order to establish trustworthiness, all findings were presented and discussed with another author to serve as a “devil advocate” (Marshall & Rossman, 1995). After discussion, different suggestions were

54 presented, changes were made as appropriate and a final consensus was reached. Finally, the first author checked all the findings again in depth to provide a validity check.

Results The inductive-deductive analysis exposed four general dimensions that emerged from 66 raw data themes identified by the participants. The dimensions were abstracted from 14 second-order subthemes and these from 25 first-order subthemes represented in figures 1-4.

Educational background in sport psychology This dimension comprised of the coaches’ education in sport psychology. Eight raw data themes were included in this dimension and two second-order subthemes were used to define it (Figure 1).

Raw Data Themes First Order Second Order General subthemes subthemes Dimension

• Sport Science (n=4) Academic

• Contact with Sport Psychology courses discipline (n=3) (n=4)

Formal

• UEFA pro licence (n=13) education Soccer coaching • UEFA advanced licence (n=13) courses Educational • Contact with sport psychology (n=13) background contents (n=9)

• Experience as coach (n=8) Personal Personal • Trial and error learning (n=6) experiences experience

• Experience as athlete (n=4) (n=11)

Figure 1. Soccer coaches’ educational background in sport psychology

Note: The number following each raw data theme and below the first order subthemes indicates the number of participants who reported them

The formal education of the participants in sport psychology was based on academic courses (n=4) and coaching training courses (n=13). Four participants indicated having contact with sport psychology discipline in their sports science academic courses. They also referred to additional contact with sport psychology discipline due to their participation in soccer coaching training courses. However, others coaches mentioned that their only formal psychological education was the hours of sport psychology within their soccer coaching courses. For example, one participant stated:

I haven’t got any academic education. The only study I’ve had has been my soccer course at level III and IV. A discipline with sports psychology content exists within these courses and this is the only formal education I’ve received.

Eleven participants also mentioned that their knowledge in sport psychology resulted from their personal experiences, such as their own experience as elite player and coach. The following quote clearly expresses this specific view:

My knowledge of sport psychology results from my personal experience…I was a professional player for 12 years and I’ve been a coach for 30 years... I’ve already orientated a lot of teams, lots of groups and players from different cultures and with different personalities. All this experience has made me acquire a considerable knowledge in this area.

PST with soccer players and teams The second dimension is related to the coaches’ perspective about the PST with soccer players and teams. This dimension included 27 raw data subthemes that were grouped into four second order subthemes: importance of PST, crucial psychological skills, ability to conduct PST and roadblocks to PST with soccer players and teams (Figure 2).

Raw Data Themes First Order Second Order General subthemes subthemes Dimension

• Very important (n=5)

• Crucial in elite soccer (n=4) Importance Importance of • One of the most important factors of performance (n=2) of PST PST with

• Needed to stay at top (n=1) (n=13) soccer players and teams • Helps to achieve high level results (n=1)

• Concentration (n=5)

• Self-confidence (n=4) Psychological

• Motivation (n=3) skills (n=11)

• Stress management (n=2)

• Team cohesion (n=4) Team skills Crucial • Team confidence (n=2) (n=5) psychological • Team motivation (n=2) skills for soccer

players and • Goal setting (n=1) P. techniques teams (n=1)

PST with

• Ability to sacrifice (n=3) soccer

• Responsibility as elite player Other players and (n=2) psychological teams • Decision Making (n=1) attributes (n=5) • Manage to failure (n=1)

• Manage to success (n=1)

• Feel prepared due to their Feel prepared to experience (n=3) conduct PST Ability to (n=3) conduct PST programs with

• Used some psychological Feel unprepared players and techniques but not regularly (n=1) to conduct teams • Did not feel prepared to use PST PST (n= 10) regularly (n=10)

• Lack of PST knowledge (n= 9)

• Lack of time (n=2)

• Lack of players’ interested (n=1) Roadblocks to Roadblocks to

• Lack of practical resources (n=1) PST PST with

• Current materials too complex (n=10) players and (n=1) teams

• Difficult to evaluate PST success (n= 1)

Figure 2. Soccer coaches’ perspectives about PST on soccer players and teams

In the first second-order subtheme, the coaches were unanimous in recognizing the importance of the PST with soccer players and teams. In particular coaches considered PST as very important (n=5), as crucial in elite soccer (n=4), as one of the most important factors of performance (n=4), as needed to stay at the top (n=1) and to achieve high level results (n=1). The following quote clearly express one of these specific views:

I think that psychological training of players and teams is a crucial factor in elite soccer. At this level there is no room for mistakes and consequently psychological training has got to be present.

The second second-order subtheme, illustrated a set of psychological and team skills that coaches considered crucial for soccer players and team performance, such as concentration, self-confidence and team cohesion. The following quotations are representative of those perspectives:

Concentration is an important key to soccer players… when the players are focused the things come out better… it seems that the players are better physically, technically and all other things come out better. I think concentration is the fundamental basis for the players to perform well.

One of the most important psychological skills for soccer players is self- confidence… when the players are confident they can perform at their best level

Another crucial skill is team cohesion… the group has to be more important than parts

Also in the second second-order, some coaches mentioned a range of psychological attributes that they considered important for soccer players (e.g., ability to sacrifice, responsibility as elite player). At this level it should be noted that only one coach mentioned the importance of a specific psychological technique, namely goal setting.

Regarding the ability to implement and conduct PST programs with soccer players and teams, ten of the participants reported did not feel prepared to conduct regular PST programs. On the other hand, three coaches reported feeling prepared (due to their vast experience) to conduct this process. For example one of the coaches stated:

I am not prepared to apply the specific techniques that you referred to in the introduction. I lack scientific knowledge to do it but wouldn’t say that I don’t feel able to prepare my players psychologically. I can’t utilize specific techniques but my long experience allows me to use several strategies in training and competition that improves my players psychologically. For example, sometimes my speeches with my players have psychological effects and consequently serve to prepare them psychologically.

Finally, the participants listed several roadblocks to PST. In particular the roadblock most identified by the participants was the lack of PST knowledge.

In my opinion the biggest problem that a soccer coach has in PST is the lack of scientific knowledge in this area.

PST with soccer coaches The third general dimension pointed out the coaches’ perspectives about the PST with themselves. Eighteen raw data themes comprised this dimension and four second-order subthemes were used to define it (Figure 3).

Raw Data Themes First Order Second Order General subthemes subthemes Dimension

• Important (n=9) Importance Importance of

• Needed to stay at top (n=2) of PST PST with

(n=13) soccer coaches

• Motivation (n=4)

• Emotional control (n=4) Psychological

• Leadership (n=3) skills (n=11)

• Communication (n=2)

• Self-confidence (n=2)

Crucial

• Self-talk (n=2) P. techniques psychological (n=2) skills for soccer coaches

• Honesty (n=1)

• Responsibility (n=1) Other

• Intelligence (n=1) psychological PST with attributes • Passion (n=1) soccer (n=5) • Ability to deal with players (n=1) coaches

• Feel prepared due to their Feel prepared to experience (n=3) conduct PST (n=3) Ability to conduct PST

• Used some psychological Feel unprepared programs with techniques but not regularly (n=1) themselves to conduct • Did not feel prepared to use PST PST (n= 10) regularly (n=10)

• Lack of PST knowledge (n= 9) Roadblocks to Roadblocks to • Lack of time (n=4) PST PST with (n=10) themselves

Figure 3. Soccer coaches’ perspectives about PST on soccer coaches

The first second-order subtheme highlighted the importance of the PST with coaches. Nine of the participants recognized the important role of their own PST. Additionally two coaches also mentioned that the coaches PST was needed to stay at the top (n=2). The second second-order theme, crucial psychological skills for soccer coaches, illustrated the importance given by 11 participants to psychological skills such as motivation, emotional control and leadership. In this second-order subtheme, some participants also mentioned a range of other psychological

60 attributes (n=5) and a specific psychological technique (n=2) that they consider important for their own performance. With respect to the third second-order subtheme, ability to implement PST programs with themselves, the majority of the sample (n=10) reported not feeling prepared for this. The last second-order subtheme, roadblocks to the coaches PST, illustrated two roadblocks identified by the participants: lack of PST knowledge (n=9) and the lack of time (n=4).

In my opinion the biggest obstacle that a coach faces regarding his own psychological preparation is the lack of knowledge as well as the lack of time to implement the PST programs.

Sport psychologists service in soccer The last general dimension is related to a group of issues regarding the coach’s opinions about the role of the sport psychologist in soccer.Thirteen raw data themes were included in this dimension that was grouped directly into four second-order subthemes: importance of sport psychologists, receptiveness to working with sport psychologists, previous experience with sport psychologists and barriers to sport psychologist’s interventions (Figure 4).

Raw Data Themes First Order Second Order General subthemes subthemes Dimension

• Equal importance to other sport science specialists (n=1) Important

• Important role in soccer (n=2) role in soccer

• Can help the players and coaches (n=10) Importance of

(n=3) sport

psychologists

• No opinion (n= 3) Without opinion (n=3)

• Full receptiveness (n=6) Receptive

• Receptiveness (n=5) (n=11)

Receptiveness Sport • Doubts about the usefulness of the to working with Unreceptive psychologist collaboration with SP’s (n=1) (n=2) SP’s (SP’s) in soccer

• Currently working with a SP (n=1) Work/contact

• Previous contact with a SP (n=1) with SP’s (n=2) Previous

experience with

• Never contacted or worked with a Never SP’s SP (n=11) worked/contact with SP’s (n=11)

• Lack of sport specific knowledge Barriers to SP’s (n=5) Barriers to SP’s intervention • Mentality/culture in soccer (n=3) (n=10) interventions

• Financial barrier (n=2)

Figure 4. Soccer coaches’ perspectives on sport psychologists

Ten of the participants were unanimous in stating the important role of sport psychologists in soccer. For instance, one participant said:

It is evident that the sport psychologist could be important in soccer. Soccer involves many branches of science and these exist in conjunction with several specialists that include the sport psychologist. I believe that these experts can and should be in elite soccer.

Regarding the coaches receptiveness to work with sport psychologists in soccer, 11 participants showed receptiveness to this type of collaboration.

If I feel that the collaboration with the sport psychologist is going to bring benefits for the players, and if the administrators don’t object to hiring these experts, I would be receptive to working with them.

In contrast one of the coaches expressed some doubts about the usefulness of the collaboration with these experts in soccer. The following quote illustrates this opinion:

I think an experienced coach is perfectly capable of managing their players and teams psychologically. I could say to you that I am receptive to working with a psychologist but I wouldn’t be honest with you. At the moment, for lots of reasons, I can’t see myself working with an expert in this area.

When the participants were asked about their previous experience with sport psychologists, more than half of the sample stated that they have never worked with these experts. On the other hand, one of the coaches mentioned currently working with a sport psychologist. However this coach reported that the sport psychologist had no direct contact with the players and team, as is well illustrated in the following expression:

I worked with a sport psychologist for a couple of years, but he was never hired by the club. The sport psychologist was a personal service and consequently he had no direct contact with the team or with the players. He was a consultant that helped me to coordinate the psychological preparation of my players and teams as well as my own preparation.

Also in this context, the same coach expressed one idea that can be linked with some of the barriers to a sport psychology intervention.

I know that this isn’t an ideal type of intervention but as you know sometimes we can’t hire all of the assistant coaches that we want for the club. We are limited to hiring one or two assistant coaches because the club already has other internal assistant coaches.

With respect to the aforementioned (barriers to sport psychologist intervention in soccer) the participants listed other possible reasons, such as lack of sport specific knowledge (n=5), mentality / culture in soccer (n=3) and lack of time (n=1) and finances (n=1).

Discussion The current study was designed to examine the thoughts of Portuguese soccer coaches regarding the PST process. Additionally, we intend to explore the soccer coaches’ educational background in sport psychology and their opinions about the role of sport psychologists in soccer. With respect to the formal education in sport psychology, only four of the coaches were exposed to sport psychology in their academic courses. On the other hand, all of the coaches reported had formal contact with sport psychology contents during their coaching training courses (UEFA licence, promoted by the Portuguese Federation of soccer). Therefore it should be expected that this group of coaches would be well educated in the field of sport psychology. However, doubts can be raised regarding soccer coaches psychological education in these courses. In fact, these soccer coaching courses do not seem to give the necessary importance to the discipline of sport psychology. For example, according to the regulation of the UEFA Pro licence (UEFA, 2009) only 15 hours were used in the discipline of the behaviour of science (that includes sport psychology contents). In contrast, 56 hours were used in the discipline of training methodology and 50 hours for the disciplines of technical/tactical and physical skills. In line with this, Fonseca (2000) stated that soccer coaching courses in Portugal give less importance to psychological factors since the amount of hours designated to sport psychology within these courses, is significantly less than others modules. Therefore it is not surprising that more than half of the sample considered that their sport psychology knowledge came from personal and practical experiences, especially coaching experience. In the same way, Gould et al., (1999) found that tennis coaches’ knowledge of sport psychology was more influenced by the experience of working with players rather than by formal

64 courses. Gould et al., (1999) and Sullivan and Hodge (1991) stated that trial and error learning becomes a common procedure among strategies for psychological preparation. In this regard, Grobbelaar (2007) reported that although the majority of netball coaches made use of trial and error methods, they perceived these methods rather ineffective. Given the above, it seems important that the Portuguese Federation of Soccer (responsible for the coaching soccer courses) should pay more attention for the good practice examples of other countries. For example, the Football Association of England has recently introduced its ‘Psychology for Football’ strategy to develop better players and coaches in England. A range of courses aimed at coaches, players and support staff has been developed to educate these groups in the concepts of sport psychology (Pain & Harwood, 2004). Similarly, Morris (1997) indicated that coaching organizations in several countries (e.g., UK, USA and Australia) have established sport psychology modules in their different levels of coaching education programmes. The second research question sought to determine the importance assigned by the coaches to the PST in soccer. All of the coaches revealed a positive and favourable perspective about the importance of PST, which are in agreement with the PST literature (e.g., Johnson, Hrycaiko, Johnson, & Halas, 2004; Rogerson & Hrycaiko, 2002; Thelwell, Greenlees, & Weston, 2006, 2010). This is an encouraging finding and reflects the high status that PST in soccer has among these elite national coaches. When evaluating the crucial psychological skills for soccer players and teams, one could argue that concentration, self-confidence and team cohesion were the skills most frequently mentioned by the coaches. These findings are not surprising, because the importance of these three psychological skills is often addressed in the psychological skill literature as well as in the soccer media. Several studies show the crucial role that self-confidence and concentration play in athlete’s performance (Durand-Bush & Salmela, 2002; Gould, Dieffenbach, & Moffett, 2002; Greenleaf, Gould, & Dieffenbach 2001; Kitsantas & Zimmerman, 2002). Relative to group cohesion, investigators showed this skill as being effective for improving relationship patterns among all

65 elements of the group, pursuing the established goals that lead to team success (Carron, Bray, & Eys, 2002; Heuzé, Bosselut, & Thomas, 2007; Heuzé, Raimbault, & Fontayne, 2006). It is also encouraging that the three psychological skills most mentioned by our coaches are often discussed in the psychological skills literature. However, a review in soccer PST literature shows that few or no studies investigated the concrete strategies that coaches used to enhance the concentration, self-confidence and cohesion of their players and teams. Given the above, sport psychology researches should consider exploring these issues. With respect to the psychological skills considered most relevant for the soccer coaches, the results of our analysis revealed that motivation and emotional self-control were the skills most frequently mentioned by the sample. The professional instability and the high psychological pressure that the soccer coach is constantly subjected to, may explain this finding. For Vealey (2007), it seems important to identify key psychological skills that are related to performance success and personal well-being to guide the development of psychological skills interventions. In this sense the set of psychological skills identified in the present study should serve as a relevant indicator for the development of more specific and effective psychological interventions in soccer. However, for this support to be most effective and specific as possible, future research should identify the key psychological skills according to the players and coaches characteristics (e.g., gender, age), as well as the players position in the field (e.g., goalkeepers, defenders, midfielders and attackers). Although participants were aware of the importance of PST on soccer players and coaches performance and elected a set of crucial psychological skills (that are consistent with the sport psychological literature), they have given less relevance to the psychological techniques. According to the above it is not surprising that the majority of the coaches admitted to feeling unprepared to conduct and apply the PST process. This finding is in agreement with the PST literature that showed that coaches have difficulties in understanding deep psychological techniques (Barrero, 1994).

In this context it should be noted that even the coaches who considered themselves to be relatively well prepared to conduct psychological training, mentioned that their intervention was based only on their experience as coach and previously as players. Thus, it seems evident that these coaches do not have the correct understanding about the PST process. According to Fonseca (2004) one thing is the coach had general knowledge about sport psychology that allowed them to perform better and positively influence their players and teams psychologically. Another thing is the coach was prepared to use the different psychological techniques and help their players to develop strategies in this sense. Results of the current study also revealed information about the roadblocks to the development of PST in soccer. In particular, the biggest roadblocks identified by this sample of coaches included the lack of PST knowledge. Malete and Feltz (2000) stated that a lack of knowledge on PST was a barrier to coaching effectiveness. Similarly, Vealey (1988) indicated that coaches usually neglected the PST because they lacked the knowledge to train these skills. To help overcome these obstacles, coaches may benefit from collaboration with sport psychologists. Therefore, the agreement of the majority of the sample about the importance of sport psychologists and the receptiveness to work with these experts was not surprising. Similarly, Sullivan and Hodge (1991) found that 97% of the coaches’ surveyed in their study indicated interest in working with a sport psychologist. In this context, Anderson (2009) described a twofold perspective of collaboration between coach and sport psychologists. One form of coach consultation is focused on the coaching practices in order to support the psychological preparation of his/her athletes. Another situation occurs when coaches seek consultation not for their athletes but for their own personal and professional needs (e.g., anxiety). This study did not attempt to evaluate the type of soccer coach/sport psychologists’ collaboration. Future research could explore this topic. According to the previous finding, we would expect a high level of collaboration between elite Portuguese soccer head coaches and sport

67 psychologists. However, when the coaches were asked about their previous experience with sport psychologists, only one coach reported that he had the support of a sport psychologist. In this respect, Fonseca (2004) referred that the existence of a sport psychologist in professional, Portuguese soccer teams is an exception not the rule. Therefore we are faced with a paradox which is important to understand. If the soccer coaches are receptive to working with sport psychologists, why are they not hired by the clubs? The coaches of the sample mentioned a list of barriers that limited the sport psychologist intervention in soccer. A lack of sport-specific knowledge on the part of the sport psychologist was cited as the most significant barrier. Gould, Murphy, Tammen and May (1991), found that Olympic coaches suggested that sport psychologists should increase their sport-specific knowledge and, consequently, the specific psychological skills strategies. For this purpose, one of the most recognized soccer coaches in the world, Fábio Capello (cit. in Fonseca, 2004), stated that “is crucial that a sport psychologist working in elite soccer completely understands soccer, is involved in this sport, and is prepared to understand the problems related to this type of activity”. Other barriers that are well described in literature such as lack of time and lack of finances (Pain & Harwood, 2004), also emerged in the present study. However, in our opinion these perspectives are quite questionable. In fact, with the huge budgets that currently exist in professional soccer the inclusion of a sport psychologist will not endanger the budget of the club. Therefore, the question of background seems to be connected with the idea that some of the coaches believe that sport psychologists, have a small contribution to the performance of soccer players and coaches. At this level, it should be noted that three of the participants stated that the general cultural mentality in Portuguese soccer was a barrier to sport psychologists. For Pain and Harwood (2004), despite the continued success of sport psychology across the globe, negative connotations of the field still exist, particularly within sports such as soccer, that have tended to resist change.

An educational program on the psychological concepts, targeting coaches and directors may help to remove negative connotations of sport psychologists and consequently change the culture of soccer. At this level, soccer coaching courses promoted by the Portuguese Football Federation could play an important role because for the majority of the participants these courses are the only source of formal education in sport psychology. It should be noted, however, that it is fundamental to reformulate these courses, increasing the number of hours devoted to sport psychology. If the Portuguese Federation of Soccer delivers the appropriate Psychology education to the soccer coaches and administrators and if sport psychologists can enhance their soccer knowledge, the barriers could be overcome and the opportunities for the collaboration between coaches and sport psychologists will increase.

Conclusion The findings of our study may be interpreted as being supportive of the importance of the PST process in professional soccer. However, although the participants acknowledge the importance of PST and the role of sport psychologists, they did not feel able to design and apply PST programs with players, as well as, with themselves. Therefore the need to educate soccer coaches providing more applicable, concrete and practical PST information is necessary. While the present study provides important implications relative to PST process in the context of Portuguese professional soccer, it should be noted that the findings are related to the unique characteristic of our sample and transferability of the results is limited. Therefore, methodological limitations must be considered when making interpretations about the type of sport (i.e., only one sport-soccer) and gender (i.e., only one gender – male) of the sample. However, since the purpose of the current study was not to make comparisons between groups, these issues did not affect the trustworthiness of the research. On the other hand the sport represented (soccer – one of the most important sports worldwide) and the high quality of the sample (i.e. coaches of elite

Portuguese Teams) can be considered a strength of this research. Finally it should be noted that the current study reflected the thoughts and not necessarily the actual behavior of the coaches. Therefore, further research is needed to assess the actual PST behavior of coaches. In summary, the current study can serve as a guide to future PST soccer research and, from a practical perspective, may serve to highlight several recommendations for making PST more effective in the context of Portuguese soccer.

Paper III

How do soccer coaches prepare their players and teams psychologically? A study with coaches of elite Portuguese teams 3

______3 Accepted for publication at the Journal of Physical Education and Sport: vol.13, nº3, September 2013

Abstract The aim of the present study was to examine the psychological preparation strategies often used by soccer coaches with their players and teams, as well as to ascertain where and why they employed these strategies. Thirteen elite coaches from Portuguese premier soccer league clubs were interviewed. Globally, results showed that the participants used a considerable set of strategies and activities with psychological effects in training, competition, and outside these environments. However they exhibited a limited use of psychological techniques, specifically in the practice setting. Overall, the findings seem to suggest that the participants mostly based their psychological intervention on their vast experience as coach, as well as during their soccer playing careers. Practical implications and future directions to enhance the psychological preparation of soccer players and teams are discussed.

Key-words: psychological preparation, psychological techniques, Portuguese elite soccer teams, qualitative study, coaches’ perspectives .

Introduction Nowadays, the importance of psychological preparation in the development of athletic performance is well known. According to Gould and Maynard (2009), psychological preparation can be viewed in several ways. For these authors, it can be broadly defined as anything athletes do to prepare themselves for sport involvement, or in a more specific manner in terms of techniques used by athletes to ready themselves for specific athletic tasks (e.g., visualization to aid in the execution of a balance beam routine). In the current study, psychological preparation is defined as ‘‘those cognitive, emotional, and behavioural strategies athletes and teams use to arrive at an ideal performance state or condition that is related to optimal psychological states and peak performance either for competition or practice’’ (Gould, Flett, & Bean, 2009, p. 53). Based on the work of Vealey (1988), a distinction is also made between psychological skills or states the athlete is trying to achieve (e.g., stress management, concentration, self-confidence and motivation) and the methods or cognitive or behavioural strategies the athletes use to arrive at these states or skills (e.g., goal-setting, imagery, relaxation and self-talk). Research has shown that athletes of several sports can benefit from the use of psychological techniques to improve sport performance (Frey, Laguna, & Ravizza, 2003; Rogerson & Hrycaiko, 2002; Thelwell & Greenlees, 2003). Goal- setting, relaxation, imagery and self-talk are the four psychological techniques more often referred to in the sport psychology literature. However, in order for athletes’ to successfully apply these and other psychological techniques they need to learn the basic principles of each technique and be taught the most effective way to use them. Bertollo, Saltarelli, and Robazza (2009) stated, that some athletes may be helped to learn, refine, and practice psychological techniques aimed at gaining personal control of debilitative states and improving psychophysical conditions that facilitate performance. Psychological skills can be developed by elite level performers in formal settings when, for example, they decide to undertake sport psychology consultancy, or in informal ways through the influence of significant persons, such as coaches, (Durand- Bush & Salmela, 2002; Gould, Dieffenbach, & Moffett, 2002).

The coach is the manager of the team and therefore has great influence in the psychological development of their athletes and teams. According to Gould and Maynard (2009), they facilitate this development in several ways, including emphasizing certain things such as hard work, discipline, having fun, having characteristics that facilitated athlete trust, providing encouragement and support, directly teaching or fostering psychological skills, and by understanding the athletes. Furthermore, coaches have the power to allow or not allow the interference of external collaborators (e.g., sport psychologists) in the work with their team and athletes (Morris, 1997). Psychological preparation and sport psychology were identified as coaching actions that had helped the athletes and teams to perform to their maximum potential (Gould & Maynard, 2009). Accordingly, coaching literature emphasizes the importance of integrating psychology preparation into the coaching process (Côté, Bruner, Erickson, Strachan, & Fraser-Thomas, 2010; Côté & Gilbert, 2009; Côté, Salmela, & Russell, 1995; Fraser-Thomas & Côté, 2009; Gould, Chung, Smith, & White, 2006). Coaches must believe in the value of psychological training, understand their principles and apply them on a regular basis in the coaching plan. Although research on psychological preparation strategies used by coaches, has not been studied as extensively as other areas in sport psychology, it has not been completely ignored (Bloom, Stevens, & Wickwire, 2003; Côté, & Sedgwick, 2003; Gould, Damarjian, & Medbery, 1999; Sedgwick, Côté, & Dowd, 1997). For example, Gould and colleagues (1999) found that concentration drills, simulating pressure, imagery, goal-setting, enhanced motivation, thought stopping, initiating team activities, discussion and teaching about mistakes, breathing, and relaxation techniques were some of the specific exercises/strategies used by elite junior tennis coaches with their players. Although the aforementioned investigations offer valuable insight into the psychological skills and techniques used by coaches with athletes, a more detailed understanding of this area of research is necessary, namely regarding where, when and for what purposes coaches use them.

At this level, it should be noted that the implementation of psychological preparation strategies (and its’ consequent effectiveness), needs to consider the requirements of each athlete as well as the specific sport demands. Different athletes and different sports required different things from their coaches at different points in their careers. This emphasized the importance of coaches reading athletes’ psychological needs and using different approaches at different times and in different situations (Gould & Maynard, 2009). In line with this, Taylor (1995) developed a conceptual model that describes several critical aspects in the development of competitive psychological preparation strategies. Specifically, the model emphasizes the importance of understanding the individual needs of athletes, the particular demands of sports, and integrating this information into an effective intervention package. Integration of this information enables consultants to develop customized competitive psychological preparation strategies that will optimally prepare each individual athlete for the particular sport settings in which they compete. Despite elite soccer coaches being the center of public interest and media attention worldwide, little is known about their actions and attitudes regarding the psychological preparation of their players and teams. For Potrac, Jones, and Cushion (2007) there is a certain degree of “mystique” surrounding the top-level soccer coaches and the means and methods that they utilize in their respective quests to produce successful soccer teams. Although international literature supported the positive influence of psychological techniques on soccer players’ performance (e.g., Johnson, Hrycaiko, Johnson, & Halas, 2004; Thelwell, Greenlees & Weston, 2006, 2010), there are a paucity of studies concerning the specific strategies employed by soccer coaches to prepare their players and teams psychologically. This gap in literature is even more critical on a national level. Indeed, to our knowledge, no previous research has focused on this specific research topic. Knowing the psychological preparation strategies used by coaches with their players and teams can bring important insights about the relevance of psychological intervention in Portuguese soccer.

Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the repertoire of psychological preparation strategies used by Portuguese elite soccer coaches with their players and teams. Additionally, we intended to examine where and for what purpose they use these strategies. Due to the in-depth nature of the question being asked (i.e., what, where, and why), a qualitative approach was deemed appropriate. Through the use of qualitative methodology, we believed our findings could bring a new and in- depth vision to this phenomenon and be useful to provide tools for reflection about psychological intervention in the context of Portuguese soccer.

Method Participants Thirteen male professional soccer head coaches composed the sample of this study. Their ages ranged between 43 and 63 and their experience as soccer coaches ranged from 10 to 29 years. The sample was selected based on the three following criteria: i) have worked, or currently work with “elite-level” athletes’ (Hanton, Fletcher, & Coughlan, 2005), ii) be employed by their respective governing bodies of sport (national squads) or by professional clubs (Thelwell, Weston, Greenlees, & Hutchings, 2008b) and iii) had a minimum of ten years of soccer coaching experience (Bloom, Durand-Bush, & Salmela, 1997; Sedgwick et al., 1997). All of the participants held coach positions in Portuguese soccer premier League clubs (one of the top ten European Soccer Leagues). They also had the highest level of the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) coaching qualification: UEFA Pro License. For most participants (n=9) these courses were the only source of sport psychology education. On the other hand, four of the coaches had academic courses which contained sport psychology modules.

Interview guide An interview guide was developed in accordance with the specific purposes of the current study. Three pilot interviews were conducted with three

77 professional soccer assistant coaches. Minor amendments to the questions were made to the appropriateness of the probe and elaboration questions. As a result, the final interview guide was comprised of three sections. The first section included demographic information and other introductory comments. The second section composed the main body of the interview and focused on the psychological preparation strategies. Here the coaches were asked to identify and explain the psychological preparation strategies that they employed in training, competition and outside these two locations. In this section the coaches were also asked about the intended outcomes with the application of each mentioned strategy. The third and final section of the interview provided the opportunity for any final comments and summary questions from both the interviewer and interviewee. The interview guide (available from the first author) was used to standardize the interviews and to minimize bias.

Procedures All of the participants took part in a semi-structured interview lasting between 60 to 90 minutes. Each interview was conducted face to face by the first author who had previous experience as an assistant soccer coach in the Portuguese premier league and was therefore familiar with the experiences and terminology used by the participants. According to Lincoln and Guba (1985) this was one method of ensuring the trustworthiness of the data collection. The data were compiled in an environment comfortable for the participant. Nine of the 13 interviews took place in the coaches’ offices before or after a training session. Of the remaining interviews, three were conducted in the coach’s home, and one in a hotel room.

Data analysis Interviews were analyzed in a process of inductive-deductive content analysis (Patton, 2002), which consisted of several steps. First, interviews were transcribed, read and reread by the first author in order to become completely familiar with the content. Second, raw data were identified and coded. Different

78 levels of coding were developed to refine categories until saturation of data was reached. First-order subthemes, second-order subthemes and general dimensions were established according to a progressive level of higher abstraction. Next, in order to establish trustworthiness, all findings were presented and discussed with another author to serve as the “devil advocate” (Marshall & Rossman, 1995). After discussion, different suggestions were presented, changes were made as appropriate and a final consensus was reached. Finally, the first author checked all the findings again in depth to provide a validity check.

Results The inductive-deductive analysis highlighted two general dimensions emerging from 65 raw data themes mentioned by the elite coaches. The dimensions were abstracted from five second-order subthemes and these from 14 first-order subthemes. The general dimensions are represented in figures 1- 2. Frequency analysis and representative quotations from the transcripts are interspersed amid the results to clarify the emergent themes

Activities, exercises, and strategies used by the coaches with their players and teams The first dimension was related with a group of activities, exercises and strategies designed and applied by the coaches to have psychological effects in their players and teams. Forty-two raw data themes comprised this dimension and three second order themes were used to define it (Figure 1). Participants revealed using several exercises and strategies with psychological effects in a training setting. Of these, coaches’ speech with the team (n=13) and players (n=12) were clearly the strategies most often mentioned by the participants. For example one coach said:

For me, the speech with the players during the week (in training sessions) is the best form to prepare the players for the competition. My vast experience lets me identify the psychological state of my team and

my players. Based on this information I talk individually with my players in order to regulate their psychological state.

All of the participants considered the coaches’ speech during the training sessions, as a great way to enhance the psychological skills of their players and teams. For example, some coaches revealed using this specific strategy in training to increase the confidence and the motivation of their players.

In the first session training after a game I always speak to my players, not just about the game but also in order to prepare then psychologically for the next game…for example, when we’ve lost two or three games consecutively, I have a positive speech that increases the players confidence and motivation…I tell them they won’t forget how to play one day to another…we should say that sometimes not training in the field is the best training. If the players are not prepared psychologically, they won’t be able to train hard in the field.

Other exercises and strategies employed in training from which coaches derive psychological effects included, tactical exercises, feedback, competitive games/exercises, press conference (after the last training before the game), fun games, open exercises, hard physical work, evidence of cheerfulness at training sessions, respect for the players, training at different locations, free period at the end of the session and open leadership. These set of exercises and strategies were applied in training by the majority of the coaches, in order to enhance several psychological skills (e.g., increase confidence and motivation, improve focus and promoting team cohesion) of their players and teams. For example, one coach reported creating scenarios of game environments to improve the focus of their players, as illustrated in the following quote:

And when we take the players to the beach, we are also training their concentration. Usually, in the summer the beach is full of people, and as people have the possibility of being close to our team, they take pictures,

make noise, call the players, etc…; and this is a good way of improve athletes focus . In a scenario where several factors disturb their attention, they must have the ability to focus on the task and to ignore all of these outside factors.

The thirteen participants of this study also point out the use of a considerable set of strategies in competition to influence their players and teams psychologically. As with the training environment, the coaches’ speech with the team (n=13) and with the players (n=19) were again the strategies most mentioned by the coaches. The next comment shows the former strategy in competition setting: “A frequent psychological preparation strategy that I use in competition is the pep talk, a speech with the team…for me this is the best strategy to prepare the team for the game”. Also in this location (competition), the participants elicited a diversity of other strategies used to have psychological effects in their players and teams (e.g., feedbacks during the game, slogans in the hall, flash interview, motivational videos/slides, and projection of a calm image). When the coaches talked about the desired outcomes in competition, they mentioned the used of the previous strategies to enhance several psychological skills of their players / teams (e.g., reduce anxiety, to facilitate appropriate focus, and to increase confidence and motivation levels). For example, one of the coaches revealed using the speech with the team in competition to optimize their confidence levels, as illustrated in the following quote:

Before the game, in the pep-talk I promote a speech that affects the team confidence. Sometimes, when I feel the team’s confidence levels are low, I try to convey a message that increases those levels; other times, when I feel the team has too much confidence, I do the opposite…so, depending on how I think the team are feeling, I promote a speech that optimizes the team’s confidence levels.

Similarly, three coaches referred the use of the flash interview to increase the team confidence. Other participants mentioned that they

81 sometimes used antagonistic comments of opponent published in the media (n=1) and put slogans on the walls of dressing room (n=1) with the aim of increasing motivational levels of their players, specifically before the beginning of game. These perspectives are well demonstrated in the next comments: “I begin the psychological preparation for the next game in the flash interview… For example, when things went wrong in the game, I give a speech aimed at increasing the confidence levels for the next game”; “Putting some motivational slogans on dressing room walls before the game is a strategy that I use to increase the motivational levels of my players…I usually put these slogans up before the biggest games”; “Sometimes, before the game, we quote some antagonistic comments of the opponent published in the media, in order to provoke the athletes and thereby promote an extra motivation for the action”. Finally, five coaches stressed the use of some activities and strategies outside both training and competition (e.g., team dinners, game model selected and pre-season training camps) with the sole purpose of enhancing team cohesion, as showed in the following quotations: “We organize many group dinners as a way to promote cohesion; it is a way to bring a group closer together”; “The election of the zone as a defensive method is in itself a way to promote team building ... the zone requires solidarity and mutual assistance in the task, and, therefore, requires good teamwork”.

Raw Data Themes First Order Second Order General subthemes subthemes Dimension

• Coaches’ speech with team (n=13)

• Coaches’ speech with the player

(n=12)

• Tactical exercises (n=6)

• Feedbacks (n=5)

• Competitive games/exercises (n=5) Exercises • Press conference (after the last training before the game) (n=4) and

• Fun games (n=3) strategies used

• Open exercises (n=2) (n=13)

• Hard physical work (n=2)

• Evidence of cheerfulness at sessions (n=2) Application • Respect all the players (n=1) in • Training at different locations (n=1) practice •Free period at the end of session (n=1) (n=13) • Open leadership (players involved on the decisions) (n=1)

• Increase players motivation (n=13)

• Increase players confidence (n=10)

• Improve players focus (n=9) Desired • Team cohesion (n=4) outcomes • Cope with difficulties (n=2) Activities, (n=13) • Developed players dec. making (n=2) exercises •Optimize team confidence (n=1) and • Develop players ability to sacrifice strategies (n=1) used

• Coaches’ speech with team (n=13) by the coaches and • Coaches’ speech with the player (n=10) from which

• Feedbacks during the game (n=4) they derive

• Flash interview (n=3) psychological • Motivational Videos /slides (power Activities effects point) after the game (n=4) and • Antagonistic comments of opponent strategies used published in media (n=1) (n=13) • Showing video highlights of individual Application and teams good performance (n=1)

• Videos showing the weaknesses of the in opponent (n=1) competition

• Slogans in the hall (n=1) (n=13)

• Increase players motivation(n=13)

• Increase team confidence (n=6)

• Reduce players anxiety (n=4) Desired

• Improve players self-confidence (n=3) outcomes

• Facilitate appropriate focus (n=3) (n=13)

• Promote team cohesion (n=3)

•Optimize team confidence (n=1)

• Team dinners (n=6) Activities and stra. Outside

• Game Model selected (n=2) used (n=6) practice and • Pre-season training camps (n=1) competition (n=6) • Enhance team cohesion (n=6) Desired out.(n=6)

Figure 1. Activities, exercises and strategies used by coaches with their players/ teams

Note: The number following each raw data theme first and second order subthemes indicates the number of participants who reported them

Psychological techniques used by the coaches with their players and teams The second dimension, psychological techniques, shows the coaches’ perspectives on the application of psychological techniques with their players, and included twenty-three raw data themes that emerged into two second-order subthemes (Figure 2). Only six of the participants mentioned the application of psychological techniques in their coaching routines, and of these only two cited their use in both training and competition. Thus, a considerable lack of use of psychological techniques was exhibited by the majority of these coaches. Goal setting (n=2) and imagery (n=1) were the only two psychological techniques mentioned for the practice setting. When the two coaches were asked about their use of goal setting in a practice setting, they mentioned setting goals related with technical and tactical aspects. Additionally they reported employing this specific technique to facilitate appropriate focus, as well as to increase players’ motivational levels. For example, one of the coaches stated that in all of the training sessions the tactical goals of each part of the session were clearly established in order to facilitate appropriate focus of their players, as in the next comment: “Before each exercise I inform my players about the tactical goals of the exercise. I do this to stimulate their focus during the training sessions”. With respect to the use of imagery, the same coach reported that during the training session he constantly asked the players about their tactical decisions:

When I’ve seen a player make a bad decision, or be in a wrong position, I immediately stop the training and demand that everyone stays in place. Next I ask the players to visualize the situation and ask him what he did wrong and what he should do…if the situation stops, the players can analyze the different options and select the best…if the player is conscious of this he will be more effective in identical future situations.

Finally, in the competition setting, participants mentioned the use of goal- setting (n=6), imagery (n=2), self-talk (n=1) and thought stopping (n=1) in their coaching routines. In relation to the use of goal-setting, coaches employed team and individual outcome goals to enhance the motivation of their players and teams. The following expression is quite representative of that:

I set goals with the players and the team. I did it because I think this of a way of motivating them. How does that happen? For example, I would propose that a player scored 5 goals in three games or that the team scored more than 35 goals until the end of the first lap.

From the three coaches that reported the use of imagery, two of them stated that they encouraged the players to focus on success by recalling past games where the player/team was successful. Specifically, these two coaches applied this specific strategy to increase players’ motivation and confidence levels. With regard to the last purpose, a coach said: “Sometimes during the pep-talks before the game, I tell my players to remember previous situations that our team has had success…I do this with the intention of boosting their confidence levels for the game”. Lastly, two different coaches stated using the dialogue with the players in order to stimulate their positive self-talk as well as thought stopping technique. These same coaches mentioned using these two psychological techniques to improve the player’s self-confidence and concentration levels.

Raw Data Themes First Order Second Order General subthemes subthemes Dimension

• Tactical goals (n=2)

• Technical goals (n=1) Goal-setting

(n=2) • Performance goals (n=1)

Imagery • Questioning players about tactical Application decisions (n=1) (n=1) in practice

(n=2) • Increase players motivational levels (n=2) Desired • Facilitate appropriate focus (n=1) Outcomes • Develop players decision making (n=1) (n=2) • Improve technical and tactical (n=1) performance (n=1)

• Team Goals (n=5)

• Individual Goals (n=3) Goal Setting Psychological

• Long goals (n=2) (n=6) techniques

• Short goals (n=2) used

• Outcome goals (n=4) by the

coaches

• Recall of successful performances of (n=6) players (n=2) Imagery • Recall of successful performances of (n=3) Application teams (n=1) in • Stimulate the players to image positive outcomes (n=1) competition

(n=6)

• Encourage players to use positive self- Self-talk talk (n=1) (n=1)

• Encourage players to use thought Thought stopping (n=1) stopping (n=1)

• Increase players motivation (n=6)

• Increase players self-confidence (n=4) Desired

• Enhance players focus (n=3) Outcomes (n=6) • Enhance team motivation (n=2)

• Increase team confidence (n=2)

Figure 2. Psychological techniques employed by coaches with their players and teams

Discussion The main purpose of the present study was to identify the strategies often used by Portuguese elite soccer coaches to prepare their players and teams psychologically. Additionally we intended to gain an insight to where and why they used them. Results from this study showed that elite Portuguese soccer coaches employed a considerable number of strategies and activities in training, competition and outside both environments to influence their players and teams

86 psychologically. In effect, when analyzing the results, one could argue that the coaches’ speech with the team and the player, were the strategies employed most frequently by the soccer coaches in both practice and competition setting. This data are not surprising, in view of the fact that both strategies are usually used by soccer coaches (as is often illustrated in the three national sport newspapers), and may be applied even without a profound knowledge of the field of sport psychology. The results also revealed that most of the activities, exercises, and strategies with psychological effects employed by the participants were consistent with several studies on coaching (e.g., Bloom et al., 2003; Côté & Sedgwick, 2003; Sedgwick, et al., 1997). For example, despite the obvious differences in the key aims of the current study, compared with Bloom et al. (2003) investigation, some strategies, such as training camps and team dinners, emerged in both studies. Similarly, strategies such as giving positive and corrective feedbacks, creating a motivational environment, and projecting a calm image coincide with Sedgwick et al. (1997), and Côté and Sedgwick (2003) studies. The data of the aforementioned studies converges with the strategies identified by the coaches in the present study. However it is important to note that these strategies and activities form which derive psychological effects are not psychological techniques (there is a substantial difference between both). Surprisingly, participants also mentioned some strategies (to influence their players and teams psychologically) usually absent in the coaching literature, such as the use of press conferences and flash interviews to convey specific messages to the players. These strategies may be intimately related to the soccer context in which this investigation was conducted. In fact, the media attention that this sport has may lead the coaches to use these strategies as a way to influence the psychological performance of their players and teams. These strategies probably would not have the same impact in sports with less media attention. The activities, exercises, and strategies (from which derive psychological effects) mentioned previously may have been learned through ‘trial and error’

87 and/ or passed from generation to generation, thereby allowing the coaches to gain sufficient knowledge so as to master and maximize their use. In general, these results appear to be evidence that elite Portuguese coaches give considerable attention to the psychological preparation of their players and teams. However, this does not mean that they conduct this process in the best or more effective way. In fact, when we analyze in detail the coaches’ intervention at this level, it was evident that it is mostly based in the application of a set of exercises, activities and strategies with psychological effects over their players. Although we do not doubt the quality and importance of this coaches’ intervention, it should be noted that it is not the same as a systematic PST intervention. For example, despite recognizing the importance that the coaches’ speech with players assumes in their relationship, it appears to consensual that this type of intervention is not enough to answer all of the players’ psychological demands. It is not enough for the coach say to the players that «it is necessary to concentrate for the full 90 minutes»; «that they have to have confidence to be able to win»; or that «they have to have a strong team spirit to overcome all of the difficulties». Although PST was recognized as an invaluable training tool by coaches of various contexts (Sullivan & Hodge, 1991), it is often excluded from coaching practices (Barreiros, Silva, Freitas, Duarte, & Fonseca, 2011; Gould et al., 1999; Grobbelaar, 2007). In this context, it should be noted that only six of the participants of the current study mentioned employing psychological techniques with their players and teams. Of these coaches, two used psychological techniques in both training and competition, while the other four only employed it in the competition setting. Coaches must be aware of the relationship between psychological techniques in practice and success in competition in order to positively influence their athletes to give equal importance to both competition and practice settings for psychological training (Frey et al., 2003). Overall, even these six coaches revealed through their comments, that they did not utilize all of the functions and principles of the psychological techniques cited, namely goal setting, imagery and self-talk (see Hardy, Gammage, & Hall,

2001; Munroe-Chandler, Giacobbi, Hall, & Weinberg, 2000; Munroe-Chandler, Hall, & Weinberg, 2004). Therefore the findings of the current study seem to suggest that the participants do not contemplate a regular and systematic use of psychological techniques in their coaching process. This is in agreement with several researchers (Almeida, 2004; Barreiros et al., 2011; Fonseca, 2004) that pointed out the limited use of systematic PST in professional Portuguese soccer. A range of possible explanations for the findings of the present study can be suggested. The first relates to the lack of sport psychologists working in Portuguese premier league soccer clubs (Barreiros et al., 2011; Fonseca, 2004). The existence of these experts in Portuguese professional soccer teams is the exception and not the rule (Fonseca, 2004). A further possible explanation could relate to the lack of PST knowledge by the participants. According to several studies (e.g., Malete & Feltz, 2000; Vealey, 1988) the lack of PST coaches’ knowledge is one of the biggest reasons that PST is neglected. This study did not attempt to examine the reasons why the majority of the soccer coaches did not contemplate a regular and systematic use of psychological techniques into their coaching process. However, future research could and should explore this issue. In recent years the applied sport psychology literature has seen an increase in the number of experimental studies supporting the positive influence of PST on performance of athletes of several sports (e.g., Blakeslee & Goff, 2007; Cohen, Tenenbaum, & English, 2006; Mamassis & Doganis, 2004; Sheard & Golby, 2006; Thelwell & Greenlees, 2001; Thelwell & Maynard, 2003), and in particular on performance of soccer players (Thelwell, et al., 2006, 2010). Hence, it could be advantageous for the participants to enhance their PST knowledge and collaborate with sport psychologists in order to boost the psychological preparation of their players and teams. For Weinberg and Gould (2011), a PST programme should be planned, implemented, and supervised by a qualified sport psychologist consultant. On the other hand, some of the sport psychologists’ work is not in the reach of the soccer coach, because of the time it takes, and because of the different relationship between the coach/players,

89 and sport psychologists/players. For example, soccer players may be more open in discussing their difficulties concerning psychological aspects with the sport psychologist, because he does not sit in judgment regarding who stays on the team and who gets to play. Thus, the collaboration between Portuguese soccer coaches and sport psychologists seems to be extremely beneficial to improve the psychological preparation of soccer players and teams. For Thomas (2001), the psychological interventions are usually more effective when the psychologist and coach work together. The soccer coaches have a great influence on their players and consequently they should be fully involved in the PST process (oriented by the sport psychologist).They should always point out the importance of PST in both training and competition settings. The coaches spend a great amount of time with their players and have the opportunity to remind them to use psychological techniques (Frey et al., 2003). For example, the coaches should highlight that the warm-up period is an optimum moment, not just for players to prepare physically, but also psychologically in training and competition, utilizing specific psychological techniques such as imagery, self- talk and others. Therefore, the ideal situation seems to be, that the soccer coach works closely with these experts, but also has a general understanding of PST principles. The soccer coaching courses promoted by the Portuguese soccer Federation are the only source of formal psychological education for the majority of the soccer coaches in Portugal consequently these courses should deliver the appropriate psychological education to the coaches. However, doubts can be raised regarding soccer coaches psychological education in these courses. In fact these courses seem to give little importance to the sport psychology factors, which can be proved by the content and reduced number of hours, attributed to the sport psychology module. Consequently, a suggestion would be to enhance the quantity and the quality of the sport psychology education in these courses in order to better educate coaches in the PST concepts and, importantly to stimulate their collaboration with sport psychologists.

Conclusion The present study has revealed that the coaches from the Portuguese premier league clubs employed a considerable set of strategies, activities and exercises in training, competition, and outside both locations, to prepare their players and teams psychologically. However, when we analyzed the use of psychological techniques in their coaching routines, our findings revealed that their use was limited, specifically in the practice setting. We do not intend to undervalue the psychological intervention of our coaches. However, it is important to highlight that their intervention was mostly based on their vast experience (as coaches as well as during their playing careers), which is not the same as a systematic PST intervention. We believe that if the Portuguese soccer coaches enhance their PST knowledge and if they work more closely with the sport psychologists, the psychological preparation of the soccer players and teams could be improved. The physical, technical, and tactical training of the elite Portuguese soccer players and teams is actually very similar and consequently the psychological preparation could make an important contribution to achievement success. In this sense, the present study raises a number of significant issues for soccer coaches that could enhance the psychological preparation of their players and teams.

Paper IV

Elite soccer coaches use of psychological techniques 4

______4 Freitas, S., Dias, C., & Fonseca A. (2013).Elite soccer coaches use of psychological techniques. International Journal of Psychological Studies, 5(3), 56-70. doi: 10.5539/ijps.v5n3p56

Abstract The purpose of the current study was to investigate soccer coaches’ use of psychological techniques for their own performance. In depth semi-structured interviews were conducted with 13 elite coaches, from Portuguese premier league clubs, to examine and describe their use of imagery, goal-setting, self- talk and relaxation. Participants mentioned employing psychological techniques more in conjunction with competition than training. Self-talk and imagery tended to be cited more frequently than goal setting and relaxation. Furthermore, results of this study provided information about the content and functions of each psychological technique. Implications of the results are discussed and future research and practical recommendations are made.

Key-words: qualitative study, coaches’ perceptions, self-talk, imagery, goal setting, relaxation

Introduction It is widely accepted that coaches recognize the importance of psychological preparation of their athletes and teams (Gould, Flett, & Bean, 2009; Leffingwell, Durand-Bush, Wurzberger, & Cada, 2005; Martin, 2005). Nevertheless, sometimes they forget to prepare themselves (Bloom, Durand- Bush, & Salmela, 1997). According to Bloom et al., in the earlier stages of coaches’ careers, the primary concern is preparing athletes for competition. However, as they gain experience they recognize the importance of spending as much time, if not more, preparing themselves. The social and economic framework of elite soccer exposes the coaches to high psychological pressure. Elite soccer coaches are usually subjected to constant public exposure of their decisions, permanent demand of sports outcomes and unpredictability of the competition, among other factors. According to Gould, Greenleaf, Guinan, and Chung (2002), coaches are often required to deal with difficult situations (e.g., selection, tactics, team and athlete performance – related issues, decision making) while also ensuring that their own psychological and emotional states remain optimal. Regarding psychological skills training (PST), Buceta (1998), revealed that the coach has a double function, stimulating interpersonal skills that positively influence the psychological preparation of their athletes, and regulating personal skills to optimize their own psychological state. According to Thelwell, Weston, Greenlees, and Hutchings (2008a), the coach could well be labeled a performer, however what is not known is the degree to which coaches uses PST to enable them to perform. The objective of PST is to assist sport participants to achieve performance success and personal well-being (Vealey, 2007). In PST it is possible to distinguish between psychological skills and psychological techniques (Vealey, 1988, 2007). PST consists of a systematic use of psychological techniques (e.g., goal setting, self-talk, imagery, and relaxation) in order to develop and enhance psychological skills (e.g., stress management, self-confidence, and concentration) (Burton & Raedeke, 2008; Vealey, 2007).

Goal setting, relaxation, imagery, and self-talk are the psychological techniques most referred to in literature as powerful tools to enhance the development of psychological skills and are usually developed in a combined process during PST programs (Andersen, 2000; McCarthy, Jones, Harwood, & Olivier, 2010; Vealey, 2007). Imagery, or the mental creation or re-creation of sensory experiences in the mind, is the most widely studied technique in the mental training literature (Morris, Spittle, & Watt, 2005; Vealey, 2007). Researchers have found positive effects of imagery on performance enhancement (Evans, Jones, & Mullen, 2004; Kossert, & Munroe-Chandler, 2007) and other psychological variables such as confidence (Callow, Hardy, & Hall, 2001; Hale & Whitehouse, 1998), motivation (Martin & Hall, 1995), attentional control (Calmels, Berthoumieux, & d’Arripe-Longueville, 2004), and coping with anxiety (Evans et al., 2004). Another technique popularly used in PST interventions is goal setting. In goal setting, individuals try to achieve a group of behavioural targets previously defined (Brewer, 2009). Goal setting is an extremely powerful technique for enhancing performance (Weinberg, & Gould, 2011). Physical activity goal research (Burton & Naylor, 2002; Burton, Naylor, & Holliday, 2001; Gould, 2006; Hall & Kerr, 2001) supported the effectiveness of goals in the sport domain. In a meta-analysis of sport goal research, Kyllo and Landers (1995) examined 36 studies and found that goal setting have a substantial influence on performance. Burton and Weiss (2008) recent sport goal setting review presented a similar conclusion. A third mental training technique studied in sport psychology is self-talk. According to Hardy (2006), self-talk should be defined as: “a) verbalizations or statements addressed to the self; b) multidimensional in nature; c) having interpretive elements association with the content of statements employed; d) is somewhat dynamic; and e) serving at least two functions; instructional and motivational” (p. 84). A number of intervention studies reflect the potential benefits of self-talk on sport performance (Hatzigeorgiadis, Zourbanos, Galanis, & Theodorakis, 2011; Johnson, Hrycaiko, Johnson, & Halas, 2004; Perkos, Theodorakis, & Chroni, 2002).

Finally, relaxation techniques require the ability to voluntarily decrease the amount of tension in muscles, calm the mind by keeping it productively occupied and decrease autonomic responses (e.g., heart rate, blood pressure) (Brewer, 2009). An extensive review by Greenspan and Feltz (1989) concluded that relaxation is effective in improving performance. Therefore, it is not surprising that many successful athletes use this specific technique to improve performance Although the previous four key psychological techniques have been extensively examined in athletes, as yet, little is known regarding the extent to which they are used by coaches for their own performance. To our knowledge, we could only identify one study focusing on this specific research topic. Thelwell et al. (2008a) conducted an exploratory investigation with 13 elite-level coaches to examine their use of self-talk, imagery, relaxation, and goal setting. Results indicated a more frequent use and greater number of purposes for using self-talk and imagery than relaxation and goal setting. While the aforementioned study offered a valuable insight into the psychological techniques used by coaches, a more detailed understanding in this area of research is necessary. In particular, on the imagery and self-talk content (what coaches say to themselves and what they imagine), as well as on the type of goals and relaxation strategies that they employed. Furthermore, the Thelwell et al. (2008a) study employed an elite mixed coach population (e.g., golf, sailing, cricket, gymnastics, rugby, athletics, soccer, and field hockey). With Thelwell et al. (2008a) suggesting that psychological techniques used might depend on the type of sport in question, research is necessary within a single-sport population. Elite soccer coaches were chosen for the focus of the study for several reasons. First, elite soccer coaches are the subject of much public interest and media attention in the world. Second, there is a certain degree of “mystique” surrounding the top level soccer coaches and the methods that they utilize in their coaching routines (Potrac, Jones, & Cushion, 2007). Therefore, the purpose of the current study was to examine and describe the Portuguese elite soccer coaches’ use (where, when, what, and why) of a

98 group of psychological techniques (self-talk, imagery, goal-setting, and relaxation) for their performance.

Method Participants A sample of 13 male professional “elite soccer” coaches composed this study. The coaches’ age ranged from 43 to 63 years (50.6 ± 5.8 years; mean ± SD) and their coaching experience ranged from 10 to 29 years. In accord with the recommendations of Patton (2002), purposive criteria sampling was employed to enhance the potential of “information rich” participants being included. The selection criteria required the coaches that currently work with elite-level athletes’ (Hanton, Fletcher, & Coughlan, 2005), to be employed by their respective governing bodies of sport (national squads) or by professional clubs (Thelwell, Weston, Greenlees, & Hutchings, 2008b), and have a minimum of ten years of soccer coaching experience (Bloom et al., 1997; Sedgwick, Côté, & Dowd, 1997). At the time of the interview, all the participants occupied head coach positions in Portuguese soccer league clubs. Furthermore, all of them had the license required by the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA Pro License) to manage a soccer club in the top level of the nation’s league, as well as, in the UEFA Champions league or UEFA European league.

The interview and procedures The participants were all initially contacted by telephone, informed of the nature of the investigation, and asked about if they would be willing to participate (all 13 coaches who were contacted agreed to participate). A time was arranged to meet each participant at a venue of his choosing. Nine of the interviews took place in the coaches’ offices before or after a training session and the remaining interviews were conducted in a hotel room (n=1) and coaches’ homes (n=3). The interviews were conducted face-to-face with all of the participants by the first author who had previous experience of working as a professional assistant coach in Portuguese premier league clubs and was

99 therefore familiar with the experiences and terminology used by the participants. Interviews were digitally recorded and lasted between 60 to 90 minutes. An interview-guide approach ensured that the same questions were asked of all participants while still allowing the interview to use probes as necessary (Patton, 2002). The guide was based on previous studies that have investigated psychological techniques used by athletes (Hardy, Gammage, & Hall, 2001; Munroe-Chandler, Giacobbi, Hall, & Weinberg, 2000; Munroe- Chandler, Hall, & Weinberg, 2004) and developed in accordance with the specific purposes of the current investigation. The interview guide consisted of six sections. The first section contained demographic information and other introductory comments. The second until the fifth section followed similar procedures but were focused on each psychological technique (i.e. section 2- self-talk; section 3- imagery; section 4- goal setting; and section 5- relaxation). Prior to each of these sections, participants were briefly clarified about the meaning of each psychological technique. Then, coaches were asked about the importance assigned to each psychological technique and its use. Areas of questioning were generated around topics such as, “where” (e.g., “Where do you use [psychological technique]?”), “when” (e.g., “In training, when do you use [psychological technique]?“), “what” (e.g., “Provide a description of your images (e.g., what are you seeing, hearing, feeling)?”; “Provide a description of your self-talk) and “why” (e.g., “What are the reasons for your use [psychological technique]?) each psychological technique was employed. The interview guide was pilot-tested with three professional Portuguese soccer assistant coaches, following which minor refinements to the guide were made. This process also served to improve the interviewer’s familiarity with the interview guide and the technical procedures of the interview, as well as to enhance interview skills (Nordin & Cumming, 2005).

Data analysis The data were analysed using hierarchical content data analysis procedures recommended by Patton (2002). The specific procedure adopted in the current study comprised the following steps:

100

1. The tapes were initially listened to and then the transcripts were read and reread by the first author until he was fully familiar with the content. 2. Raw data themes were identified from quotes, characterizing each participant’s responses within each area of the interview. 3. Data were appropriately coded 4. Both inductive and deductive content analysis was conducted to identify common themes from the lists of raw data obtained. Deductive analysis ensured that answers discussing specific content were related to the question being asked. Once content responses were matched to “appropriate questions”, inductive analysis was conducted. First, second and third-order subthemes established were labeled “higher order themes”, with the highest themes giving a general description of the experience labeled as “general dimensions”. 5. In order to control individual bias and ensure verifiability of the findings all the data were presented and discussed with another author to act as “devil´s advocate” (Marshall & Rossman, 1995). 6. To provide an ultimate validity check, the first author checked once more all the findings. 7. Frequency analysis was conducted to represent the number of each raw data themes citations and the number of coaches that referred each higher- order themes.

Results The inductive-deductive analysis exposed four general dimensions (self- talk, imagery, self-talk and relaxation) emerging from 161 raw data themes mentioned by the elite soccer coaches.

Self-talk The results of the current study showed that all of the participants employ some form of self-talk in their coaching roles. The self-talk dimension shows the coaches’ perspective on their use of self-talk, and included 63 raw data themes that emerged into three third-order subthemes: locations and time frame (where and when), content (what), and functions of self-talk (why) (Figure 1).

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The first third-order subtheme provides information about the locations and time frame of soccer coaches self-talk. The interviews revealed that soccer coaches employed self-talk at soccer related venues (e.g., “in the field”; “in dressing room”), as well as at non-soccer related venues (e.g. “home”; “car”). Participants also reported using self-talk before, during, and after both training and competition environments. In this context, it should be noted that the use of self-talk was predominant before and during the competition setting. With respect to the second third-order subtheme, content of self-talk, four second-order subthemes emerged: valence, structure, overtness and person. The first second-order subtheme referred to the valence of self-talk that is anchored with the bi-polar descriptors of positive and negative self-talk. The positive self-talk referred to encouragement or talk that one could be successful and was used by six of the participants. The following quotes provide some examples of positive self-talk used by some of the participants: “I believe we can do it”; “I know who I am and I am one of the best”. On the other hand, negative self-talk was self-critical or represented an inability to succeed and was cited by three participants. Negative self-talk used by the soccer coaches is exemplified in the next quotes: “why did I do that” or “this is too hard”. Four of the participants also stated that they used both positive and negative self-talk. The following quote shows this perspective: “I usually use positive self-talk, but sometimes I also use negative…it depends on the situation and the context, but generally I use the positive”. The second second-order subtheme, structure of self-talk, represented the manner in which expert soccer coaches talk to themselves. In this second order-subtheme, participants mentioned employing single cue words (e.g. “calm”, “focus” or “breathe”), phrases (e.g., we “can do it”, “let’s go” or “chance now”) and full sentences (e.g., “do not give up, maintain focused on the game”). The overtness second-order subtheme is concerned with how coaches’ self-statements are verbalized. Specifically, the overtness dimension related to whether the self-talk was overt (external) or covert (internal). According to three of the participants, self-talk was spoken out loud in a manner that allows another individual to hear what was said (overt). The following expression is

102 quite representative of this overt perspective: “Usually I talk to myself out loud it is something that comes out naturally of me”. On the other hand, six participants employed self-talk using a small voice inside one’s head, and so cannot be heard by another individual (covert). Also in this context it should be noted that three of the participants cited used both overt and covert perspectives. Finally, the last second-order subtheme is referred to the ‘person’ that soccer coaches talk to themselves. Participants reported talking to themselves in the first-person singular (i.e. I or me), in the second- person (i.e. you), as well as in the first-person plural (i.e. we). The final third-order subtheme, functions of self-talk, was comprised by the cognitive motivational function of self-talk. The cognitive function of self-talk, related the use of self-talk to enhance several coaching skills. For example, one of the most frequently cited use of cognitive function of self-talk was to provide effective feedback for the players and team, as illustrated in the following quote: “Many times I use this (self-talk) in order to improve the quality of the feedback that I send to my players and teams. So I use this to provide feedback more effectively”. Several participants also highlighted the use of self-talk in order to optimize their psychological state (motivational function), (e.g., reduce anxiety levels, enhance self-confidence, and motivation, to remain focused, to psych up, and coping with difficulties). The next quotation is quite representative of this last purpose: “I often talk to myself to overcome some difficulties that I face in my job”.

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Raw Data Themes First Order Second Order Third Order General subthemes subthemes subthemes Dim.

• Competition (n=13) • Training (n=11) Soccer • On the field (n=3) related • In dressing room (n=1) venues • In the (coaches) office (n=2) (n=13) Locations • In substitutes bench (n=2) (where) (n=13) Locations • At home (n=4) and times • In the car (n=2) Non soccer frame • Hotel room (n=1) related • Airplane (n=1) venues (n=6) (where • Team bus (n=1) and when) • Before practice (n=4) • During practice (n=9) Training Times frame • In half-time (n=2) (n=11) (when) • After practice (n=6) (n=13)

• Before the game (n=12) • During the game (n=10) Competition • After competition (n=2) (n=13)

• Used positive self-talk (n=6) (e.g., ”I believe we can do it”; ”Good job man!”;”I have to continue like this”) Valence • Used negative self-talk (n=3) (n=13) (e.g.,”Why did I do that”; ”Stupid mistake”; ”Why I did not substitute that player) • Both positive and negative self-talk

Self (n=4)

• Used single cue words (n=4) talk (e.g., ”Calm”; ”Focus”; ”Breath”; ”Relax”) • Used phrases (n=8)

(e.g.,“We can do it”; ”Let’s go”; “Change Structure now”) • Used full sentences (n=9) (n=13) (e.g., ”Relax, I need stay calm at the end Content of the game”; ”Not give up, maintain of focused”) self-talk (what) • It’s certainly internal (n=3) • I talk only for me no one can hear me Covert (n=1) self-talk • I do not share it with anyone (n=1) (n=6) • It is not pleasant talk to myself in out loud (n=1)

• Sometimes it is external (n=1) Overt Overtness (n=13) • Talk to my-self in out loud (n=1) self-talk • Sometimes those who are closed to me (n=3) can hear my self-talk (n=1)

• Switching internal and external Both covert perspectives (n=2) and overt • It’s usually internal but in some (n=3) moments unconsciously I talk in out loud (n=1)

• First singular person (“I”; “me”) (n=7) Person • Second singular person (“you”) (n=5) (n=13) • First plural person (“we”) (n=3)

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Figure1. continued

Raw Data Themes First Order Second Order Third Order General subthemes subthemes subthemes Dim.

• Provide demonstrations (n=2) • Provided better instructions and Execute and explanations (n=4) improve • Provided effective feedbacks (n=1) tecnhical • Analysed the competition and training sessions (n=1) skills (n=6) • Conducted effective observation (n=1) • Help to plan the training session (n=1)

• Elaborated team talk (n=3) Develop

• Help pre pared media speech (n=2) communuca- Enhance tion skills several (n=4) coaching skills

• Improve the team offensive process Improve (cognitive (n=1) team tactical function) • Improve the team defensive process factors (n=2) (n=1) (n=11) • Improve game model (n=1)

• To make substitutions in the game Execute (n=2) tactical • To make tactical changes in the game game (n=1) decisions • To “attack” the weakness of the opponent in game (n=1) (n=2)

Self Functions • To Reduce stress and anxiety (n=5) Stress of - • To calm my nerves (n=1) management self-talk Talk (n=6) (why)

• To maintain motivation (n=1) Enhance • To increase motivation (n=3) motivation (n=3)

• To increase self-confidence (n=2) Enhance • To maintain self-confidence (n=1) self- Regulate • To feel prepared (n=1) confidence personal (n=3) psychological skills (motivational • Stay focus on tasks (n=2) Focus • To clear my mind and concentrate in (n=2) function) team performance (n=1) (n=9)

• To work through difficult situations Cope with (n=1) difficulties • To dealing with adversity (n=1) (n=2)

• To get myself excited for the game Psyched up (n=1) (n=2) • To psych myself up (n=1)

Figure 1. Hierarchical structure of the self-talk general dimension

Note: The number following each raw data theme first and second order subthemes indicates the number of participants who reported them

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Imagery The interviews revealed that ten of the coaches highlighted employing imagery to improve their own performance. When these participants were asked about their use of imagery, 58 raw data themes were identified. This dimension emerged from three third-order subthemes: locations (where and when), content of imagery (what), and functions of imagery (why) (Figure 2). Participants of the current study indicated employing imagery in several soccer and non-soccer related venues. Soccer coaches also indicated using imagery more in conjunction with competition than training and more before competition than any other time frame. The content of soccer coaches’ imagery was categorized into the nature of imagery and types of imagery, second order-subthemes. The nature of imagery consisted of responses concerning positive and negative imagery. Several participants constantly offered descriptions of positive imagery. For example, one coach said:

Normally before the games I visualize my team having a good performance, to perform tactical movements that we trained, to make great plays and goals…Indeed I imagine a set of great team moments in order to boost my self-confidence to the game.

However, four coaches also expressed using negative imagery. One of them reported that it occurred unintentionally. The following quotation is quite representative of that:

I don´t use this (negative imagery) consciously, it isn’t something that I want to visualize, but sometimes I visualize negative pictures about my tactical decisions. For example, sometimes I imagine that my tactical decisions don’t run like I expected during the game

In this context, one of the interviewed coaches raised an interesting perspective regarding their use of negative images. This coach described using negative imagery in their coaching routines to help prevent possible tactical errors. The next comment expresses this perspective:

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The negative images help me to anticipate the action and prevent some tactical errors during the game. For example, after an opponent’s corner I imagine that they put the ball on the second post and these images serve to rectify some of my players positions in our defensive zone. Evidently the opposing team is thoroughly studied and most of the possible situations are trained in the week. However the game is unpredictable and sometimes small details of opposing players lead me to place negative images in my head, and like I said, it helps me to reposition some of my players.

Regarding the second-order subtheme, types of imagery, the coaches’ images tended to be multisensory, incorporating mainly visual but also kinesthetic and auditory senses. The following quotation is quite representative of the visual imagery: “For me the imagery translates into an internal vision of certain situations…it is like a film that runs inside my head”. The third-order subtheme, function of imagery, refers to why soccer coaches used imagery in their coaching routines. As in the case of self-talk, participants reported using imagery to enhance the performance of several coaching skills (cognitive function) and to optimize their psychological skills (motivational function). With reference to cognitive function, participants reported using imagery to execute and improve several technical skills, to improve team tactical factors, and to execute tactical game decisions. Regarding motivational functions, the interviews revealed that imagery was employed by the soccer coaches to manage stress, enhance motivation, self-confidence, to remain focused, to psych up and cope with difficulties.

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Raw Data Themes First Order Second Order Third Order General subthemes subthemes subthemes Dim.

• Competition (n=10) • Training (n=5) Soccer • On the field (n=4) related Locations • In dressing room (n=3) venues (where) • In the (coaches) office (n=1) • In substitutes bench (n=1) (n=10) (n=10) Locations • At home (n=3) Non soccer and times • In the car (n=3) related frame • Airplane (n=1) venues (n=5) (where • Team bus (n=1) and when) • Before practice (n=3) • During practice (n=1) Training • After practice (n=1) (n=5) Times frame (when)

• Before the game (n=9) Competition (n=10) • During the game (n=5) (n=10) • After competition (n=2)

• Visualize myself performing well (n=2) • Imagine that everything will be fine (n=2) • Picture nice places before the game Positive (n=1) • Imagine myself given the correct images feedbacks to the players (n=1) (n=9) • Visualize nice things before the game

(n=1) Nature • Imagine team positive outcomes (n=1) (n=10) • Imagine my team playing very well and making amazing tactical movements

(n=1) Imagery

• Visualize that tactical movements not Content of occurred as we would like (n=2) Negative imagery • It is not conscious but sometimes I images (what) picture negative team outcomes (n=1)

(n=4) • Sometimes I picture negative images to prevent possible tactical errors (n=1)

• Visual (n=6) • I see myself performing during the Visual game (n=1) (n=9) • It is like a movie into my mind (n=1) • It is like a screen TV (n=1) • Seeing several pictures in my mind (n=1) Type • A feel or a sensation of calm during Kinesthetic (n=10) some difficult situations (n=1) (n=2) • Sometimes I also feel my movements during the training session(n=1)

•Hearing the crowd (n=1) Auditory

(n=1)

• Provided effective feedbacks (n=4) ´ • Execute demonstrations (n=2) Enhance • Provided instructions and explanations Execute and several (n=1) improve coaching Functions • Help to plan the training session (n=1) • Detect personal technical errors (n=1) tecnhical skills of imagery • Analysed personal performance in skills (n=5) (cognitive (why) training and competition (n=1) function)

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Figure.2 continued

Raw Data Themes First Order Second Order Third Order General subthemes subthemes subthemes Dim.

• Improve the team offensive process (n=2) • Improve the team defensive process Improve (n=2) team tactical Enhance • Developed new offensive and defensive strategies (e.g. corners , free factors several kicks) (n=1) (n=4) coaching • Improve team’s tactical weakness skills (n=1) (cognitive

function)

• To explore the opposing team Execute (n=9) weakness (n=1) tactical • Make tactical critical decisions (n=2) game • Adapt to different game situations decisions (n=1) (n=3)

• Reduce stress and anxiety (n=3) Stress • To help control the anxiety (n=1) management Imagery

(n=4)

• Maintain motivation (n=1) Enhance • To motivated (n=2) motivation Functions

(n=3) of Regulate imagery

• To gain self-confidence (n=1 Enhance personal (why) • To elicit feelings of self-confidence self- psych. skills (n=1) confidence (motivational (n=2) function) (n=7)

• To remain focussed (n=1) Focus • To help maintain focus (n=1) (n=2)

• To help through difficult circumstances Cope with (n=1) difficulties • To overcome difficult situations (n=1) (n=2)

• To psyched myself up (n=1) Psyched up (n=1)

Figure 2. Hierarchical structure of the imagery general dimension

Goal-setting When the coaches were asked to discuss the goals they set for themselves, only six of the participants cited its use. The goal setting dimension, included 33 raw data themes that emerged into the following third- order subthemes: locations and time frames (where and when), types of goals (what), and purposes for setting goals (why) (Figure 3).

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Raw Data Themes First Order Second Order Third Order General subthemes subthemes subthemes Dim.

• Competition (n=6) Soccer • Training (n=4) related • In the (coaches) office (n=3) venues Locations • In dressing room (n=1) (n=6) (where) (n=6) • At home (n=3) Non soccer Locations • In the car (n=1) related and times venues frame (n=3) (where

and • Before practice (n=4) Training • During practice (n=1) Times frame when) (n=4) • After practice (n=3) (when)

(n=6) • Before the competition (n=6) Competition • During the game (n=4) (n=6)

• After competition (n=2)

• Outcome (team/ personal) goals (n=4) (e.g., ”win the league”; ”be the best Goal types coach in the league”) (n=6) • Performance (team/ personal) goals (n=6) Types of • Process goals (n=2) Goals (what) • Long –term goals (n=4) Goal • Medium term goals (n=2)

proximity Goal setting • Short-term goals (n=6) (n=6)

• Improve technical skills (n=1) Improve ´ • Benefitting communication (n=1) coaching tecnhical skills (n=2)

• Ensure personal motivation (n=4) Enhance Personal • To stay focused (n=1) personal p. development skills (n=4) (n=4)

• Improve themselves as coaches (n=1) Improve • Improve my overall performance (n=1) overall

performance (n=2) Purposes

• Increase team motivation (n=3) (why) Enhance • Maintain team motivation (n=1) team/players Team / p.skills (n=3) players • Improve the offensive process (n=1) Improve development • Improve the defensive process (n=1) team tactical (n=4) • Improve team tactical performance performance (n=1) (n=2)

• Provide direction for team (n=2) Provide • Provide direction for themselves (n=2) direction (n=3)

• Helping the players became successful Achieve (n=2) success • Achieve personal success (n=1) (n=2)

Figure 3. Hierarchical structure of the goal setting general dimension

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The interviews showed that the coaches set more competition than practice goals. In addition the participants expressed setting goals more before the competition than any other time frame. Although the soccer coaches of the current study employed outcome, performance and process goals in relation to their own coaching goals, the focus was most definitely on performance goals. However, one of the coaches noted that outcome goals are basically out of their control, so their focus was more on what they could control. The following quote depicts this perspective:

I use outcome goals and performance goals, but I prefer the last rather than the former…and why? Because the performance goals are more dependent on our own effort and work…I like to set goals related to my own performance as coach and goals related with the performance of my team.

With regard to the goal proximity second-order subtheme, coaches reported setting long-, medium-, and short–term goals, although the emphasis was clearly on the short-term goals. The focus on short-term goals tended to be practice to practice and competition to competition, depending on the specific needs of the team, as well as the different moments of the season. The next sentence expresses this perspective:

Usually, I set long and short goals, but no doubt that the emphasis goes to the short goals. As you know our profession is very unstable and consequently it is not easy to achieve long goals. So, I prefer to set short goals. I like to set goals constantly. Session by session and game by game I set and reformulate personal goals.

The third-order subtheme, goal purpose, describes the reasons for soccer coaches setting personal goals and was abstracted into four second- order subthemes: personal development, team/players development, provide direction and achieve success. Regarding the first second-order subtheme, personal development, coaches revealed setting goals to improve their technical skills, to enhance

111 several personal psychological skills and to improve their overall performance. With reference to the enhancement of several personal psychological skills, first-order subtheme, four coaches mentioned employing goal-setting to ensure personal motivation, as illustrated in the next sentence.

The goals that I establish for myself serve to keep me constantly motivated…the goals serve to remind me where I want to be and what I’ve done to get here and this gives me the motivation to continue my work

Goal setting was also employed by some coaches to develop their players and teams. In this context, some coaches revealed using setting goals to increase the players and team motivation, and to improve tactical team performance (e.g., improve offensive and defensive process). Additional purposes for soccer coaches setting personal goals were to provide direction for themselves and their teams, as well as to achieve personal success and help their players to succeed. The latter reason is explained in more detail in the following quote: “I also set personal goals to help my players succeed...help them to go to the national team, to win individual titles, to go to big clubs, because when that happens you are doing good work”.

Relaxation Relaxation was the least employed technique with only two soccer coaches citing its use. This dimension only contained seven raw data themes abstracted into the following three third-order subthemes: locations and time frame (where and when), types of relaxation strategies, and purposes for using relaxation. Unlike the previous psychological techniques, relaxation was only employed before (n=2) the competition. In addition, the two coaches used relaxation only in the form of breathing exercises (n=2). Results also revealed that relaxation was used by the coaches to stay focused (n=1) and to reduce anxiety levels (n=2). With reference to this last purpose, the following quotation suggests why relaxation is beneficial: “I used exercises for breathing control, to help me to reduce the stress and tension before the game because as you

112 know during the competition period a leader must have a calm and serene image”.

Discussion The purpose of the current study was to examine the use of four psychological techniques (i.e. self-talk, imagery, goal-setting, and relaxation) by elite soccer coaches for their performance. Globally, participants reported a more frequent use of self-talk and imagery than goal-setting and relaxation. These findings are not surprising because both techniques (self-talk and imagery) “enable individuals to interpret feelings and perceptions, regulate and change their evaluations, and give themselves instructions and reinforcement” (Thelwell et al., 2008a, p. 49). An interesting finding revealed by the interviews was that the majority of the coaches mentioned using psychological techniques more frequently before the competition and, in general, more in conjunction with competition than practice. This finding can explain how crucial the time prior to competition is for coach performance preparation. Moreover, it should be noted that before the game, and in particular during the warm up of the team, the soccer head coach is not directly involved in any activity and, consequently, he has more opportunities to use psychological techniques to prepare himself for the competition. This is a possible explanation. However it is also very likely that coaches remember more the use of these techniques in crucial situations, as compared to, emotionally speaking, irrelevant situations. For example, it could be possible that coaches often use psychological techniques sitting alone in their office preparing for practice or competition. In regard to this issue, it should be kept in mind that not the actual use of psychological techniques was studied in the current study, but the coaches’ perceptions of its use. During the interviews the participants provided extensive information about their use of self-talk and it was clear that they believed that this psychological technique served valuable roles in their coaching routines. With regard to the content (what coaches said to themselves), the findings of the present study suggested some potential dimensions for soccer

113 coaches self-talk. They also support previous findings in the athlete self-talk literature. Most of the soccer coaches self-talk was positive and covert, that lends support to Hardy, Hall, and Hardy (2005, Study 2) quantitative study with recreational volleyball players, as well as to Van Raalte et al., (1994) proposal. These last authors suggested that positive self-talk might be more likely to be internalized by the individual than the negative self-talk. Although most of soccer coaches’ self-talk is positive and covert it seems clear that in certain circumstances their self-talk were also negative and covert. In line with this finding, several researchers suggested that negative (Hardy et al., 2001) and covert (Vygotsky, 1986) occurs more in demanding and challenging situations (e.g., highly stressful situations or when under pressure). Another aspect of the content of soccer coaches’ self-talk that emerged in the present study was the structure dimension. Participants reported that they talked to themselves using short phrases and complete sentences with approximately the same frequency. This finding seems to make some intuitive sense. For example, when soccer coaches are providing demonstration, instruction or feedback it may be more efficient to use short phrases. On the other hand, when they are planning or conduct analyzes and observation it may be more useful to use complete sentences. Finally the present study extends previous findings regarding the person dimension of the self-talk content. In contrast to the athletes (Hardy et al., 2001) and exercisers (Gammage, Hardy, & Hall, 2001), participants of the current study tended to talk to themselves not only in the first and second-person singular but also in the first-person plural. One possible explanation for this finding may have been due to the coaches’ performance is directly linked to their team performance. Regarding to the functions of self-talk (why), results revealed that soccer coaches used both motivational and cognitive functions which is consistent with the previous findings in the athletes’ self-talk literature (Hardy et al., 2001). It must be noted that soccer coaches reported using cognitive functions slightly more than motivational ones. By contrast, athletes’ self-talk (Hardy et al., 2001) has been shown to be used most frequently for motivational purposes. One

114 possible explanation for these differences is that athletes usually have already acquired most of the skills and strategies of their sport and consequently they make greater use of motivational self-talk functions. On the other hand, soccer coaches used self-talk not only to maximize their psychological state (motivational functions) but mainly to enhance the performance of several coaching skills (which in turn improve their interventions with players and teams). This finding is not surprising because “the most obvious task of the coach is to help athletes and teams to perform their full potential” (Côté, Salmela, & Russell, 1995, p. 76). The present study indicated that self-talk was used by the coaches for the development and execution of several coaching skills. Future research should explore both functions in more depth, as well as examine more fully their effectiveness of coach’s performance. Data also showed that the motivational function was mentioned less frequently than the cognitive one. However it is important to highlight that the motivational function seems to be relevant for the coach performance and also deserves further investigation. An additional finding for the motivational function was the larger number of coaches that reported using self-talk to reduce stress and anxiety. The high psychological pressure that the soccer coach is constantly subject (by the media, fans, directors…) may be the basis of this result. Results of the current study clearly indicate that participants used self- talk in their coaching process. However, what is not known is whether they use self-talk as effectively as possible and this warrants further examination. Therefore, future research should examine the effectiveness of the content, cognitive and motivational self-talk functions on soccer coach performance. Quantitative and experimental studies will certainly provide valuable information for sport psychologists to develop more effective and specific self-talk interventions among soccer coaches. The current study also provided insight into the content of coaches’ images in their coaching routines. Results of our study showed that the coaches’ images tend to be more positive rather than negative. Several researches (Powell, 1973; Woolfolk, Parrish, & Murphy, 1985), showed that the

115 use of positive imagery enhances athletes’ sport performance. Presumably, the use of positive imagery by soccer coaches can provide a similar benefit (i.e. enhance the performance of the coach / enhance coaching effectiveness). Future research should be conducted to confirm this hypothesis. Although the majority of imagery described by the soccer coaches was positive, it should be noted that the use of negative imagery was also reported by some of the participants. At this context, one coach mentioned that the negative images during the competition can serve to prevent possible bad tactical decisions. Although the athletes’ imagery literature revealed that negative imagery can have a damaging influence on performance (Woolfolk et al., 1985), our results suggested that this type of imagery might play an important role in competition coaching routines. Another interesting aspect of imagery content that emerged in the present study was that the majority of the participants reported using visual imagery more than any other type (e.g., kinesthetic, auditory). This finding was not surprising, since as Jedlic, Hall, Munroe-Chandler, and Hall (2007) stated, vision is the dominant sense in imagery. Several researches, however have noted the potential importance of kinesthetic imagery (Hall & Erffmeyer, 1983; Mumford & Hall, 1985). In line with this, some of the participants of our study highlighted the use of this type of imagery. While soccer coaches reported making use of visual, kinesthetic and auditory imagery, there is no evidence of its effectiveness in the performance of the coach. Future examination of how these types of imagery might influence the performance of the soccer coach is certainly warranted. With respect to the functions (why) of imagery, the findings of our analysis seem to suggest that this psychological technique was used by coaches for many of the same (cognitive and motivational) reasons that they use self-talk. Similarly to self-talk, most of the participants expressed using imagery to regulate their anxiety levels. This finding may be connected with the predominant use of both techniques after competition pointed out by participants. Coaches may experience feelings such as anxiety, nervousness,

116 and doubt immediately prior to competitions, and therefore, may benefit greatly from this specific function of both self-talk and imagery. In the athletes’ imagery (Munroe-Chandler et al., 2000) and self-talk (Hardy et al., 2001) literature, it was proposed that in order to gain the greatest benefit from their imagery or self-talk interventions, consultants should match the function of imagery/self-talk being used with the desired outcome. For example, if athletes want to improve their self-confidence it would be best for them to make use of motivational mastery imagery or motivational mastery self- talk, respectively. In addition, Hardy et al., (2001) suggested that greater benefits may be realized if the athlete were to use motivational mastery imagery in combination with motivational mastery self-talk. We believe the same is true for the interventions with soccer coaches. Thus, encouraging soccer coaches to use imagery and self-talk in combination would seem to be a logical approach. The findings relating to goal setting showed that less than half of the sample to cited its use. A marked reduction was also seen in the number of purposes for which coaches use goal setting compared with self-talk and imagery. Our findings need to be carefully analyzed because the coaches of the current study were only required to discuss the goals that they set for themselves, which meant that there was a limit on the focus on teams and athlete-related goals. Results of our analysis also revealed that the most frequent reasons given for coaches setting personal coaching goals was to provide direction and to increase/maintain personal motivation. Burton and Raedeke (2008) considered these purposes as some of the major mechanisms by which goals operate. Regarding the type of goals, results revealed that coaches used outcome, performance and process goals. Although cases can be made to focus on one type of goal or another, all three types of goals can be effective in enhancing performance and have a positive effect on behavior (Weinberg & Butt, 2011). Along these lines, Weinberg, Harmison, Rosenkranz, and Hookom (2005) stated that process and performance goals require the development of skills and strategies necessary to achieve outcome measures.

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Also in this context, Kingston and Hardy (1997) found that focusing on process goals not only led to enhanced performance, but also improved psychological factors such as concentration, cognitive anxiety control and self- efficacy. It is encouraging to see that soccer coaches are including the three types of goals; however, Kingston and Hardy (1997) noted the best mix of process, performance and outcome goals for maximum effectiveness needs to be determined. The findings relating to goal setting also revealed that coaches set long-, medium-, and short-term goals. This is a very important procedure because having specific goals through the sports season is one of the most powerful to increase performance (Porter, 2003). Finally, our findings showed a clear underuse of relaxation techniques. This may be considered a fact for concern, since the literature reported several benefits from relaxation, such as the ability to cope with the pressure of competition, particularly at the highest levels (Hanton, Thomas, & Mellalieu, 2009). A possible explanation for this fact can be assumed by the lack of knowledge of the full range of relaxation-based strategies, as well as by the lack of collaboration with sport psychologists. Although there are a variety of strategies to help subjects to relax (e.g., diaphragmic breathing, progressive muscular relaxation and self-directed relaxation) (Burton & Raedeke, 2008), controlled breathing for relaxation was the only method mentioned by the two coaches that employed relaxation in their routines. This finding was not surprising, because controlled breathing for relaxation is partially a natural innate technique (Caruso, 2004). Nevertheless, it should be noted that the present study examined the coaches’ perceptions and not the actual use of psychological techniques. In this sense, it is possible that coaches use relaxation in some way even they did not report its use consciously.

Conclusion The present study revealed that elite Portuguese soccer coaches had a more frequent use and greater number of reasons for using self-talk and

118 imagery than goal setting. On the other hand, participants mentioned a lesser use of relaxation. Another important finding was that the soccer coaches reported to use the psychological techniques more in conjunction with competition than practice. Moreover, the present study pointed out valuable information about the content and function of self-talk and imagery used by the coaches, as well as the type of goals that they set for themselves. Due to the lack of studies examining the efficacy of psychological techniques on soccer coaches’ performance, it would be inappropriate to draw firm implications from the findings. Nevertheless, we contend that before examining this issue (i.e. techniques-performance link in the coaches) it is necessary to examine whether psychological techniques use is evident, as well as where, when, why and how these techniques are used. In this sense, the data of the current study provides an important step. Future research should now examine the efficacy of the psychological techniques on soccer coaches’ performance. For practitioners the data of this study may serve as a useful tool for developing more specific and effective psychological interventions. For example, knowing the psychological techniques used by the Portuguese soccer coaches, the sport psychologist might be able to develop more specific interventions for the coaches with whom they work.

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Paper V

Psychological skills training in Portuguese premier soccer league: Players’ perspectives and experiences 5

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Abstract The aim of the present study was to examine soccer players’ perspectives and experiences regarding psychological skills training (PST). Semi structured, in- depth, qualitative interviews were conducted with 16 players from elite Portuguese premier league soccer teams that played regularly in UEFA champions and Europe Leagues. Results indicated that participants highlighted the importance of PST (n=16) and showed receptivity to PST interventions (n=13). Nevertheless more than half of the sample (n=12) mentioned a complete lack of PST interventions. A list of barriers to PST was elicited in the present study and included the lack of sport psychologists available in soccer, the mentality and culture of some soccer administrators and coaches, the lack of PST knowledge of players and coaches, the lack of soccer knowledge on the part of the psychologists, and negative players’ perceptions of PST. Potential practical implications and suggestions for future PST research applied to soccer are provided.

Key-words: psychological skills training, soccer, elite, players, interviews, qualitative .

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Introduction Currently the importance of psychological skills training (PST) in the development of sport performance is widely recognized (Birrer & Morgan, 2010; Côté, Salmela, & Russell, 1995; Gould, Guinan, Greenleaf, Medbery, & Peterson, 1999; Gould, Medbery, Damarjian, & Lauer, 1999; Thiese & Hudleston, 1999). To be able to perform well in sports, not only intense physical training but also PST is required (Gould, Damarjian, & Medbery, 1999). Therefore it is not surprising that recently, the PST research applied to soccer has received considerable attention. Several scientific articles have been published supporting the positive influence of PST on soccer-based performance (e.g., Johnson, Hrycaiko, Johnson, & Halas, 2004; Munroe- Chandler, Hall, Fishburne, Murphy, & Hall, 2012; Thelwell, Greenlees, & Weston, 2006, 2010). For example, Thelwell et al., (2010) examined the effects of a PST intervention comprising self-talk, relaxation and imagery, on three performance subcomponents (passing, first touch and tackling) during different stages of competition. The results showed the intervention to be effective in enhancing performance in the second half of the performance for all participants in at least two of the performance subcomponents. Consequently, some evidence suggesting that PST intervention affects performance in differing ways throughout competition was highlighted. Despite the steady growth of PST research applied to soccer, it is important to point out that the majority of the studies have been primarily limited to experimental methods (that examined the efficacy of PST on performance). To date, relatively little is known about soccer players’ perspectives concerning the PST process. This gap in research was also emphasized by Pain and Harwood (2004) that reported the need to examine the soccer players’ knowledge and perspectives of applied PST interventions. Understanding the soccer players’ perspectives on this issue will provide useful insight into the current state of PST in soccer, as well as valuable information for practitioners (i.e., sport psychologists and coaches). According to the soccer players’ attitudes toward PST intervention the practitioners can select the most effective way to conduct this kind of intervention. Leffingwell, Durand-Bush, Wurzberger,

124 and Cada (2005) highlighted the importance of being aware of an athletes’ openness to PST interventions in order to help practitioners decide the best direction for intervention. In line with this, Bull (1991) suggested that athletes’ motivations, beliefs and behaviors regarding PST must be addressed in order to increase the number of athletes who adhere to PST programs. An important direction for PST evaluation pointed out by Vealey (1988) was the utilization of qualitative methods as an alternative to the traditional quantitative methods. The use of interviews, for example, provides the researcher with more holistic and contextualized knowledge about the problem and producing relevant information which is not always provided by other assessment methods (Valles, 1999). As Vealey (1988) noted, “information such as this can facilitate the development of salient and appropriate PST approaches that truly meet the needs of athletes” (p. 332). Given the above, the general purpose of the current study was to explore the perspectives and experiences of elite Portuguese soccer players regarding PST process. More specifically, we aimed to examine the players’ perspectives about the importance assigned to PST, as well as their receptiveness and personal experiences with PST interventions.

Method Participants Sixteen professional Portuguese elite soccer players participated in this study. At the time of the interview all of them were playing for Portuguese premier league teams that competed in UEFA champions or Europe League. Six of the participants were also playing for the Portuguese national soccer team, which were among the strongest in the world (ranked in the top ten on the official FIFA list). The sample included two goalkeepers, four defenders, five midfielders and five attackers. All the participants were male, ranging in age from 23 to 34 years.

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Instrument The data were collected from a semi-structured interview with open- ended questions developed in accordance with the purposes of the current study. The interview guide consisted of three sections: (i) introduction, (ii) PST questions (main body of the interview), and (iii) final considerations. Within the introduction, the research explained the purpose of the study and the structure of the interview. This section also aimed to establish rapport with the participants. The questions of the second section explore the importance assigned to psychological skills on soccer players performance (e.g., What is your opinion about the importance of PST for soccer players?; Which psychological skills do you considered most important for soccer players?) and the perceptions and experience with PST intervention (e.g., Have you ever received an PST intervention?; Are you receptive to this type of intervention?). Finally, participants were invited to complete or add information to their responses to the interview questions or to other conversation topics that they considered relevant to the purposes to this study. Three pilot interviews with three male non-professional soccer players were used to refine the interview guide.

Procedures The first author conducted all of the interviews face-to-face. This author had previous experience as assistant coach in Portuguese premier league soccer teams and was therefore familiar with the history, experiences, and terminology used by participants. According to Lincoln and Guba (1985) this was one method of ensuring the trustworthiness of the data collection. The interviews were conducted in the clubs’ facilities (after and before the training sessiona; n=10), in players’ homes (n=4), and at hotel rooms (n=2). Each participant gave their consent to have the interview recorded and confidentiality was assured. The interviews lasted 45 to 75 minutes.

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Data analysis Soccer players’ interviews were tape-recorded, transcribed and content analysed using the procedures recommended by Patton (2002) for inductive- deductive content analysis. The process involves organizing raw data into meaningful themes and categories that emerged from the quotations. In the current study, the first author achieved this by clustering quotes around underlying uniformities from which first-order subthemes then emerged. Common second-order subthemes were then identified and the hierarchical induction continued until it was no longer possible to create a new level of thematic representation (Patton, 2002). The highest level of themes was labelled as general dimensions. In order to control individual bias and ensure verifiability of the findings, all the data were presented and discussed with another author (trained in qualitative research) that acted as “devil’s advocate” (Marshall & Rossman, 1995). The findings were analysed and questions were raised about the researchers’ interpretations. After discussion, all the comments were clarified, changes were made as appropriate, and a final consensus was reached. Finally, the first author re-read again the interview transcripts while comparing them and validating them against the first-order, second-order subthemes and general dimensions, ensuring that research questions were being answered and no relevant data had been inadvertently excluded or irrelevant data included.

Results The inductive-deductive analysis pointed out two general dimensions emerging from 38 raw data themes mentioned by the elite soccer players. The dimensions were abstracted from six second-order subthemes and these from nine first-order subthemes. The general dimensions are represented in Figures 1-2.

Importance of PST for soccer players This dimension concerned the participants’ perspectives about the importance assigned to PST in soccer. Twenty-three raw data themes

127 comprised this first dimension and three second-order subthemes were used to define it (Figure 1). The first second-order subtheme, importance of PST, enumerated the reasons why participants considered PST important for soccer players. All the participants were unanimous in recognizing the important role of PST, specifically as one of the most important factors of performance and crucial for elite soccer players. The next comment expressed this specific view:

In my opinion the training of psychological skills is crucial for any elite soccer player. Evidently the physical, technical, and tactical preparation is also relevant, but for me the psychological factor is undoubtedly the one that makes the difference at the highest level.

With respect to the second-order subtheme, five of the soccer players considered that PST has a positive impact on soccer performance. Two participants also revealed that a lack of psychological preparation has a negative impact on soccer players’ performance, decreasing the expected outcome. The following quote clearly show this perspective:

If you are not well prepared psychologically you cannot have a good performance, it is impossible. Even if you are a player of excellence, if you are bad psychologically you will fail. At this level we can never fail and consequently we always need to be well prepared psychologically.

The last second-order subtheme, enumerated the psychological skills that participants considered most important for soccer players performance such as concentration, self-confidence, motivation, stress management, and emotions management. Also in this second-order subtheme, some participants mentioned a range of psychological attributes (e.g., responsibility, spirit of sacrifice). It should be noted, however that only three of the soccer players mentioned the importance of some psychological techniques (e.g., self-talk, goal setting).

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Raw Data Themes First Order Second Order General subthemes subthemes Dimension

• Very important (n=8)

•One of the multi-factors of performance (n=4) Importance •Crucial to elite soccer players (n=4) of PST •Permit get to the top (n=1) (n=16) •Helps stay at the top (n=1)

•Distinguish the best players (n=1)

•Usually had a positive influence (n=1) Positive •Improve performance (n=1) impact

•Helps to achieve high level results (n=5) (n=2)

•Permit beat better opponents (n=1) Impact on

Performance •A lack of psychological preparation (n=6) have a negative impact on Negative Importance performance (n=1) impact of PST

• When I’m not psychological (n=2) for soccer prepared all things go bad (n=1) players

•Concentration (n=7)

•Self-confidence (n=6) Psychological

•Motivation (n=3) skills

(n=11) •Stress management (n=3)

•Emotions management (n=1) Curcial

psychological

•Responsibility (n=2) Psychological skills/

•Spirit of sacrifice (n=1) attributes tecnhiques

•Manage to success (n=1) (n=5) (n=16)

•Passion (n=1)

•Self-talk (n=2) P. techniques

•Goal setting (n=1) (n=3)

Figure 1. Soccer players’ perspectives about the importance of PST

Note: The number following each raw data theme first and second order subthemes indicates the number of participants who reported them

PST Interventions Fifteen raw data themes were included in the second dimension, which highlighted the participants’ perspectives and experiences regarding the PST interventions. This dimension was comprised of three second-order subthemes: personal experiences with PST intervention, receptiveness to PST intervention and barriers to PST intervention (Figure 2).

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Raw Data Themes First Order Second Order General subthemes subthemes Dimension

•Sporadic intervention (n=1)

•Not appropriate intervention (n=2) Contact

(n=4) •Application of some psychological Previous techniques (n=1) experience

with PST

•Never had psychological intervention interventions (n=12) No contact (n=16) (n=12)

• Never worked with SPs (n=2)

•Receptive to PST interventions (n=13) Receptive Receptiveness (n=13) to PST interventions •Not receptive to PST interventions Not receptive (n=3) (n=3) (n=16) PST

interventions

•Lack of SPs available in soccer (n=7)

•Mentality / culture of soccer administers and coaches (n=4)

•Coaches’ lack of PST knowledge (n=4) Barriers to •Players’ lack of PST Knowledge (n=3) PST

•Lack of specific-sport knowledge by Interventions the SPs (n=3) (n=16)

• Don’t have psychological weakness (n=1)

• Successful psychological characteristics (n=1)

•To old to change routines (n=1)

Figure 2. Soccer players’ perspectives and experiences regarding PST interventions

Regarding the previous experiences with PST intervention the majority of the participants had never experienced any kind of intervention. Four players mentioned to having some previous experience with PST intervention, however they considered it not appropriate or not systematic. One of these participants explained that he had previous contact with a sport psychologist who applied some psychological techniques to assist him. However, this participant considered the intervention unhelpful because he only had access to this in the pre-season. The following quote depict this perspective:

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In one of the several clubs that I played I had a PST intervention during the pre-season. The psychologist gave me a personal interview and some questionnaires to fill out. He also taught me some techniques to reduce stress, anxiety and to maintain focus. However, we only had two or three sessions in the pre-season. Honestly I think that this type of intervention was not very effective.

When the soccer players were asked about their receptiveness to PST interventions, 13 participants showed receptiveness to this type of intervention. On the other hand, three participants were not receptive to PST interventions and expressed some ideas that can be considered barriers to this intervention. Two participants believed that they did not have psychological weakness. Another participant mentioned that he is too old to change his routine. The next quote summarizes this idea:

I’m not very receptive to this (PST intervention). I’m nearly finishing my career and so I’m not very receptive to changing my old routines. I have my own strategies that allow me to prepare psychologically for the competition. I have used these strategies for a long time and I feel very comfortable with them. Honestly I’m not receptive to this or other type of psychological intervention because I do not need it … maybe when I began my career, but not now.

Finally, the participants who are receptive to PST interventions also identified some barriers to this kind of intervention in soccer. According to these participants the lack of sport psychologists available in soccer clubs and technical staff, the lack of PST knowledge of soccer players and coaches, and the mentality of some soccer administrators and coaches were some of the most significant barriers. Three soccer players also identified the lack of specific-sport knowledge by the sport psychologists as a barrier to PST interventions. For example, one soccer player said:

In my opinion the lack of specific soccer knowledge by the psychologists is one of the most important reasons why they are not working in soccer.

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I think that the psychologists can only help us if they understand soccer. It's like the physical trainer, if he does not understand anything about soccer he can’t prepare us because the players need to be prepared to play soccer and not only running. So for me this argument is also valid for the psychologists.

Discussion The purpose of the current study was to examine the PST perspectives and experiences of players from elite Portuguese soccer teams. The sample was unanimous in recognizing the important role of PST in soccer. This perspective could be valuable because literature revealed that success in professional sports requires not only physical and tactical preparation but also PST (Cox & Yoo, 1995). Similarly, Gardner and Moore (2006) mentioned that the systematic and purposeful application of PST can make an important contribution in elite sport. In addition some of our participants stressed the idea that PST had a positive impact on their performance, that is consistent with several PST researches applied to soccer (e.g., Johnson et al., 2004; Munroe- Chandler et al., 2012; Thelwell et al., 2006, 2010). When asked about the most crucial specific psychological skills for soccer players’ performance, our sample pointed toward dominance of self- confidence and concentration skills. This finding is not totally surprising because both psychological skills are often addressed in sport psychology literature. Several studies supported that the optimization of self-confidence and the ability to concentrate are key psychological skills to successful performance in elite sport (Durand-Bush & Salmela, 2002; Kitsantas & Zimmerman, 2002). At this level it is important to note that both these skills were often elicited in soccer media by some of the best soccer players in the world. For example, in a media interview after an important game, Lionel Messi stated the following: “I’m very confident. I think that the goals are linked with confidence. Now it seems that all the balls get in and that makes it easier to score goals” (“Marca”, 2007, para.1). In a similar pre-game media interview, Cristiano Ronaldo reported that “this is a very important game for us and I will certainly be focusing and I will help the team” (“Marca”, 2013, para.2). Despite the recognized importance of these

132 skills, few studies investigated the specific strategies that soccer players used to enhance the both skills (i.e. concentration and self-confidence). Thus, future research can and should explore these issues. According to Vealey (2007) it seems important to identify key psychological skills that are related to the performance success to guide the development of PST interventions. Therefore the set of psychological skills highlighted in the current study can and should be considered as a relevant indicator for the development of more effective and specific PST interventions among elite soccer players. However, in order for this support to be as effective and specific as possible, future research should explore the key psychological skills according to the soccer players’ gender, age and position in the field (e.g., goalkeepers, defenders, midfielders and attackers). Recent advances in the PST literature applied to soccer has seen an increase in the number of experimental studies supporting the positive influence of PST on soccer player’s performance (e.g., Johnson et al., 2004; Munroe- Chandler et al., 2012; Thelwell et al., 2006, 2010). However most of the participants (n=12) revealed a complete lack of PST interventions during their careers and even the four players who reported previous PST interventions experiences did not considerate it as appropriate. Since the sport psychology literature has supported that optimal athletes’ performance requires a systematic, appropriate and effective PST intervention (Morris, Spittle, & Watt, 2005; Vealey, 2007), it seems to be important to increase the adherence of elite soccer players to this type of intervention. If Portuguese elite soccer players have more opportunities to engage in formal PST their performance may be improved. According to Leffingwell, Rider, and Williams (2001) athletes may perceive potential gains and losses in pursuing PST and the latter may adversely impact athletes’ motivations and behavior regarding a PST intervention. Although some of the participants (n=3) expressed disinterest and reluctance to PST interventions, most of them (n=13) showed interest and receptiveness to PST interventions.

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Therefore we are faced with a paradox. If the majority of the elite soccer players are receptive to PST interventions, why did most of them not have access to such interventions during their careers? Results of our study describe a variety of roadblocks to PST highlighted by the twelve participants that showed receptiveness to PST interventions. A lack of sport psychologists available in soccer clubs and technical staff was cited as the most significant barrier among this group of participants. This finding is not totally surprising because sport psychologists in Portuguese professional soccer are the exception and not the rule (Fonseca, 2004). In order to increase and improve the quality of psychological services in soccer, it was recommended that a higher number of sport psychologists should be incorporated into the professional clubs. For Weinberg and Gould (2011) PST should be planned, implemented, and supervised by a qualified sport psychologist consultant. The inclusion of these experts in professional Portuguese soccer may also serve to educate the soccer players and coaches in the PST concepts and consequently to overcome other barriers elicited in this study, specifically, the lack of PST knowledge of both practitioners (players and coaches). However, some of the soccer coaches and administrators do not fully accept the integration of these experts in soccer. According to some participants the mentality / culture of soccer coaches’ administrators was considered a barrier that sport psychologists face to entry in soccer. In line with this, previous research showed that PST concepts are often not fully accepted or understood by professional sports organizations (Ravizza, 1990). In this sense, the investment in the psychological education of soccer coaches and administrators on the benefits of psychological interventions can be an important step in the changing of their “mentality / culture”. In order to increase the awareness and application of sport psychology within professional clubs, youth academies and national squads, the Football Association (FA) of England has introduced its ‘Psychology for Football’ strategy. A range of courses aimed at coaches, players and support staff has been developed to educate these groups in the concepts of sport psychology and, importantly, to unite them with practicing sport psychologists (see Pain & Harwood, 2004). Therefore, the FA of

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England strategy can be seen as an example of good practice of sport psychology that Portugal should follow. Another barrier highlighted by some of the participants was the lack of sport-specific knowledge on the part of the sport psychologists. According to Pain and Harwood (2004) the sport-specific knowledge was essential for working effectively with coaches and athletes. Therefore it is important that sport psychologists increase their knowledge of soccer and focusing more on soccer-specific psychological skills and strategies. This is a very important issue because poor PST interventions experienced by soccer players and coaches may itself favor erroneous preconceptions. The participants (n=3) that expressed disinterest and reluctance to PST interventions, pointed out several misconceptions about PST. Specifically, one of the participants considered himself too old to benefit from a PST intervention. According to several authors (see Burton & Raedeke, 2008; Weinberg & Gould, 2011), this argument integrates some of the myths that can negatively interfere in the adherence of athletes to PST programs. Indeed, Asken (1991) stated that PST interventions can benefit all the athletes and psychological concerns cannot be neglected based on the athletes’ age. In order to overcome this roadblock, Burton and Raedeke (2008) highlighted the importance of introducing PST programs in the beginning of athletes’ sports careers to enhance personal growth and performance. Other participants reported satisfaction with their psychological performance and consequently they did not require PST interventions. These participants believed that the PST interventions were only for problems and weak players, and that strong players would not benefit. Once more these perspectives are in line with the PST misconceptions mentioned in several studies (Orlick & Partington, 1987; Pain & Harwood, 2004). Therefore, it seems important to inform these players about the nature of PST process. It is relevant to highlight that PST programs are important not only for soccer players who admitted having psychological weakness, but also for those who consider themselves having “strong” minds. PST interventions can be seen as a preventive tool that will act before psychological problems appear. In addition, it can work as an advantageous

135 process to empower athletes already psychologically gifted, helping them to achieve even better results and to perform consistently. The previous misconceptions about PST pointed out by some of the participants show the need for an educational and constructive perspective for these players before a PST intervention. Weinberg and Gould (2011) presented a three-phase approach for PST programs: (i) education phase, (ii) acquisition phase, and (iii) practice phase. The first phase of the program is fully dedicated to educating athletes on the importance of PST interventions and to raising awareness of the role of psychological skills in sports. Leffingwell et al., (2001) mentioned that when applied sport psychologists approach a team they do not have clear notions about the athletes’ receptiveness to PST interventions. Therefore the previous finding can represent a useful tool for the practitioners’ interventions with Portuguese elite soccer players. Using the information pointed out in the current study, practitioners can deduce that although the majority of the elite soccer players may be interested in integrating PST programs to enhance their performance, some of them are still reluctant with this type of intervention. Consequently practitioners should outline an individualized intervention according to the adherence level of each player. For example, for the players who are open and receptive to a PST intervention, a more behavioural approach (i.e. application of psychological strategies and techniques) should be conducted, while a more cognitive and educational approach is advisable for the reluctant players.

Conclusion The present study provided relevant information regarding the level of development of PST among elite Portuguese soccer players. The findings highlight the need to increase the number of opportunities for elite Portuguese soccer players to receive PST interventions. In a professional sport, where there is not a single game or even a single move in which the psychological factors are used to interpret the games results or the players performance it seems necessary to provide more psychological services and professional help to support and engage elite Portuguese soccer players in PST programs. The

136 practical recommendations pointed out in this study should help to overcome the PST barriers and misconceptions that still exist in the Portuguese premier league.

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Paper VI

Elite Portuguese soccer players use of psychological techniques: Where, when and why 6

______6 Accepted for publication at the Journal of Human Sport and Exercise: vol.8, nº3, September 2013

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Abstract The purpose of the current study was to examine the use whether, where, when and why soccer players used self-talk, imagery, goal setting, and relaxation. Semi-structure, in-depth, qualitative interviews were conducted with 16 elite soccer players from Portuguese premier league soccer teams that played regularly in UEFA champions and Europe leagues. Results demonstrated that participants employed self-talk, goal-setting, and imagery with several purposes in their soccer routines. On the other hand, participants highlighted a lack of use of relaxation. In addition, results showed that the use of psychological techniques was lower in training than competition setting. Implications of the results are discussed and future research and practical recommendations are suggested.

Key-words: soccer players, self-talk, goal-setting, imagery, relaxation .

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Introduction Psychological skills training (PST) entails a “systematic and consistent practice of mental or psychological skills for the purpose of enhancing performance, increasing enjoyment, or achieving greater sport and physical activity self-satisfaction” (Weinberg & Gould, 2011, p. 248). In PST it seems useful to differentiate between skills, or target behaviors (e.g. self-confidence, attention focus, motivation), and methods (e.g., self-talk, imagery, goal-setting, relaxation), which are the vehicles used to attain the target behaviors (Vealey, 1988, 2007). We focus on the present study on the psychological techniques of imagery, self-talk, goal setting, and relaxation. Although we acknowledge the alternative psychological techniques used in sport performance, we selected the four skills mentioned previously, because of their frequent employment in the psychological skill literature. According to several authors (Gould, Murphy, Tammen, & May, 1991; Sullivan & Nashman, 1998; Vealey, 1988, 2007), these specific techniques have been the focus of most of the PST research. They have received widespread attention in both single-skill (e.g., Evans, Jones, & Mullen, 2004; Johnson, Hrycaiko, Johnson, & Halas, 2004) and multiple-skill (e.g., Hanton & Jones, 1999; Thelwell, Greenlees, & Weston, 2006, 2010) applied studies. In this context, it also should be noted that the use of qualitative methods as an alternative to the traditional quantitative methods was highlighted as an important direction for PST evaluation (Vealey, 1988). For this author, “information such as this can facilitate the development of salient and appropriate PST approaches that truly meet the needs of athletes” (p. 332). Therefore it was not surprising that PST literature has seen an increase in the number of descriptive and qualitative studies examining the use of each aforementioned psychological technique from an athlete perspective. One of the most insightful imagery studies was conducted by Munroe- Chandler, Giacobbi, Hall, and Weinberg (2000), who examined the four W’s of imagery used by athletes. Results from this study reports that although athletes used imagery before, during and after both training and competition, they used

142 it more prior to competition than at any other time. In addition athletes also report using imagery outside of these two environments, including at work, school and home (Hall, Rodgers, & Barr, 1990; Rodgers, Hall, & Buckolz, 1991; Salmon, Hall, & Haslam, 1994), and during sport-injury rehabilitation (Sordoni, Hall, & Forwell, 2000). With regard to the “Why” of imagery use, Paivio (1985) proposed that imagery can be used for both cognitive and motivational purposes. Similarly, Munroe-Chandler et al., (2000) found that imagery can be used for both cognitive (specific, general) and motivational (specific, general arousal, general mastery). Also in this context, Salmon et al., (1994), reported athletes using imagery more for its motivation function than its cognitive function. Like imagery, self-talk used by athletes has also received considerable research attention. Based on recent sport specific self-talk findings (e.g., Hardy, Gammage, & Hall, 2001; Theodorakis, Weinberg, Natsis, Douma, & Kazakas, 2000), self- talk can be better thought of as a multidimensional phenomenon concerned with athletes’ verbalizations that are addressed to themselves, which can serve both instructional and motivational functions. In a descriptive study of self-talk use in sport, Hardy et al., (2001) (following the approach used by Munroe-Chandler et al., 2000) examined the “4 W’s” of self-talk used by athletes. Athletes of this study reported the use of self-talk before, during and after training and competition. Similar to the findings reported by Munroe- Chandler et al. (2000), Hardy and colleagues (2001) found that self-talk serves two main functions for the athlete: cognitive (specific, general) and motivational (mastery, arousal, drive). The third psychological skill briefly reviewed here is goal setting. Although athletes set goals in both training and competition, they set more competition goals than practice goals (Burton, Weinberg, Yukelson, & Weigand, 1998; Weinberg, Burton, Yukelson, & Weigand, 2000). According Munroe- Chandler, Hall, and Weinberg (2004) athletes reported slightly more goals for training than competition. Gould (2006) reported that goal setting to be beneficial for changing important psychological states such as anxiety, motivation, and confidence. Munroe-Chandler et al., (2004) found that athletes

143 set goals for several purposes that include: skills improvement and execution, strategies of game improvement and execution, controlling arousal, being mentally tough, being focused, staying positive, and increasing self-confidence. The final psychological technique briefly reviewed here is relaxation. This specific technique has received most of its attention via intervention-based studies alone (Thelwell, Weston, Greenlees, & Hutchings, 2008a). Relaxation techniques have been used in sport primarily to enhance recovery from training and competition, manage anxiety, and improve performance (Weinberg & Comar, 1994). Additionally, this technique has been suggested to increase concentration, enhance motor skills, and improve ability to handle arousal and stress (Layman, 1978). However it should be noted that much of the work has focussed on the reduction of a competitive anxiety and the mechanisms to increase the directional perceptions of the anxiety response (Maynard, Hemmings, & Evans, 1995). Several techniques are available and can be categorized as physical or somatic relaxation strategies and cognitive relaxation strategies (Hardy, Jones, & Gould, 1996). It has been suggested that different relaxation techniques may induce different relaxation responses. For example Lehrer’s review (1996) concluded that methods with predominantly cognitive components tend to produce specific cognitive effects (e.g., decreases in amount of worrying, self-assessment of anxiety or pain, inability to concentrate mentally, etc.) and methods with predominant somatic components tend to produce greater muscular effects as measured by surface EMG (Lehrer & Woolfolk, 1993). The athletes’ use of the four key psychological techniques is widely reported in the PST literature, however it should be noted that few or no studies focus on sport-specific samples. According to several authors psychological techniques use could be dependent upon the type of sport (Hardy, Hall, & Hardy, 2005; Munroe-Chandler, Hall, Simms, & Weinberg, 1998). For example, individual sport athletes reported greater use of self-talk, as well as the functions of self-talk, than their team sport counterparts, i.e. team sport athletes (Hardy et al., 2005, study 1). To achieve a better understanding of psychological techniques it is important to execute research in a diverse group

144 of sports (Rogerson & Hrycaiko, 2002).Therefore, there seems a need to examine specific-sport samples in order to facility the development of more specific psychological interventions. For that reason, the present study has focused on Portuguese elite soccer players. This specific-sample was chosen due to their high popularity in Europe, but also because of the complete lack of qualitative studies that examined the issues of where, when and why these practitioners used psychological techniques. Understanding the soccer players’ perspectives on the aforementioned issues will certainly provide useful information for the practitioners (i.e., sport psychologists and coaches) developing more specific and effective PST interventions. Therefore the purpose of the present study was to conduct an exploratory investigation to identify and describe where, when and why (for what purposes) elite Portuguese soccer players use the skills of imagery, self- talk, goal setting and relaxation. Even before these questions are asked, we must consider whether or not they are even using each of these psychological techniques. Due to the in-depth nature of the questions being asked, as well as, the recommendations of experts in this field (Vealey, 1988) a qualitative approach was deemed appropriate.

Method Participants The sample was comprised of 16 male Portuguese elite soccer players ranged in age from 23 to 34 years old. At the time of the interview all of the participants played in Portuguese first league teams that competed in the UEFA Europe league or UEFA champions league. Some of them (n=6) were also playing for the Portuguese national soccer team, which were among the strongest in the world (ranked in top ten on the official FIFA list). The sample represented all of the soccer field positions and included two goalkeepers, four defenders, four midfielders and five attackers. All participants volunteered their consent to participate in the study.

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Interview guide The data were collected from a semi-structured interview with open- ended questions developed in accordance with the purposes of the current study. The interview guide used in the present study was composed by six sections. The first section contained demographic information and other introductory comments (about the purpose of the research and information about the structure of the interview). The second until the fifth section followed similar procedures but were focused on self-talk, imagery, goal-setting and relaxation respectively. In each of these sections participants received a definition of the psychological technique in consideration. After this, participants were asked to indicate if they use the psychological technique in soccer. If they responded positively, they are asked about the questions relating to where, when, and why they use it in both training and competition setting (e.g., “When, in a training situation, do you use self-talk?”; ”What are some of the reasons you use imagery in training?”). The questions relating to the functions (i.e. why) followed Paivio’s (1985) framework, which includes both cognitive and motivational functions. The questions emanating from the framework provided some direction for the participants (e.g., “Could you describe your use of goal setting for working on a specific skill?”; “Could you describe your use of self-talk to execute strategies of play?”). The final section provided the participants with the opportunity to ask questions about the interview experience and to discuss any issues that may have been omitted. Three pilot interviews were conducted with three non-professional soccer players, and minor amendments to the questions were made to the appropriateness of the probe and elaboration questions.

Procedures The interviews were conducted by the first author of the present investigation that had previous experience as assistant coach in Portuguese premier league soccer teams and was therefore familiar with the history, experiences, and terminology used by participants. According to Lincoln and Guba (1985) this was one method of ensuring the trustworthiness of the data

146 collection. The interviews were taped recorded and ranged in duration from 45 to 75 minutes and was conducted face to face in an environment comfortable for the participants. Ten of the 16 interviews took place in the clubs’ facilities before or after a training session. Of the remaining interviews, four were conducted at the athlete’s home, and two in hotel rooms.

Data analysis The data were analysed using hierarchical content data analysis procedures recommended by Patton (2002). The first author read and reread each of the interview transcripts to become completely familiar with the content of each interview. Next, raw data themes were identified from quotes characterizing each participant’s responses within each area of the interview. Data were then appropriately coded, compared and organized into categories using both inductive and deductive content analysis. Deductive analysis ensured that answers discussing specific content were related to the question being asked. Then, using a hierarchical induction, first, second and third-order subtheme emerged through clustering raw data around underlying uniformities. The process continued until general dimensions emerged (that represents level with higher abstraction). Finally, in order to control individual bias and ensure verifiability of the findings, all the data were presented and discussed with another author to act as “devil advocate” (Marshall & Rossman, 1995). Any comments, concerns, or queries raised by this author regarding the analysis were then acknowledged, clarified, or changed as appropriate by the first author. To provide an ultimate validity check, the first author reread all the transcripts and verified that all themes and dimensions were represented respectively and in accordance with the question being asked. The first author chose segments of text (i.e. verbatim quotes from participants) to represent the power of qualitative data to illustrate the themes (Patton, 2002).

Results The inductive-deductive analysis exposed four general dimensions (self- talk, goal-setting, imagery and relaxation) emerging from 120 raw data themes

147 mentioned by the elite soccer players. The dimensions were abstracted from eight third order subthemes, these from 18 second order-subthemes and these form 44 first order-subthemes represented in figures 1-4.

Self-talk Self-talk dimension shows the participants’ perspectives about their used of self-talk (Figure 1). The interviews revealed that the 16 players of the present study reported using self-talk in their soccer career. Furthermore ten of the participants mentioned a systematic use of this technique in both training and competition. On the other hand, six of the participants revealed that only employing self-talk in competition. With respect to the time frame, the majority of the sample stated using this technique more during the competition than any other time frame. Four participants highlighted the use of self-talk during half-time, whereas 15 participants employed it more frequently during the game. The following quotation is quite representative of this last perspective:

I usually use self-talk during the game… I also use it in other moments, but during the competition is undoubtedly when I use it more often. During the 90 minutes of the game I’m constantly giving suggestions and directions to myself, like I was coaching myself.

When participants were asked about the purposes for using self-talk three second order-subthemes emerged: technical-tactical function (cognitive), psychological function (motivational) and “extra” function. Regarding the cognitive function of self-talk, participants mentioned using self-talk for two main reasons: technical-tactical improvement and technical- tactical execution. The first related to correct technical skills and learning new tactical skills. The second and most frequently mentioned cognitive function, related to the proper execution of technical and tactical skills in order to perform as well as possible. This is well illustrated in the following soccer player’s quote: “I use self-talk to execute defensive movements. Is a strategy that I use to perform my defensive tasks as accurately as possible”.

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Additionally, the participants reported employing self-talk to enhance (or optimize) several psychological skills, such as concentration, motivation and self-confidence. An example of the former includes: “Usually I use it (self-talk) to keep me focused and to not deviate from what I have to do”. The participants also used self-talk to help them psych up for games, to overcome difficulties and to control stress and anxiety levels. This latter reason is outlined in the following quotation: “When things aren’t going well during the game I talk to myself in order to keep calm and to reduce my anxiety levels”. Finally, two soccer players raised an interesting purpose regarding the use of self-talk. One of these players mentioned using this technique after the game in order to elaborate their speech on flash-interview, as illustrated in the following quote: “At the end of the game, before I go to the flash interview I used the self-talk to prepare my speech at the flash interview”.

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Raw Data Themes First Order Second Order Third Order General subthemes subthemes subthemes Dim.

• Competition (n=16) Soccer • Training (n=10) related • In dressing room (n=5) venues • On the pitch (n=1) (n=16) Locations

(where) • At home (n=1) (n=16) • In the gym (n=1) Non soccer Locations • In the car (n=1) related • Hotel room (n=1) venues (n=5) and time • Team bus (n=1) frames

(where • Before practice (n=6) • During practice (n=8) Training and • After practice (n=3) (n=10) Time frames when) (when) • Before the game (n=10) (n=16) • In the warm up (n=3) Competition • During the game (n=15) (n=16) • At half-time (n=2) • After competition (n=4)

• Improve and strengthen weaker skills Technical- (n=1) tacical skills • Correct technical errors (n=2) improvement

• To learn offensive and defensive (n=3) Technical- movements (n=1) tactical • Perform with the proper technique(n=6) function • To properly execute a technical skill Technical- (cognitive (n=2) tactical skills n=9)

Self • Execute offensive movements (n=1) execution • Execute free kicks (n=1) (n=7) • To play well in the def. process (n=1) -

talk(n=16)

• To remain focused (n=5) Enhance • Increase concentration levels (n=3) concentra. • To stay focused in tactical tasks (n=1) (n=6)

• Maintain motivation levels (n=1) Enhance Functions • Increase self-motivation (n=3) motiva.(n=3) of self-talk • Overcoming difficult situations (n=3) (why) • To overcome hard physical training Cope with sessions (n=2) difficulties • To help through painful circumstances (n=4) (n=1) Psychologi- • Overcome injury rehabilitation process (n=1) cal function

• Reduce anxiety levels (n=3) Stress (motivational • Reduce stress (n=2) managment n=16) • To optimize anxiety levels (n=1) (n=6) • Control emotions (n=2)

• Increase self-confidence (n=2) Enh. self- • Maintain self-confidence (n=1) confidence • Regulate self-confidence levels (n=1) (n=3)

• To keep myself agitated for the game Psyched up (n=2) (n=2)

• Optimize speech in flash interview “Extra” (n=1) Speech in function • To make a good speech in the media media (n=2) (n=2) (n=1)

Figure 1. Hierarchical structure of the self-talk general dimension Note: The number following each raw data theme first and second order subthemes indicates the number of participants who reported them

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Goal-setting When the soccer players were asked to discuss the goals that they set goals for themselves, 13 participants pointed out its use (Figure 2). Nevertheless, only five of these participants expressed setting goals in both training and competition locations. Data also showed that the majority of the participants setting goals before the game. Participants highlighted several purposes for employing goal setting. Particularly, they used this technique to improve and execute technical and tactical skills. It should be noted, that as in the case of self-talk the participants expressed using it slightly more for the execution than for improvement. In addition, the soccer players reported using goal-setting to regulate their psychological state. For example, they mentioned setting goals to enhance motivation, concentration and self-confidence, to reduce stress and anxiety and to cope with difficulties. The purpose of using goal setting for adverse situations in competition is summarizing in the following quotation:

I set goals to overcome obstacles and difficulties in the competition. For example, when I have a minor injury during a game I remember my personal goals and it gives me strength to overcome the pain and keep playing with a high performance, because at this level we always need perform our best.

In addition to the technical-tactical and psychological goal-setting functions, two soccer players highlighted the use of this specific technique in order to help them achieve personal success.

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Raw Data Themes First Order Second Order Third Order General subthemes subthemes subthemes Dim.

• Competition (n=13) Soccer

• Training (n=5) related

• In dressing room (n=3) venues (n=13) Locations

(where)

• At home (n=1) Non soccer (n=13)

• In the car (n=1) related Locations

venues and time (n=2) frames (where • Before practice (n=4) Training and • During practice (n=1) (n=5) Time frames when) • After practice (n=2) (when)

(n=13)

• Before the game (n=11) Competition

• During the game (n=3) (n=13)

• After competition (n=5)

• To improve technical skills (n=1) Technical-

• To improve tactical movements (n=1) tacical skills improvement (n=2) Technical- Goal tactical

• Execute techniques as well as possible function

(n=2) Technical- - (cognitive setting(n=13) • To perform with proper technique (n=1) tactical skills n=5)

• To execute strategies more effectively execution (n=1) (n=4)

• Focus on specific tasks (n=3) Enhance

• To stay focused (n=2) concentra.

(n=5)

• To maintain motivation levels (n=3) Enhance

• Increase self-motivation (n=2) motiv.(n=5) Functions

of goal-

• Overcoming difficult situations (n=1) Cope with setting

• To overcome better opponents (n=1) difficulties (why)

• To overcome injury rehabilitation (n=3) process (n=1) Psychologi- cal function

(motivational • Reduce anxiety levels (n=2) Stress n=13) • Reduce stress (n=2) managment

• To optimize anxiety levels (n=1) (n=5)

• Increase self-confidence (n=2) Enh. self-

• Maintain self-confidence (n=1) confidence

• To feel able (n=1) (n=3)

• To get high levels of adrenaline (n=2) Psyched up (n=1)

• Achieve personal success (n=1) Personal Achieve

• Hired by better teams (n=1) success success (n=2) (n=2)

Figure 2. Hierarchical structure of the goal-setting general dimension

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Imagery Thirty raw data themes were included in this dimension, which is related to the players’ perspectives regarding their use of imagery (Figure 3). Results showed that eleven of the participants expressed employing imagery in their soccer routines. However, it was evident that only six of these participants reported a systematic use of this psychological technique in both training and competition. As with the previous psychological technique (goal-setting), the majority of the sample employed imagery more before the competition than any other time frame. In this context, a participant expressed their used during the warm up for the game, as is well illustrated in the following goalkeeper’s quotation: “During the warm up period I usually visualize a set of specific game situations…so before the game I use the imagery to prepare myself for a set of possible situations that I can come across during the game”. Participants of the current study pointed out several reasons for employing imagery. Although imagery was employed by some participants for the improvement and execution of technical and tactical skills, they used it more with the latter than for the former purpose. For example, a soccer player reported using imagery to help execute direct and indirect free kicks:

When I go to score a penalty or a free kick in a game I visualize how I will score it. I imagine how I will put the foot on the ball, as I tilt the foot, where I will put the ball, i.e. I visualize a set of technical content in order to be succeeded.

Imagery was also used by the participants to maintain and increase focus, motivation and self-confidence. With respect to this last purpose, one soccer player said: “I use the imagery in competition to increase my self- confidence, for example I imagine myself making a set of good dribbles and greatest goals and this give me confidence for the game”. Additionally, some coaches employed this specific technique to overcome difficult situations and to optimize stress and anxiety levels. The next sentence expresses this last perspective:

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Normally I use internal images to control my stress and anxiety levels before the games. I usually imagine things that make me feel good, that give me comfort and this helps me to deal with the stress and anxiety.

Finally, one of the players mentioned using imagery to perform well in the flash interview: “In the minutes prior to the flash interview I imagine my performance in front of the cameras. Is a strategy that I used to look good during the interview”.

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Raw Data Themes First Order Second Order Third Order General subthemes subthemes subthemes Dim.

• Competition (n=11) Soccer

• Training (n=5) related

• In dressing room (n=1) venues (n=16) Locations • On the pitch (n=1)

(where)

• At home (n=1) Non soccer (n=11)

• Hotel room (n=1) related Locations

• Team bus (n=1) venues (n=5) and time

frames (where • Before practice (n=3) and • During practice (n=4) Training Time frames when) • After practice (n=3) (n=10) (when)

(n=11) • Before the game (n=8)

• In the warm up (n=2) Competition

• During the game (n=5) (n=16)

• At half-time (n=2)

• After competition (n=3)

• Improve and strengthen weaker skills Technical- (n=1) tacical skills

• Make corrections on technique (n=1) improvement

• To assimilate new offensive and (n=3) Technical- defensive movements (n=1) tactical

function

• Properly execute a technical skill (n=4) cognitive) (n=11) Imagery

• Execute defensive and offensive Technical- n=7) movements (n=1) tactical skills

• To execute free kicks and penalty kicks execution (n=1) (n=5)

• To selected the best strategy (n=1)

• To remain focused (n=2) Enhance

• Increase concentration levels (n=1) concentra.

• To stay focused in tactical tasks (n=1) (n=4) Functions

• Increase motivation (n=2) Enhance of motiv.(n=2) imagery

(why) Cope with • Overcoming difficult situations (n=2) diffic. (n=2)

• Reduce anxiety levels (n=2) Stress

• Reduce stress (n=2) managment Psychologi- cal function • To optimize anxiety levels (n=1) (n=5) (motivational • Control emotions (n=1) n=9)

• Increase self-confidence (n=2) Enh. self-

• Maintain self-confidence (n=1) confidence (n=3)

• To keep myself frenetic (n=1) Psyched up

• To give power to myself (n=1)2 (n=2)

• To perform well in flash interview (n=1) Perform on “Extra” media (n=1) function (n=1)

Figure 3. Hierarchical structure of the imagery general dimension

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Relaxation Relaxation was the least employed technique with only three participants reported its use (Figure 4). The soccer players mentioned employing relaxation only before the competition. A marked reduction was seen in the number of purposes relating to the use of relaxation compared to the previous three psychological techniques (i.e. self-talk, goal-setting and imagery). In fact, relaxation was only used by the participants to enhance concentration skills and to reduce stress and anxiety. For example one player stated: “I use some relaxation techniques to reduce the stress and anxiety levels. For example before the game I have a routine of listening to calm music and controlling my breathing and this conveys serenity”.

Raw Data Themes First Order Second Order Third Order General subthemes subthemes subthemes Dim.

• Competition (n=3) Soccer

• Dressing room (n=1) related venues Locations Locations (n=3) (where) and time (n=3) frames • Gym (n=1) Non soccer Relaxation (n=3) (where related • Team bus (n=1) venues (n=2) and when)

• Before competition (n=3) Competition Time frames (n=3) (when) (n=3)

• Increase concentration levels (n=1) Enhance Concentra. (n=1) Psychologi- Functions cal function of

• Reduce anxiety levels (n=2) Stress (motivational relaxation

• Reduce stress (n=1) managment n=3) (why) (n=3)

Figure 4 – Hierarchical structure of the relaxation general dimension

Discussion The purpose of the current study was to explore whether, where, when and why Portuguese elite soccer players used the techniques of imagery, self- talk, goal setting, and relaxation. Globally, the majority of the participants mentioned employing self-talk, imagery, and goal-setting in their soccer routines. This can be considered an encouraging finding because PST literature

156 has shown a positive influence of these techniques on soccer players’ performance (e.g., Johnson et al., 2004; Munroe-Chandler, Hall, Fishburne, Murphy, & Hall, 2012; Thelwell, et al., 2006, 2010). By contrast, participants highlighted a lack of use of relaxation techniques and this can be considered a cause of concern. Consistent with previous studies in sport (Barr & Hall, 1992; Hall et al., 1990; Thomas, Murphy, & Hardy, 1999), elite soccer players mentioned a greater use of psychological techniques in competition setting when compared to the training setting. This finding seems to suggest that soccer players consider competition as more important than training and consequently reserve psychological techniques use for that setting. It is also possible that they believe that psychological techniques can only help them when they are competing. The lower use of psychological techniques in training setting pointed out by participants may raise some concerns because it compromises the implementation of an effective and systematic PST program. This highlights the need for sport psychologists to place a greater emphasis on quality practice when working with elite soccer players. Their intervention should not only stimulate the use of psychological techniques in training but also elucidate soccer players about the benefits of their use in this environment. According to Frey, Laguna, and Ravizza (2003) an athlete’s attitude toward psychological technique use is partially dependent on the coach’s view of PST. For these same authors, “if a coach is consistently emphasizing the importance of competition over practice, the athlete may not realize the relationship between the two environments, or that the quality of practice has an effect on his or her performance in competition” (p. 123). Therefore sport psychologists should inform soccer coaches about the relationship between psychological techniques use in training and success in competition. The coach is the manager of the team and therefore has great influence on the psychological development of their athletes and teams. Furthermore, they spend more time with players than the sport psychologist and consequently they often have more opportunities to remind the players about using psychological techniques in training setting.

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Results of the present study also showed that participants used goal- setting and imagery just prior to competing than any other time frame. This finding can be explained by how crucial the time prior to competing is for performance preparation. In contrast to these psychological techniques, participants reported using self-talk more extensively during the competition. A possible reason for these differences may have been because self-talk requires less time and effort to utilize than the others three psychological skills. According to Hardy et al., (2005) self-talk is a psychological skill that may inherently lend itself to use in time-restricted situations such as those found during training and competition. With respect to the purposes that soccer employed psychological techniques, our findings highlighted two main functions, cognitive and motivational, that are consistent with the imagery and self-talk functions identified by Munroe-Chandler et al., (2000) and Hardy et al., (2001). Regarding to the cognitive function, soccer players reported using self-talk, imagery and goal setting primarily for technical and tactical execution than technical and tactical improvement. Our sample was exclusively composed of elite soccer players that competed at the highest level. Therefore it was not surprising that they would be more concerned with properly executing technical and tactical skills than further improvement. This finding may also be connected with the fact that the players reported using the psychological techniques more in competition than in a training environment. In this context, Burton, Naylor, and Holliday (2001) proposed that enhanced learning and development are usually the primary focus in practice situations, while performing optimally or outperforming one’s opponent is the main focus in competitive situations. The soccer players also reported the use of the motivational function of self-talk, goal-setting and imagery. In all of the psychological techniques the motivational function was mentioned far more frequently than the cognitive ones. This finding highlighted the importance that the psychological preparation (motivational function) assumes for the Portuguese elite soccer players. In line with this Fonseca (1997) mentioned that due to the similarity of technical, physical and tactical skills of elite players from professional Portuguese soccer

158 clubs, the psychological preparation assumes a high relevance in the achievement of soccer outcomes. While the soccer players indicated using the three aforementioned psychological techniques to optimize several psychological skills, it should be noted that the majority of them used it to regulate their anxiety levels. The social economic framework that involves professional soccer exposes the elite players to high psychological pressure, and therefore it is not surprising that they used psychological techniques with this specific purpose (i.e. regulate their anxiety levels). Moreover, this finding may be again linked with the greater use of psychological techniques in the competition setting stressed by the participants. Finally, results of this study highlighted a marked reduction in the number of participants who reported employing relaxation. This finding is not surprising because most athletes have never been taught the basic requisites of this technique or simply do not know how to relax on command (Burton & Raedeke, 2008). Future research should be conducted to determine if relaxation was used less often because Portuguese elite soccer players do not have the in depth knowledge of this psychological technique. If so, the practitioners (sport psychologists and coaches) assume an important role to teach and raise awareness of the elite soccer players for the importance of relaxation strategies and how to develop them. It would be useful to explain to them that relaxation can be used in both training and competition settings and with different purposes (Hanton, Thomas, & Mellalieu, 2009). To be effective, practitioners have to teach soccer players to develop relaxation skills that work quickly during training and competition (Burton & Raedeke, 2008). An interest finding revealed in the present study was the similarity between the functions (purposes) of self-talk, imagery, and goal setting. Similarly, PST literature showed that self-talk and imagery were used by athletes for many of the same reasons (Hardy et al., 2001; Munroe-Chandler et al., 2000). Based on this assumption, Hardy et al., (2001) suggested that the use of these both techniques in combination would seem to be a logical approach. Therefore encouraging elite soccer players to use self-talk, imagery, and goal setting in combination would also seem to be a logical approach. At

159 this level it is also important not to forget the relaxation technique because despite neglect by our participants, PST literature has seen an increase in the number of experimental studies supporting the positive influence of relaxation on soccer players performance (Thelwell et al., 2006, 2010). Although we have presented separately the four psychological techniques analysed in the current study, it would be advantageous to integrate them within a single and systematic PST program. With respect to future research, the efficacy of the combined used of self-talk, imagery, goal setting and relaxation in elite soccer players performance should be investigated to confirm the previous suggestions.

Conclusion Globally this study demonstrated that Portuguese elite soccer players employing self-talk, goal-setting, and imagery in their sport routines. On the other hand, they highlighted a lack of use of relaxation technique. In addition, results of the current study showed that the psychological techniques used were lower in training than in competition setting. The current study emphasises the need to elucidate Portuguese elite soccer players of the importance and benefits of a regular and systematic use of psychological techniques. Sport psychologists should help soccer players to use the various psychological techniques, as well as, how to integrate them into training and competition environments. Furthermore, it is also important that those responsible for the soccer players’ preparation (e.g., head coaches, assistant coaches) should understand the benefits of PST because it is these practitioners who are in the best position to encourage players to use psychological techniques in both training and competition settings.

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General discussion and conclusions

______

161

162

General discussion and conclusions

The main purpose of the present dissertation was to examine the views (perspectives) of elite soccer coaches and players regarding the current state and use of PST in Portuguese professional soccer. Since the results and conclusions of each paper have been previously documented in the present dissertation, only a summary of the main findings and a brief critical reflection are provided here. In general, the main findings of this dissertation showed that the Portuguese soccer reality seems to be somehow paradoxal. Although the majority of the participants (elite soccer coaches and players) acknowledged the importance of PST in soccer, they mentioned they didn’t use PST programs systematically. Indeed, there seems to be a high discrepancy between the coaches and players’ opinions and what it is actually implemented. However, at this level, it should be remembered that our dissertation reflected the soccer coaches and players’ perspectives and opinions and not necessarily their actual behaviors. Several potential explanations for this reality have been presented in the current dissertation and included, the scarce presence of sport psychologists in the Portuguese soccer framework (paper II and V), the lack of PST information available (paper II), as well as the lack of PST knowledge by the coaches (paper II and V), and the players (paper V). At this level it may be argued that the UEFA soccer coaching courses promoted by Portuguese soccer Federation are very far from answering to these concerns which can be proved by the few number of hours attributed to the sport psychological discipline, as well as by the lack quality of contents (paper II). It should be noted, however, that we do not intend to underestimate the knowledge of the prestigious coaches and players that participated in this dissertation. On the contrary, we consider that the innumerous titles (national and international) and successes (individual and collective), that most of them have accomplished speak for themselves. Only practitioners with a profound knowledge of the modality and increased skills of managing psychological

163 factors could reach their detained recognition. In fact, despite the scarce contact with sport psychologists many of the participants referred the use of some of the most relevant psychological techniques mentioned across PST literature, such as self-talk, imagery and goal setting (paper III, IV and VI) (even this utilization was mainly intuitive, non-conscious and non-systematic). Thus, coaches and players seem to detain a set of basic knowledge associated with sports psychology and that certainly allows them to better perform their functions. However, to our perspective, that is not the same as to say that they are prepared to apply a PST program in an effective and systematic way. This opinion is shared by the majority of participants in this dissertation that unanimously recognize for their own diminished capacity to implement a PST program (paper II). Given the above, several practical implications and recommendations emerged from the global findings of the current dissertation. First, there is a clearly and urgent need to increase the awareness and application of PST programs within professional Portuguese soccer clubs. Second, the Portuguese Soccer Federation, should reformulate their coaching courses (e.g., enhancing the contents and increasing the number of hours allocated to sport psychology module) in order to better educate soccer coaches in the concepts of sport psychology (e.g., elucidating them about all of the positive benefits of the PST programs). We believe that ideally, besides improving their repertoire of psychological intervention skills, Portuguese players and coaches should be able to count with the collaboration of expert on this matter since that this complementary work would be a good strategy to maximize their professional efficacy. In this sense, it would be important to have a sport psychologist available in soccer clubs (or in the technical staffs), supporting coaches and players’ actions, in a consistent and systematic way, both in training and in competition settings. However, we believe that this sport psychologist should not only to have a profound knowledge on its domain of expertise but also to have a general knowledge about the specific modality that he is working on. We recall that in the present dissertation, several coaches and players have

164 highlighted the lack of specific knowledge about the modality as one of the main obstacles for the inclusion of sport psychologists in professional soccer (paper II and V). This position is inclusively shared by some of the most rewarded international coaches. For instance, Fábio Capello and Camacho (cit. in Fonseca, 2004) consider that it is crucial for the soccer sports psychologist to be deeply familiar with soccer, to have been previously involved in sports and to be ready to understand the problems associated with this activity. If this does not happen, their intervention might result more negative than positive. Given the above, it seems consensual that ideally sport psychologists should master soccer’s general knowledge (tactical, technical and physical aspects) allowing him to respond adequately to the demands of this specific context. Therefore, we believe that besides their academic courses, sports psychologists that work (or intend to work) in the context of soccer, should detain complementary education within this specific modality (e.g., soccer coaching training). Furthermore, we believe that an eventual mingling among coaches, players (that intend to pursue a coach career), and psychologists during coaching training courses could help demystify some issues related with psychological intervention and consequently create more opportunities for their integration in soccer. Moreover, psychologists may also use the course breaks to interact with coaches and players and highlight the benefits of psychological intervention as well as the role of the psychologist throughout the process. In addition, the findings of the current dissertation also put in evidence several soccer-specific issues. For instance concentration, self-confidence and team cohesion were considered valuable skills for soccer players and teams (paper II and V), motivation and emotional self-control were considered crucial psychological skills for soccer coaches (paper II), and self-talk was the psychological technique more employed by both groups of participants (paper IV and VI). Although these results constitute relevant indicators for future research and psychological interventions with both coaches and players, we should refer that the aforementioned variables do not always assume the same amount of importance. Every single player, team and coach is characterized by

165 their specificities and these singularities should be considered at the definition of any psychological intervention plan. In sum, we believe that PST should be an integrant part of the daily training of Portuguese soccer players, teams and even coaches. The efficacy of PST will always depend, to some point, to the level of collaboration and support between psychologists, coaches and/or players as well as on the capacity to adjust the program to the specific individual and collective needs (of a given coach, player or team), and on the time that is left available for its implementation. Therefore, it seems necessary to introduce the concept of psychological periodization since players and teams needs considering each psychological variable are different not only from each other but also throughout the season. However, in our opinion the psychological periodization should not appear without a context and apart from the other dimensions of performance (technical, tactical and physical) since that according to Edgar Morin (2002) none of these single dimensions should resume the others. The periodization must assure an interconnection between the different dimensions involved in sportive performance. Otherwise, we will not be working the whole that is the player, coach or team. In this sense, a less singular and more general concept of interactivity is needed (interactions whole – part and part – parts) (LeMoigne, 1994). In line with this thought, our main findings showed that some of the participants (coaches and athletes) mentioned using psychological techniques (e.g., self-talk, imagery and goal-setting) not only for psychological but also for technical, tactical and physical reasons (paper IV and VI). Given this, instead of a “reductionism-interactionism” paradigm, a “decomposition-articulation” may be more suitable. We believe that PST should be potentiated in soccer according this perspective. In agreement with this, Damásio (2003) mentioned that the perspective known in philosophy as “substance dualism” (that sets apart mind from the body and brain), has long been abandoned both in science and in philosophy. Finally, the decision to use a qualitative methodology in the present dissertation was based on the need of deeper studies of this nature on the area of PST and also on the repeated suggestions as some of the most well

166 recognized researchers in sports psychology (e.g., Edwards, Kingston, Hardy, & Gould, 2002; Vealey, 1988). For instance, an important direction for PST research highlighted by Vealey (2007) was the utilization of qualitative methods as an alternative to the traditional quantitative methods. For the author, this approach can facilitate the development of appropriate PST approaches that truly meet the needs of athletes’ and coaches. Additionally due to the lack of descriptive studies on this specific area of research, i.e. PST applied to soccer, (paper I), as well as the intend to explain in detail the state of the art about the phenomenon, i.e. PST in Portuguese soccer, descriptive studies were preferable in the present dissertation. This kind of research allows a measure of status, which is useful to develop the theoretical framework on which experimental research is based. Therefore the present dissertation provided a good basis for the development of future experimental researches in this area. As the Chinese philosopher Lao Tzu (cit. in Freitas, 2005) mentioned «a journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step». At this level, it should be recalled again, that the present dissertation only examined the perspectives and opinions and consequently further investigation should examine and observe the actual behaviors of the Portuguese soccer coaches and players. In addition, further research should access to sport psychologists (in particular those who have integrated professional soccer teams) in an attempt to explore what they have done, in practice, as well as their personal experiences within this context (coaches and players reactions, problems faced, solutions adopted, methods and techniques used, and so on). Moreover, although this dissertation reports to the professional context of soccer, we believe that PST should also be applied to youth soccer contexts. In our opinion, that is the right place to prevent some of the problematic situations that may later arise in higher competitive levels. Thus, further investigation should be conducted with youth soccer players and coaches. Before finishing we would like to advance some considerations for future directions on the theme explored in the present dissertation. Although all the predictions are characterized by a dose of subjectivity and reliability, we believe this dissertation provides relatively safe indicators that explicit that the

167 collaboration of sports psychologists in national professional soccer teams will tend to increase in the next few years, resulting in clear benefits for all parts. Indeed, the analysis of the perspectives of the participants of this dissertation reveals not only that most coaches are receptive to collaborate with sports psychologists (paper II), but also that a high number of players (much of which could pursue a coach career) are receptive to psychological interventions (paper V). In sum, the future is open but in order for that to happen without major problems some steps has yet to be taken. The PST standardization, the use of new teaching technologies, the elaboration of specific soccer programs, the adjusted coordination between physical, technique, tactical and psychological training plans, and the consideration of coaches and players specific needs across different competitive moments are some of the aspects that will allow the intentions of players and coaches to become a reality. On the other hand, in such attractive and overwhelming world as the one of professional soccer, it is crucial that psychologists will be prepared to match the expectations of coaches, players and directors. It would be expected that the present dissertation allows to all intervenient of national soccer to improve their knowledge on the global reality of PST in soccer, thus given them a chance to reflect on what can be changed.

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