E ARCHEOLOGTH LIGHTINF YO G APPLIANCES9 7 .

III

THE ARCHEOLOGY OF APPLIANCES. BY J. ROMJLLY ALLEN, F.S.A. SCOT.

The rapid advances made in science by the present generation have bee e meannth f effectino s g improvement n everi s y kin f appliancdo e that minister wante th f mano st o amongsd an , varioue th t invenw sne - tions which, have been introduced none are of more importance than those connected with artificial methods of illumination. At the beginning of this century gas was taking the place of animal oil for lighting purposestowardw no d s clos sit itsels an , ega f seems destined supersedee b o t petroleuy db electricityr mo talloe Th w. candl rushd ean - , with which our forefathers were familiar, are already things of the past. The old Scotch crusie is becoming so rare as to be prized by collectors of antiquities, and is hardly to be found except in museums. Developmen d evolutioan t n amongso n o seeg o mt human inventions ver animae yth muc n r vegetabli o l s ha e world. Although development and evolutio n amongso o ng t human inventions e conditionth , n i e ar s many ways different from those existin animae th vegetabld n gi lan e world, ansame dth t eappl lawno n botyo i sd h cases tha o e analogs , th t y musb pushee b f course t faro O no dto . l theorieal , s founde factn do s connected with the reproduction of species, limited supply of food, &c., only hold good with regard to living creatures or plants ; but the invention, like the animal, which is best suited to its environment, will survive the longest, extinguisd an h form welo s st l whicadapteno e har circumstanceso dt . Englisd ol same thay e th hth tewa n I gre t existeyra hundredr dfo s or perhaps thousand f yearo s n thii s s country t becambu , e suddenly extinct whe e browth n n Norwegia t appearera n d upo e sceneth ne th , toold appliancean s n sometimes ma use y b d s remain unchanger fo d centuries, unti improvemenn a l suggestes i t accidenty db r inventeo , y b d individuan a f exceptionao l l brain power e forc f Th habio e. , howis t - ever, so great, and man is so naturally conservative in his instincts, that 0 8 PROCEEDING SOCIETYE TH F O S , JANUAR , 1888Y23 .

he often continues to employ the same weapons of defence which his ancestors did until better forms are introduced by a conquering race. At a period like the present, when changes seem to be • taking place with unusual rapidity, it is the duty of the archteologist to preserve a recor f everdo y human inventio t i become s a n s extinct o thas , t future generation able b trac o et y e progres eth sma s development it f so n i d an , orde reduco t r objectmuseume r eth ou n i s s labelled f "unknowo "e nus smallese th o t t possible number. In tracing out the history of the various appliances used by man, as is done to a certain extent in Tylor's Anthropology, each invention should be taken in the order in which it becomes absolutely necessary to our existence pase w ss a fro, e lowemth r form f civilisatioo s e higherth o nt . First of all come the appliances required for obtaining food, for striking firer cooking e fo manufactur, th r fo , f clotheso e r makinfo , g dwellings, afted an r these, especiall northera n yi n climate, would com e applieth - ance r producinsfo artifician ga l light meany b , f whicso e portiohth f no the nigh t requireno t resr dfo t coul utilisee db worr dfo r amusement ko . Artificial illumination is usually effected by burning some solid, liquid, r gaseouo s substanceo caust s a e o as , flame t lighn bu als;e ca b ot obtained from a solid in a state of —that is to say, not actually burning t sufficientlbu , y heate o becomt d e visibldarke th n .i e Lastly, certain insect d decayinan s g matter a particula n i , r condition, possess the property of emitting light known as phosphorescence. We shall now proceed to describe the different kinds of lighting appliances used fro earliesmthe t times.

LAMPS. A lamp is an apparatus for giving light by burning a fibrous wick saturated with an inflammable fluid, a continual supply of which is kep frop u t mreservoia r provide purposee th r dfo . In its more perfect form a lamp consists of the following essential parts :—the receptacle stanwice th th oile r tube kr ; do th th ;fo er efo hook for suspension ; the handle for carrying. Contrivances are also required for bringing the oil to the wick; raisin r loweringo e wickgth ; catchin e superfluougth s oil; facilitating THE ARCHEOLOGY OF LIGHTING APPLIANCES. 81

by a draught of air; protecting the flame from currents of air. The ahove are either attached to the lamp or form part of it, but separate instruments are used for trimming the wick; extinguishing the flame; replenishing the supply of oil. In some lamps adjustments are introduced for altering the position of flame th n relatioi e objece th whicn o no t t lighe hth requires i t e b o dt thrown, bringing the point of suspension over the centre of gravity of l vesseloi e th . The different varieties of lamps will now be described in the order of their development, e showinmorth ew complicateho g d forms were arrived at by a gradual process of improvement. Lamps.—Openp Gu The simplest kin f lamo d p consist a shallo f so w cup, abou inche3 t n diameteri s , filled wit e lighh oils Th obtainei t . d from a cotton wick dipped in the oil, and hanging over the edge of the cup. The earliest specimens are made of stone or rude pottery, and date neolithie bacth o kt c same periodth t e primitivbu , e typ stils i e l uset da the present day in China and other Eastern countries. Chalk cups, which most probably serve purpose th d f lampso e , were discoveren i d anciene th t flint mines called " Grimes Graves t Brandon"a Suffolk,n i , 1 n similai d an r excavation e camth f Cissburyt o pa s , near Worthing in Sussex.2 e Yorth n kI Museum therruda s i e cla yp shap a lam cu n o f ep o stem and provided with a handle, found at Danes Graves, near Pockling- ton, in Yorkshire.3 firse e improvemeno Th providt t lamth p stes cu n pi wa p e a th f o t separat . in Thi e e e wicholloli sth stag o kr t wf fo developmene o s wa t reached in the stone lamps of the Iron Age, found in the brochs and weem n i Scotlands f whico , h ther e numerouar e s examplee th n i s Museu f Nationamo l Antiquitie Edinburghn si e stonTh e. lamps from the brochs of Kettleburn and Okstrow,* in Orkney (figs. 1, 2), are oval Boyd Dawkins, Early Man in Britain, p. 277.

21 Jour. Brit. Anhceol. Inst., vol. xxxi. p, 54. 3 Catalogue of York Museum, p. 152. 4 Dr J, Anderson's Scotland in Pagan Times, p. 241. VOL. XXII. F 82 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, JANUARY 23, 1888. lumps of sandstone, with two circular depressions running into each other largee beinth e , on r g intende smallee th hol o e dt d oile don rth an ,

.Fig . 1 . Fig. 2 . Stone Lamps, from Broehs or Kettlebur Okstrowd nan . wicke fo morth rA . e finished specime founs undern na wa (fign di ) 3 -. ground hous t Tealinga e n Forfarshirei , , e outline whicth th s f ha heo stone neatl suio shape hollowse t t th th t yf cu e o .

Fig , Ston3 . e Lamp, fro Eartlihousn ma t Tealingea . In the British Museum there are several Koman lamps of the same pattern, made of lead, bronze, and pottery,1 some with handles (as fig. 4), and others with hooks for suspension. Open cup lamps of stone are employed by the Eskimo tribes at the present day, but they are of different shape from those just described, and much longer, being intended for giving heat as well as light, 1 Foun Londonn di , Colchester, Lincoln elsewhered an , . E AKCHyEOLOGTH F LIGHTINYO G APPLIANCES. 83

Specimens may be seen in the Christy Collection in the British Museum, and an accurate account of their use is given by Baron Nordenskiold in the Voyage of the Vega. The form of these lamps is peculiar,

and difficult to realise withou1 t a drawing. It consists of a bowl

Fig. 4. Open Lamp, Bronze (Roman), found at Bayford, now in British Museum.

(as see , n figshalloi n5) . n i fronwd dee an tp behind n I pla. n e fron th e bacs i straighth t kd an semicirculart . Nea e fronth r t edge is a raised ridge, running parallel to it, and dividing the lamp into two parts. The shallow trough thus separated off from the rest is for the wick to lie in, along the straight edge in front. The oil is contained in the back part, and is admitte e fron th y thre b o tr t do e foue dividinth r notchen i gt cu s ridge. The wick is of dried moss, and the fuel consists of train oil. sticA f wooo k r boneo d , wita h Fig . Esquimau5 . x Lam Stonf po e (Brit. Mus.). curved end s i use,r trimminfo d g e laml bowth oi otheo f p o e e wickltw restth rTh n o .sstones e th , uppe e forminon r a stangs a whicn tippee o o d b s e bow n p th hdu ca l

. 122 . Volp . ii . 4 8 PROCEEDING SOCIETYE TH F O S, JANUAK , 1888Y23 .

l toward brinoi o t e frone gth th s t whe t nget i e lowesth e lowd on r an , bein gtraa catco yt superfluoue hth s oil. Baron Nordenskiolda says that amongst the Chukches of north- eastern Asia, e interioe "sleepinth th f o r g chambe s lightei r d an d warme lampsy b d , whose number varies accordine th e siz f th o e o t g room. A moderately large chamber has three lamps, the largest right oppositcrosothere o th tw s e n entrance e so th walls. eth d "an , Also 2 tha e tene wometh tth t "n i n have alway a watchfus e ovee ey th lr trimming of the lamp and the keeping up of the fire. The wooden pins she uses to trim the wick, and being naturally drenched with train oil, are used when required as a light or in the outer tent, to light samothee y th ewa rn I pinpipes . s dippe,&c usede ar I train d i l . noi have also seen such pins, also oblong stones ,e end sooton , t whicya h after having been dippe train di n oil, have been use torchess a d , laiy db the side of corpses in old Eskimos graves in north-western Greenland. Clay lamps are made by the Chukches themselves, the clay being well kneade d moistenedan d with urinee burninTh . gincompletes i s i d an , indeed often wholly omitted." The picture here given of the domestic life of the Eskimos at the present time enable o fort ms a tolerablsu n yi correcy wa e t th ide f o a which the inhabitants of the Scottish brochs lighted their dwellings during the long winter nights two thousand years ago. The practice of placing on graves also suggests the possibility that some of the cup-shaped hollows found on the sepulchral monuments of the Stone and Bronze Ages may. have been use s lampsda . In Syria, lighte ar s placed on graves to frighten away the jackals. Before leaving the sub- ject of open cup lamps, the curious cresset stones still found in some churches in England and Sweden 3 should be mentioned. Cresset Stones.—In many churches, bot n thii h s n countri d an y Sweden, certain stoneswith cup-shaped hollows in the top have been found. Their use was for a long time a matter of speculation amongst archaeo- e Eevlogiststh . J Leet . bu ,s has n a.i , paper read befor e Britisth e h

1 Voyage of the Vega, vol. ii. p. 23. 2 Ibid., . 118 p vol . .ii . 3 At Lewaunickin, Cornwall ; Llanthony ; Funiess Abbey. THE ARCHEOLOGY OF LIGHTING APPLIANCES. 85

Archasological Institute,1 conclusively proved that these curious objects are nothing more than ecclesiastical lamps. Prof. Skeat,' in his Concise Etymological Dictionary Englishe oth f Language, tell thas u s t " Cresset is the Middle English word for a cup or vessel containing light fixed on the top of a polo, and conies to us through the Old French crasset, a cresset; eroiset, creuset, a cruet, pot, crucible (with which last word it seems most reasonable to ally it), from the Old Dutch kruyse, a cup or pot." Cresset may also bo compared with the Scotch word crusie, a lamp. The Eev. J. Lees, in the paper already alluded to, makes the following quotations fro Ritese mth of Durham, publishe Surteee th y db s Society,2 describing the three cresset stones used in the church and monaster f Durhayo m :—"Also ther s standingei e soutth n hso pillaf o r e Quirth e Lanthornee doorth f ecorneo same e th th ef n i ,ro pillar foure,a - squared stoun, which hath been finely wrought, in every square a large fine image, whereon did stand a foure-squared stone above that, which had twelve cressets wrought in that stone, which was filled with tallow, and every f the nigho s lighted s gonee mwa d wa on t an ,y , da whe e th n burnd di givo et ee monk lighth t o midnightt a ts , when they camo t e matins." Other cresset stones are specified as being used in the monk's dormitory. Cresset stones exist at the following places :—Calder Abbey, York- shire ; Furness Abbey, Lancashire ; Dearham, Cumberland; Lewannick, Cornwall; Wool, Dorset t Mary'sS ; , Monmouth t Mary'S ; s Abbey, York ; Llanthony Abbey, Monmouthshire; Carlisle Cathedral. There are,-four specimens in the Stockholm Museum from churches Swedenn i cressee Th . t ston t Lewannicea s circulari kothere th t sbu , are rectangular, varying in diameter from 1 foot to 1 foot 9 inches, and in thickness from 5 to 7 inches. The number of holes vary from one to sixteen. e Edinburgth n I h Museu f Antiquitiemo s ther e somar e e tailors' candlesticks of stone, one dated 1634 (shown in fig. 6), which resemble e cresseth t stone n appearancei s , havinr g fo fou p rto hollowe th n i s , and a large central hollow for the snuff. 1 Journal, vol. xxxix. p. 392. 2 Vol . Thixv . s boowrittes kwa 1593n i . 86 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, JANUARY 23, 1888. Closed Lamps.—The well-known classical type of lamp is an improve- ment on the open kind just described, in having the cup and the spout wice foth r k covere preven o dl t fro overs oi a m e o s th spilling,t . Thou- sand thesf so foune b object n o Britisi t d e foreigd ar s an h n museums,

Fig. 6. Tailor's Candlestick of Stone, front and back view. owing their preservation e partldurabilitth e terra-cotto yt th f yo f o a which the madee y ar partld e artistith an , o yt c characte f theio r r decora- tion. The body of the lamp is a shallow circular vessel for containing side spoueon a t oile othee A ta th th . project s t i wickre a th d r ,an fo s small handle for carrying. Sometimes this class of lamp is provided with l vessetwoi morr oo e slightls i l th e f wico yp kconcave to spouts e Th ,. smala s ha l hold an e for fillingornamentatioe Th . generalls ni y concen- trated upon the circular top of the oil vessel, and consisted in pagan times of mythological subjects, but in the early centuries of the Christian scenea er s from Scripture were substituted. There is in the Guildhall Museum, in London, a clay mould used in the manufacture of the Koman terra-cotta lamps for impressing the ornamental pattern.1 Hanging Lamps.—For many purposes a hanging lamp is more con- venient than one provided with a foot or stand. In order that a hanging lamremaiy pma n horizontal s absoluteli t i , y essential thapoine th tf o t suspension shall lie directly over the centre of gravity of the oil vessel. effectee b Thiy thren di sma e different way shows s(a fign :n) i —7 . 1 For further information on this subject, see Birch's History of Ancient Pottery. THE ARCHEOLOGY OF LIGHTING APPLIANCES. 87

(1) The suspending rod or chain may be straight, passing vertically through the centre of gravity of the oil vessel, and be attached to the top or bottom of the lamp. (2) The suspending rod may be attached to one side of the oil vessel, an bene dh t righta ove d tcentr e brinangleso en t rth s e gravityf a ge o th o ,s . (3) The suspending rod may be semicircular, and attached to two opposit l vesseloi e e sideth , lik f se handlo eth bucketa f eo .

Fig . Hangin7 . g Lamps, three way suspensionf so .

The first method is objectionable, as it generally involves making a hole through the oil vessel, which may leak. The third method is some- time annexee sth usedn i s da , exampl secone Th e (fig d. metho8) . y b s di far the commonest, and is that employed in the Scotcii crusie. This form of hangin ge trace b lam n e d Romanspca tim e th bac th f eo o kt , there being several specimens in the Guildhall, London (one of which is shown Britisd an , fign i h9) . Museums.1 In a painting of the third or fourth century, in the catacomb of St Callistus at Korae, Diogenes Fossor is represented carrying a lamp of this description. s usuall i bene r Th ba t2 y piece madon e n ei wit e hth oil vessel, and has a hole in the top for attaching the swivel and hook for suspension. Hanging lamps exactly resembling the Eoman ones are, or were until quite recently, use Italn di somd yan e part f Franceso . Scotce Th h crusie (fig. 10) probably owe Romas origie sit th o nt n lamp just described onle Th y .differenc ethas crusie i betweeth o t etw e nth s providei d wit a hsecon d open vesse o catct l e drippingth he th f o s

Foun "Whittenhat da m Hills, Berkshire; Bartlow Hills, Essex; Bayford, London.

1Northcot Brownlow'd ean s Hornet Sotterranea. 2 88 PROCEEDING SOCIETYE TH F O S , JANUARY^, 1888. oil.. 'The criisie type of lamp is used in many other places besides Scotland, being found in Iceland,1 the Scilly Isles,2 Auvergne3 in France,

Fig. 8. Brass Hanging Lamp. Algiers, and doubtless elsewhere. The method of manufacture of the Scotch crusie is a matter of some interest. The wrought-iron oil cup is shaped by being hammered into a mould. Mr Gilbert Goudie, Honorary Treasurer to the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, possesses a stone 1 Specimen from Relijavik, in the Edinburgh Industrial Museum. - Jour. Brit. Archceol. Assoc., vol. xxxiii . 192p . . 3 Specimen in Pitt Rivers Collection, at Oxford (see fig. 15). THE ARCHEOLOGY OF LIGHTING APPLIANCES. 89 mould whic uses thir hwa dfo s purpos Shetlandn i e therd an , e are other specimens in the Edinburgh Museum of Antiquities.1 In France lamps of this kin made dar f tineo .

Fig. 9. . Fig. 10. Roman Hanging Lam r Cvusiepo . Modern Crusie, from Shetland. previoue th e 1Se s Goudier papeM f . 70-78o r pp , . 90 PROCEEDING E SOCIETYTH F O S , JANUAR , 1888Y23 .

n lampI s whic e arrangear h hano t d g agains t necesno walla ts i - t i , sary tha e pointh t f suspensioo t n shoul verticalle b d y ove centre th r f eo gravity of the oil vessel.

. Fig11 . Fig. 12 . Chinese Lamps, with stands of bamboo and sheet-iron.

Britise th n I h Museum n Abyssiniathera s i e n lamp supportea n do THE ARCHEOLOGY OF LIGHTING APPLIANCES. 91

wooden bracket hung cigainst the wall. The wooden part consists of an wingo tw s uprighprojectinha t i hunr a nail d ba to t gan , g froe mth lower end whicn o ,s placed i hpottera p cu .l yoi

Fig. 13. Chinese Lamp, made of sections of bamboo.

Lamps Stands.—n o The ordinary kin f lamo d p stand consista f o s solid stem supported on a foot immediately under the centre of the oil vessel, and forming part of the lamp. In the Guildhall Museum, in London, there are some triangular 2 9 PROCEEDING SOCIETYE TH P O S , JANUAR , 1888Y23 .

pottery stands1 for placing under the Eoman terra-cotta lamps. The Chinese make some ingenious lamp f standbamboo t ou sr thi oo n sheet- iron (see figse Edinburgth . 12)d 1n I 1an . h Museu f Antiquitiemo s there is a stand for a crusie lamp. Contrivances r Catchingfo Superfluouse th Oil.— Italmoss i t impossible to regulate the supply of oil to the wick so exactly that the whole of it may be burnt, and therefore some contrivance is necessary for preventing what runs over from being wasted. The contrivances are of two kinds— (1) where the oil is caught in a separate vessel, and (2) where the oil is conducted back int reservoie oth r from whenc t cameei s instanceA . f so the first kind, there is the primitive Chinese lamp (fig. 13), made out of sections of bamboo, as shown on the accompanying drawing, the oil which drips over bein whicp g cu caugh he formth Cornise n standti e th sth d ,han "chil." same Th e2 metho adoptes di e Scotcth n di h crusie, whic- re h semble Eomae th s n lamp already described, excep t s providei tha t i t d with two vessels of similar shape, one below the other, the oil being burnt e drippingth d an e uppe sth e e caughloweon n ri th n ri t one. Both vessel providee sar d an d , witin e wice hli th spoutse cas o kr t on efo n i , in the other to facilitate the pouring back of the superfluous oil when a sufficient quantit collecteds yha e loweTh r. vesse piece s madi lon en ei with the bent bar for suspension ; and the upper vessel is hung over it upo nprojectina e removegb hookn ca thao d s ,t i twhes necesi t i n - sar pouo yt r bac e oil th ksimilaA . r contrivancn e ti survive e th n i s lamp (fig. 14) used in engine rooms and by fishermen. It consists of two cylindrical vessels fittin above on ge othe eth meansy b r socketa f o , the upper one having a closed spout like that of a coffee-pot for the e loweth wick d r onan , e havin open a g n spout immediately undeo t t i r receiv drippingse eth . Sometimes these lamps hav spouto e tw wicksr sfo , on opposite sides. This lamp afford remarkabla s n i y e instancwa e th f eo which archaic contrivance e preservesar consequencn di f theieo r special fitness to be used under certain circumstances where the surroundings are unsuitable for more highly developed appliances.

1 Found in Tokenhouse Yard in 1866. 3 "Descriptio Ancienn a f o n t Lamp, e Meneagcalleth n di e distric Chil,a t y "b R. Blight (Jour. B. Inst. of Cornwall, vol. for 1875, p. 150). . , E ARCHAEOLOGTH F LIGHTINO Y G APPLIANCES. 93

Anothef catchino y wa e superfluour gth a separat n i l oi es vessels i , bronza e seeb n ni o t e lam pe Steefounth n li d Yard, Lower Thames Street, London, and now in the Guildhall Museum. This lamp is suspende opex dsi frons centree spoutha mth d r wickan ,s fo l roundal s . A smal hangp cu l s fro ma hoo k l tricklebeneathoi e th o stha s s , a t

Fig. 15. Kg. 14. Tin Lamp, with five spouts, from Tin Lamp in the Museum. Auvergne (Pitt Rivers Coll.).

down alon e undeth g e spout rs th preventei sid f t o i es d from falling e ground e samth Th n eo . contrivance wile noticeb a llam n i pd ) (figfro15 .m Caen n Normandyi , e Pitth t n Riveri , s Collectiot na Oxford a bronz t Lincoln;n a i , p es alsi u lam og d du an usep1 n i d Mohammedan countries. There are two common methods of catching the superfluous oil with- out having recours secona employes o i e t l vessel e doi e iro On th n .n di lamptin s and from France (fig. 16), resemblin Scotcthe g h crusiein s

1 Illustrated in Jour. Brit. Archceol. Assoc., vol. x. p. 83. 94> PROCEEDING E SOCIETYTH F O S , JANUAR , 1888Y23 . shape t coverebu , dtope oveth t . a r Her e wicketh , instea f hangindo g

Fig, 16, Covered. Lamp of iron, from France. over the edge of the spout, is kept slightly back from it by a little piece of metal like the nib of a pen fastened to the bottom of the lamp, E ARCHAEOLOGTH F LIGHTINO Y G APPLIANCES5 9 .

and inclined at an angle of about 45 degrees to the horizontal. The object of this double lip is to make the oil fall back into the lamp instead of over the edge. e otheTh r contrivanc s appliei e o lampt d s with closed spoutsd an , consist projectina f o s p forminli g ringa g roun wice d th catc o kt e hth oil, there being a hole to allow it to run back (as in fig. 8). There is an exampl f thieo s metho f economisindo e terra-cottth n i l goi a lamps used in Treves at the present day.1 Contrivances for bringing the Oil to the Wick.—The oil is raised from e vesseth whic n i s lcontainei flame t i hlevee th th f e o lo partl t d y yb the capillary attraction of the fibrous wick, but as the oil is consumed this is insufficient, and it becomes necessary to counteract the force of gravit somin y e other way ScotcThe . h crusi provideis e d witan h exceedingly ingenious contrivance for bringing the oil to the flame. The \ shallow vessel containing the oil is hung up on a hook having a series of notches, so that it can be tipped forward gradually as the oil burns down. The same thing may be effected by placing the oil vessel upon a stand, frictioe th n against whic sufficiens hi keeo t positionty e vesse pth an n i l . degreese y tippeb b t I y thep lampn u I dma n . s suspended froe mon e side poin alteree th e inclinatiol n b vesse i t th , oi y a ts e d(a ma l th f no fig. 17) by having a slot or a series of perforations in the top of the bent bar by which it is hung (as in fig. 14), so that the position of the point of suspension above the centre of gravity of the oil vessel may be changed n lampI . s suspended fropointo tw mn opposit o s e sidee sth madinclinatio be vesse oil e self-adjustingmay lthe nof burnoil , assthe down carefully b , y weightin side gon e with metal makind an , capae gth - l vesseoi e lth cit correspondinglf yo y greaten figothee i . th s 8) . n (a r ro The result of this is, that although the oil vessel remains level when full it gradually becomes inclined as the oil gets low. The other methods of e flameth o t bringin, l whicoi e hgth hav e been applie morn di e modern lamps, are by placing the oil reservoir above the level of the flame, as in ordinare th y readin clockworky b g l lamppumpiny oi b n e i r o ,s th a , p gu e lighthousth l pumoi en pa lamps workey b r o , d directl springa y yb s a , in the moderator lamp.

Roach Smith's Collectanea Antigua, vol. ii. p. 152, 1 96 PROCEEDING E SOCIETYTH F O S , JANUARY , 188823 , .

In recent times the difficulty of raising the oil has been avoided by using paraffi othed an n r more volatile fluids.

. FigBras17 . s Hanging Lamp, with Slo adjustmentr tfo . Contrivances for Raising and Lowering the Wick.—[n the commoner kin f lampdo e wicsth raiseds ki , s burnwheha t nti down meany b , f o s e samth e instrument whic s use i hr removin fo d charree th g d portion. THE ARCHEOLOGY OF LIGHTING APPLIANCES. 97

In the more highly developed kinds, however, the two operations of trimming and raising the wick are performed separately. The latter is generally effecte y means b a dsmal f o l toothed wheel pressed hard agains wicke d th turnet a millean , y b d d head held betwee e firsth nt finger and thumb. Contrivances for facilitating Combustion.—In modern lamps circular wicks, double wicks, glass chimneys othed an , r improvements have been introduced, with a view to increasing the supply of oxygen to the flame, and thus increasing the brilliancy of the light. mose Th t recent invention n connectiosi n with artificial illumination are founded on the new principle of using the flame, not to give light directly, but to heat some other incandescent substance. Miners' Lamps.—Sir Humphry Dav d Georgyan e Stephenson, inde- pendently, invented a form of for avoiding explosions in coal mines e flamth , e being protecte a cylindrica y b d l gauze case through unabls i s whic ga passo e t e hth . Special kinds of small oil lamps, which can be attached by a hook to e minerth e usef o ar ,n man i t d ha y e placeth n thii s s countrd an y abroad. Rush Candles.— f ruso he The us s commowa s n i mann y parts of England, especially in Sussex, up to the end of the last century, and Gilbert White gives an admirable account of this " very simple piece of domestic economy " in his Natural History of Selborne.1 The common soft rush (Juncus effusus) is most suitable for the purpose, althoug bulruse hth h (Seirpus lacustris) s sometimei s employed. rushee Th s shoul gatheree db heighe th f n summerdi o t , taking caro t e selec e longesth t d largesan t t specimens e methoTh .f preparatiodo n is as follows:—The rushes must be thrown into water as soon as they are e morcutb thao e peey s ,e th teasilma l y stripped e offwholTh . e of the peel is removed with the exception of a narrow rib running o bottomt fro p mto , whic lefs hi supporo t t e corepithe th Th t s. thus n i dayw y bleaco fe dr t s a d grase obtainer th an h fo sn o laie t dar dou

1 Letter xxvi. Other descriptions will be found in the Sussex Archaeological Collections, vol; Gentleman's 8 . 18 vii . p . Magazine,. J Sept d an . ; 18523 27 . ,p Lucas, Studies in Nidderdale, p. 27. VOL. XXII. G 98 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, JANUARY 23, 1888.

the sun. Finally, they are dipped in scalding grease until thoroughly saturated afted an , r being allowe coo o dt reade ar luser yfo . The rush candle is too long and not sufficiently rigid to stand in a therefors socketha supporte e d b ,an o et specia a y db l contrivance whilst burning. e simplesTh t kin f rush-holdedo s madi r splittiny b e ga stic d an k placin e rusth g h diagonally . withiLucasJ r e cleftM th n1 . states that this primitive apparatus was employed in the north of England not long agoe spliTh .t stick probably suggeste e rush-holdeth d n o r the same principle made of iron, of which there is a specimen from Brittan Pite th t n yElveri s Collectio t Oxfordna . The most common kind of rush-holder, however, consists of a pair of nippers supporte standa ruse e n jawplaces e Th hdo i th th .f so n di nippers, and the necessary pressure given either by a spring or a bent lever and a weight. Sometimes the whole is made of iron, but often e uppeth r part only e nipperth , s being inserte a bloc n f i dwoodo k . The Sussex rush-holders (fig. 18) generallf o y d haven esockea e th t a t e benth te nippers leveth f o r , which serve a doubls e purpose, acting both as a candlestick, and also by its weight keeping the jaws pressed tight together upo e rushnth . Sometime e rush-holdeth s s arrangei r d to hang from a nail (fig. 23) instead of to stand on a table, and in this case there is a rack to adjust the height.2 Gilbert White3 states tha t i take tIb1 .Ibs 6 p sf greas o di . o t e of rushes, or 1600 individuals, and that a good rush about 2 feet 6 inches long burns an hour. Rush Lights.—A rush light is a tallow candle with a rush in the middle of it instead of a cotton wick. The rushes are prepared in the e cas th f rus o e n i h s candlesa samy t ewa instea bu , f beino d g dipped into molte no absort greass a , the bit o e coated s eyar with tallow \>j several successive dippings. The rush wick has also two ribs of the peel lefeacn o tsuppor o ht pite th t h instea onef de o objec th , t beino gt

1 Studies Nidderdale,n i . 27 . p 2 Specimens of rush-holders may be seen at the Guildhall Museum, London; at

Lewes, Chichester, Ipswich, Derby othed an , r museums. 3 Natural History of Selborne, Letter xxvi. THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF LIGHTING APPLIANCES. 99

Fig. 19. Fig. 18. Rack Adjustmen r Hanginfo t g Rush-Holde Candlesticd an r k Cooking-Pot, use Brittann di y combined. (Pitt Rivers Coll.). 100 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, JANUARY 23, 1888.

retard comlrastion. Gilbert WhiteJ says that the rush coated with tallow sheds a dismal light—"darkness visible/' and is not near so economica e rusth hs a lsoake n meltei d d fat. Possibly, howevere th , rus e advantagh th ligh d ha t e ove e rusth r h candl beinn i e g more easily carried about (fig. 20).

. CandlesticFig20 . k with Spring Fastene adjustmentr rfo . Tapers.~A taper is a kind of small candle, with a very thin coating rounx owicke wa f dth .

Taper-holders are made on the same principle as the rush-holders 1 Natural History of Selborne, Letter xxvi. THE AKCILEOLOG LIGHTINF YO G APPLIANCES1 10 .

already described pincerse th t bu , which clitapee pplaceth e rar d horizon- tally instead of vertically. Ther gooa s ei d specime n iroa nf n o taper-holde e Museuth n i r f mo National Antiquities in Edinburgh. The holders for the thicker sort of taper are generally made of brass, and have a circular hole in the jaws of the pincers to allow the taper to pass through. The jaws are kept together by a spring. Candles.—A. candl cylindea s ei f solio r d grease wit hwica k running longitudinally from end to end through the middle of it. The materials formerly used were for the better kind of bleached bees' wax, and for the commoner kind animal fats. Tallow has now been almost entirely abandoned in favour of stearine,1 which is produced from it by removing the glycerine. Other substances, such as spermaceti, paraffin, ozokerit, &c., are also used. Tallow candles were made by dipping a twisted cotton wick into melte dallowind fat an e proces,o cool t Th t s repeategi . swa d several times until the candle was of sufficient thickness. Candles are now mad mouldn ei speciay sb l machinery e chieTh f. improvement which has been presene madth n ei t centur substitutioe th s yi plaitef no d wick fo a twister d one. When first introduced under Palmer's patente th , turning over at the end was caused by saturation with pulverised metallic bismuth same Th e .obtaine resulw no s ti d more simpl tighteniny yb e gth plait on one side, and thus making the tension unequal. The invention of plaitee th d wic renderes kha d instrument trimminr sfo t gquiti e unneces- sary; and snuffers, which were once indispensable to every household, are being relegated to museums. The origin of the candle is lost in the mists of the past. The word occurs in numerous instances in our version of the Scriptures, but it is probably a mistranslation for lamp. The so-called seven branched candlesticks of the Jews, of which there are representation Hebren so gildee th wn d o coinglas d an s vessele th f so thir fourtr do h centurie e catacombth n si t Eomea s evidentle ar , y lamp stands.2 In the text in Leviticus xxiv. 4, " He shall order lamps upon pure th e candlestick, confusee ar o tw d e together"th . 1 Discovered by Chevereuil in 1811. ilartigny's Diet. des. Ant. Chret., p 113. 2 2 10 PROCEEDING SOCIETYE TH F O S , JANUAR , 1888Y23 .

In China lampstands of the same shape as a candlestick are used e presenath t t daye r latThomaM Th e. s "Wright describes hi n i s Uriconium e discoverth f Romao y n candle n oli sd lead workingt a s Shelve Hill, Shropshire preservew , no whic e t ar a Linledh y Hall. saye H s that they were procesth e y madef dippingb so t t no tha, bu , a t flat sheet of wax was rolled round the wick. In the same book an illustration is given of a Roman socket candlestick found in a villa at Petit ITresin, in Belgium, and of an iron one from Wroxeter. Candles are referred to by Juvenal (Sat., iii. 286) and Pliny (Nat. Hist., lib. xvi. c. 70). The oldest post-Roman candlesticks of which specimens are to be found in museums in this country, are those used for ecclesiastical pur- poses, in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. They belong to the class of " pricket" candlesticks (i.e., ones wher candle eth hels ei position di n by a vertical spike), and are generally very beautifully decorated with chasing and enamel. Socket candlestick e Commonwealtth f so h t uncommonperiono e dar , there being a fine example made of glazed pottery in the British Museum, dated A.D. 1651. There are also in the same collection some fourteenth century socket candlesticks of metal, ornamented with arabesques and heraldic shield Venetiaf so n workmanship. In mediaeval times candles were used for lighting churches, as well r ceremoniafo s a l purposes. n examplA a wrought-iro f o e n bracket with prickets for candles exists in the Church of St Peter at Rowlston, in Herefordshire.1 In many cases the consisted of a circular corona round which the lights were placed, hung by chains from the e buildingth roo f o f . Candlesticks with Adjustments for raising or lowering the Level of the Light.—In most machines adjustments are required by means of which the relative position of certain points may be altered by lengthening or shortening the rigid connection between them. The origin of the adjustments used in machinery at the present time may be traced back o thost e domestic appliance whicn si ha contrivanc f thio e s kind, first

1 Architectural Association Sketch Book, vol. iii. See also specimen in Copenhagen Museum, illustrated in J. A Worsaae's Catalogue, p. 18S. E AKCH^EOLOGTH F LIGHTINO Y G APPLIANCES. 103

became necessary, as for example that for tightening the cords of a tent, that for raising or lowering a cooking-pot over a fire (figs. 19 and 21), and tha raisinr fo t gcandl a sockes t it i burn s n ei a t s downe JapanesTh . e use the same device for altering the height of their cooking-pots above fire eth whic s seehi Englann ni tighteninr dfo g tent-cords tensioe Th . n of the cord is applied in a very ingenious manner to prevent the little perforated rocking lever, by -which-the length is altered, from slipping. An adjustment, or contrivance for increasing or decreasing the dis- tance betwee a o point tw f no s machine t completno s i , e withoua t locking apparatus for fixing the length of the rigid connection between the points after it has been changed. commoA n adjustmen cookingr fo t - pots and also for rush-holders con- sists of a rod sliding parallel to a rack, and having a loop of metal at e endth , which catche teete th f hn o s o allowes i d ro drace e soos th th ka s na to fall by its own weight (figs. 19 23)d an . Another adjustmen r candlefo t - sticks is founded on the screw principle e sockeTh whicn .i t e hth candle is placed has a projecting

stud, which works between the pig_ 21_ Contrivance for raising or lower- thread screa f sCooking-Poa o w g formein f thi do r t nba ove firera , used iron twisted spirally round the candle. "' Japan. Some kinds of candlesticks have cylindrical sockets in which the candle can slide up and down, being kept in any required position by the friction against the sides produced by a spring (fig. 20), or by a notch. The necessary friction may also be obtained by thin metal rods pressing agains sockee th t t which slides between them. 104 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, JANUARY 23,

. Fig22 . . Fig23 . ..' . Hanging Candle-Holders with Sprin witd gan h Rack Fastene adjustmentr fo r . THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF LIGHTING APPLIANCES. 105

Instruments for extinguishing Lamps and Candles.—Lights are usually put out by means of a conical cap, called an extinguisher, which excludes the air "when placed over the flame. Extinguishers appear to be of modern origin t founno s the a e ,d ar yassociate d with ancient remains. Large iron extinguisher e eighteentth f o s h century r puttinfo , t ou g seee b torcheseac n no o t he doorwaye th sidar , f eo oldee f somo sth f reo houses in London and Edinburgh. A pair of pincers with a circular end abou shillinga size f th teo , calle da pai f "o r dampers, e sometimear " s used for extinguishing candles. Instruments for trimming the Wicks of Lamps and Candles.—Although the number of ancient lamps discovered from time to time is very great e instrumentth , s use r trimminfo d e wic ge th seldo ar k m found examplew alonfe ge th wits f whicho e thems comhha On e. undey m r e Guildhalth noticn i n i s i ep l u Museug du s n Londonmi wa d an , Tokenhouse Yard in 1865. It is a bronze pin 3 inches long, pointed at one end, and attached to a chain at the other. At each side are projecting hookse othee neath e poin on th d r,r an neate head.th r 1 The rarity of wick trimmers is probably due partly to the small size of such objects, which would cause e los ther b overlookeo to mt y b d discoverers, and also to the fact that pointed instruments originally intended for other purposes may have been used. The wick trimmer of the Eskimo stone lamp, consisting of a bent piece of stick with a curved end, has been already described. For the more primitive kinds of metal lamps such as the Scotch crusie, a small bit of wire is employe e purposeth r dfo . Before the invention of the plaited wick for candles, pairs of snuffers were to be found in every household, but they are now becoming rapidly obsolete. A pair of snuffers (fig. 24) consists of a pair of scissors receivprovideo t e p snufth e to e th f e o df th wit n o hsmala x bo l candle whe e oldest offTh ncu . t specimens whic exisw hno t date back to perhaps the sixteenth century,2 and have a box of heart-shape at the 1 Pins of similar shape have been found in France (see M6moires de la Societi des Antiquaires du Midi de la France, vol. viii.) and at Pompeii (see E. Trollope's Pompeii). t See pair with arms of Cardinal Bainbridge, circa A.D. 1510, illustrated in jour. Brit. Archceol, Inst., vol. x. p. 72, now in the British Museum. 106 PROCEEDING E SOCIETYTH F O S , JANUAR , 1888Y23 .

end, sometimes of brass ornamented with Scripture subjects.1 The modern kind is very ugly, having a rectangular box, and a point at the separatinr fo d en strande e gwicth th r removin kf o so g piece f charreso d cotton from the melted grease at the top of the candle. The snuffers

Fig. 24. Pair of Brass Snuffers. are placed either on a tray by themselves or on the candlestick. e Soutth Ther n hi s Kensingtoi e n Museu n eleganma t stanpaia r rdfo of snuffers, made of wrought iron. .—A is a contrivance for protecting the flame of a lamcandla r po e from bein e winth g dy blow b whe t nou n carrien di the open air. It consists of a cylinder, either entirely or partly made of some transparent substance, surroundin e flam gp d havinth to an e e gth and bottom closed with metal plates, perforated so as to admit the amoun r requireai f o t r combustiondfo . n thiI s countr windowe yth lanternf so made ar s e eithe f horo rr no glass, but in the East, paper and oiled canvas have been vised from time immemorial. Very few specimens of lanterns are preserved in museums, and none of great age. Probably the oldest now existing thas i Fawkesy ts unsuccessfuGu usehi y n b di , l attemp o blot t p wu the Houses of Parliament, which is now in the Bodleian Museum at Oxford. Lanterns were know n Saxoi n n times s thera a pictur, s i e e ^Elfric'n i e oon f s Heptateuc e Britisth n hi h Museum (Clau . foliv .. dB 27), illustrating Abraham's Dream of the Lamp (Genesis xv. 17). 1 Specime Britise nth witn i h e hMuseum AdaEv d man . THE ARCHEOLOGY OF LIGHTING APPLIANCES. 107

Lanterns occur amongs e accessorieth t e Betrayae scenth th f f eo so f o l Christ (John xviii. 3). " Judas then having received a band of men, and e chieofficerth f f o spriest d Phariseesan s , cometh thither with lantern d torchean sd weapons,e twelftan sth n i h s "a centur y Liff o e Christ in the MS. in the British Museum (Nero, c. iv. fol. 21), and in e Saxoth n Benedictiona f ./Ethelwold.o l 1 Dark lanterns provided with a shutte r renderinfo r e lighth g t invisibl e crimina th e use ar ey b d l classes, suc burglarss ha , poachers smugglersd an , . Some curious specimen f salmoso n poachers' lanterns seee werb no t e late ath te International Fisheries Exhibitio samn Londone i n th et A . Exhibitio s showwa n a nlanter n ordinara n f o mad t y ou e spirit glass, which was used for beach work at Polpero, in Cornwall, a hun- dred years ago. .—The torch is probably the most primitive of all lighting appliances. The flame is produced by burning a piece of wood or other dry vegetable substance, impregnated with resin or coated with pitch to mak t i more e combustible a savag n I e. stat f societo e branya d plucked from the fire used for cooking or heating purposes would naturally sugges e tsimples th itsel s a ft kin f portablo d e light. Torche oftee sar n mad f pineo e wood, taken fro mtrea ed whicha s hha o caust incision a e resis a th e o flod fort no ns an wma t mad i n i e coating ove lowee th r rtrunke parth f o t. Torches were known in classical times, the Greek word for one being Xu^os, and the Latin " tseda." Representations occur of torches held by the personifications of the Sun and Moon, and in other instances. Befor e r streetlargth eou ef so town s were lighte y gasdb , link boys carried torche n froni s f persono t s goin t afteou g r dark, and the iron extinguishers with which the light was put out are still to be seen at each side of the doorways of the older houses in London. Even at the present day the dense London fogs necessitate the occasional reviva f thio l s extinct metho illuminationf do . Procession alse ar so still hel torchlighy db somn i t e instances. Mr Bruce Peebles lately delivered an address before the Eoyal Scottish

1 Ardmeologia, vol. xxiv. 8 10 PROCEEDING SOCIETYE TH F O S , JANUAE , 1888Y23 .

Societ e progres f Artth yo n so f artificiaso l method f lightingo s whicn i , h he described the use of torches made of fir wood in Scotland as follows: —"Another and more primitive device for giving light in a dwelling was specimenw fe show a n f i n'peeo s r men, articln vero a 'n yt ea remot e perio common di Scottisn i e nus h country households s purposIt . s ewa to hold the ' fir cannel' or split of resinous fir, by the flame of which the family had supper and the head of the house ' took the books.' The rudest form of the 'peer man' was that of a stout staff of about three feet long, place hola n ei d bored int olarga e stone havind an , a piecg e of slit iron fixed at the upper end for holding the ' cannel wood.' The spli f firo t, taken fro mstoca frama n ko e kept withi ' ingle e th n' that they might be thoroughly dry, would of course be fixed in the slit in a horizontal positione lighth td coula degrean , n i e dregulateb e y b d raising or lowering the burning end. The name ' peer man,' or poor man, is supposed to have originated in the custom of assigning the duty of holding the light to a beggar man who might be within the gates iu the day before the contrivance referred to had been devised. Other forms of ' peer men,' made of iron, and having several hinges after the s bracketmannega a f ,o r were also knowe shownar d o havnt an , e been in use in Mid-Lothian and Lanarkshire within living memory. They were constructed for fixing on the upper bar of a grate, but the illuminant in this instance was not ' cannel wood' but ' cannel coal.' This, as is well known, take's fire easily and gives a good light; the splinter of coal was laid upo e 'peenth r s kepman'wa t t i ;ablaz beiny eb g held neao t r the fire, and the fumes would escape by the chimney." In British Columbia a species of smelt called the candle fish is sufficiently rich in oil to be used as a torch or candle. The dried fish is stuck, tail upwards, in a lump of clay' or a cleft stick and a light applie . it Sometimeo dt piecsa f ruseo h stripita r hpo fro innee mth r bark'of the cypress tree is drawn through the fish by means of a wooden needle. At the Indian and Colonial Exhibition, held in London in 1886, a sort of vegetable torch called a "damar," fixed in a wooden stand, from the Straits Settlements, was shown. The Invention f Gas.—o t Althoughproposeno s i t o describdi t e eth THE ARCHEOLOGY OF LIGHTING APPLIANCES. 109 .

appliance s lightin se presenga use th r n fo i dg t paper e name th th , f eo invento f thio r s improved syste f illuminationmo e timth ed whean , n introduceds wa t i , deserve e recordedb o t s n illuminana . s a Coa s ga l t was invente Williay b d m Murdoch, partnee fir th f Boltomo n i rd nan "Watt, Soho Works, Birmingham, and he first exhibited it in public on the occasion of the Peace of Amiens in the year ] 802.1 William Murdoc s bor t wa a hBellon w Mill, near Auchinleck, Ayrshire, August 21, 1754hous n e lighteofficed H ow an e.t s Eedrutha shi d , in Cornwall, with gas in 1793. Electricity and paraffin, for purposes of illumination, are of too recent e presen origith treatee b n i o nt f do paper .

MONDAY, IZth February 1888.

PROFESSOR DUNS, D'.D., in the Chair.

A Ballot having been taken, the following Gentlemen were duly elected Fellows :—

JAMES FLEMING, jun., Kilmory, Skelmorlie. GEORGE KEID, R.S.A., 17 Carlton Terrace. Rev. ALEXANDER THOMSON, D.D., Constantinople.

followine Th g Donation e Museuth o t d Librars man y were lain do the table, and thanks voted to the Donors :—

Misy B s ) FRASER(1 Hogart0 6 , h Road, London. Gold filigree Watch-Case, said to have belonged to King James VI. Gold filigree Tablet-Cover, said to have belonged to Queen Anne. Small Pin-Cushion, said to have belonged to Queen Mary, but not of the time of Mary Queen of Scots. Sleeve-Link, with hair inserte a square n i d , with gold bordern o ,

1 See letter by Mr S. Adams, an eye-witness, in the Standard, July 3, 1883.