Chapter 15 – Environmental Ethics

General Overview In this final chapter our obligations to the larger non-human community and the rights that that community may have are explored, especially practices involving animals whether it be for food, sport, amusement, etc. What justifies our treatment of animals in this regard since many of our practices involve inflicting pain, injury and death? Are animals simply inferior to humans – like sticks and stones as Plato said, or soulless machines according to Descartes- such that the pain we inflict requires little or no justification? How important is the possession of reason? Are we separate from and superior to nature or inextricably bound to it? Appropriately, this final chapter raises again some of the hardest questions of moral philosophy.

Class Suggestions There are numerous exercises that you might get students to engage in here for this topic. One popular scenario is to get students to imagine they have landed on a new planet with all kinds of things that they don’t recognize flying, crawling and swimming. Some creatures appear to be very intelligent. Their food supplies have run out and desperation will soon set in. They will have to decide what they can eat and what they can’t. What criteria do they use? This kind of activity will bring out assumptions that are often hidden, perhaps by the fact that animals seem to be almost invisibly embedded in every part of our lives and that their use is taken for granted. Other activities might include getting students to work out a hierarchy of animals based on categories like ‘Kill /destroy it because it interferes with your quality of life’ or ‘Own it or deprive it of its freedom without any reason’, ‘Perform harmful experiments on it’, etc. This will bring out many of our inconsistencies regarding how we treat animals, as would a careful consideration of pets and why this particular group of animals are given special rights and to which we, as ‘owners’, have special obligations.

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Chapter 15 – Environmental Ethics

Key Concepts: Nature, Civilization, Speciesism, Sentientism, Wholism, Vegetarianism, Vegan, Environment, Hunting, Factory Farming, Dualism, Dominion, Animal Rights, Reason, Interests, Experimentation, Pets, Zoos, Endangered Species.

Key Questions: 1. What justifies our treatment of animals? Reason, intelligence, superior nature, rights? Critically examine the basis for our practices here. 2. Is hunting justified any longer? Explore grounds for and against and try to justify your own view. 3. Is experimentation on animals morally acceptable in some/all cases? Explain and defend your view. 4. ‘The environment and the animals in it are a resource for human beings to use as they see fit.’ Do you agree with this claim? Say why or why not and carefully define and justify the principles that ground your view. 5. Does nature have any value over and above the value we confer upon it? Explore in relation to the models of dominion and wholism.

Chapter Summary Nature and Morality What relations are there between nature and morality? What obligations do we have to nature?

Environmental ethical issues There are a number of issues of concern: 1. Waste and destruction of natural resources 2. Exploiting, misusing and polluting the environment 3. Exploiting, abusing and destroying animals a. Hunting and destroying animals for food and body parts b. Raising animals for food c. Using animals for scientific experimentation d. Endangerment, decimation and extinction of animal species

Our attitudes toward nature and what lies behind it Native Americans one with nature Eastern religions also see nature and humans as unified. Western view more dualistic. Two sources of dualism. 1. Platonic dualism 2. Judeo-Christian

Rise of science and scientific progress Sources of dualism also give rise to science, technology, industrialization and the encroachment of nature by civilization.

Arguments for use and exploitation of natural environment 1. Dominance over nature a. Religious basis b. Natural order/evolution 2. Human reasoning versus nature as blind and non-reasoning 3. Civilization more important than nature 4. Moral rights and obligations – humans more important

Arguments against the use and exploitation of nature 1. Monistic wholism versus dominance and domination? 2. Reasoning should not separate humans from nature and nature should not be subordinated to civilization

55 Moderate position Treat nature with respect but still (carefully) use nature for human good.

Criteria for animal rights 1. Life and being alive 2. Having interests 3. Attributes of soul, mind and feelings 4. Reason

Ways of dealing with animal rights 1. Vegetarianism 2. Sentimentalism 3. Wholism

Use of animals for food Ways of raising animals for food 1. Factory farming 2. Free range

Vegetarianism – opposed to 1. Carnivores – whichever method delivers best quality meat Moderate position – condone animals as food, except by clearly cruel methods like factory farming

Use of animals for experimentation Arguments for Scientific and medical purposes.

Arguments against Not justified in making an animal suffer for human benefit

Moderate position Not opposed to experiments but they must be absolutely necessary

Killing animals for sport It should be allowed 1. An ancient activity of man 2. Controlling animal population 3. Desire for animal meat and other body parts

It should not be allowed 1. An ancient activity no longer required 2. The animal population will control itself 3. No further need for wild game or body parts

Moderate position 1. Killing for sport allowed on a limited basis 2. No reason to kill wild animals for meat 3. No killing animals for body parts and skins

Protection of endangered species 1. Irreverence for segment of life is irreverence for all life 2. Species are beautiful and should be preserved for all 3. All animals contribute to balance of nature

Conclusion Is it possible to achieve a balance between the progress of civilization and natural environment?

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