PRIMARY MESSAGE

APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET

by

NATHAN SADORUS

B.A., University of Colorado Colorado Springs, 2017

A thesis submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the

University of Colorado Colorado Springs

in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of

Master of Arts

Department of Communication

2017

© 2017

NATHAN SADORUS

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii

This thesis for the Master of Arts degree by

Nathan Sadorus

has been approved for the

Department of Communication

by

Carmen Stavrositu, Chair

George Cheney

Maja Krakowiak

Date:___12/11/17______

iii

Sadorus, Nathan (M.A., Communication)

Primary Message Appeal, Attitude, and Diet

Thesis directed by Associate Professor Carmen Stavrositu.

ABSTRACT

This study examined two different appeals (rational vs. emotional) in the format of two short documentary clips aimed at influencing viewers to adopt a plant-based diet.

Participants (N = 127) viewed one of two 2-minute documentary clips that explain the health benefits of adopting a plant-based diet from either a rational appeal based on scientific facts delivered by credible sources or from an emotional appeal of a personal testimonial where the speaker is overcome with emotion about the personal benefits experienced from her adoption of a plant-based diet. Participants viewed each clip and then rated the clip on perceived argument strength and attitude toward the message measures. The manipulation check of each appeal showed that each appeal was statistically significant. Therefore, the manipulation used in this study was effective.

Findings indicate that neither message produced significant attitude favorability or perceived argument strength differences. An additional measure, Need for Cognition

(NFC), was included to discover if people categorized as high NFC (N = 45) and low

NFC (N = 33) favor one appeal over the other. While the findings did indicate slight preferences, neither one was statistically significant. Theoretical and practical implications including a section on limitations and ideas for future research are included at the conclusion of the discussion section of this thesis.

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank my thesis committee for taking the time to develop this thesis and offer helpful guidance throughout my graduate studies. Special thanks to Dr. George

Cheney for meeting with me on several occasions to brainstorm possible committee members and a chair while also facilitating the communication between members in the beginning stages. Dr. Carmen Stavrositu was instrumental in advancing my growth in graduate-level statistics and helped translate and structure the knowledge into academic form for this thesis. Dr. Krawkowiak has been extremely busy for the last few semesters, and I feel honored that she would serve on my committee and offer her time. A few acknowledgments are in order for non-committee members, and first and foremost I would like to thank Janice Thorpe. Janice has been my “lifeline” in many academic matters from my undergraduate degree up until the present. As her Research Assistant, I learned a lot about data collection, building surveys, and recruiting participants. I appreciate her confidence in me as she asked me to serve as a guest lecturer in research methods. Furthermore, add a portion of writing to her recent submission for publication.

Dr. Morreale has served as an inspirational mentor, and I credit her with the choice of pursuing a career as an instructor. She honed my public speaking skills and gave me the opportunity to serve as her teaching assistant in the advanced public speaking course. Dr.

Bell is a pivotal piece in my journey, as I met with him on numerous occasions to discuss course selection, career advice, and he has genuinely lent me his honest attention.

Furthermore, he exposed me to the tedious but necessary nature of coding. I could not discuss everyone in this short acknowledgment, but I would like to thank the many faculty members that I did not mention and the Communication Department overall. v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER

I. INTRODUCTION...... 1

Background...... 2

II. LITERATURE REVIEW...... 8

Rhetoric...... 8

Affective and Cognitive Attitude Structure...... 18

Food Classification...... 21

Affective and Cognitive Appeals...... 22

Need for Cognition...... 27

III. METHODS...... 35

Participants and Procedure...... 35

Stimulus Material...... 36

Measures...... 37

IV. RESULTS...... 41

V. DISCUSSION...... 44

Theoretical and Practical Implications...... 44

VI. LIMITATIONS...... 47

VII. CONCLUSION...... 51

REFERENCES...... 52

APPENDICES...... 58

Recruitment Letter Study…………………………………………………..58

Online Questionnaire...... 60 PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Climatologists, environmental communication scholars, activists, and concerned researchers in a variety of fields seek to educate the public on ways of lessening environmental impact. Documentaries are educating the public on the harmful effects animal agriculture has on climate change because articles that discuss climate change are rarely discussing meat’s devastating influence on the environment. Neff, Chan, and

Smith (2008) reviewed over 4,500 topical climate change articles and found that only

2.4% discussed meat’s contribution to the problem. Therefore, documentaries face the tough task of informing and motivating the masses to change their behavior and attitude.

Organizations like PETA use graphic portrayals of animal storage conditions to evoke emotion in the audience. However, emotion is not only used in graphic portrayals but can also be used through creative and inspirational commentary that resonates with the audience as a role model of inspiration.

In a different approach, credible academic scholars opt for a rational yet informed discourse that focuses on the health benefits associated with eating a plant-based diet

(Arora, Bradford, Arora, & Gavino, 2017). This thesis compares two different type of appeal one of the two appeals is the rational appeal which uses a “thinking” and

“functional” appeal to persuade through statements of scientific research and testimony as to improve the function of overall health one receives by adopting a plant-based diet

Dube et al., (as cited in Ruiz, & Sicilia, 2004). The second type of appeal is the emotional appeal which seeks to influence someone by an appeal to their emotions, and they advance their argument through a number of possible emotional responses including PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 2

fear, anxiety, sadness, joy, shame, guilt, and many others (Miceli, Rosis, & Poggi, 2006).

Plant-based documentaries contain messages that promote the health benefits one can

achieve by adopting a plant-based diet. How a viewer processes messages, in this case, a

message of adopting a plant-based diet, requires an additional measure of insight. The

need for cognition is a cognitive assessment measure that claims there are stable

differences in an individual’s tendency to engage in and enjoy cognitive activities that

require effortful thinking (Cacioppo, & Petty, 1982). The interest in these concepts is

exploratory as to which approach is more favorable overall and whether someone’s need

for cognition is a trait that activists or health communication professionals may want to

align when presenting a message to influence someone to eat a healthier plant-based diet.

This study will use two appeals and the need for cognition to evaluate which appeal is

the most favorable and if people high in need for cognition rate the cognitive (rational)

appeal more favorable in comparison to the affect (emotional) appeal. The shift in

thinking about matters of diet is based on environmental and health implications, and

when a person decides to drastically alter their diet by refusing to eat meat, it is usually

due to one or more of three paths (Arora et al., 2017).

Background

Three Plant-Based Paths

Research on vegetarianism and the motives for becoming vegetarian can be divided into three distinct paths (Arora et al., 2017). The first path is the central focus in this experimental design and the subject of the two-minute documentaries as it is the path to health and healthier living (Arora et al., 2017). One achieves noticeably improved health from an increase in consumption of fruits, vegetables, grains, and complete proteins. The PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 3

second path stems from the belief that a meat-free diet is environmentally friendly in that it can slow down the rate and save many of the planet’s natural resources, e.g., water

(Arora et al., 2017). The third path is concerned with animal rights, moral values, and ethical reasons associated with consuming animals for dietary purposes (Arora et al.,

2017). Specifically, the issue of animal rights is heavily weighted in matters of moral

and ethical concerns regarding sentience and the cruel manner, treatment, and living

conditions of animals raised for consumption. The following is a brief discussion of the

many environmental and health dangers that accompany the consumption of meat and

animal-based products. The issue of animal rights is worth mentioning in this section, but , the following sections will discuss the evidence-based environment and health paths

and will not include a section dedicated to the ethical and moral dilemmas surrounding

the need for animal rights.

Environmental Need

The United States remains the overall leader in meat consumption despite a global

meat consumption increase in developed nations around the world in recent years

(Daniel, Cross, & Sinha, 2011). Agriculture accounts for roughly 35% of global

anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions, and most of this percentage is from livestock production (McMichael, Powles, Butler, & Uauy, 2007). Livestock production causes

deforestation from animal-grazing and soy-feed production, and soil-carbon loss in arable

land as a result of livestock grazing (McMichael et al., 2007). Livestock production emits

methane into the atmosphere from animal manure, enormous amounts of fossil fuel

energy are used to transport and maintain animals including their feed, and finally nitrous

oxide leakage into main bodies of water due to nitrogen-based fertilizers used on crops PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 4

for animal consumption (McMichael et al., 2007). Desertification is unfit for agriculture purposes because of the desert like properties that are caused by all of the beforementioned reasons listed. Therefore, deforestation, and intensive agriculture for

livestock purposes are taking place in the tropical rainforests of South America,

especially Brazil, Bolivia, and Paraguay (McMichael et al., 2007). Furthermore, a great

decrease in global meat consumption must take place, or we risk changes to our climate

of epidemic proportions. The damage to the environment may be irreparable at this present moment. Therefore, a major shift in our dietary lifestyle is of dire importance.

There seems to be more of an overall global focus on greenhouse gas reduction from

the transportation and energy sectors while trying to find and incorporate alternatives that

transition the dependence from fossil fuels to cleaner energy sources like solar power and

wind turbines etc. However, global greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture, mainly

crop-feed production and animal husbandry including the changes in the land, as a result,

exceed more than the transport and power generation sectors (McMichael et al., 2007).

The combination of decreasing natural resources needed for human survival, greenhouse

gas emissions, and loss of arable land to include a loss of land biodiversity indicates the

need for a societal shift in dietary thinking. According to the Water Footprint Network

(n.d.), personal water footprint calculator, the average US meat-eater uses 191,261

gallons of water per year. The amount of water is a staggering figure, but every pound of beef skipped will save the planet 1,850 gallons of water (Mekonnen, & Hoekstra, 2010).

The comparison of growing vegetables in relation to livestock production is a lop-sided

debate, to say the least. Protein from a grazing cow or one found in confinement has a

carbon footprint per unit protein weight 100 times larger than vegetable proteins (Nijdam PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 5

et al., 2012). Cows have a water footprint of 112 liters of water per gram of protein compared to just 19 liters for beans and lentils (Mekonnen & Hoekstra, 2012).

Therefore, a sustainable future in food production for the environment depends on the growth and consumption of more vegetables.

Health Need

The health benefits of eating a plant-based diet are well documented (Hu, 2003; Tuso,

Ismail, Ha, & Bartolotto, 2013). A plant-based diet encourages whole, plant-based food

consumption while eliminating all meat, dairy products, eggs, fish, and refined and processed foods (Tuso et al., 2013). Berkow and Barnard (as cited in Tuso, Ismail, Ha, &

Bartolotto, 2013) reviewed 87 published studies and found that a vegan/vegetarian diet

was highly effective in weight loss. The same review found that vegan/vegetarian diets

lowered rates of heart disease, high blood pressure, diabetes. Also, vegan diets burned

the most calories after meals in comparison to all non-vegan diets (Tuso et al., 2013). In

a study conducted over an eleven-year period found that African-American and

Caucasian men and women alike found that a diet consisting of whole-grain foods

including fruits and vegetables was inversely associated with total mortality rates (Steffen

et al., 2003).

Colorectal cancer risk is believed to decrease a third with every 100g per day

reduction in red and processed meat (McMichael et al., 2007). Another key benefit and

one that is extremely relevant to this master’s thesis is that consuming a plant-based diet

can reduce the number of medications one takes for chronic illnesses (Tuso et al., 2013).

Despite the benefits associated with eating a vegan/vegetarian or plant-based diet most

“western” physicians are still not prescribing plant-based nutrition to aid in chronic PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 6

illness recovery, and many believe it is a lack of education in the area of nutrition (Tuso

et al., 2013). The lack of education and recommendations from experts in the field of

medicine is what has led to a plant-based movement in civil society targeting a social

change in dietary patterns.

Social Change and Documentaries

A documentary film can be a useful tool to increase awareness about a variety of social issues and challenges. Successful films address social issues that viewers are not necessarily aware of and attempt to change societal norms by creating a dialogue through the art of storytelling and vivid portrayals of human experience (Finneran, 2014). For example, authentic testimonies given by topically relevant speakers in documentaries can result in support for societal issues (Finneran, 2014). Therefore, many documentary films aim to generate empathy, the experience of understanding another person’s condition from their perspective, in their audience as a key strategy for creating a social impact campaign (Psychology Today, 2017; Finneran, 2014). For example, every film that is focused on a need for societal change has an ultimate end-goal strategy. A film may attempt to move an audience to support a new legislation bill or reconsider eating from a fast-food giant because of the health dangers as is the case in Morgan Spurlock’s documentary Super Size Me (2004).

This study used two separate two-minute clips of an emotional and a rational appeal.

The primary objective in each of this study’s short documentary clips is the same: to influence the audience to adopt a plant-based diet. The appearance of authentic testimony is used in both clips but from one is an informative fact-based appeal and the other is from an authentic testimony based on experience. The different appeals are how PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 7 the filmmaker's attempt to influence viewers to achieve their desired end-goal.

Therefore, each documentary strives to change the attitude and eating behaviors on an individual-level but hopes that the individual-level influence will diffuse into a broader social movement. Rhetorical devices date back 2,400 years ago to the days of Aristotle, and during Aristotle’s day, they began a process to analyze and provide criticisms of the speaker including their delivery, style, vivid language, content, and structure with the end-goal to influence the audience. Many rhetorical criticisms such as the five canons of rhetoric serve as a guide for crafting a speech but also as a template for judging the effectiveness of rhetoric (Crick, 2014).

PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 8

CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

The first portion of this literature review will focus on a few different rhetoric definitions including some of the differences and commonalities that exist. The discussion transitions to the rhetorical inspection of each two-minute clip and the strengths and weaknesses found in each of the five canons of rhetoric. The literature review follows the five canons of rhetoric with a section on the basis of cognitive and affect attitudes followed by a review of the literature on emotional vs. rational appeals and the need for cognition. The literature review begins with rhetoric because approximately 2,400 years ago in the days of Aristotle until the early 20th century; an

educated man was expected to be able to speak and draft a message effectively (Crick,

2014).

Rhetoric

Rhetoric is the art of public speaking whereby a speaker deliberately uses persuasive

strategies in the pursuit of transforming and encouraging a new or different way of

thinking about a problematic situation (Crick, 2014). Rhetoric is how people use

language, symbols, and act as agents of social change (Crick, 2014). The definition of

rhetoric is not universal as confusion among definitions exist, however, Bryant (1953)

wrote that rhetoric is “the rationale of informative and suasory discourse.” This

definition is based upon a reasonable conclusion to make a decision contingent upon the proper organization and delivery of all relevant subject-matter (Bryant, 1953). Burke

(1951) wrote about an old, and new rhetoric and the old rhetoric focused on the explicit, PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 9

deliberate, and bounded attempts to persuade an audience. The new rhetoric incorporates

identification into rhetoric including the multiple ways the speaker identifies with the

audience and vice versa (Burke, 1951).

Identification is used in many political campaigns as a way of minimizing the gap between the speaker and audience and unifying them which aids is speech effectiveness.

A new way of thinking that can lead to social change involves, especially in regard to this

thesis, challenging preexisting dietary norms and reconsidering a diet free from animal-

related products in favor of adopting a plant-based diet. Virtually all messages and

rhetoric use a mix of tools including reason/logic (logos), emotion (pathos), and

credibility (ethos), to construct their argument and challenge public sentiment (Crick,

2014). These elements all what Aristotle called the “artistic” proofs of rhetoric or persuasion, and as Grimaldi (1972) argued the three should be seen as interrelated related

dimensions of persuasion in practice. A neuro-psychologist Damasio (2004) advances

the idea that reason and emotion cannot be appealed to completely separate from one

another and he argues that emotion no matter how subtle still plays a part in reasoning.

Damasio (2005) explains the brain contains complex organisms that serve as a regulation

of internal feelings, drives, and instincts quite possibly preceding cognitive reasoning.

Therefore, it would be neglectful to ignore that each proof can be isolated and appealed to

separately or to dismiss the notion that the basis of attitude will be based only on reason

or emotion exclusively. Therefore, it was important that two short documentary clips

were representative of the five essential principles, aspects or canons used in creating a successful speech (Crick, 2014).

PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 10

The Five Canons of Rhetoric

This portion of discussion features a rhetorical analysis of the two clips that participants in the study will view. Each clip features characteristics that are tailored to

one of two appeals. The first clip is from Forks Over Knives, (2011), and this appeal is

chiefly rational, based on facts, statistics, and credible testimony from doctor’s in the

field of nutrition research. The emotional clip is from What the Health (2017) and is based on an emotional testimony from an expert by experience eating a plant-based diet and not by merit. The Rhetorica ad Herennium believed to be written by Cicero, but written anonymously, in the first century B.C. created the five canons of invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery this discussion will begin with invention as the first of the five canons (Crick, 2014). Quintilian was instrumental in the advancement and teaching of the canons as he implemented the lifelong development of an orator and added theoretical content to the canons of memory, delivery, and style specifically

(James, 1951). The five canons of rhetoric are relevant to this study in that future research can perform similar five canon analysis to improve areas their clip or message may be lacking. Furthermore, the five canons provide guidelines and criteria to apply to analyzing any clip or message that seeks to influence audience members.

Activists and scholars that are interested in the study of primary message appeals will appreciate the studious task of finding clips that represent each appeal sufficiently while keeping everything else as constant as possible. However, experienced activists and interested parties realize that often documentaries centered on adopting a plant-based diet gravitate toward a primarily rational or emotional approach. The functional analysis theorists believe a link exists between an attitude's origin and how susceptible one is to PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 11

different forms of influence. Furthermore, functional analysis explains that attitudes are not formed strictly through reason but also includes feelings, needs, and other emotional factors (Edwards, 1990). Therefore, a mixture of both rational and emotional appeal with credible testimony is ideal in every scenario and will create a complete argument.

Activists and plant-based enthusiasts will hold and attend many events with pop-up booths where they will set up short documentary clips, and sometimes pay people to enter the booth to watch the short video. The process of invention gathers all material and begins the evaluative process by selecting the most influential material (Crick, 2014).

One must perform a comprehensive analysis from a variety of categories that include statistics, facts, testimonies, examples, narratives, topics, and maxims in order to gather relevant materials useful in forming a strong argument (Crick, 2014).

The producers and director of Forks over Knives (2011) decided to use the credible

testimony of Dr. T. Colin Campbell and colleagues where they discuss their own research

study titled The China Study (Campbell, 2006). Aristotle believed that the amount of expertise one has on the topic being discussed, then they will possess greater influence and perceived source credibility in the artistic proof ethos (Braden & Valenzano III,

2015). The proof that Dr. Campbell and colleagues present are scientific facts based on their research. For example, they argue that consuming primarily fruits, grains, and vegetables will lead to better health by lowering mortality rates due to cardiovascular disease. The What the Health (2017) clip features an example of a lay testimony from

Amy Resnic, a woman that discusses her frustration with doctor’s recommendation to continue to prescribe medications without discussing the possibility of regaining a healthy lifestyle by consuming a nutritious diet. PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 12

Ethos is established by Amy reporting on the benefits of eating a plant-based diet. She

discusses how eating a plant-based diet for only two weeks has eliminated her need for

anti-depressants, pain, and heart medication which leads to an overwhelming display of

emotion. Furthermore, an authentic testimony can influence people to view her

testimony as authentic and believable.

The topic of invention is important as to what each clip wants to achieve by pointing out the health benefits one receives when they adopt a plant-based diet. A full account of invention is in this case largely inferential without knowing all of the materials available

to the filmmakers including potential charts, statistics, testimonials, etc. that were

excluded and did not make the final edit. However, it is still a helpful guide to the process of selecting the content, presentation, and delivery approach each clip the

filmmakers decided upon to achieve what they believe is a successful rhetorical message.

Forks over Knives (2011) discusses its topic and all the guiding material from the place

(topoi) concerning health benefits by showing the connection between animal product

consumption and mortality rates whereas, the What the Health (2017) clip likewise the

focus comes from a place of health benefits by connecting animal product consumption

to the speakers need for chronic illness medication.

The second canon is the arrangement or structure of the material discovered and how

it should be placed in order to reach the highest favorability. The arrangement should

capture the audience’s attention and engage them while guiding them through the body of

the speech and end with a poignant conclusion (Crick, 2014). Finding two two-minute

clips for this master’s thesis that have a clear introduction, body, and conclusion while

delivering a digestible message was an obstacle but one where both clips achieve PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 13

rhetorical arrangement successfully. Introductions can function in many forms, as there

is not one universal method. The goal remains the same in all appeal types as the

message should capture the audience’s attention. The clip from What the Health (2017)

features an attention-getting metaphor delivered by a physician with strong, vivid

imagery by verbalizing bullets being emptied from a chamber and not taking a risk with

one’s health by removing animal products from one’s diet. The short commentary sets a

tone where the audience is introduced to the topic that will be discussed, therefore,

supplying a transition into Amy Resnic’s personal testimony and success story. Amy’s

testimony is the body of the message, and the conclusion displays Amy being overcome

with emotion and joy to the point of tears leading to a warm embrace with the director.

The conclusion is effective because she gives credit to a healthy plant-based diet for her

new hope and optimism in a life of improved health and well-being. The filmmaker

chose to include Amy’s testimony as a way to show a personal story that people can

relate about the experience of improved health due to adopting a plant-based diet.

Instead of discussing facts and statistics about how the various ailments of pain and blood pressure that were representative of health Amy’s health problems the filmmakers the

emotional and experiential route of testimony.

The Forks over Knives (2011) stimulus clip begins with a preview of The China

Study (2006), and the study identified between 8-9,000 correlations between diet and

disease. The body of the speech involves a discussion of variables, graphs, and charts of

the time duration and some of the variables that were tested with a colleague summing up

all the data into a brief statement where a plant-based diet is always associated with lower

mortality. The conclusion reiterates that all the data pointed to a result that a plant-based PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 14

diet is beneficial to human health and a diet that includes animal products were not. The

third canon of rhetoric analysis is style, and it is the unique way a message uses the materials gained through invention and the order selected to arrange the materials in a

way that threads them together in a meaningful and coherent manner (Frick, 2014). Style

is an important aspect of delivering a successful speech that engages viewers and leads to

suggested action. Typical aspects of style refer to how the speaker uses a phrase,

statement, and the careful selection of words from what they have invented, selected and

arranged (Corbett, 1963).

The use of style is accomplished by the repetitious statement discovered from The

China Study (2006) that consuming a plant-based diet is beneficial to human health was reiterated at the end of the clip as this statement was also mentioned in the body of the clip. Visual aids were used in both clips. The research conducted over the decades of

1970 and 1980 discussed in the film Forks over Knives (2011) uses many visual aids including number charts, geographical maps, graphs, and a New York Times article. The use of the charts, graphs, etc. is to aid in the explanation of logic and science-based commentary explaining the research that was conducted. The testimony from What the

Health (2017) used a visual aid of several medication bottles to emphasize the large amount of medication Amy Resnic was taking but has stopped due to a short two-week period of eating a strictly plant-based diet. Style is also referred to as language control, and the purpose of the speech will determine the style and words one uses (Golden,

2003). For example, if one is giving a motivational speech to move the audience to action then the speaker will rely on timing, emphasis, accuracy, and possibly dramatic descriptive words and language that resonate with audience members (Golden, 2003). PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 15

Memory is the fourth canon and one that does not require a lot of analytical discussion in this master’s thesis. Memory is not strictly about memorizing a speech or other type of message but includes a way the orator makes object associations with the main points of the speech (Golden, 2003). Therefore, a chair represents one portion, painting another portion, but the speaker should identify these in the logical sequence planned ahead of time (Golden, 2003). The memorization process suggests breaking sections into small portions and to practice the portions out-loud and often (Golden,

2003). The memorization of speech in a documentary format is not as important as a public speech because most documentaries are able to edit material and provide a chance

to retake a scene where the commentary may have missed valuable key points of

information. However, the director of each film and in this case each clip is responsible

for ensuring that each short topic discussion covers all relevant information. In each clip,

the information covers all main points and does not seem to be lacking any relevant data.

Delivery is the final canon, and it includes the appropriate dress presentation, gestures, body movement, positioning, and facial expressions that aid in the successful delivery of

the speech and its content. Not communicating effectively or lacking in one area may

distract the viewer from the message and lose its intended influence including the

attention of the viewer.

Many critiques both positive and negative can be discussed in regard to both clips.

However, there could be an overall cinematic purpose that would provide an explanation for each critique. Therefore, this discussion will focus on a few noteworthy examples but will not provide an exhaustive criticism of every way the final delivery could have been more effective. There is one scene in particular from both films that could have been PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 16

done differently to achieve an improved delivery of all the canons leading to a higher

acceptance rate. In the Forks over Knives (2011) clip, there are multiple scenes from the same setting where the clips’ two main speakers are displayed where one is standing, and the other speaker is sitting, and each speaker is looking at an open book of research results while sporadically looking at the camera when talking.

A common technique used by documentary filmmakers will isolate the speaker and display each speaker’s credential down below in bold text while the speaker talks directly to the audience centered in front of the camera. The delivery of this clip’s message could have benefitted from this technique. Logos aims to influence the audience through logical reasoning, and there is plenty of research and data tables to show favor that the

Forks over Knives (2011) clip used logos successfully (Braden, & Valenzano III, 2015).

However, logos also includes the most logical presentation and isolating the speaker as suggested may have provided greater influence in the artistic proof. The What the Health

(2017) clip includes a major oversight in overall delivery. Aristotle’s artistic proof pathos is the appeal’s ability to influence an audience to make an ethical or correct action based on an emotional connection with the speaker’s use of language and narrative

(Braden, & Valenzano III, 2015).

There is a scene that demonstrates pathos in an emotional appeal where the speaker is on the verge of tears and overcome with feelings of gratitude that leads to a connection with the audience and topic. This same scene contains a criticism where the viewer can watch the director in this scene of emotion and notice he is not making eye-contact with the speaker Amy Resnic. This is troublesome if noticed because there seems to be a disconnect present before the director offers her a warm embrace at the conclusion of the PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 17

clip. The director and film colleagues should have caught this oversight and cropped the

director out of the scene and allowed him to enter the scene for the warm embrace only.

There is probably an explanation for the obvious lack of eye-contact but it can be viewed as inauthentic and insincere to the viewer and his influence in terms of ethos as a genuine and honest person could be negatively impacted, if noticed by a viewer. The point of discussing this one certain criticism of lack of eye-contact is to explain the difficulties that exist for any rhetorician that plans to offer the most influential message possible. A slight oversight can be enough to distract a viewer from accepting the message or suggested action. It is extremely difficult to offer a flawless speech where each of the five canons is executed to perfection, and an effective amount of each artistic proof is used. It is difficult because audience members are not the same and communities everywhere contain a plethora of diverse members.

The complexity of documentaries that aim for social change is a challenging process as they attempt to locate a correct mixture of rational and emotional reasoning all the while coming from credible sources. Also, there is the important matter of audience type and composition. However, plant-based diet documentaries often attempt to include a mixture of artistic proofs in all appeals, but the overall tone of the film will tend to favor an emotional or rational appeal. The emotional clip in this master’s thesis is a testimonial about a personal transformation that will often stir feelings of inspiration leading to motivation. There is one other type but commonly used impactful emotional appeal that is worth mentioning and involves the artistic proof of pathos. As a stark contrast to the emotional dimensions of this thesis’s emotional appeal featuring emotional dimensions of gratitude and transformation leading to inspiration and motivation, there exists a different PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 18

campaign of influence that displays moral shock images where the emotional dimensions

lead to anger, hate, and disgust. The eventual outcome of this type of emotional appeal

campaign can also lead to motivation to adopt a plant-based diet based on entirely

different reasoning such as animal living conditions, animal abuse and cruelty, and the

ethical and moral dilemmas that exist in the human-animal relationship. The five canons,

Aristotle’s “artistic” proofs, and a general discussion of rhetoric pertaining to each clip seemed logical in sequence as this literature review transitions to appealing to affect and cognitive-based attitude structure.

Affective and Cognitive Attitude Structure

The distinction between thinking and feeling as a way of classifying human experience is believed to have dated back as far as the ancient religion of Hinduism and to Greek philosophers (Mcguire, 1985). The way of classifying human experience in modern times is still concerned with the distinction between thinking and feeling, but the terms are now referred to, more commonly, as affective and cognitive. Affective and cognitive research in modern times use these same constructs but the term for feeling is affect, and thinking is cognition to classify and to understand the underlying nature of attitudes and persuasive communication (Fabrigar, 1995). A few definitions of attitude from leading researchers in the field will give the context of attitude research and the use of appeals in communication. In a study of attitude structure and change Stotland, Katz, and Patchen (1959) defined attitude as “an individual’s tendency or predisposition to evaluate an object or symbol of that object in a certain way.” Another definition of attitude that is relevant to this study comes from the creators of the Elaboration

Likelihood Model, for which Petty & Cacioppo (1981) define attitude as “a general PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 19

enduring positive or negative feeling about some person, object, or issue.” The consensus of attitudes is that they are evaluative in nature toward a positive or negative view associated with the specific object or issue of communication (Fabrigar, 1995).

Petty and Cacioppo (1986) came to theorize that there are two basic routes to persuasion.

The central route to persuasion involves the careful evaluation and consideration of arguments central to the issue of focus (Petty & Caccioppo, 1986). The peripheral route to persuasion involves affective associations that bring about inferences related to peripheral cues such as attractiveness, general impressions, mood, or a lack of interest and ability to process the message (Petty & Caccioppo, 1986).

In the early to mid-twentieth century research on the structure of attitudes was based on how to measure and create a construct for affect and cognition (Fabrigar, 1995). For example, M. Brewster Smith (1947) conducted a descriptive analysis of American attitudes towards Russia. Smith (1947) split up attitudes towards Russia into multiple components and among the ten components were affect and cognition. Affect was measured as a person’s feelings toward Russia in terms of direction (i.e., approval/disapproval) and intensity (i.e., the degree of concern) (Smith, 1947). Cognition was measured in terms of informational context (e.g., the structure of belief and knowledge) and time perspective (e.g., future expectation developments toward Russia)

(Smith, 1947). As a result, affect, and cognition as components of attitude become a general perspective of attitude structure by social scientists (Fabrigar, 1995; Fabrigar &

Petty, 1999; Krech & Crutchfield, 1948).

Attitude evaluations have evolved over many years of research and have led to a plethora of studies that believe attitude formation and change involve multi-component PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 20

constructs (Fabrigar & Petty, 1999). The affect component of attitude means that a person evaluates their feelings and emotions about a particular attitude object and the

cognitive component is the beliefs and perceptions about an attitude object (Breckler &

Wiggins, 1989). Early attitude theorists failed to agree on the way to classify affect

correctly, and its dimensions were rather vague and rather broad in their concept of

feelings (Breckler & Wiggins, 1989; Breckler, 1984; Petty, Fabrigar & Wegener, 2003).

However, affect has since been conceptualized as consisting of discrete positive and

negative emotions, such as happiness, sadness, and joy, when associated with an attitude

object (Breckler & Wiggins, 1989; Breckler, 1984; Petty, Fabrigar & Wegener, 2003).

The early research viewed components of affect and cognition and responses to an attitude object but failed to consider that the attitude had a separate existence from its components (Fabrigar, 1995). However, theorists Petty and Caccioppo (1986) believed attitude is a categorization of an object along an evaluative dimension that could be based on affect or cognition. All the different perspectives of theorists realize that affect based attitudes and cognitive-based attitudes can function quite differently while also acknowledging the importance studying the nature of affect/cognition and the attitude objects in question (Fabrigar, 1995). The theoretical discussions of affect and cognition have been empirically applied to many studies and been measured based on their attitude object. Attitude structure and determining whether its affect or cognitive based in nature

has been empirically tested on a number of social issues and domains.

For example, affect, and cognition was measured in six domains of attitude that

included blood donation, legalized abortion, computers, nuclear weapons, standardized

admissions tests, and comprehensive college examinations (Breckler & Wiggins, 1989). PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 21

In this study that evaluated six domains of affect and cognition determined that the term

evaluation was a better term than cognition due to the judgments about an attitude object

(Breckler & Wiggins, 1989). The decision made by Brecker and Wiggins (1989) to

change the term to evaluation further advances the previously discussed argument on

discrete emotions and affect and the evaluative nature of cognition. Subjects were given

a booklet, and on one page the subjects were instructed to evaluate attributes of an

attitude object and on the other indicate how the attitude object made them feel (Breckler

& Wiggins, 1989). Affect was found to be less favorable in order of margin in the

domains of blood donation, computers, and comprehensive examinations (Breckler &

Wiggins, 1989). However, an additional measure of prior donation experience found that

affect had its greatest influence in favorability in the absence of direct prior experience

(Breckler & Wiggins, 1989). The next section will discuss the classification of food and

will follow with a discussion on appeals and the studies that have advanced their use in

numerous fields.

Food Classification

Food acceptability is perceived to be sensory, utilitarian, imagery, functional, and reaction-driven and the interplay of these perceived characteristics results in the consumer’s reaction to the product which does not classify food as primarily affective or cognitive in nature (Williams, 1994). However, A.A. Williams (1994) claims that less tenuous factors such as the health risks, nutritional value, and personal motivations are major factors, as well. The primary way to influence someone in food acceptability is by promotion, packaging, advertising, availability, and pricing (Williams, 1994). Product

advertising literature has come to an agreement that rational appeals are more likely to be PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 22

effective for utilitarian/functional products, and the emotional appeal will be more effective for sensory/experiential products (Stafford & Day, 2005). The domain and nature of food are dependent on the purpose of the person’s perspective. Someone may view food as functional (e.g., a source of protein), or they may view a food item as pleasure (e.g., ice cream). Therefore, the nature and domain of food are contingent, so it is not easily classified by nature or domain.

Affective (Emotional) and Cognitive (Rational) Appeals

The components and measurement of affect and cognition have been discussed thus

far regarding attitude structure but affect, and cognition has also been used to classify

distinct categories of persuasive communication. Aristotle is the theorist who first

articulated the distinction between affect and cognitive-based communication known in

his time and still today as logos and pathos (Fabrigar & Petty, 1999). Pathos is an appeal

to a receiver that creates feelings and emotions (Fabrigar & Petty, 1999). Logos is an

appeal to logical reasoning often through data, statistics, and logical proof (Fabrigar &

Petty, 1999). Thus, early researchers have commonly come to refer to these terms as

emotional and rational appeals (Hartman, 1936). However, emotional and rational

appeals are also classified by other terms as cognitive and affective, thinking or feeling

and rational terms include evaluation, informational, and logical, as well (Fabrigar,

1995). It is important to note that even though the literature reviewed and this study are

looking at affective and cognitive appeals the two are not entirely independent of one

another. To remain consistent with the literature this paper will reflect the terms used in

the articles reviewed. This discussion of appeals is not entirely rooted one specific

tradition but draws from both the humanistic and social-scientific traditions. PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 23

G.W. Hartmann (1936) was one of the first empirical researchers to conduct a study using a group comparison of affective and cognitive appeals. The affective appeal was written in a lively advertising style that implored recipients to support the socialist ticket, and the cognitive appeal was described as written in an “academic type” of persuasion on the same topic (Hartmann, 1936). A third group functioned as a control group and did not receive either appeal (Hartmann, 1936). The results found that the affective appeal performed significantly better with a 50% increase in support in the precincts where the affective appeal was distributed, compared to a 35% increase in support for cognitive appeal and 24% increase in the control group, but this is far from the norm (Hartman,

1936; Fabrigar, 1995).

A study by Weiss (1960) compared persuasive cognitive and affective appeals that were meant to gain support for harsher penalties by emotionally-charged descriptions of violent crimes and statistics, facts, and arguments to influence harsher penalties.

However, both appeals produced similar support despite manipulation checks that each appeal was, in fact, distinct (Weiss, 1960). Therefore, neither appeal proved favorable, and there is a great deal of research that has also found no overall difference in studies that compare both types of appeal (Fabrigar & Petty, 1999; Millar, 1992; Messe et al.,

1995). Edell and Burke (1987) exposed participants to short commercial advertisements in a movie theatre and had them fill out measures of as many as 145-feelings and judgments of an affect or cognitive based commercial. Positive and negative feelings were the most predictive measure of attitude toward the advertisement when participants viewed the affective stimulus (Edell & Burke, 1987). However, judgments were not the largest predictor of attitude towards the cognitive advertisement, but rather negative PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 24

feelings were the greatest predictor of attitude toward the cognitive-based advertisement

(Edell & Burke, 1987).

This study points out that feelings can generate beliefs toward the brand being

advertised and in a one-minute advertisement positive and negative feelings and their

intensity can co-occur (Edell & Burke, 1987). Zajonc and Markus (1982) believe that

some attitudes can be formed predominantly based on affect or cognitive messages.

Specifically, cognitive attitudes are susceptible to cognitive persuasion and,

correspondingly, affective attitudes are susceptible to affective messages (Zajonc &

Markus, 1982). Therefore, researchers began matching the basis of attitudes with the

specific communication type. Although mismatching is not viewed as the most effective

way to influence, affective and cognitive persuasion attempts, it is worth mentioning because a body of research has found results to support mismatching (Fabrigar, 1995).

Millar and Millar (1990) explain that when a type of message aligns with the underlying

nature of attitude, then the argument is scrutinized by the person to a greater degree.

Therefore, the scrutiny will not lead to attitude change but rather counter-argue the

appeal.

One study wanted to test whether emotional or rational appeals were more favorable

when presented with information about a stigmatized food ingredient MSG (Greenacre,

Patrick, Yang, Jeager, & Martin, 2016). Many people avoid the ingredient MSG because

they have heard many unvalidated claims of misinformation about the product none of

which have been found by food risk and safety experts (Greenacre et al., 2016).

Therefore, this study was designed to give two type of appeals to try to correct false judgments about the product. A rational appeal aims to present communication in a PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 25

factual manner from credible sources to create a rational decision by altering the

decision-making behavior in consumers (Braverman, 2008). For instance, emotional

appeals in public health communication, political campaigns, and brand advertising often

use testimonials or anecdotes as a form of self-referencing to absorb information and take

the suggested action (Braverman, 2008; Greenacre et al., 2016). Similar to other

literature in the area of rational (cognitive) and emotional (affect) Greenacre et al. (2016) points out that uncertainty remains about which appeal is more effective.

The study began by having participants fill out questions about pet food to familiarize participants with a nine-point Likert type scale from extremely unwilling/unlikely and extremely willing/likely and to reduce attention to the study topic of MSG (Greenacre et al., 2016). There were two groups of rational appeals one group received two MSG facts,

and the other received 4 MSG facts, from a credentialed food and agricultural organization and the emotional group featured an image and a quote from a popular celebrity chef about MSG safety and its importance for taste (Greenacre et al., 2016).

Both rational appeals proved more successful in the willingness and likelihood to

consume MSG and the likelihood and willingness increased with the number of factual

messages about MSG (Greenacre et al., 2016). The use of testimony from credible

sources either celebrity or expert is common in the use of appeals (Braverman, 2008).

Therefore, highlighting a study that compares testimonials with rational appeals will add

to the richness of this study. This study uses two short documentary clips, and one is an

affective testimonial, and the other is a rational argument on the health benefits of

adopting a plant-based diet. PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 26

The field of health communication is a relevant area to discuss because they often attempt to motivate people to quit an unhealthy habit or adopt a healthy practice

(Braverman, 2008). Testimonials are a common technique used where the main character tells a story about a personal experience in hopes of encouraging the intended audience to follow in their footsteps (Braverman, 2008). Health communication techniques also include an informational format where they present messages in a factual manner focusing on information and statistics (Braverman, 2008). It is assumed proof and data translated to an audience would be the most persuasive message compared to a single piece of evidence as seen from a testimonial (Brosius & Bathelt, 1994). However, it was

discovered that a testimonial based on single-evidence claims was more persuasive than

statistical evidence (Brosius & Bathelt, 1994). The results of the effectiveness of a

testimonial compared to statistical evidence is note-worthy, but Braverman (2008) took

her research further by including the need for cognition.

Braverman in 2008 compared audio messages of testimonials and fact-based written

messages and found that the information-based message was more convincing in participants who scored high in need for cognition and readiness to change their diet and

testimonials were more convincing in participants that did not care as much about their

diet. It seems based on Braverman’s study that those ready to change their dietary habits prefer an information-based message (Braverman, 2008). The message was to influence

audience members to lose weight by drinking more water. The same study suggests that

a measure of attitude wasn’t included and served as a limitation because the measures

used were message evaluation, message agreement, and self-reported behavioral

intentions (Braverman, 2008). Like Braverman’s (2008) study this experiment also PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 27

includes measures of attitude specifically in the area of testimonials and information based health communication.

The Need for Cognition (NFC) has provided many studies to test many different variables while attempting to discover if a person’s NFC level differs in influence and favorability toward a message. The next section will feature a section defining the need for cognition and then feature a few studies that use the NFC with variables (e.g., argument quality, appeal, etc.).

Need for Cognition

Cohen, Stotland, and Wolfe (1955) founded the “need for cognition” term that was based on individual differences in the amount of effort used to understand and make sense of the world. The early research on this subject discovered that people high in need for cognition were more inclined to listen to persuasive arguments and made more discriminating judgments (Cohen, 1955). Based on Cohen’s earlier research, Cacioppo and Petty (1982) proposed that there are stable differences in an individual’s tendency to engage in and enjoy cognitive activities that require effortful thinking. The need for cognition scale was never published by Cohen or his colleagues by the time of the

Cacioppo and Petty (1982) study. Furthermore, Rosen and colleagues in the 1960s used the term need for cognition which represented an individual’s cognitive motivation, however, the development of the scale could not establish stable validity (Cacioppo,

Petty, Kao, & Rodriguez, 1986). Cacioppo and Petty (1982) claimed that the amount one does engage in and enjoy cognitive activities can be represented in a single factor called the need for cognition. PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 28

These same authors believe that people who are low and high in need for cognition

solve problems, derive meaning, and adopt positions through different routes (Cacioppo

& Petty, 1982). Individuals high in need for cognition will naturally want to learn, seek,

discover, and reflect on information gathered and encountered in an attempt to make

sense of the events in their life and the world (Cacioppo et al., 1996). In contrast, those

low in need for cognition are “more likely to rely on others (e.g., celebrities and experts),

cognitive heuristics, or social comparison processes to provide this structure” (Cacioppo

et al., 1996). People high in need for cognition exhibit positive attitudes to stimuli that

involve reasoning and critical thinking (Caccioppo & Petty, 1983). To evaluate the

construct validity of the need for cognition, Caccioppo and Petty (1982) had participants perform a number-circling task pertaining to a simple or complex set of rules. The

research discovered that those high in need for cognition preferred the task with a

complex set of rules, and those low in need for cognition preferred the task with a simple

set of rules (Cacioppo & Petty, 1982).

Cacioppo et al., (1983) performed a study that contained both weak and strong quality arguments and participants high in need for cognition scored consistently better in message evaluation and post-study attitudes than those low in need for cognition.

Individuals high in need for cognition tend to possess positive evaluations of stimuli that are intellectually challenging which recruit more of their reasoning and problem-solving efforts (Cacioppo et al., 1983). Not only do HNC people tend to prefer challenging their cognitive capacities but they will also demonstrate favorability for stronger arguments(Caccioppo et al., 1996). PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 29

Research on the need for cognition spans various disciplines and domains, including social cognition, attitudes, psychology, political science, and many others. The research is looking for inter-individual differences that exist in need for cognition and essentially gaining a specific understanding, depending on the study, on how information is acquired and processed and how this leads to various judgments, attitudes, and perceptions of the related content (Cacioppo et al., 1996). The need for cognition is not to assume that people high in need for cognition are more talented thinkers than their counterparts, but its rather a gauge of cognitive motivation to engage in intellectually challenging activities and not a mere measure of intellectual ability (Cacioppo et al., 1996). People that are low in need for cognition don’t necessarily lack the cognitive ability to reason or perform a complex task but rather lack the motivation to choose to perform the complex task when a simpler one is present (Cacioppo et al., 1996).

Need for Cognition attempted to be matched in a study that measured participants need for affect, need for cognition with affect and cognitive-based written messages about a fictitious animal (Wheeler, Maio, Arnold, & Huckinson, 2008). The participants in the affect-based group read a message designed to induce positive emotions about an encounter with the fictitious animal (Wheeler et al., 2008). The cognitive-based message was an excerpt from an encyclopedia that removed the real animal name and replaced it with the fictitious name Lemphur (Wheeler et al., 2008). The participants then rated the animal on an attitude scale, and there was a significant interaction for both the need for affect and the need for cognition groups and message type (Wheeler et al., 2008). Plus, there was a positive correlation between attitude favorability when participants received the matched message type and no correlation for either mismatched message types PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 30

(Wheeler et al., 2008). This study lends support to the matching of HNC groups to the

cognitive communication message that preferred a factual explanation of a novel animal

and the affect group preferred the positive emotional message (Wheeler et al., 2008).

Self-schemata are characteristics, generalizations about the self-built through previous experience, and the persuasive influence self-schema presents when appealed to by a message (Wheeler, Petty, & Bizer, 2005). Previous research has proved that appealing to one’s personal characteristics can enhance one’s favorable reactions to a message

(Zajonc, & Markus, 1982). Self-schemata can use these cues or appeal to personal characteristics as a way of creating motivation to listen to the message more carefully or with higher cognitive effort (Wheeler, Petty, & Bizer, 2005). Therefore, elaboration is likely when one identifies with and concentrates on the message, but it will depend on the message quality if it is viewed in a favorable light (Wheeler, Petty, & Bizer, 2005). A study was conducted by placing participants in groups that featured two advertisements of toothpaste specifically tailored to the qualities of an HNC and LNC group (Wheeler,

Petty, & Bizer, 2005). The messages were created in strong and weak arguments quality, as well. Participants filled out the short NFC scale and then read the message before they filled out measures of cognitive responses and attitudes toward the advertisement

(Wheeler et al., 2005). The results revealed that matching the advertisements with NFC levels produce increased effects, cognitive responses, and attitudes reflective of the argument quality (Wheeler et al., 2005).

The central route of ELM focuses on motivation as the key concept derived directly from issue relevance (Petty, Cacioppo, Strathman, & Priester, 2005). A person low in need for cognition, according to the Elaboration Likelihood Model will be more PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 31

influenced by simple cues such as attractiveness or credibility in the absence of motivation or if a person is unable to think carefully about a persuasive message (Petty &

Caccioppo, 1984). For instance, a person LNC that lacks motivation and the ability to think carefully will also be influenced by the mere number of arguments, (Petty &

Caccioppo, 1984). Issue relevance is a factor that will increase or decrease the motivation to focus on a message (Petty et al., 2005). Messages on topics of high relevance combined with a strong argument will produce the most favorable outcomes in an audience member, twice as much as messages of low relevance, whereas messages with low relevance and a weak argument, do not generate many favorable or unfavorable thoughts because of a general lack of interest (Petty et al., 2005). For example, messages that feature high relevance but a weak argument produce twice as many unfavorable thoughts in attitude compared to low relevance groups (Petty et al., 2005).

HNC individuals are less influenced by cues and will tend to give greater attention to

an issue even when the persuasive communication is absent (Petty et al., 2005).

Affective cues can be particularly influential when issue-relevant information is low in both an individual’s ability and motivation (Petty & Cacioppo, 1981). Research has also

discovered that emotional messages are more effective when the source of the message is

attractive (Edward, 1990). Advertising companies use communicators in promotional

advertisements to elicit positive emotions to consumers about the product of focus

(Edwards, 1990). The need for cognition operationalizes the motivational component of

the ELM for categorizing, and understanding the effectiveness of persuasive

communication (Haugtvedt, Petty, & Caciooppo, 1992). Looking at studies that

incorporate the need for cognition and the elaboration likelihood model seems to be a PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 32

natural next portion of this paper, because of the different ways research has incorporated the use of need for cognition and the ELM .

A study was conducted about the best way to communicate the implementation of a new healthcare technology. The participants were mailed a survey about Electronic

Health Records (EHR) that allows the sharing of information from approved clinicians, healthcare facilities, and patients (Angst & Agarwal, 2009). Random assignment distributed either a positive or neutral argument frame in support of EHR implementation

(Angst & Agarwal, 2009). The positive group featured six strong arguments whereas the neutral featured four weak arguments (Angst & Agarwal, 2009). Ability is a function of

ELM, and the argument frames in the packet were pre-checked for simplicity to ensure that both messages are easily understood. Issue involvement was collected by the amount one uses health services (Angst & Agarwal, 2009). Attitude was measured pre-and post- manipulation and used semantic differential scales to gauge the attitude before the manipulation of argument frame and after the EHR was explained (Angst & Agarwal,

2009). The most significant finding of this study was that the positive argument frame yielded significantly better results over neutral arguments in those with low and high issue involvement (Angst & Agarwal, 2009). The results indicate a direct relation to

ELM because ELM posits that weak arguments will not enable elaboration in those with high issue involvement or intrigue the low issue involved individual to concentrate on the message (Petty et al., 2005).

The question the next study attempts to answer is whether gain and loss-framed appeals differ in the amount of message processing by the recipient (O’Keefe & Jensen,

2008). A gain-framed appeal is one that discusses the applicable benefits expected by the PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 33

adoption of suggested behavior change, and the loss-framed appeal discusses the

consequences involved in noncompliance (O’Keefe & Jensen, 2008). The authors believe that loss-frame messages will engage people easier by way of fear-tactics either

inducing fear or by presenting a course of action to avoid the fear-driven scenario

(O’Keefe & Jensen, 2008). The article points out previous research in which negativity bias and fear appeals produce greater engagement than the benefit and positively focused

gain appeal (O’Keefe & Jensen, 2008). The study collected studies that measured gain

and loss-framed messages, and they acquired 42 cases in all (O’Keefe & Jensen, 2008).

The results found a small but significant finding that gain-framed messages were greater

in message engagement and memory recall (O’Keefe & Jensen, 2008). The cases

examined use only memory recall and messages advocating disease-prevention behavior

(O’Keefe & Jensen, 2008). The authors weaved ELM into their study by pointing out

that the ELM tends to focus on the processing by recipients of a message (O’Keefe &

Jensen, 2008). The need for cognition may be a reason for concentrating on the message

as well as personal relevance and credibility. Therefore, O’Keefe and Jensen (2008) believe that the way arguments are framed is valuable in their findings and lead to greater

or lesser message scrutiny. The nature of this experiment is unique in design as it

attempts to compare appeals and categorizes participants in need for cognition groups for

further analysis, which will be discussed in detail.

The rational appeal in this study focuses more on health benefits associated with the

acquisition of a plant-based diet. The emotional appeal is also gain-framed toward

health, and feeling acquired by consuming a plant-based diet. Due to the lack of distinct

nature appeal tied to food this experimental design will attempt to see if the overall PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 34

favorability can align an appeal with a person’s need for cognition. To this end, this

study split participants into two groups a primarily rational and emotional group to find

out which appeal is more favorable when presented with the topic of plant-based diets

and if the need for cognition can offer any explanations for further research in this area.

Therefore, the study proposed the following:

RQ 1: What is the relationship between the type of plant-based diet documentary appeal, primarily (emotional vs. rational), and Perceived Argument Strength and attitude toward

the message?

H1: There will be an interaction effect between a person’s need for cognition and type of

appeal, primarily (emotional vs. rational), on perceived argument strength and attitude

toward the message.

PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 35

CHAPTER III

METHODS

Participants and Procedure

Throughout the fall semester of 2017 undergraduate and graduate students from various courses in the Communication Department were offered extra credit by the

University of Colorado Colorado Springs faculty. The participants were emailed an invitation to participate by faculty that explained a research study was being conducted by a UCCS student “that aims to determine the persuasive effects of health documentaries and to understand how these effects occur.” Students were instructed to click on the link to the study if interested and read the first page and select “I agree” to participate in the research study. A total sample of (N = 127) participants (32 males, 94

females, and 1 other) took part in an online survey with an embedded experiment.

Participants’ age ranged from 18 to 56 years (M = 24.10; SD = 6.72). Annual income

information was collected, and the range of income was from less than $5,000 to greater

than 100,000. The reported median of annual income was $5,000 to $11,999 as 67% of participants made less than 11,999 in annual income. The study titled “Primary Message

Appeal, Attitude, and Diet,” was administered via Survey Monkey. The study was

externally hosted and accessed via a web link embedded in the study description on

Survey Monkey; upon clicking on the study link, the participants completed the survey in

their own environment and at their own pace. Participants were asked demographic

questions followed by the Need for Cognition Scale and previously held attitude

questions before being randomly exposed to one of two short documentary clips about PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 36

the benefits of eating a plant-based diet. Following the clips is a series of manipulation

questions and then the Perceived Argument Strength Scale and finally a series of attitude toward the message questions.

Stimulus Material

Rational appeal. A two-minute documentary clip from the documentary film, Forks over Knives (2011) represented the rational appeal and was randomly selected for viewing to a group of 54 participants. Forks over Knives (2011) is a documentary that contains a mixture of scientific findings, credibility, and factual information. Expert testimony combined with scientific proofs related to health help validate the rational structure in Forks over Knives. Dr. T. Colin Campbell, a Professor Emeritus of

Nutritional Biochemistry at Cornell University, published a research study The China

Study (2006) he describes in the short documentary clip that consuming a plant-based diet

is beneficial to human health and decreases the mortality rates that result from chronic

illnesses including cancer. The primarily grain eating residents of China in the 1970-80s

serve as the population of comparison in the study’s findings detailed in the sort

documentary clip. Charts, figures, and nationally recognized articles are displayed on

screen combined with a narrator that discusses its relevance.

Emotional appeal. A two-minute clip from the documentary film, What the Health

(2017) represented the primarily emotional appeal and was randomly shown to a group of

73 participants. The film What the Health (2017) displays an emotional testimony from

Amy Resnic who after just two weeks was able to eliminate all her daily medications. In the short video clip, Resnic describes that the doctor’s she has seen did not discuss the benefits of nutrition which made her skeptical of the health field in general. Resnic PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 37

discusses her various illnesses including her weight, asthma, and diabetes. Resnic becomes overwhelmed with emotion due to the gratitude she feels for her health, and she gives credit to consuming a plant-based diet. The short video clip closes with a warm embrace because the testimony caused Resnic’s emotions to overcome her as the director comes to embrace her during the spontaneous moment. The video uses a narrative of personal experience via testimony to demonstrate to viewers the life-changing effect acquired by eating a plant-based diet. The two clips differ with regard to their primary appeals due to the scientific evidence from credible physicians and the emotional appeal’s testimony on the transformational health effects of consuming a plant-based diet.

The two short documentary clips were chosen in an attempt to keep everything except

the two manipulations of the clips constant. For example, the length of each clip was

two minutes and was viewed in the same chronological sequence of the study regardless

of the randomization of the clip. The framing of each clip was also held constant as each

clip featured a gain-frame focus on the health benefits of adopting a plant-based diet.

Furthermore, the clips both featured a position to influence based on health-aspects and did not include a discussion on environmental impact or the humane treatment of animals.

Measures

Manipulation check. Two questions followed each clip to assess the emotional and

rational manipulation of each clip. The questions were listed on a five-point Likert-type scale from (strongly agree / strongly disagree). The responses were all reverse coded.

The questions asked each participant how rational (e.g., “I think this message is rational”)

the short documentary clip they viewed was (M = 3.71, SD = .94) and how emotional PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 38

(e.g., “I think this message is emotional”) the short documentary clip was (M = 3.28, SD

= 1.14).

A series of independent samples t-tests revealed that the manipulations performed in

this study were successful. Specifically, participants rated the rational clip as

significantly more rational (M = 4.02, SD = .74) than emotional (M = 3.48, SD = 1.00), t

(125) = -3.49, p < .001. Participants rated the emotional clip significantly more

emotional (M = 3.77, SD = .95) than rational (M = 2.63, SD = 1.05), t (125) = 6.37, p

<.001. At the same time, the two clips were rated as similarly interesting (“I think this

clip is interesting”) for emotional (M = 3.78, SD = .89) and rational (M = 3.91, SD = .85),

t (125) = -.81, p > .05. Furthermore, the two clips were also rated as similarly engaging

(“I think this clip is engaging”) for emotional (M = 3.62, SD = 3.37) and rational (M =

3.37, SD = .98), t (125) = 1.44, p > .05.

Need for Cognition. Participants filled out general demographic and subject relevant

questions before the 18-item Need for Cognition Scale (Cacioppo, Petty, & Kao, 1984).

Participants responded to the Need for Cognition questions ranging from (extremely

uncharacteristic / extremely characteristic) on a five-point interval scale (e.g., “The

notion of thinking abstractly is appealing to me”; “I would prefer complex to simple problems”). The items were averaged to form a composite score (Cronbach’s α=.87; M =

3.42; SD = .53). Seventy-eight participants were categorized as “low NFC” (participants whose need for cognition placed them in the bottom 30% of the distribution, N = 33) or

“high NFC” (participants whose need for cognition scores placed them in the top 30% of the distribution N = 45) (Haugtvedt, Petty, & Cacioppo, 1992). PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 39

Perceived Argument Strength (PAS). Many persuasive contexts that measure message strength and attitude favorability tend to use a thought-listing measurement scale. The thought-listing scale gives each respondent open-ended text boxes to describe their thoughts, feelings, and attitudes toward the subject of focus. However, a thought- listing scale is labor-intensive and requires the use and training of multiple coders. The

PAS features nine close-ended five-point Likert-type scale questions that assess the perceived strength of the argument with thought-favorability and attitude (Zhao, Strasser,

Capella, Lerman, & Fishbein, 2011). Each participant completed the Perceived

Argument Strength Scale including the nine close-ended 5-point Likert scale questions

(Strongly Agree / Strongly Disagree) that assess the perceived strength of the argument

(e.g., “The short documentary clip put thoughts in my mind about wanting to adopt a plant-based diet”; “Overall, how much do you agree or disagree with the short

documentary clip?”) (Zhao et al., 2011). The responses were all reverse coded. The

items were averaged to form a composite score (Cronbach’s α=.87; M = 3.02; SD = .76).

Attitude measures. After participants filled out the PAS scale, nine attitude questions were asked that assess each participant’s interest in the topic of plant-based diets. The nine attitude questions were used to assess the participant's attitude favorability toward the topic of adopting a plant-based diet on a 5-point, (strongly agree / strongly disagree) scale. The responses were all reverse coded. The questions asked participants if they would like more information on the topic and questions that assessed if there was more interest in the topic created specifically from the viewed short documentary clip (e.g., “I believe my overall health will benefit from eating a plant-based diet”; “After watching PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 40

the video, I will incorporate more fruits and vegetables into my daily meals”). The items were averaged to form a composite score (Cronbach’s α = .88; M = 3.10; SD = .79).

Education. This study was offered as extra credit by Communication Department

faculty members that ranged from the undergraduate to graduate level. The measure used

scored education in ascending order on a nine-point scale (e.g., 1) “Some high school, no

diploma”; 5) “Associate’s degree”; 9) “Doctorate degree”). The ranges of the calculated

scores ranged from the lowest education attained was a High School graduate and the

highest level attained was that of a Bachelor’s degree (57% some college, no college

degree; 31.5% associates degree).

Previously held attitude measures. A series of three questions were asked before the stimulus that assessed the participant’s previously held attitude toward plant-based diet and attitude toward consuming animals. The two animal questions (e.g., “I think it is perfectly acceptable for cattle and hogs to be raised for human consumption”; “Basically, humans have the right to use animals as we see fit”) measured responses on a 5-point scale (strongly agree / strongly disagree) the responses were all reverse coded (M = 3.13,

SD = 1.02). The third and final question (e.g., “Do you consider a plant-based diet, with little animal consumption, to be healthy”) also used a 5-point scale (very healthy / not healthy at all) to measure the responses (M = 3.75, SD = 1.07).

PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 41

CHAPTER IV

RESULTS

This study used one overall total sample to determine the results of the research question if there is a relationship for each appeal when measuring the dependent variable of Perceived Argument Strength and attitude toward the message. A smaller sample to was used after categorization of high and low need for cognition test the primary appeal hypothesis with the same dependent measures of Perceived Argument Strength and attitude toward the message. The total sample used for the research question is (N = 127) participants (32 males, 94 females, and 1 other). The sample used for the hypothesis factorial analysis test is (N = 78) and were categorized as “low NFC” (participants whose need for cognition placed them in the bottom 30% of the distribution, N = 33) (12 males,

20 females, and one other) or “high NFC” (participants whose need for cognition scores placed them in the top 30% of the distribution N = 45) (12 males, and 33 females)

(Haugtvedt, Petty, & Cacioppo, 1992). The categorization of (N = 78) was taken from

the overall sample of (N = 127). Therefore, the sample population is not an entirely

separate sample but rather categorized and tested from the total number of participants.

RQ1. The research question in this study sought to uncover if there is a relationship between the type of plant-based diet documentary appeal, and perceived argument

strength and attitude favorability. A one-way ANOVA showed that participants did not perceive argument strength significantly different based on whether the clip was

emotional (M = 2.96, SD = .76), or rational (M = 3.10, SD = .75), F (1, 125) = 1.12, p =

.29, partial n2 = .01. Further, a one-way ANOVA showed that there was also no PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 42

significant difference in attitude favorability toward the message for participants that

viewed the emotional (M = 3.11, SD = .84), versus the rational clip (M = 3.09, SD = .74),

F (1, 125) = .011, p = .92, partial n2 = .00.

H1. A 2 (appeal: rational vs. emotional) X 2 (NFC: low vs high) factorial analysis of

variance was conducted to examine perceived argument strength. This analysis revealed

no main effect for clip appeal. The emotional appeal ratings (M = 2.95, SE = .12) did not

differ significantly from the rational appeal (M = 3.07, SE = .14), F (1, 74) = .34, p = .56, partial n2 = .01. There was also no significant main effect found for NFC participants low

in need for cognition (M = 3.11, SE = .14) scored similarly to those high in need for

cognition (M = 2.91, SE = .12), F (1, 74) = 1.03, p = .31, partial n2 = .01. Additionally, there was no clip appeal X NFC interaction, F (1, 74) = .50, p = .48, partial n2 = .01.

A 2 (appeal: rational vs. emotional) X 2 (NFC: low vs high) factorial analysis of

variance was conducted to examine attitude favorability toward the message. This

analysis revealed no main effect for clip appeal where the emotional appeal ratings (M =

3.11, SE = .13) did not differ significantly from the rational appeal (M = 3.08, SE = .15),

F (1, 74) = .03, p = .87, partial n2 = .00. There was also no significant main effect found

in participants low in need for cognition (M = 3.16, SE = .15) and those high in need for

cognition (M = 3.03, SE = .13), F (1, 74) = .41, p = .52, partial n2 = .01. Lastly, there was

no significant clip appeal X NFC interaction, F (1, 74) = .20, p = .66, partial n2 = .01.

Based on these findings this study fails to reject the null hypothesis.

Previously held attitudes. A 2 (appeal: rational vs. emotional) by 2 (NFC: low vs. high) between-groups analysis of covariance was conducted to assess the effectiveness of the two appeals in scores of Perceived Argument Strength for NFC participants. The PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 43

independent variables were the type of appeal (rational vs. emotional) and NFC (low vs.

high). The dependent variable was scored on the Perceived Argument Strength scale,

administered following the viewing of manipulation appeal. Questions on previously held

attitudes were administered prior to viewing each manipulation appeal, and the scores

were used as a covariate to control for individual differences. After adjusting for previously held attitudes, there was no significant interaction effect. F (1, 73) = .78, p =

.38, partial n2 = .01). Neither of the main effects were statistically significant, appeal: F

(1, 73) = .51, p = .81, partial n2 = .01; NFC: F (1, 73) = .67, p = .42, partial n2 = .01.

These results do not suggest that NFC differences respond differently to the two types of appeals.

A 2 (appeal: rational vs. emotional) by 2 (NFC: low vs. high) between-groups analysis of covariance was conducted to assess the effectiveness of the two appeals in scores of attitude favorability toward the message for NFC participants. The independent variables were the type of appeal (rational vs. emotional) and NFC (low vs. high). The dependent variable was scored on attitude favorability toward the message, administered following the completion of the Perceived Argument Strength scale. Questions on previously held attitudes were administered prior to viewing each manipulation appeal, and the scores were used as a covariate to control for individual differences. After adjusting for previously held attitudes, there was no significant interaction effect. F (1,

73) = .53, p = .47, partial n2 = .01). Neither of the main effects were statistically

significant, appeal: F (1, 73) = .01, p = .95, partial n2 = .00; NFC: F (1, 73) = .12, p = .73, partial n2 = .00. These results do not suggest that NFC differences respond differently to the two types of appeals. PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 44

CHAPTER V

DISCUSSION

The purpose of this study sought out to test the effectiveness of emotional or rational appeals on influencing participants to adopt a plant-based diet. The manipulation of each appeal revealed a statistically significant finding that indicated that people, in fact, viewed the rational or emotional appeal appropriately. However, the results showed that neither of the two clips emerged as a stronger argument overall. NFC was not effective in matching participants’ favorability with a particular appeal. The results did not reveal any significant differences when participants viewed one of two short documentary clips focusing on the topic of adopting a plant-based diet. Furthermore, results revealed that a rational based message that features scientific data and credible testimony from physicians and credentialed sources did not prove significantly more effective in message elaboration than an emotional testimony that explained the health benefits received from eating a plant-based diet.

Theoretical and Practical Implications

As discussed earlier in this thesis the debate between which appeal is more influential

is still undecided. One potential reason that participants did not favor one short

documentary appeal over the other could be that food is multi-faceted in nature

containing both sensory and functional purposes. The short documentary clips in this

study may have been equally influential in their appeal type leading to a lack of overall

favor by participants. Advertising literature has discovered that rational appeals are more

effective for functional/rational products, and emotional appeals are effective for PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 45

sensory/emotional products (Stafford, & Day, 2005). Therefore, participants may have

differing views on whether plant-based foods are primarily rational or emotional thus leading to neither appeal emerging as a preference in the strength of argument or attitude toward the message.

People high in need for cognition naturally seek to learn and engage with information and develop more positive attitudes to stimuli that involve reasoning and critical thinking

(Petty, & Caccioppo, 1982; Caccioppo, & Petty, 1983). The experimental design of this

study sought to find out if there was evidence in the findings that a person that attempts

to influence someone to adopt a plant-based diet based on the need for cognition. Based

on the 2 (Appeal: rational vs. emotional) by 2 (NFC: low vs. high) analysis of variance

there were no significant findings that support the high need for cognition participants preferring the credibility, statistical, and factual evidence of adopting a plant-based diet

or the low need for cognition participants preferring the emotional appeal in

measurements of perceived argument strength or attitudes toward the message. ELM

research often includes multiple messages that are evaluated by NFC groups with regards

to judgments of whether the arguments are weak or strong. A future study may want to

evaluate multiple messages for the strength of argument before implementing the message in the actual study. A possible explanation for unfounded results could lie in a lack of relevance group. This study may have benefitted from a group that asked a series

of issue relevant questions.

Relevance will increase or decrease the focus, and attention one gives to a message

(Petty et al., 2005). Messages of high-relevance that contain a strong argument will produce twice as many favorable thoughts, and high relevance combined with a weak PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 46

argument likewise produces twice as many unfavorable thoughts (Petty et al., 2005).

Therefore, the manipulation of the appeals worked, but the lack of significant findings

could be due to each appeal’s lack of overwhelming strength and weakness in

combination with the unknown measurement of relevance. Relevance in this study used

three previously held attitude questions, but more could have been included to determine

the strength of relevance in view of the results. Therefore, the results of this study could have benefitted from controlling for strong x weak argument quality and high x low relevance before rating the appeal in perceived argument strength and attitude

favorability toward the message.

This study could have also benefitted from a pilot study that evaluated each clip by

argument quality, number of arguments, and other possible clips for inclusion. Strength

and quality of arguments and source credibility are cues that lead to central route

elaboration (Petty, & Caccioppo, 1984; Sher & Lee, 2009). However, a study performed by Sher & Lee (2009) found that bias and intrinsic beliefs in an individual led to a complete disregard for the quality of consumer reviews and the quantity, as well.

Consumer purchase intention is quite different from dietary choices in a persuasive context; however, the skepticism is similar and more profound in the case of food. If someone is nearly impossible to persuade toward making a purchase, then a message leading to a major lifestyle change will receive a fair amount of skepticism.

PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 47

CHAPTER VI

LIMITATIONS

The lack of significant findings in this study should be interpreted in light of several limitations. The limitations of this study include the possibility of highly skeptical viewers that will tune out the message or wrongly evaluate the message due to the content. The rational appeal is persuasive because of the presence of statistical data and the credibility of the sources that deliver the information. However, society has evolved to become more skeptical due to the amount of information available from technology, and a number of different agendas of news stories have led to distrust in the media (Sher

& Lee, 2009). Strength and quality of arguments and source credibility are cues that lead to central route elaboration (Sher & Lee, 2009). However, a study performed by Sher &

Lee (2009) found that bias and intrinsic beliefs in an individual led to a complete disregard for the quality of consumer reviews and the quantity, as well.

Consumer purchase intention is quite different from dietary choices in a persuasive

context; however, the skepticism is similar and more profound in the case of food. If

someone is nearly impossible to persuade toward making a purchase, then a message

leading to a major lifestyle change will receive a fair amount of skepticism. Therefore, a

future study may want to include a skepticism scale for gauging participant’s attitudes before the study is performed. The two types of appeals may not deliver a similar poignancy in persuasive appeal. The clip time may not have been long enough to produce effective attitude change or argument strength favorability when looking at participants rating outcomes. To gain further insight into achieving potential findings the PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 48

rational appeal, Forks over Knives (2011), may be better served with a questionnaire

concerned with dietary food intentions rather than a Perceived Argument Strength Scale.

A dietary food intention scale would add a behavior aspect to this study and could score

any differences that may reside in dietary changes a participant may make due to the

influence of short documentary clip and primary message appeal. The dietary food

intention scale could also include a pre-test measure that can compare pre-and post-

differences in food consumption behavior. Future research should instead align each

appeal to specific purposes found in each.

Plant-based advocates often use emotional appeals by showing the devastating environmental effects that animals raised for food are causing, or the cruelty surrounding the living conditions and deaths of these animals. Therefore, the more realistic selection for future research should include at least one group that receives each an environmental destruction and animal cruelty manipulation. It is typical for animal activists to begin their life of activism by an inaugural emotion filled reaction to a moral shock image that persuades them to join the cause (Herzog, 1993). Animal advocacy material mailed to homes or images displayed at public information booths cause moral shock and are the initial attention grabber leading to internal dialogue (Jasper, & Poulsen, 1995).

Therefore, the animal or plant-based advocate is not a person that chose to be persuaded into a perceptional extreme ideology but rather was motivated to action by an emotion invoked image or images that were in direct conflict with their perception of self

(Herzog, 1993). Henceforth, emotionally-charged messages are a primary method of

influence in the decision to adopt a plant-based diet. Due to the undeniable presence of PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 49

emotion as a motivational factor to adopt a plant-based diet including a measure of affect

would be instrumental in future research.

Adding a measurement for affect could offer explanations as to which appeal is

strongest and the attitude favorability toward the message. For example, in a study by

Ruiz and Sicilia (2004) found that ads were higher in effectiveness when matched with

their affect and cognition processing styles. The inclusion of a need for affect

measurement may provide more insight into successfully matching plant-based appeals.

The addition of this factor will be able to test attitudes and strength of argument by

grouping people in high need for cognition/low need for affect groups and high need for

affect/low need for cognition in the subject area of adopting a plant-based diet (Haddock,

Maio, Arnold, & Huskinson, 2008). The connection of this research to other issues can be noted as need for cognition may not be a great predictor of favorability in emotional

vs. rational messages where the attitude object lacks a clear functional or sensory

distinction. The issue of adopting a plant-based diet can aid in health communication

efforts when the communication attempts to influence an individual to adopt a suggested

healthy practice.

The age of participants ranged from 18 to 56 years (M = 24.10; SD = 6.72), and a

clear limitation in this study is the fact that many young adults may not see the

importance of healthy eating, and they probably cannot personally relate to the testimony

of Amy Resnic and the many health complications she was suffering from. Likewise, the

statistics and scientific findings discussed in the rational appeal also presents similar

shortcomings. The inter-connectedness of humans, nature, and animals is discussed in

many contexts but the primary area is in the subject of climate change, and as a result, the PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 50 discussion includes proactive measures to remedy the issues. The efforts of awareness and education documentaries seek to provide include many different topics of politics, conspiracy, climate change, health, social issues, etc. However, the choice of appeals and the rhetorical devices used is diverse as they all want to achieve the greatest chance of message acceptance.

PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 51

CHAPTER VII

CONCLUSION

Incorporating the increased consumption of plant-based foods will improve

consumers health and well-being and also positively impact other factors including the preservation of the environment. Therefore, this research study attempted to discover a

way to match cognition levels with appeal type for greater influence toward adopting a plant-based diet. However, the lack of significant findings should not discourage

interested scholars, educators, and activists but rather give useful empirical findings that

can further advance research in this area of environmental communication. Future

research should seek a larger age demographic where issues of health are a primary

concern or at least relevant compared to a young student in their 20s. Environmental

communication scholars need to continue publishing articles that point to the devastating practices that harm nature and its inhabitants including people. Also, they need to

continue to learn how these practices are being communicated by people in positions of power and influence. The documentary medium is advancing messages that seek to

educate and provide information about the benefits of adopting a plant-based dietary

lifestyle and adding to the underdeveloped field of empirical research in this area is

imperative to discover the most effective way, or in this study appeal, to change or

strengthen attitudes and behaviors in participants.

PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 52

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APPENDICES

Appendix A

Recruitment Letter

Dear Potential Participants,

You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Nathan Sadorus, UCCS

Graduate Student, that aims to determine the persuasive effects of health documentaries

and to understand how these effects occur.

Procedures: This study will be conducted in the time duration listed (between Sept. 15th

and Oct. 15th). You will be asked to complete a series of questions about cognitive thinking, different approaches of influence, and a general outcome measure after viewing one of two 2-minute documentary clips. Completion of the questionnaire and viewing the

2-minute documentary clip should take approximately 15-20 minutes to complete.

Compensation: Participation in this study is purely voluntary, and there are no

repercussions if you choose not to finish the study. Extra credit will be awarded for the completion of this study as determined by your faculty member.

Confidentiality: Responses and other identifying data will be collected by the graduate

student (Nathan Sadorus) and remain confidential. The principal investigator will only use Student names, course number and section, and instructors name for purposes of assigning extra credit. For any subsequent reporting or publication, individual data will be aggregated as a group for analysis purposes.

Further information is included in the Informed Consent on the first page of the study.

The web link to participate is provided beneath with our names. PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 59

Thank you for your consideration and participation,

Nathan Sadorus ([email protected]) and Dr. Carmen Stavrositu ([email protected])

https://www.surveymonkey.com/r/MZGFCJL

PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 60

Appendix B

Online Questionnaire

Demographic Questions

Please respond to each question as accurately as possible by checking and filling in the

most appropriate response.

What is your gender?

a. Male

b. Female

c. Other (please specify)

What is your age (in years)?

a. ______

How much did you earn, before taxes and other deductions, during the past 12 months?

a. Less than $5,000

b. $5,000 through $11,999

c. $12,000 through $15,999

d. $16,000 through $24,999

e. $25,000 through $34,999

f. $35,000 through $49,999

g. $50,000 through $74,999

h. $75,000 through $99,999

i. $100,000 and greater PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 61

Education: What is the highest degree or level of school you have completed? If currently enrolled, highest degree received.

a. Some high school, no diploma

b. High school graduate, diploma or the equivalent (for example: GED)

c. Some college credit, no degree

d. Trade/technical/vocational training

e. Associate degree

f. Bachelor’s degree

g. Master’s degree

h. Professional degree

i. Doctorate degree

Previously Held Attitudes

Please respond to each question as accurately as possible by checking the most appropriate response.

1. I think it is perfectly acceptable for cattle and hogs to be raised for human

consumption.

1) Strongly Agree 2) Agree 3) Neither agree or disagree 4) Disagree 5) Strongly Disagree

2. Basically, humans have the right to use animals as we see fit.

1) Strongly Agree 2) Agree 3) Neither agree or disagree 4) Disagree 5) Strongly Disagree

3. Do you consider a plant-based diet, with little animal consumption, to be healthy?

1) Very healthy 2) Somewhat healthy 3) not sure 4) not very healthy 5) not healthy at all

PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 62

Short Form Need for Cognition Scale

Instructions: For each of the statements below, please indicate to what extent the statement is characteristic of you. If the statement is extremely uncharacteristic of you

(not at all like you) please select a "1" for the question; if the statement is extremely characteristic of you (very much like you) please select a "5" for the question. Of course, a statement may be neither extremely uncharacteristic nor extremely characteristic of you; if so, please use the number in the middle of the scale that describes the best fit.

1. I would prefer complex to simple problems.

1) extremely uncharacteristic 2) somewhat uncharacteristic 3) uncertain 4) somewhat characteristic 5) extremely characteristic

2. I like to have the responsibility of handling a situation that requires a lot of thinking.

1) extremely uncharacteristic 2) somewhat uncharacteristic 3) uncertain 4) somewhat characteristic 5) extremely characteristic

3. Thinking is not my idea of fun. a

1) extremely uncharacteristic 2) somewhat uncharacteristic 3) uncertain 4) somewhat

characteristic 5) extremely characteristic

4. I would rather do something that requires little thought than something that is sure to

challenge my thinking abilities? a

1) extremely uncharacteristic 2) somewhat uncharacteristic 3) uncertain 4) somewhat

characteristic 5) extremely characteristic

5. I try to anticipate and avoid situations where there is a likely chance I will have to think in depth about something." a PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 63

1) extremely uncharacteristic 2) somewhat uncharacteristic 3) uncertain 4) somewhat characteristic 5) extremely characteristic

6. I find satisfaction in deliberating hard and for long hours.

1) extremely uncharacteristic 2) somewhat uncharacteristic 3) uncertain 4) somewhat characteristic 5) extremely characteristic

7. I only think as hard as I have to. a

1) extremely uncharacteristic 2) somewhat uncharacteristic 3) uncertain 4) somewhat characteristic 5) extremely characteristic

8. I prefer to think about small, daily projects to long-term ones? a

1) extremely uncharacteristic 2) somewhat uncharacteristic 3) uncertain 4) somewhat characteristic 5) extremely characteristic

9. I like tasks that require little thought once I've learned them? a

1) extremely uncharacteristic 2) somewhat uncharacteristic 3) uncertain 4) somewhat characteristic 5) extremely characteristic

10. The idea of relying on thought to make my way to the top appeals to me.

1) extremely uncharacteristic 2) somewhat uncharacteristic 3) uncertain 4) somewhat characteristic 5) extremely characteristic

11. I really enjoy a task that involves coming up with new solutions to problems.

1) extremely uncharacteristic 2) somewhat uncharacteristic 3) uncertain 4) somewhat characteristic 5) extremely characteristic

12. Learning new ways to think doesn't excite me very much? a

1) extremely uncharacteristic 2) somewhat uncharacteristic 3) uncertain 4) somewhat characteristic 5) extremely characteristic PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 64

13. I prefer my life to be filled with puzzles that I must solve.

1) extremely uncharacteristic 2) somewhat uncharacteristic 3) uncertain 4) somewhat

characteristic 5) extremely characteristic

14. The notion of thinking abstractly is appealing to me.

1) extremely uncharacteristic 2) somewhat uncharacteristic 3) uncertain 4) somewhat

characteristic 5) extremely characteristic

15. I would prefer a task that is intellectual, difficult, and important to one that is somewhat important but does not require much thought.

1) extremely uncharacteristic 2) somewhat uncharacteristic 3) uncertain 4) somewhat

characteristic 5) extremely characteristic

16. 1 feel relief rather than satisfaction after completing a task that required a lot of

mental effort? a

1) extremely uncharacteristic 2) somewhat uncharacteristic 3) uncertain 4) somewhat

characteristic 5) extremely characteristic

17. It's enough for me that something gets the job done; I don't care how or why it works?a

1) extremely uncharacteristic 2) somewhat uncharacteristic 3) uncertain 4) somewhat

characteristic 5) extremely characteristic

18. I usually end up deliberating about issues even when they do not affect me personally.

1) extremely uncharacteristic 2) somewhat uncharacteristic 3) uncertain 4) somewhat characteristic 5) extremely characteristic

PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 65

Clips

Instructions: Please watch the clip in its entirety before resuming to the next set of questions.

Rational short 2-minute documentary clip

Forks over Knives (fok) clip

Emotional short 2-minute documentary clip

What the Health (wth) clip

Manipulation Check

Please respond to each question as accurately as possible by checking the most appropriate response.

1. I think this message is rational.

1) Strongly Agree 2) Agree 3) Neither agree or disagree 4) Disagree 5) Strongly Disagree

2. I think this message is emotional.

1) Strongly Agree 2) Agree 3) Neither agree or disagree 4) Disagree 5) Strongly Disagree

3. I think this clip is engaging.

1) Strongly Agree 2) Agree 3) Neither agree or disagree 4) Disagree 5) Strongly Disagree

4. I think this clip is interesting.

1) Strongly Agree 2) Agree 3) Neither agree or disagree 4) Disagree 5) Strongly Disagree

Perceived Argument Strength Scale (Final Form)

This section evaluates the strength of argument in the short documentary clip. Please

indicate the degree to which you Agree or Disagree with each statement.

1. The short documentary clip is a reason for adopting a plant-based diet that is believable. PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 66

1) Strongly Agree 2) Agree 3) Neither agree or disagree 4) Disagree 5) Strongly Disagree

2. The short documentary clip is a reason for adopting a plant-based diet that is convincing.

1) Strongly Agree 2) Agree 3) Neither agree or disagree 4) Disagree 5) Strongly Disagree

3. The short documentary clip gives a reason for adopting a plant-based diet that is important to me.

1) Strongly Agree 2) Agree 3) Neither agree or disagree 4) Disagree 5) Strongly Disagree

4. The short documentary clip helped me feel confident about how best to adopt a plant- based diet.

1) Strongly Agree 2) Agree 3) Neither agree or disagree 4) Disagree 5) Strongly Disagree

5. The short documentary clip would help my friends want to adopt a plant-based diet.

1) Strongly Agree 2) Agree 3) Neither agree or disagree 4) Disagree 5) Strongly Disagree

6. The short documentary clip put thoughts in my mind about wanting to adopt a plant- based diet.

1) Strongly Agree 2) Agree 3) Neither agree or disagree 4) Disagree 5) Strongly Disagree

7. The short documentary clip put thoughts in my mind about not wanting to eat animal- based food.

1) Strongly Agree 2) Agree 3) Neither agree or disagree 4) Disagree 5) Strongly Disagree

8. Overall, how much do you agree or disagree with the short documentary clip?

1) Strongly Agree 2) Agree 3) Neither agree or disagree 4) Disagree 5) Strongly Disagree

9. Is the reason the short documentary clip gave for adopting a plant-based diet a strong or weak reason? PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 67

1) Strongly Agree 2) Agree 3) Neither agree or disagree 4) Disagree 5) Strongly Disagree

Attitude Toward the Short Documentary Clip

This section evaluates your attitude toward the short documentary clip. Please indicate the degree to which you Agree or Disagree with each statement.

1. I would like more information on how to adopt a plant-based diet free from all

animal products.

1) Strongly Agree 2) Agree 3) Neither agree or disagree 4) Disagree 5) Strongly

Disagree

2. After watching the video, I will incorporate more fruits and vegetables into my

daily meals.

1) Strongly Agree 2) Agree 3) Neither agree or disagree 4) Disagree 5) Strongly

Disagree

3. I will decrease the amount of daily animal products consumed.

1) Strongly Agree 2) Agree 3) Neither agree or disagree 4) Disagree 5) Strongly

Disagree

4. I believe my overall health will benefit from eating a plant-based diet.

1) Strongly Agree 2) Agree 3) Neither agree or disagree 4) Disagree 5) Strongly

Disagree

5. After watching the short video clip, I can relate to some of the mentioned health

issues making the topic of adopting a plant-based diet relevant.

1) Strongly Agree 2) Agree 3) Neither agree or disagree 4) Disagree 5) Strongly

Disagree PRIMARY MESSAGE APPEAL, ATTITUDE, AND DIET 68

6. The short documentary clip motivated me to seek out documentaries to watch in

full on the subject of the benefits of adopting a plant-based diet.

1) Strongly Agree 2) Agree 3) Neither agree or disagree 4) Disagree 5) Strongly

Disagree

7. The information from the video shows how a dietary lifestyle change can prevent

and manage many health ailments and disease.

1) Strongly Agree 2) Agree 3) Neither agree or disagree 4) Disagree 5) Strongly

Disagree

8. Not only will my health benefit from eating a plant-based diet but so will the costs

associated with eating animal-based products.

1) Strongly Agree 2) Agree 3) Neither agree or disagree 4) Disagree 5) Strongly

Disagree

9. I feel that the short documentary clip is an effective form of motivating people,

including myself, to take action by adopting a plant-based diet.

1) Strongly Agree 2) Agree 3) Neither agree or disagree 4) Disagree 5) Strongly

Disagree