OFFICIAL PROCEEDINGS INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Hosted by: Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Mahasarakham Maha Sarakham,

The Research Institute of Northeastern Art and Culture Mahasarakham University Maha Sarakham, Thailand

University of East Asia Yamaguchi, Japan

Dates: February 23, 2018 Venue: Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Mahasarakham University Maha Sarakham, Thailand INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 2 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Editorial Board

1. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Lindsay Miller , Hong Kong 2. Prof. Dr. Leo H. Aberion University of San Jose-Recoletos, The Philippines 3. Dr. John C. Helper Washington College, USA 4. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ryuen Hiramatsu University of East Asia, Japan 5. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Hoang Thi Hue Hue University’s College of Education, 6. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Pathom Hongsuwan Mahasarakham University, Thailand 7. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Somchai Phatharathananunth Mahasarakham University, Thailand 8. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Thananan Trongdee Mahasarakham University, Thailand 9. Asst. Prof. Dr. Kanokporn Rattanasuteerakul Mahasarakham University, Thailand 10. Asst. Prof. Dr. Somkiet Poopatwiboon Mahasarakham University, Thailand 11. Asst. Prof. Dr. Wilailak Onchit Mahasarakham University, Thailand 12. Asst. Prof. Dr. Savittri Ratanopad Suwanlee Mahasarakham University, Thailand 13. Asst. Prof. Dr. Chalong Phanchan Mahasarakham University, Thailand 14. Asst. Prof. Dr. Theera Roungtheera Mahasarakham University, Thailand 15. Asst. Prof. Dr. Kittiphong Praphan Mahasarakham University, Thailand 16. Dr. Apiradee Jansaeng Mahasarakham University, Thailand 17. Dr. Pimyupa W. Praphan Mahasarakham University, Thailand 18. Dr. Chaiyon Tongsukkaeng Mahasarakham University, Thailand 19. Dr. Pilanut Phusawisot Mahasarakham University, Thailand February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 3 Mahasarakham University

Editorial

Moving through the 21st Century, we encounter a lot of transformations in language, culture, and society, resulting in deep impacts on people and their communities. A great number of new inventions and technologies are introduced to people around the world. The ways they live, communicate, learn, and practice also change according to the exposure to those new things. For scholars in the area of Humanities and Social Sciences, it is essential to understand those transformations and at the same time promote the understanding and knowledge about the root and heritage of the society, as the new concepts and phenomena have to co-exist with the root and the heritage. Therefore, one of our major responsibilities has to do with the promotion of research, especially on language, culture, and society which are cores of Humanities and Social Sciences. The body of knowledge derived from research will immensely foster self-understanding and understanding of the relation between language, culture, society, and people in the 21st Century. The International Conference on Researching Language, Culture, and Society will serve as a channel through which these agenda are transmitted from scholars to scholars and from scholars to the community. The international conference on Researching Language, Culture, and Society aims to promote research in the area of Humanities and Social Sciences and to create academic networks between scholars from different institutions. We believe that this conference will help us to better understand the transformations as mentioned above and to adjust ourselves to the changing world in both academic and social aspects. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 4 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Contents

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1. Effect of TOEIC Short-Course Instruction of Buriram Rajabhat 9 University Language Center on Teacher Candidates Pallapa Lertcharoenwanich and Puttachart Limsiriruengrai 2. Strategies Used in Producing Collocations: A Case Study of Third Year 20 Students Majoring in English at Mahasarakham University Chadin Chatpolchai and Pornthip Supanfai 3. A Model of Teaching Business English at Higher Education Level 29 through Collaborative Learning Activities Sarawut Boonruk 4. Exploring Attitudes and Motivation towards Reading in English of 37 English Major Students at MSU, Thailand Duttawan Insorn 5. The Use of Integrated Tasks and Jigsaw Teaching Technique in 46 Enhancing Reading Comprehension Skill of Eleventh Grade Students Adun Udombua and Pilanut Phusawisot 6. An English Instructional Model Using a Cooperative Task-based 54 Approach with Scaffolding Writing Strategy to Enhance Writing Ability in EFL Large-sized Classes for Tertiary Students Manachai Kaewseeduang 7. Students’ Perception Change towards International Cultures 62 Nawarat Saphanuchart, Montira Khumdee, and Ampika Patarapongsanti 8. Syntactic Errors: An Analysis of Students’ English Writing at BRU 71 Sittisak Pongpuehee 9. The Use of Group Investigation in Enhancing English Cause and Effect 80 Writing Ability of Matthayomsuksa 6 Students Ketsirin Sakrajai and Philanut Phusawisot 10. Development of Learner-Centered Instructional Model in the English 87 for ASEAN Course for Business English Majors of Buriram Rajabhat University Puttachart Limsiriruengrai February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 5 Mahasarakham University

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11. The Integration of Task-based Language Teaching and Audio-lingual 101 Method in Improving Matthayomsuksa 4 Students’ Pronunciation Skill on the Final Sounds of Regular Verbs Natnaree Sittikraipong and Pilanut Phusawisot 12. The Use of Data-Driven Learning Approach in Teaching Undergraduate 112 Students Defining Relative Clause Worada Jarupoonphol and Anyarat Nattheeraphong 13. The Integration of Content-based Instruction and Schema Knowledge in 126 Developing English Reading Comprehension Phramaha Saccarak Rai Sa-nguan and Pilanut Phusawisot 14. Improving English Narrative Writing Ability by Using Jigsaw Technique 136 of Mattayomsuksa Three Students Sasiwimon Sritong and Pilanut Phusawisot 15. The Effects of Communication Strategies Instruction on the English 143 Speaking of Secondary School Students Narueta Hongsa and Nantawan Senchantichai 16. Integration of Process Writing and Genre-based Instruction in Enhancing 150 EFL Second-year Students’ Narrative Paragraph Writing Ability at Sakon Nakhon Rajabhat University Tran Thi Thuong and Pimyupa Praphan 17. French Pronunciation Learning Process in the Context of First-Year 160 French Major Students at Mahasarakham University Sirisuda Siripukdi 18. Developing a Multimodal Communicative Competence in a FFL 166 Beginner’s Course with Undergraduate Students in Peru Igor Arrestegui 19. The Development of an Instructional Model in Enhancing Speaking 172 Skill of First-Year Students about Food and Beverage Section Pimonwan Suphan and Pilanut Phusawisot 20. The Use of Learning Together in Enhancing English Opinion Writing 179 Ability of Grade 11th Students Wasimon Nuntasaen and Pilanut Phusawisot INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 6 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Contents

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21. Developing Speaking Skills Using Task-based Learning with Local 187 Contents of Matthayomsuksa Five Students Supinda Nuangsa and Anyarat Nattheeraphong 22. Guilt and Destruction: Deterioration of the Flyte Family in Evelyn 205 Waugh’s Brideshead Revisited Gregory Luke Chwala 23. Fantasy as a Means of Expression in Roald Dahl’s Children’s Literature 214 Sirilak Sriphachan 24. From Being Represented to Representing Themselves: A Study of Toni 220 Morrison’s Beloved from the Perspective of Functional Linguistics Xiaodong Liu 25. Family, Trauma, and Cultural Memory in Toni Morrison’s The Bluest Eye 227 Khanthaporn Changprasert 26. Categories and Themes in Hla Taw’s Jests in Watlat Township, Shwe Bo 236 District, Sagaing Division, the Republic of the Union of Myanmar Wai Yee Khine and Catthaleeya Aungthongkamnerd 27. A Study of Motifs Appearing in Pla Bu Thong in the and 247 Morana Meada in the Peng Phat and Pathom Hongsuwan 28. An Analysis of Language and Content of English Football Slogans 255 Kantar Suwannalar and Bussabamintra Chaluaisaeng 29. Trends of Studies on Cultures and Language Uses in Thailand 268 Somkiet Poopatwiboon 30. English Translation Ability of Thai Students 280 Thawatchai Bunjantr and Waraphorn Phuangbut 31. Metaphorical Extension of ‘Mother’ in Thai, Lao, 289 and Chinese Compound Words Thananan Trongdee, Waralak Sae-Ueng, Uraiwan Sae-Wong, Liu Kaili, and Zhou Tingting 32. Categories of Thai-Burmese Code-Switching in the Speech of Myanmar 299 Workers in of Thailand May Thazin Aye and Thananan Trongdee February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 7 Mahasarakham University

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33. Using Class Activities in Teaching Vietnamese Vocabulary 309 (Pre-intermediate Level) Doan Thi Thu Huyen and Pimsen Buarapha 34. The Types of Alphabets, Languages, and Contents in Ancient Manuscripts 317 (Khoi books) from Mahachai Temple Ancient Manuscript Library at Mahachai Temple, Maha Sarakham Rachan Nilawanapha 35. Dance Parade: A Cultural Activity in Mahasarakham Province Symbolizing 333 the Culture and Dance Tradition Rattiya Komintarachart 36. Drama for Consciousness: Developing the Minds of Youth Using Dramas 338 to Create Public Awareness Suwapat Punpapop 37. Phum Mor Lam: Dance Identity, Choreography and Cultural Heritage 346 in Popular Culture Kornpatsorn Kanchanaphan 38. “Der Nang Der”: Installation Arts, Semiology and Beliefs in Isan Rocket 352 Festival Adisak Phupha 39. The Yangna Tree: Representation, Social Memory, and the Art of Making 358 Image for Remembrance of King Rama IX Santi Singsu 40. The History and Development of Erhu 364 Zhang Chao and Khomkrich Karin 41. Development of Learning Resources in the Community through 368 Sculptural Reliefs: A Case Study of Community History of Phra Yuen, Khantharat Sub-district, , Santisuk Langnam 42. Japanese Studies in 21st Century 380 Ryuen Hiramatsu 43. Transnational Vietnamese and the Politics of Borderline 385 Nuengruethai Chantharakhami INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 8 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Contents

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44. Livelihoods Trajectories under Contract Farming: A Case Study of 395 Chi River Basin’s Fish Cage Farmers Promsuda Srinetr, Chainarong Sretthachau, and Somchai Pattaratanananth 45. Livelihood Rehabilitation of Affected Communities: The Case of 405 Rasisalai Dam Dararat Kantawong, Somchai Phatharathananunth, and Chainarong Sretthachau 46. Negotiation Tactics of Khmer Migrant Laborers 418 Arpasara Chantanit, Chainarong Sretthachau, and Somchai Phatharathananunth 47. The Route Planning to Track Aged Patients with Non-Communicable 430 Diseases (NCDs) in , Maha Sarakham Province Preeyaporn Pansuwan, Jaturong Som-ard, Savittri Ratanopad Suwanlee, Thanyarat Chaiyakarm, and Worawit Jitsukka 48. A Tourism Management towards Religion and Buddhist Meditation in 437 Khon Kaen and Mahasarakham Provinces Chalong Phanchan 49. Constructing a Legend in Isan Communities: Local History and 452 Collective Memories Apiradee Jansaeng February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 9 Mahasarakham University

Effect of TOEIC Short-Course Instruction of Buriram Rajabhat University Language Center on Teacher Candidates

Pallapa Lertcharoenwanich1, Puttachart Limsiriruengrai2

1, 2Lecturers, Business English Program, Buriram Rajabhat University, Thailand

Abstract The research aimed: 1) to investigate the effect of the Test of English for International Communication or TOEIC short-course instruction of Buriram Rajabhat University (BRU) Language Center on teacher candidates and 2) to explore the satisfaction of the samples towards the instruction. This was a 30-hour short-course that focused on grammar, vocabulary and techniques in taking TOEIC. The sample group included 32 eligible teacher candidates under an initiative which recruited teachers to work in their hometowns in October 2017. The samples were also BRU alumni from 10 programs, namely Thai, English, Early Childhood Education, Social Studies, Physics, General Sciences, Physical Education, Music and Thai Dramatic Arts from the Faculty of Education. They were selected by using a purposive sampling method. Data were collected by using 1) pre-test and post-test and 2) satisfaction assessment questionnaire. Statistics used in the data analysis were percentage, mean, standard deviation, t-test, and content analysis. The results showed that most of the samples were females (71.9%) and the majority of the samples were from Social Studies (18.8%). The results revealed the effectiveness of the instruction as the post-test score of the samples was significantly higher than the pre-test score at .00. Moreover, the satisfaction of the samples towards the instruction was also at high level (x̅ =4.59). Thus, it was suggested that the TOEIC short-course instruction of BRU Language Center on teacher candidates was effective and can be used to enhance the ability of the teacher candidates in taking TOEIC for their future career. However, limitation and suggestions for further studies should be concerned.

Keywords: effect, TOEIC, short-course instruction, teacher candidates INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 10 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Introduction The role of English in Thailand is regarded as a foreign language; however, its importance has been emphasized in many fields especially in education (Phakiti, 2006). The importance of English has been evidenced since 2017 when the Office of Higher Education Commission (OHEC) imposed a requirement that the teacher candidates under the “Teachers for Their Hometowns” project must score 400 out of 990 from Test of English for International Communication or TOEIC or they must have one of the following English proficiency scores from the accredited Language Testing Center: (1) the Test of English as a Foreign Language Internet-Based Test or TOEFL iBT with 40 score out of 120, (2) the Test of English as a Foreign Language Paper-Based Test or TOEFL PBT with 400 score out of 677, (3) the Test of English as a Foreign Language Computer-Based Testing or TOEFL CBT with 120 score out of 300, or (4) the International Testing System or IELTS with 3.5 out of 9 (Mokkhasen, 2017). The need of TOEIC score as one of the qualifications required for the teacher candidates under the “Teachers for Their Hometowns” project urged the final-year education students who wanted to participate in this project to prepare themselves in order to meet this requirement. Language Center or BRULC is one of the departments in Buriram Rajabhat University (BRU) that offers language training courses and arranges language testing service for students, personnel and people in the local area, as BRU is a public institute for local community. The need of TOEIC score as one of the qualifications required for the teacher candidates under the “Teachers for Their Hometowns” project aroused the attention of the researchers who are English lecturers of Business English Program and one of them is the Head of Language Center. Moreover, the TOEIC training short- course was requested by the teacher candidates who were BRU alumni and needed to achieve the score. Besides, due to time constraint, the teacher candidates only had two months left before submitting their English language proficiency scores within October 1, 2017. As a result, the study on needs analysis of the teacher candidates for the TOEIC preparation short-course instruction at Buriram Rajabhat University Language Center was conducted to investigate the actual needs of the teacher candidates for the most effective instruction that meets with their needs. The result of needs analysis suggested five important aspects that need to be considered in order to arrange the training course that meets the needs of the participants, as follows: 1. Exercises and practice tests were the instructional materials needed by the samples. These materials used during the course can be a benchmark for their progress. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 11 Mahasarakham University

By taking the practice tests as much as they could, they would know themselves if they were ready for the real test or not. 2. Experienced teachers who must be able to teach TOEIC strategies in each part were also needed. They preferred the teachers with the TOEIC score higher than 800 out of 990. It was believed that the teachers with the high score have seen the tests many times or have the strategies and techniques for taking TOEIC to teach and share. 3. The content of the TOEIC short course that the samples needed at the highest level was strategies and techniques for taking TOEIC. They needed to be able to see the structures of the questions or sentences in TOEIC. 4. The learning and instructional activities by doing repetitions and drills for reviewing were also needed in organizing the course. They wanted to be familiar with the format and the structure of the test. 5. Measurement and assessment that the samples needed at the highest level included pre-test and post-test. They reported that pre-test and post-test can be used to measure their progress and implied their readiness in taking the real test. Therefore, the TOEIC short-course instruction of Buriram Rajabhat University Language Center on teacher candidates was organized according to the needs of the samples in the previous study and the effect and satisfaction of the samples were examined in this study.

Research Objectives 1. To examine the effect of the TOEIC short-course instruction of Buriram Rajabhat University Language Center on teacher candidates. 2. To explore the satisfaction of the teacher candidates towards the TOEIC short-course instruction of Buriram Rajabhat University Language Center.

Research Methodology 1. Samples Thirty-two eligible teacher candidates under the “Teachers for Their Hometowns” project, which is an initiative that recruited teachers to work in their hometowns in October 2017, were the samples of this study. The samples were purposively chosen because of the following reasons: 1) they are eligible teacher candidates who needed TOEIC scores of 400 out of 990 in order to meet the requirement of the project; 2) They are BRU alumni from 10 programs, namely Thai, English, Early Childhood Education, Social Studies, Physics, General Sciences, Physical Education, Music and Thai Dramatic Arts from the Faculty of Education; and 3) they signed up for the TOEIC short-course of BRULC. They were both males and females aged 23-25. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 12 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

2. Research Instruments There were two instruments used in this study. 2.1 Pre-test and Post-test Pre-test and post-test used in this study were Model Test 1 from BARRON’s TOEIC 5th edition by Dr. Lin Lougheed (2010). This practice test is widely used in preparation for TOEIC, as the test questions are similar in format and type to those on the actual TOEIC. As the TOEIC test is standardized, each test taker experiences “essentially the same test and context of administration” (Fulcher and Davidson 2007: 198). 2.2 Satisfaction Questionnaire The questionnaire consisted of three parts: the first part focused on their personal information: genders and programs; the second part was about their satisfaction with the TOEIC short-course instruction of BRULC (19 items); and the third part was other suggestions. The questionnaire was developed according to the related research studies and then sent to three experts to examine for the appropriateness of the content, language used, and validity. The Index of Item-Objective Congruence or IOC scores were given from the experts. Then the overall IOC was calculated and it was in the range of 0.67-1.00, which means that the questionnaire could be used. Then the questionnaire was developed according to the suggestions of the experts. Later, 30 sets of the questionnaire were used in a try-out with 30 fifth year students from the Faculty of Education. The results gained from the try-out were used to develop the questionnaire before using it with the sample group. 3. Data Collection The data of this study were collected during July, 22nd – September, 3rd 2017. This was a 30-hour short-course that was arranged only at weekends as the samples had to work on weekdays. The pre-test and post-test were administered in order to investigate the improvement in the TOEIC score of the samples before and after the training. In the first session of the course, the researchers provided the pre-test for the samples in order to measure their ability and knowledge before being involved in the course. Then, the researchers, who were also the trainers, started the TOEIC short-course in which the content of the course was organized according to the result from the needs analysis which emphasized on strategies and techniques in taking TOEIC. Also, instructional materials used in the course were based on the samples’ needs, which were exercises and practice tests complied from TOEIC preparation books and the practice tests from the Internet. During the course, the trainers provided techniques and tips in taking the test which can be used when the samples have to take the real TOEIC. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 13 Mahasarakham University

The post-test was distributed at the last session of the course in order to investigate the improvement of the samples after participating in the course. Then, the questionnaire was provided to explore the satisfaction of the samples towards the course. 4. Data Analysis The data collected from the pre-test and the post-test were analyzed by using t-test and the data from part 1 and 2 of the questionnaire were examined by using mean ( ) and standard deviation (S.D.) in SPSS program. The data gained from the responses of the samples in part 3 of the questionnaire were evaluated by using content analysis.

Research Results The results of this study were presented according to the research objectives. 1 Personal Information of the Samples The result representing the personal information of the samples was shown in Table 1. Table 1 Personal information of the samples

From Table 1, it can be seen that there were 32 samples in total and most of the samples were female (71.9%). Also, the majority of the samples were from the Social Studies program (18.8%).

2. Pre-test and Post-test Scores

Table 2 Pre-test and post-test scores of the samples INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 14 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

As shown in Table 2, the mean score ( ) of the pre-test was 321.87 and the standard deviation (S.D.) was 89.21. The mean score ( ) of the post-test was 395.15 and the standard deviation (S.D.) was 96.03. In order to determine a significant difference between the pre-test and the post-test average scores, mean scores ( ) and standard deviation (S.D.) Pair Samples Test was used.

Table 3 Paired samples test

From Table 3, it can be seen that the scores of the pre-test and the post-test were significantly different by 0.00 (p< 0.05). Thus, it can be concluded that the TOEIC short- course instruction helped improve the ability of the samples.

3. Data from Satisfaction Questionnaire The results were analyzed by using SPSS in terms of mean scores and standard deviation according to the following ranges (Sclove, 2001): Very high = 4.50-5.00 High = 3.50-4.49 Moderate = 2.50-3.49 Low = 1.50-2.49 Very Low = 1.00-1.49

Table 4 The satisfaction of the teacher candidates towards the TOEIC Short-Course Instruction of Buriram Rajabhat University Language Center

Items SD Level Location/Materials 1. Location of the course is suitable. 4.91 0.30 Very high 2. Instruction media and tools are well prepared. 4.88 0.34 Very high 3. Suitable materials 4.81 0.40 Very high Total 4.86 0.30 Very high February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 15 Mahasarakham University

Instructors 4. Knowledge and ability of the instructors 4.94 0.25 Very high 5. Ability to answer the questions 4.69 0.47 Very high 6. Ability to yield the knowledge 4.63 0.49 Very high 7. Ability to give techniques and methods for 4.69 0.47 Very high taking the test and preparation for TOEIC 8. Having interesting teaching procedure 4.66 0.48 Very high Total 4.72 0.33 Very high Time Items SD Level 9. Duration of the course 4.91 0.30 high 10. Duration of the training for TOEIC preparation 4.88 0.34 high Total 4.86 0.30 high Knowledge and Comprehension 11. Knowledge before participating in the course 3.13 1.45 Moderate 12. Knowledge after participating in the course 4.34 0.65 High 13. Can demonstrate benefits of this course 4.47 0.51 High 14. Can explain the details of the course 4.34 0.55 High Total 4.07 0.70 High Knowledge Application 15. Having knowledge in taking Listening 4.28 0.58 High Comprehension section of TOEIC 16. Having knowledge in taking Reading section 4.06 0.67 High of TOEIC 17. Ready for taking TOEIC after finishing this 4.13 0.66 High course 18. Providing the knowledge about taking TOEIC 3.84 0.72 High gained from the course to others 19. Giving suggestions and recommendation to 3.94 0.76 High others about taking TOEIC Total 4.05 0.56 High Overall Total 4.59 0.50 Very high

The results from Table 4 revealed that the samples (n=32) had very high satisfaction with the TOEIC short-course instruction with the mean score ( ) of 4.59 and the standard deviation (S.D.) of 0.50. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 16 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Specifically, the result suggested that the samples were satisfied with the knowledge and ability of the instructors with the highest mean score ( ) of 4.94 and the standard deviation (S.D.) of 0.25. Moreover, it can also be concluded from the table that the samples had very high satisfaction with the location and instructional materials used during the course with the highest total mean score ( ) of 4.86 and the standard deviation (S.D.) of 0.30. However, the time and duration of the course, according to the result, received the lowest total mean score ( ) of 4.02 and the standard deviation (S.D.) of 0.94. This was in accordance with the suggestions in part 3 of the questionnaire that most of the samples wanted to extend the duration of the course in order to obtain more techniques and practices.

Discussion From the results of the pre-test and post-test scores and questionnaires, it can be seen that the TOEIC short-course instruction could help improve the ability of the samples in taking TOEIC. Therefore, the effectiveness of the TOEIC short-course instruction was discussed based on the results of the present study. 1. The result revealed that the post-test score was significantly higher than the pre-test score. The TOEIC short-course instruction prepared the samples for taking TOEIC. This short-course benefited the samples in the way that their English listening and reading abilities were improved. This is in line with the study of Tzu Liu (2014) which stated that studying TOEIC preparation course helped strengthen listening and reading abilities of the learners, which can lead to the improvement in the TOEIC score of the samples. In addition, Robb and Ercanbrack (1999) also examined the effect of direct test preparation on TOEIC gain scores of Japanese students. The results of their study indicated that the samples’ TOEIC score was enhanced after taking the preparation course. Moreover, as this TOEIC short-course instruction was created based on the needs of the samples in terms of instructional materials, content, instructors, learning and instructional activities and measurement and assessment, the effectiveness of the course was revealed. This conformed to Wright (2001) that a comprehensive needs analysis is the absolutely crucial step to be taken by the English for Specific Purposes (ESP) practitioners who wish to design the course that will be beneficial to their learners at the maximum level. 2. Regarding the satisfaction of the samples, the highest satisfaction was reported in “the knowledge and ability of the instructors” with the highest mean score. As the samples had a high expectation and need for the instructors to experience taking the test, the instructors of this short-course gained more than 900 out of 990. It was February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 17 Mahasarakham University

believed that the teachers with the high score have seen the tests many times or have the strategies and techniques in taking TOEIC to teach and share. From the previous needs analysis, the samples agreed that they have limited time to prepare themselves for taking TOEIC. So, they needed experts in this field. This is in line with the study of Tokunaga (2007) entitled “Students’ Assumptions for TOEIC Classes” that 92% from 217 students agreed or strongly agreed that the Japanese teachers who teach TOEIC should have experience in taking TOEIC. Some of the reasons regarding this issue were listed as follows: 1) If the teacher has no experience taking the test, the students cannot ask questions with confidence. Also, the teacher cannot teach with confidence. 2) TOEIC requires some techniques, so the teacher need to know the techniques from their experience. 3) It is not right to teach something you have never experienced. 4) The teacher without experiences lacks conviction. 5) Knowledge alone cannot prepare students for the test, so the teacher needs experience. 6) Learning TOEIC from the teacher who has never taken TOEIC is like learning about architect from somebody who is not an architect. 7) The teacher should not teach something he is not sure of. That would make the studnts nervous. 8) It is meaningless to learn from somebody who does not know TOEIC. Moreover, the samples had very high satisfaction with the location and instructional materials used during the course with the highest total mean score. The instructional materials used during the course were also based on the previous needs analysis. This is in line with Trew (2007) who stated that when selecting appropriate materials for TOEIC, the student needs must be considered. Thus, exercises and practice tests were used as instructional materials. By taking the practice tests as much as they could, they would know themselves if they were ready to take TOEIC or not. It is necessary for them to have the exercises and practice tests in hand to practice and review. However, the time and duration of the course, according to the result, received the lowest mean score in total. This was in accordance with the suggestions in part 3 of the questionnaire that most of the samples wanted to extend the duration of the course in order to obtain more techniques and practices. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 18 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Conclusion This study aimed to examine the effect and the satisfaction of the teacher candidates towards the TOEIC short-course instruction of Buriram Rajabhat University Language Center. The results of this study confirmed that the TOEIC short-course instruction that was designed based on the needs of the samples in terms of instructional materials, content, instructors, learning and instructional activities and measurement and assessment enhanced the samples’ TOEIC score. Also, very high satisfaction towards the course was reported. Thus, organizing the TOEIC short-course instruction at the BRULC that meets with the needs of the test takers will offer the maximum benefits to the test takers who need the TOEIC score.

Recommendations for Further Studies 1. More time should be given in organizing the TOEIC short-course instruction. 2. Other groups of samples should be included to see the differences in score improvement. 3. More samples should be examined so that the results could be generalized. 4. The needs analysis on the topics used in the instructional materials in the TOEIC preparation short-course should be examined in detail so that the students will gain the most benefits out of the instructional materials.

References: Anuyahong, B. (2012). Needs Analysis of English Reading Instructional Model to Enhance Proficiency in TOEIC Test Taking of Thai-Nichi Institute of Technology Students. Proceedings of The 3rd National Conference on Applied Arts: NCAA 2012. pp. 44-57. Audjarint, W. (2017). Little Sympathy for Teachers’ English Test Gripes. Retrieved from http://www.nationmultimedia.com/news/national/30320094 on 15 December 2017. Flulcher, G. & Davidson, F., (2007). Language Testing and Assessment: An advance resource book. Routledge Taylor and Francis Group. London and New York Liu, T.,Y. (2014). Washback Effects of The TOEIC Examination: A Study of Adult Learner’s Attitudes Toward English Exams, Learning and Teaching in ATOEIC Preparation Class. Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Chaoyang University. 217-246. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 19 Mahasarakham University

Mokkhasen, S. (2017). Teacher Candidates Demand English Requirements Be Reduced. Retrieved from http://www.khaosodenglish.com/culture/net/2017/07/06/ teacher- candidates-demand-english-requirements-reduced/ on 15 December 2017. Robb, N., T& Ercanbrack, J.(1999).A Study of the Effect of Direct Test Preparation on the TOEIC Scores of Japanese University Students. Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language. 3(4). The Economist Intelligence Unit. (2012). Retrieved from http://www.eiu.com/landing/ special_reports on December 2017. The English Effect. (2013). Retrieved from https://www.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/ files/english-effect-report-v2.pdf on 15 December 2017. Tokunaga, M. (2007). Students’ Assumptions for TOEIC Classes. Proceedings of JALT 2007 Conference. pp. 257-271. Trew, G. (2007). A Teacher’s Guide to TOEIC: Listening and Reading Test Preparing Your Students for Success. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Wright, C. (2001). The Benefits of ESP.Retrieved from www.camlang.com/art001.htm on 15 December 2017. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 20 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Strategies Used in Producing Collocations: A Case Study of Third Year Students Majoring in English at Mahasarakham University

Chadin Chatpolchai1, Pornthip Supanfai2

1Graduate student of English Language Teaching Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Mahasarakham University, Thailand 2Lecturer of Department of Western Language and Linguistics Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Mahasarakham University, Thailand

Abstract Collocation is “habitually co-occurring lexical combinations” which have “restricted co-occurrence of elements” and “relative transparency of meaning” (Laufer & Waldman, 2011, p. 648). This study investigated the awareness of collocational phenomenon and strategies used in producing collocations. The participants of the study were six third year students majoring in English at Mahasarakham University. The students’ paragraphs were collected and the collocations were manually identified. The semi-structure interview and retrospection were employed to investigate the students’ awareness of collocational phenomenon and their strategies used in producing collocations. The result of the study showed that the majority of the students appeared to be unaware of collocational phenomenon. It was found that word retrieval and appeal for assistant were the two most effective strategies employed by the students. Literal translation, on the other hand, was the least effective strategy. Some pedagogic implications are to raise awareness of collocation in Thai context as well as to encourage and to introduce the effective strategies used in producing collocation to students. The study also discusses ways to assist students in the 21st century to be collocationally competent.

Introduction The importance of learning collocations, “habitually co-occurring lexical combinations” (Laufer & Waldman, 2011, p.648), has been wildly recognized as it is believed that mastering a skill in producing collocations enhances EFL students for overall mastery in learning a second language (Howarth, 1998; Hill, 2000; Nation, 2001; Durrant & Schmitt, 2010). Learning collocations also helps students use collocations more appropriately and enables them to produce more native-like utterance (Nesselhauf, 2005). Despite this, Thai EFL students seem to lack awareness of collocational phenomenon, and because of this, they tend to face difficulties in producing collocations (Wangsirisombat, 2011). English vocabulary, in Thai EFL context, is February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 21 Mahasarakham University

usually taught as an isolated lexical item. This practice is in contrast to the nature of acquiring vocabulary, as words are not normally used alone but habitually co-occur (Adubaid & Noor, 2011). Producing collocations thus becomes a problematic area for Thai EFL students. This study aims to investigate collocational awareness and strategies used in producing collocations of Thai EFT students in order to suggest effective strategies that can be used in producing collocations.

Literature Review

1. Definition of Collocation Collocation is variously defined (Nesselhauf, 2005). In this study, collocation refers to “habitually co-occurring lexical combinations” which have “restricted co- occurrence of elements” and “relative transparency of meaning” (Laufer & Waldman, 2011, p. 648). Restricted co-occurrence separates collocations from free combinations in which each component is easily replaceable following the rules of grammar (Laufer & Waldman, 2011). We will illustrate this point using the combinations read a newspaper and reach a decision (Nesselhauf, 2003). Read a newspaper is considered a free combination. In this combination, newspaper can be replaced by any word with the semantic property of “containing written language” (Nesselhauf, 2003, p. 225). So, it is possible to say read a novel, read a story, or read a book. It is, however, not possible to say read a coke because coke does not have the semantic property of “containing written language”. The element in the collocation reach a decision, by contrast, cannot be replaced easily, and the restriction on the substitution of the element in the combination is not due to the semantic property of the word. To illustrate, even though decision can be replaced by many words that denote “a particular aim”, such as goal, verdict, or compromise, it cannot be replaced by aim, despite the fact that aim has the same semantic property as decision, goal, verdict, and compromise. So we see that unlike the read a coke example, this restriction is not due to the semantic property of aim, but is rather arbitrary. Relative semantic transparency, on the other hand, separates collocations from idioms “whose meaning is much less transparent than that of collocations and is very often opaque because it cannot be understood from the words that compose them” (Laufer & Waldman, 2011, p. 649). We will illustrate this point using face a problem and face the music (Laufer & Waldman, 2011). Face a problem is considered a collocation, as the meaning of combination can be derived from the meaning of the individual element of the combination, although face is used in a metaphorical sense here. In the case of face the music, by contrast, the meaning of showing courage cannot be derived from the meaning of any element of the unit. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 22 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Following these criteria, we thus consider throw a football and pay money to be free combinations, throw a party and pay attention to be collocations, and throw someone’s weight around and pay lip service to be idioms (Laufer & Waldman, 2011).

2. Strategies Used in Producing Collocations The study adopted the strategies proposed by Wangsirisombat (2011). They are as follows: 1) Word Retrieval This strategy involves student’ memorizing ability by storing collocations in their memory. Students recall how words occur together as a chunk from their retention. 2) Literal Translation Literal Translation involves students’ literal translation. Leaners translate a word from the first language to the second language. This strategy is reported to occur frequently when learners failed to compose collocation drawing from theirmemory. 3) Approximate Translation This strategy involves a process of paraphrasing a though from L1 to L2. Students depend on their instinct to create their own collocation. 4) Use of Synonym In general, students use a word synonym to replace the target word due to insufficient knowledge of collocations. 5) Appeal for Assistant Students depend on guidance or information from others. For example, they also look up a dictionary for information or for confirmation.

3. Relevant Research Studies Supanfai (2009) investigated the use of collocations in Thai EFL students’ writing. The study showed that the students were capable of producing acceptable collocations. However, deviant collocations still existed. It was concluded that the errors may result from negative transfer from L1, students’ strategy of using synonyms, their use of de-lexicalized verbs, and creativity. Wangsirisombat (2011) explored the ability of Thai EFL students in using collocations, the types of collocational errors, and the strategies used in producing collocations. The study revealed that the collocational ability of the students was low. Most collocational errors were in the patterns of adjective + noun, verb + noun, and adverb + adjective. Word retrieval was the most effective strategy used in producing February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 23 Mahasarakham University

collocations. strategy, on the other hand, was the least effective strategy used in producing collocations. Adubaid & Noor (2011) investigated the strategies used in producing collocations of Saudi EFL students. The study showed that the high and low proficiency students used different strategies in producing collocations. When the students employed retrieval strategy, the collocations tend to be acceptable. On the other hand, L2 based strategies resulted in the highest percentages in unacceptable collocations.

Methodology

Objectives of the Study This study aims to address the following questions: 1. Are the students aware of English collocational phenomenon? 2. What strategies do the students use when producing acceptable collocations and unacceptable collocations? Participants The participants of the study were six third year English major students at Mahasarakham University, Thailand. The participants have studied English for more than ten years and have taken many English writing courses. Data Collection The interview was employed to investigate the students’ awareness of English collocational phenomenon. It consisted of two questions as follows: 1. What do your teachers teach you when introducing a new vocabulary item? 2. Do you know the term collocation? If yes, please explain and give an example. In order to collect the strategies used in producing collocations, the students were asked to write a descriptive paragraph on the topic “my favorite place”. Each student produced one paragraph. So, there were six paragraphs available for the analysis. The longest paragraph consisted of 374 words, whereas the shortest one consisted of 210 words. Collocations were then manually identified from these paragraphs. Overall, 103 collocations were identified. Of these, 49 were in the pattern of adjective + noun, 30 in the pattern of noun + noun, 21 in the pattern of verb + noun, INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 24 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

and 3 in the pattern of adverb + adjective. The acceptability of these collocations was then judged based on the British National Corpus (BNC). That is, if a given collocation existed in the BNC, even once, it was judged acceptable. By contrast, if it did not appear in the corpus, it was judged unacceptable. The semi-structure interview and retrospection were then employed to collect the students’ strategies used in producing these collocations.

Results 1. Students’ Awareness of Collocational Phenomenon Table 1 shows the teacher’s practices when teaching a new vocabulary item.

Teacher’s practices Number of students experiencing the practice Presenting the word’s meaning 6 Presenting the word’s synonym 3 Presenting the word’s antonym 2 Presenting the word with a sample sentence 2 Presenting the word’s pronunciation 2 Presenting the word’s spelling 2

Table 1 Teacher’s practice when presenting a new word.

Table 1 shows that presenting the meaning of a word was the most frequent practice adopted by the teacher when presenting a new word, as all of the students reported that they had experienced this practice. Table 2 shows the number of students who reported that they had come across the term collocation.

Total number of students Number of students knowing the word collocation 6 2

Table 2 The number of students who knew the word collocation

Regarding the question of whether the students knew the term collocation, two reported that they had come across the term before. When asked what collocation was, one of them stated that collocation is a word that usually goes with another word. The other student said collocation is words which always go together. Only one student, however, could give an example of collocations. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 25 Mahasarakham University

2. Strategies Used in Producing Collocations. Table 3 shows the strategies used in producing collocations, the number of times the students used each strategy, and the number of acceptable and unacceptable collocations.

Strategies used Number of Acceptable Unacceptable in producing collocations times the students collocations collocations used each strategy

Word retrieval 48 45 (93.75%) 3 (6.25%) Literal translation 31 10 (32%) 21 (68%) Approximate translation 0 0 0 Appeal for assistant 19 17 (89%) 2 (11%) Use of synonym 5 2 (40%) 3 (60%)

Total 103 74 (71%) 29 (29%)

Table 3 Strategies used in producing collocations

It can be seen from Table 3 that overall the students produced 103 collocations. Of these, 74 were acceptable, and 29 were unacceptable. Students used word retrieval strategy most frequently, and interestingly, most of the time, the use of this strategy resulted in the production of acceptable collocations. The second most frequently employed strategy was literal translation. In contrast to word retrieval, the use of this strategy tended to result in the production of unacceptable collocations, as the number of unacceptable collocations was more than twice larger than that of acceptable collocations. Similarly to word retrieval, appeal for assistant, which was the third frequently used strategy, resulted in the production of acceptable collocations more than unacceptable ones. Use of synonym was the least frequently adopted strategy, and there was not a big difference in the number of acceptable and unacceptable collocations, although the use of this strategy accounted more for unacceptable collocations. None of the students used the approximate translation strategy.

Discussion 1. Students’ Awareness of Collocational Phenomenon The result of the study seems to suggest that the students in the study appeared to be unaware of English collocational phenomenon. Their teachers seem to focus on the word’s meaning and the word’s synonym. As a result, it is not surprising that only two out of six students came across the term collocation and knew some basic concept of collocation. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 26 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

2. Strategies Used in Producing Collocations 2.1 Word Retrieval We have seen that word retrieval was the strategy employed most frequently by the students. This strategy also appeared to be the most effective strategy. Out of 48 collocations produced based on this strategy, 45 were acceptable. The result is in line with the study of Liu (2000), Adubaid & Noor (2011), and Wangsirisombat (2011) which indicated that word retrieval was the most effective strategy leading to the production of acceptable collocations. 2.2 Literal Translation result of the study suggests that literal translation appeared to be the least effective strategy of all the strategies that the students used in producing collocations. Out of 31 collocations produced based on this strategy, as many as 21 were unacceptable. The finding is in accordance with the findings of Liu (2000), Adubaid & Noor (2011) and Wangsirisombat (2011). When students employ this strategy, they translate a word from their first language to the target language, and this can result in L1 positive transfer or L1 negative transfer. However, as the Thai language shares completely different roots with the English language, producing collocations based on this strategy tends to result in unacceptable collocations (Anyan, 2006). 2.3 Appeal for Assistant Appeal for assistant accounted for the second most effective strategy in producing collocations. Students depended on guidance or information from others when using this strategy. Out of 19 collocations produced based on this strategy, 17 were acceptable, while only 2 were unacceptable. It was found that two students used the information on the internet to help them produce collocations. They revealed that when they were not confident, they “asked Google” or searched for the information online. Making use of computer-assisted learning is in fact becoming a common practice for 21st century students to learn English (Dung, 2016). There have been some research studies investigating the implementation computer-assisted learning in classroom. For instance, Luo and Laio (2015) used corpora as reference resource to help their students correct lexical-grammatical errors in their writing. They found that using corpora was more useful than using a dictionary. Dung (2016) used corpus-based websites to promote learners’ autonomy in correcting collocational errors in their writing. The result of the study showed that the students became more autonomous and confident in correcting collocational errors. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 27 Mahasarakham University

2.4 Use of Synonym Use of synonym appeared to be least frequently used strategy, and the use of this strategy resulted more in unacceptable collocations. This finding is in accordance with the study of Liu (2000). Liu (2000) found that the students were inclined to use synonym to replace the target word as a strategy in solving L2 collocational problems, and this often resulted in their producing unacceptable collocations.

Conclusion It can be concluded from the study that the majority of the students in our study appeared to be unaware of English collocational phenomenon. Raising the student’s awareness of the phenomenon is thus important for English language learning. Explicit teaching of collocation is also advisable. We have seen that the students employed different strategies in producing collocations. Whereas word retrieval and appeal for assistant appeared to be highly effective strategies. Literal translation and use of synonym seemed to be much less effective. It is suggested that the 21st century students should be aware of advantages of online sources of authentic data such as corpora, and teachers should encourage, introduce and train students to make use of this useful, rich source of data.

References: Anyan, J. (2006). Different families, not distant cousins: Comparing Thai and English. Med Magazine, 37. Retrieved January 16, 20018, from www.macmillandictionaries.com/MED-Magazine/April2006/37-Thai- English- false-friends.htm Benson, M., Benson, E., & Ilson, R. (1986). The BBI combinatory dictionary of English: A guide to word combinations. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Hill, J. (2000).Revising priorities: From grammatical failure to collocational success. In M. Lewis (Ed.), Teaching collocation: Further development in the lexical approach. Hove: Language Teaching Publications. 15(2), 47-69. Howarth, P. (1998): Phraseology and Second Language Proficiency. Applied Linguistics. 19(1), 24-44. Laufer, B., & Waldman, T. (2011). Verb-noun collocations in second language writing: A corpus analysis of learners’ English. Language Learning, 61(2), 647-672. Liu, C. P. (2000). A study of strategy use in producing lexical collocations. Selected papers from the tenth International Symposium on English Teaching, 481- 492. Taipei: The Crane Publishing. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 28 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Nation, I.S.P. (2001). Learning vocabulary in another language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Nesselhauf, N. (2003). The use of collocations by advanced learners of English and some implications for teaching. Applied Linguistics, 24(2), 223-242. Nesselhauf, N. (2005). Collocations in a learner corpus. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Noor, H. & Adubaib, A. (2011) Strategies Used in Producing English Lexical Collocations by Saudi EFL Learners. Selected papers from 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, 1-22. Sarajevo. Supanfai, P. (2009). Collocational patterns in Thai learners’ writing. (Unpublished MA dissertation). University of Liverpool, Liverpool. Wangsirisombat, N. (2011). A study of collocational errors in Thai EFL learners writing. (MA thesis). Language Institute, , , Thailand. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 29 Mahasarakham University

A Model of Teaching Business English at Higher Education Level through Collaborative Learning Activities

Sarawut Boonruk1

1Instructor of Business English Department Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Phranakhon Rajabhat University, Thailand

Abstract Collaborative learning activities are considered to be one of the most widely used activities in EFL classrooms. This approach is related to the Constructivism Theory proposed by Piaget and Vygotsky for many decades. There are many weak learners who need to improve English skills in order to seek for jobs after graduation. They need to work with others in their future career. As Business English instructors, we have to realize their potential for leading the way in English for business. Moreover, a model of teaching Business English for those who lack English skills is needed. Instructors need to understand the learning outcomes and plan for learners’ achievement. These stages for a model compilation are: 1) 21st Century Skills Course Design; 2) Learning Outcomes; 3) Learning Activities; 4) Selection of Materials; and 5) Evaluation. All these have been considered a model for teaching Business English in the tertiary level. It is important to note that collaborative learning plays a huge role in EFL classroom for many years. The literature of a model design is reviewed and discussed in this article. Moreover, a model will be considered as a research framework in future studies.

Key words: Business English, Collaborative Learning, Instructional Model INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 30 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Introduction Many people study English for their own purposes. Some of them use English in the workplace. There are many English courses in educational institutions especially at higher education level. Due to the fact that learners need to study English for their potential job, they have to enroll in the large class. Moreover, they need to have the English classroom that would make them feel at ease while in studying. As Fry et al (2009) stated that learning is not a single thing; how to mastering abstract principles, remembering factual information, understanding proofs, techniques and approaches, recognition, reasoning, debating ideas in small group and developing behavior appropriate to specific situations. In Thai university context, there are numerous learners who lack of sufficient English skills before entering at higher education level. Importantly, they lack practice English outside the classroom and the surroundings affect them losing English practice opportunity. Anyway, learners majoring in Human Resources and Marketing have to learn English in General Education (GE) and a Business English subject in the university. A Business English subject focuses on business situation, grammar focus, listening and speaking, vocabulary focus, reading, culture focus and business writing. The authors of these books focus on Asian region content that related to learners’ background knowledge (Helliwell, 2014). After graduation, learners have to find job or pursue a higher degree. They have to cooperate with their colleagues in group work. This collaborative process might occur after they have a discussion about ongoing project. Hord (1981) recommended that collaboration involves joint planning, implementation, and evaluation among collaborators. Nevertheless, the mutual goals are critical to collaborative learning. The collaboration would make the established goal succeed. Collaborative learning activities should be considered for activities planning ahead of time. According to 21st century skills trends are taken place for driving teaching awareness at the present. There are four main cores (4Cs) of 21st century skills will be emphasized namely Critical Thinking, Creativity, Communication, and Collaboration. All these themes should be integrated with the content being taught in the classroom (Taylor and Fratto, 2012). The 4Cs are the elements of fully integrated in the process of teaching in EFL classroom at higher education level. This article aims to propose a model for teaching Business English at higher education level through collaborative learning activities. The literature and descriptive guidance for a model design stages will be reviewed and discussed in this article. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 31 Mahasarakham University

Literature Review Since 21st century skills play an important role on teaching approach. The most important thing to note about 21st century themes is that they are not additional subjects which are promoting. Moreover, the themes should be adapted with core content of subject (Taylor and Fratto, 2012). Core of 4Cs 21st century skills which consists of critical thinking, creativity, communication, and collaboration. All of them should be integrated on the activities in a classroom. Many fruitful knowledge from this approach could yield positive lifelong learning. Since life and career skills are emphasized, learners are able to better prepare for their real life after graduation. Also, the integration of 4Cs in core content helps learners develop critical skills. They will use at higher education and the workplace. Creativity leads to new ideas, problem solution, and continuous progress. Collaboration is the ability to work with others, whether in a classroom or a workplace. They assume for sharing responsibility for projects and outcomes, also respect and value others’ ideas. Vygotsky’s theory addresses collaboration in a classroom emphasizing social interaction will help young learners or even adults. Fogarty (1999) stated that the theory suggests people learn first through person-to- person interactions and then with individually through an internalization process which leads to in-depth understanding. Instructors should explain, model, and use guided practice in the classroom. Instructors have to realize on scaffolding. It is a form of adult assistance which enables learners to solve the problem, carry out a task or achieve a goal (Deniels, 2001; Killen, 2007; Cook and Friend, 2010). Instructional model is a representation of a real identity, which design to help learners achieve learning outcome. There are numerous models that learners at higher education level can use as a guidance on their group work. Dettmer et al (2005) proposed the collaborative consultation model. In this model, all team members are seen as equal partners with different expertise. They work together for solving problems. In today’s EFL classrooms concerning when forming a team that more is not always better when building a team. Learners who have high English proficiency should be a guide to help other weak members. The activities in a teaching model should be focused on role-play, practice and sharing in the group. Learning motivation can occur through play, formal instruction, or work between learners and more experienced learners. As far as I can determine about the appropriateness of a model of teaching Business English as follows; 4Cs 21st century skills, collaborative activities, and an instructional model are reviewed. All these are adopted as a model framework. Instructors of the model, will be facilitators. Instructors use their own experience for INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 32 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

helping learners if necessary. Assessment should be focused on learners’ readiness to move to the next level. Portfolio will be used for formative assessment. Instructors can see learners’ improvement from beginning until the last lesson. Instructors should collect evidence from each learner and helping correct their mistakes. Especially, weak learners can see their progress and stronger ones would proud of themselves. Last but not least, summative assessment will be compared their previous knowledge and latter achievement after collaborative learning activities.

Development of a Model of Teaching Business English through Collaborative Activities In order to develop a model for teaching a Business English subject through collaborative learning activities, the literature on 4Cs 21st century skills, collaborative learning activities, and an instructional model are reviewed. Determining the model criteria, developing and reviewing the model will be discussed. There is one phase for a model design (see Figure 1). Phase one; literature review, planning a model criteria, developing and reviewing the model.

Figure1: Model Design

On Phase one, literature review, planning a model criteria, developing and reviewing the model are adopted for a model design. Reviewing literature on the topic of 4Cs 21st century skills, collaborative activities, and an instructional model are implemented as a theoretical framework. Concepts of a model should be brand new and up to date on academic trends. A guide of instructional model should be paralleled to core content of a Business English subject. After reviewing the process of a model design. A full model is adopted as follows. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 33 Mahasarakham University

Figure 2: A Model of Teaching Business English through Collaborative Activities

All in all, a model of teaching Business English should be implemented in EFL classroom of higher education level. Due to the fact that the components of a model could yield positive results on learners’ achievement. 4Cs 21st century skills bring insight knowledge and fulfill social skills. This interaction between person-to- person would help learners become mature enough to live in society. Critical thinking, creativity, collaboration, and communication should be addressed in teaching approach at higher education level because learners could discuss and practice these skills through collaborative learning activities. In terms of teaching approach for collaborative learning activities, it can be concluded as follows; instructors have to set the topic, grouping learners based on their English proficiency, group discussion, data preparation, group presentation, then instructors and learners help evaluate learning progress. Learners are assigned to record and collect evidence as a portfolio. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 34 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Figure 3: Collaborative Activities Approach

Collaborative Learning Activities Collaborative learning activities are designed for those who lack English skills. Most of the content is related to a Business English subject. Placement test should be implemented before setting a team. Teaching activities are conducted in group work. Common activities are in lined with a Business English content which consists of business situation, culture focus, grammar focus, vocabulary focus, listening and speaking, reading, and business writing. There are three steps in collaborative learning activities for example; preparation, activities, and evaluation. Preparation Instructor may set the topic or depends on learners’ interests which related to a Business English content in order to allow learners construct their own knowledge. Learners will be categorized in different groups according to their placement test scores. Activities Learners will discuss on the topic provided. They will criticize and prepare data for presentation. Role-play or activities based-discussion could provide in-depth knowledge in delivering a message to all. Group preparation and presentation will be reflected learners’ communication skills. This could help learners have a confidence when speaking English in public. Moreover, collaborative activities could facilitate learners have self-motivation in learning English. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 35 Mahasarakham University

Evaluation Instructor and learners help evaluate learning progress. Evaluation in this model should be formative and summative evaluation. In formative evaluation, learners have to compile their tasks in portfolio. Since learning progress will be promoted in a model, they have to collect learning evidence present to instructor. The instructor will provide feedback and learners would correct their tasks. After the end of semester, instructor and learners evaluate learning progress. For summative evaluation, pre-test or placement test could yield prior results and post-test will be used to see their improvement since the beginning. In order to evaluate learners effectively, there should be a set of a criteria which covers language improvement and learning motivation. Instructor may investigate learners’ perception towards collaborative learning activities in order to improve a model design for future study.

Conclusion It is obvious that a model for teaching Business English through collaborative learning activities fill the gap in diverse EFL learners. The evident teaching approach could facilitate learners feel at ease. Instructors should concern on how to deliver a goodwill and prompt suggestions when learners encounter a difficult situation in a team. Using 4Cs 21st century skills, collaborative learning activities, and an instructional model in EFL classroom could help learners see whether how to live effectively in society. A good team communication would bring in-depth knowledge and strategies to deal with problem both in a classroom and a workplace. It is important to note that a model contributes to teach EFL learners at higher education level whose English skills are different. Learners with good knowledge can provide best guidance to weak learners. On the other hand, instructors observe and facilitate learners if necessary. Instructors who teach at higher education level may implement in their classrooms to suit their learners’ levels. Finally, a model should be promoted as a research framework in the future study in order to yield the better understanding of a model usage. 4Cs 21st century skills are probably shown through collaborative learning activities by Thai EFL tertiary learners. Moreover, a model could be implemented to teach other subjects, but time constraint and subjects’ content should be considered. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 36 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

References: Cook, L., and Friend, M. (2010). The State of the Art of Collaborationon Behalf of Students with Disabilities. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 20, 1-8. Daniels, H. (2001). Vygotsky and pedagogy. New York: Routledge Falmer. Dettmer, P., Thurston, L.P., & Dyck, N.J. (2005). Consultation, Collaboration, and Teamwork for Students with Special Needs. 5th ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Forgaty, R. (1999). Architects of the Intellect. Educational Leadership, 57(3), 76-78. Fry, H., Ketteridge, S., & Marshall, S. (2009). A Handbook for Teaching and Learning in Higher Education. 3rd ed. New York: Routledge. Helliwell, M. (2014). Business Plus Preparing for the Workplace. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hord, S.M. (1981). Working Together: Cooperation or Collaboration? ERIC Document Reproduction Service. No. ED 226 450. Killen, R. (2007). Effective Teaching Strategies. 4th ed. Melbourne: Thomson Social Science Press. Richards, B.S., Frank, L.C., Sableski, K.M., & Arnold, M.J. (2016). Collaboration among Professionals, Students, Families, and Communities. New York: Routledge. Taylor, M.L., & Fratto, M.J. (2012). Transforming Learning through 21st Century Skills:The Who took My Chalk?TM Model for Engaging You and Your Students. Boston: Pearson. Tran, Q.T., & Seepho, S. (2016). The Development of an Intercultural Communicative Language Teaching Model for EFL Learners. THAITESOL Journal, 29(1), 73-93. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 37 Mahasarakham University

Exploring Attitudes and Motivation towards Reading in English of English Major Students at MSU, Thailand

Duttawan Insorn1

1Lecturer, Department of Western Languages and Linguistics Mahasarakham University, Thailand

Abstract The purpose of the present study is to explore EFL (English as a Foreign Language) Thai students’ attitudes and motivation towards reading in English with regards to their years of study and academic achievements (GPA). The study was carried out in February 2018 in the Department of Western Language and Linguistics, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Mahasarakham University. This study was conducted with a quantitative research design using a survey methodology to collect data about the participants’ reading attitudes and motivation. A total of 55 undergraduate students majoring in English voluntarily participated in the study. Further quantitative data were also gathered from the participants’ cumulative grade point average (GPA) scores .The results revealed that English major students at MSU have positive attitudes and motivation in foreign language reading ranging from extrinsic value of reading, utilities of reading, intrinsic value of reading and reading efficacy with mean average at 4.43, 4.32, 3.62 and 2.58 respectively. Also, there is a positive relationship between academic achievement (GPA) and attitudes and motivation in foreign language reading.

Keywords: reading in English as a foreign language, attitudes, motivation INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 38 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Introduction With the increasing importance of English in international communication, English language learning is one of the important factors (Grabe and Stoller, 2002). Motivation in learning of English as a second language or a foreign language has gained much interest recently. More researchers and practitioners have contributed to the field of motivation towards reading in English. Motivation, as Harmer (2001) defines, is “some kind of internal drive which pushed someone to do things in order to achieve something” which plays a key role in language learning. Since Gardner proposed a model called Socio-Educational Model of Language Learning in 1972, integrative motivation as the language learner’s desire to communicate and mingle with members of the target community has become the main factor in language learning (Gardner & Lambert, 1972). For the past few decades, several models of language learning motivation have been developed in the literature. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) reviewed the research on motivation, beliefs, values, and goals, and initiated a discussion of how to integrate theories of self-regulation and expectancy value models of motivation .They attracted the attention to the dynamic, temporal aspects of motivation from a micro rather than macro perspective (Dšrnyei, 2003; Dšrnyei, 2005). On the one end, Mori (2002) and Kondo-Brown (2006) investigated the motivation research as can be domain specific and thus engagement in different language skills may involve a different motivational and attitudinal make up (Mori and Kondo-Brown as cited in Erten, Topkaya, & Karakaœ, 2010). As for the present study, based on the assumption that students’ attitudes and motivation might be important factors affecting their learning achievement, this study attempted to investigate their attitudes and motivation towards reading in English and its relationship with learning achievement.

Literature review The word “motivation ”means “to move” in its Latin root, so to study motivation is the study of action (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). According to Dšrnyei (2006) , motivation is “the direction and magnitude of human behaviour ”in terms of people’s choices for “particular actions, their persistence and the effort they spend on” (p.7). Meanwhile, attitude is described as a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degrees of favour or disfavor (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993, p .1). Students ’attitudes towards the learning situation serve as foundation of motivation to learn another language (Masgoret, Bernaus, & Gardner, 2001). Positive emotions and attitudes make language learning far more effective and enjoyable (Merisuo-Storm, 2007; Oxford, 1990). February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 39 Mahasarakham University

Reading is a basic skill for all academic disciplines (White as cited in Lei, Rhinehart, Howard, and Cho, 2010). Formal education revolves around reading skills of learners (Hasbun, 2006). Therefore, the acquisition of reading skills is a priority for many language learners in ESL/EFL context around the world (Zhou, 200). The research in the field of motivation has started to focus on the domain specificity of motivational constructs due to the importance of understanding learners ’attitudes and motivation from a micro perspective (Mori, 2002; Kondo-Brown, 2006; Erten et al., 2010). For the past few decades, attitudes and motivation regarding ESL/EFL reading have gained more interest and have become an inspired area of study (Erten, 2010; Senturk, 2015; Ozonder ,2015; Ahmadi, 2017). Much of this research has been inspired by Wigfield and Guthrie (1995, 1997), whose work has laid a firm ground in which motivation is being investigated as a domain specific framework .In other words, they defined a new motivation type and labelled it as ‘reading motivation .’Reading motivation is described by them as “the individual’s goals and beliefs regarding reading” (Guthrie & Wigfield, 1999, p .199). They emphasised what motivations in reading are unique factors and different from what influences engagement in other skills. In the same vein, Day and Bamford (1998) attempted to form a theoretical model of motivation to read in a second language .In their model, two main constructs, which are expectancy and value components, are included to underscore the multi- faceted nature of second language reading .Expectancy is related to the constructs regarding materials and reading ability while value components include attitudes towards reading in the second language and socio-cultural environment .Recent research studies have started to deal with some specific affective variables regarding ESL/EFL reading such as attitudes (Yamashita, 2004) and motivation (Mori, 2002; Kondo-Brown, 2006). The findings of Yamashita demonstrated the importance of understanding learners’ attitudes, particularly feelings, towards reading both in L1 and L2 for encouraging L2 learners’ involvement in extensive reading. Kondo-Brown’s research (2006), on the other hand, proved that the observed association between reading ability and the intensity of motivation for reading Japanese seems consistent with Gardner’s assertion that the intensity of motivation is a contributing factor to L2 achievement and vice versa (Masgoret & Gardner as cited in Kondo-Brown, 2006). Mori (2002) took a step forward and created a new instrument to explore the pillars of the L2 reading motivation in Japanese setting .She revealed four main components of ESL/EFL reading that can be labelled as intrinsic value of reading, extrinsic value of reading, importance of reading, and reading efficacy. Erten et al. (2010) developed a set of tools to study attitudes and motivations towards reading among EFL students. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 40 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

This study seeks to contribute to the findings of previous research on reading motivation from a different context. It employs the foreign language reading attitudes and beliefs scale developed by Erten et al. (2010) to explore the attitudes and motivation of English major students at MSU in EFL reading at a tertiary institution.

Methodology 1. Settings and participants The study was carried out in February 2018 in the Department of Western Languages and Linguistics, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Mahasarakham University. Participants of the study were selected through a convenience sampling technique. A total of 55 undergraduate students (first year :14; second year :19 and third year :22) enrolled in English major voluntarily participated in the study, responding to the 31 statements on a 5- point Likert scale.Without any consultation among themselves, they completed the anonymous survey through Google Form online survey and also gave consent for data collection.

2. Research design This study was conducted with a quantitative research design using a survey methodology to collect data about the participants ’reading attitudes and motivation .Further quantitative data were also gathered from the participants ’cumulative grade point average (GPA )scores.

3. Research questions In order to explore MSU English major students’ foreign language reading attitudes and motivation regarding their academic achievement at tertiary level, two research questions were formulated: 1) What are motivation and attitude towards reading in English of English major students at MSU? 2) Is there a relationship between the participants’ academic achievements (GPA) and their attitudes and motivation towards reading in English?

4. Research instrument The present study employed the Foreign Language Reading Attitudes and Motivation Scale (FLRAMS; Erten et al., 2010) to investigate students’ foreign language reading attitudes and motivation. The scale was composed of a 5-point Likert scale with the anchors at 5-very appropriate for me, 4-appropriate for me, February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 41 Mahasarakham University

3-indecisive, 2-not appropriate for me, 1- not appropriate for me at all. There are 31 items including 7 negative items and 24 positive items.

5. Procedures for data collection and analysis Data for this study were collected at the Department of Western Languages and Linguistics, Mahasarakham University in February 2018. Through the use of Google Form, an online survey tool was utilised to distribute the questionnaire to the participants. It took approximately 10 minutes for students to finish answering all the questions. Data analysis was performed in order to address the research questions formulated for the present study. The statistical analyses were performed using IBM SPSS Statistics, a comprehensive computer program used to help researchers perform statistical analysis quickly and accurately.

Results The present study sought to investigate if there is a relationship between EFL undergraduate students’ reading attitudes and motivation and their academic achievement. The study also tried to find out whether there was any statistically significant difference in their reading attitudes and motivation by GPA. This section presents the results of the study in terms of descriptive statistics. A Pearson product- moment correlation coefficient was performed. 1. RQ 1. What are motivation and attitude toward reading in English of English major students at MSU? Table 1: Overall and categorical mean score

Table 1 illustrates that English major students at MSU have positive attitudes and motivation towards reading in English (m=3.73). The mean scores indicate that Extensive Value of Reading has the highest mean score. In other words, students see value in improving their reading ability in relation to their future use. The second highest mean score was found for the utilities of reading factor, which means that the students prefer to read in English for their linguistic development. The responses of the students to the items in intrinsic value of reading section showed that the participants had positive attitudes about reading in English for their personal likes and interests. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 42 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Lastly, the mean score of the reading efficacy factor revealed that the participants find themselves need to improve their reading skills in English.

2. RQ 2. Is there a relationship between the participants’ academic achievements (GPA) and their attitudes and motivation towards reading in English? A Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient was computed to determine whether there was a relationship between the participants’ academic achievements (GPA) and their attitudes and motivation towards reading in English. As presented in in Table 2, the results revealed that there was positive correlation between GPA and attitudes and motivation toward reading in English with no statically significance presented in the present study. Table 2: Comparisons across students’ attitudes and motivation levels with proficiency

Conclusions According to Erten et al. (2010), reading motivation have been constructed in to four categories, including intrinsic value of reading, extrinsic value of reading, reading efficacy, and utilities of reading. They proposed that positive attitudes and motivation mediate individuals’ attempts to read in a foreign language. In the present study, MSU English major students’ attitudes and motivation towards reading in English in relation to their academic achievement have been explored empirically. Conclusions are organized around two issues: Students’ attitudes and motivation and the relation between students’ reading motivations and their academic achievements. The analysis of mean scores on FLRAMS (Erten et al., 2010) revealed that English major students at MSU have positive attitudes and motivation in foreign language reading (m=3.73). The Extrinsic value of reading, as one of the motivational constructs of reading, has the highest score on the scale. These findings suggest that English major students at MSU read mainly for external reasons such as completing course requirements, finding a good job, and having a better future. The second highest mean score was found for the utilities of reading factor, which means that the students prefer to read in English for their linguistic development. This means that participants see the value in improving their reading ability in relation to their linguistic development. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 43 Mahasarakham University

In other words, they are also triggered off by some intrinsic motivation sources to read in a foreign language. Lastly, the mean score of the reading efficacy factor revealed that the participants find themselves at fair to good levels of reading in English. Secondly, the relations between academic achievements (GPA) and attitudes and motivation towards reading in English are of particular interest. The study revealed that in general the correlation between academic achievement (GPA) and attitudes and motivation towards reading in English is positive in range, however, with no statically significance. It indicates that the higher the participants’ GPA scores are, the more positive attitudes and motivational constructs they develop in ESL/EFL reading. This study echoed the findings of Kondo-Brown (2006), Mori (2002), Erten et al., (2010), Senturk (2015) and Ozonder (2015). It has been proved in the present study that reading motivation exists, and a group of English major students at MSU from Thailand have developed positive attitudes and motivation towards reading in English, which is in line with the Wigfield and Guthrie’s (1995, 1997) and Kondo- Brown’s suggestions (2006). With the help of this study, the multidimensionality of reading motivation has also been approved in consistency with Mori’s proposition (2002). It could be possible to measure language learners’ attitudes and motivation to read in a ESL/EFL by using the Foreign Language Reading Attitudes and Motivation Scale (FLRAMS; Erten et al., 2010) and to shed light upon finding motivational constructs from a very micro perspective with this study. As the results of the present research have revealed, English major students at MSU primarily favour reading in a foreign language for its extrinsic value, which was founded by Erten et al. (2010). The findings of this study show positive attitudes and motivation attribute to the process of self-development of English major students at MSU. Therefore, the practitioners in the field of ESL/EFL may lead their students to set some certain goals to improve their reading skills in a foreign language. Thus, it is encouraged that teachers should stimulate their students’ intrinsic motivation more frequently. Finally, in order to promote intrinsic value of reading motivation, varieties of reading materials of the target language which can provide some fun and pleasure through/ with reading experience should be added into in the classroom environment. In conclusion, the present study investigated attitudes and motivation of English major students at MSU to read in a foreign language. The findings support the existence of reading motivation in ESL/EFL reading based on four main factors. The results suggest that students have positive attitudes and motivation towards reading in English correlating with their academic achievements (GPA). INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 44 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

References: Ahmadi, M.R., (2017) The Inpact of Motivation on Reading Comprehension. International Journal of Reasearch in English Education, 2(1), 1-7. Şentürk, B., (2015). EFL Turkish University Students’ Attitudes and Motivation Towards Reading in English. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 199, 704-712. Day, R. R. & Bamford, J. (1998). Extensive reading in the second language classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dörnyei, Z. (2003). Attitudes, orientations, and motivations in language learning: Advances in theory, research and applications. Language Learning, 53(1), 332-. Dörnyei, Z. (2005). The psychology of the language learner: Individual differences in second language acquisition. Dörnyei, Z. (2006). Motivational strategies in the language classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Grabe, W., & Stoller,F.L. (2002). Teaching and Researching Reading. New York: Pearson Education. Eagly, A.H. & Chaiken, S. (1993). The psychology of attitudes. Orlando, FL, US: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers. Eccles, J. S. & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 109132-. Erten, Ismail hakkı & Topkaya, Ece & Karakaş, Müge. (2010). Exploring Motivational Constructs in Foreign Language Reading. Hacettepe University Journal of Education, 39. 185-196. Gardner, R. C. & Lambert, W. E. (1972). Attitudes and motivation in second-language learning. Rowley, Mass: Newbury House. Harmer, J. (1991) The Practice of English Language Teaching. London: Longman. Hasbun, L. (2006). The role of vocabulary acquisition in students’ attitudes towards reading. Revista Comunicacion, 15, 3745-. Kondo-Brown, K. (2006). Affective variables and Japanese L2 reading ability. Reading in a Foreign Language, 18(1), 5571-. Lei, S. A., & Rhinehart, P. J., & Howard, H. A., & Cho, J.K. (2010). Strategies for improving reading comprehension among college students. Reading Improvement, 47(1), 3042-. Masgoret, A-M., Bernaus, M., & Gardner, R.C. (2001). Examining the role of attitudes and motivation outside of the formal classroom: A test of the mini ATMB for children. In Z. Dörnyei, & R. Schmidt (Eds.), Motivation and second language acquisition (Technical Report #23, 281- 295). Honolulu: University of Hawaii, Second Language Teaching and Curriculum Centre. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 45 Mahasarakham University

Merisuo-Storm, T. (2007). Pupils’ attitudes towards foreign language learning and the development of literacy skills in bilingual education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23, 226235-. Mori, S. (2002). Redefining motivation to read in a foreign language. Reading in a Foreign Language, 14(2), 91110-. Oxford, R.L. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. Massachusetts: Heinle & Heinle Publishers. Özönder, O., (2015). Prospective ELT Students’ Foreign Language Reading Attitudes and Motivation. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 199, 722-729. Wigfield, A. & Guthrie, J.T. (1995). Dimensions of children’s motivations for reading: An initial study (Research Rep. No.34). Athens, GA: National Reading Research Center. Wigfield, A. & Guthrie, J.T. (1997). Relations of children’s motivation for reading to the amount and breadth of their reading. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89(3), 420- 432. Wigfield, A. & Guthrie, J.T. (1999). Motivation for reading: An overview. Educational Psychologist, 32, 5758-. Yamashita, J. (2004). Reading attitudes in L1 and L2, and their influence on L2 extensive reading. Reading in a Foreign Language, 16(1), 119-. Zhou, L. (2008). Effects of reading tasks on Chinese EFL students’ reading comprehension (Doctoral Dissertation). Suranaree University of Technology, Thailand. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 46 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

The Use of Integrated Tasks and Jigsaw Teaching Technique in Enhancing Reading Comprehension Skill of Eleventh Grade Students

Adun Udombua1, Pilanut Phusawisot2

1Graduate student of English Language Teaching Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Mahasarakham University 2Lecturer of Department of Western Language and Linguistics Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Mahasarakham University

Abstract This study is a part of an ongoing Master’s degree research project, titled “The Use of Integrated Tasks and Jigsaw Teaching Technique in Enhancing Reading Comprehension Skill of Eleventh Grade Students”. Reading comprehension is considered one of the most challenging problems of students at the school. When students get involved with reading a text they are unable to comprehend it. Moreover, they do not know what the text means, what the major theme of the passage is, what the sequences of the text are, and what is the topic of the text. Therefore, the researcher has become interested to find out the solutions to this problem. The purposes of this study are to investigate the results of students’ English reading comprehension skills before and after using integrated tasks and the jigsaw teaching technique and to investigate how integrated tasks and jigsaw teaching technique enhance students’ reading comprehension skills. This study is a quasi - experimental design. The control group is 33 eleventh grade students and the experimental group is 30 eleventh grade students of Kudkhonkean Wittayakhom School. They were selected by purposive sampling. The instruments for data collection will consist of five lesson plans, pre- test, post-test, progress tests, questionnaire and semi-structured interview questions. The data will be analyzed using independent t-tests, paired t- tests, one –way ANOVA and content analysis. At the end of the study, eleventh grade students of Kudkhonkean Wittayakhom School are expected to improve their English reading comprehension skills after learning by using integrated tasks and jigsaw teaching technique. The expected results of the study will be discussed.

Keywords: Integrated Tasks, Jigsaw Teaching Technique, Reading Comprehension Skill February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 47 Mahasarakham University

Introduction English plays an important role in Thai society especially in the policy of the present government which empowers the country to join the ASEAN community. The ministry of Education has stated the policy that the schools in Thailand must place importance on teaching English by organizing learning content and extracurricular activities to enable students to be able to use English in their daily life. Hopefully, Thai citizens will use English as a communication tool with foreigners effectively. However, Thai students still have difficulties in some English skills such as speaking and reading, those are considered the significant skills of using English. According to researcher’s teaching English experiences with eleventh grade students at Kudkhonkean Wittayakhom School in Khon Kean province, reading comprehension skills are considered one of their most challenging problems. When students get involved with reading a text they are unable to comprehend it, do not know what the text means, what the major theme of the passage is, what the sequences of the text are, and what the topic of the text is. Moreover, students have mixed abilities in English language proficiency. Hence, some students have troubles when they work on reading texts. As Taylor and others (1995) have proposed that reading is the process of interaction with the readers, the contents of the text come together to decide the quality and the context of comprehension. Thus, reading comprehension must be one of reading skills that reader should be mastered since reading comprehension is sets of knowledge which reflects the communicative interactions among the intentions of the author, the content of the text /message, the abilities and purposes of the reader and the context or situation of the interaction (Israel and Duffy, 2009). Moreover, Closs (2008) stated that, reading comprehension problems may also be due to difficulties in reading fluently. Fluency is vital for students to develop effective reading comprehension skills. Readers lacking fluency spend excessive time decoding, leading to less short-term memory available for comprehension. Students need to be able to decode well in order to comprehend the text and need more interaction while they are in the classroom. Because of the problems of English reading comprehension skills, there are many researchers and scholars who have tried to solve the problems. Willis (1998) proposed that task-based reading activities may prove to be a good way of integrating English skills and promote effective language learning because those activities are done with the purpose of producing something, reaching a conclusion or creating the whole picture of something after they have read the texts. In addition, there are six types of tasks which allow students to be exposed to the target language and have INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 48 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

interaction among students and their peers as follows, listing, ordering and sorting, comparing, problem solving, sharing personal information and doing creative tasks. Besides, Willis (1998) presented the conceptual framework of task – based learning which is suitable for adaptation in the classroom covered pre-task phase, task cycle which consists of task, planning and report, and focus phase which consists of analysis and practice. Similar to Rad & Bakash (2015) who conducted the study of enhancing reading comprehension skills of Iranian intermediate EFL learners through task-based reading activities, the result showed that the reading comprehension of students improves using a task based method rather than the traditional method. Learning takes place in an active mode by allowing students to participate in small-group activities, thus this helps students become independent of the teacher. In the same way, Chalak (2015) presented the effect of task-based instruction on reading comprehension skills of Iranian EFL Learners. It is stated that students improved their performance on reading skills by using the tasks that provided opportunities for them to talk about vocabulary and monitor the language they used. During the tasks, students exchanged their ideas and negotiated to learn their peer’s ideas and became familiar with lot of words related to the topic. Apart from task-based activities, cooperative learning also occurred during the reading tasks which helped students exchange their ideas, attitudes or beliefs on certain reading issues. This result is also in agreement with Johnson & Johnson (1987) who presented that cooperative learning is a form of education in which students interact socially in a group. There are many approaches of cooperative learning including Students Teams Achievement Division (STAD), Group Investigation (GI) and Jigsaw. One of the beneficial approaches in teaching reading techniques is jigsaw. This approach to cooperative learning divides up the learning materials so group members can work on particular topics. Students start out in heterogeneous home or base teams with four or five members. Members number off and then move to expert groups. Each expert group learns a different part or aspect of the assigned topic. They read and discuss learning materials provided by the teacher and help each other learn about their assigned topic. (Arends and Kilcher 2010, 316). To support this statement, Sead (2011) presented the result of the study on effectiveness of the jigsaw teaching technique and reading comprehension that students become interested and motivated in learning new topics. The jigsaw teaching technique encourages students to help each other learn, their partners are available to help when they need help to answer questions or complete the tasks from reading texts. When a student answers incorrectly, the more competent one in the group can explain why the answer is not accepted, and this explanation increases reading comprehension skill among students. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 49 Mahasarakham University

Consequently, as the information mentioned above has become interesting to find out the solutions to this problem by integrating lessons of task–based learning which focuses on sequencing and categorizing tasks with jigsaw teaching technique in order to enhance English reading comprehension skills of eleventh grade students at Kudkhonkean Wittayakhom School Khonkean province, Thailand.

1.1 Significance of the study The reason why this study will be significant can be explained from two aspects. First, this study investigates the result of students’ English reading comprehension skills before and after using integrated tasks and the jigsaw teaching technique. Second, this research investigates how integrated tasks and jigsaw teaching technique enhance students’ reading comprehension skills. Hence, this research study might reveal an alternative technique of teaching English reading comprehension for English-language teachers. 1.2 Purposes of the study The study aims to: 1. Investigate the result of students’ English reading comprehension skills before and after using integrated tasks and the jigsaw teaching technique. 2. Investigate how integrated tasks and the jigsaw teaching technique enhances students’ reading comprehension skills. 1.3 Research Questions 1. Do integrated tasks and the jigsaw teaching technique affect students’ reading comprehension skills? 2. How do integrated tasks and the jigsaw teaching technique enhance students’ reading comprehension skills? 1.4 Definition of Terms 1. Reading comprehension skills refers to the ability of identifying the sequences, steps, instructions, ordering, events, topic, main idea, main character, other characters and setting of the passage. 2. Integrated tasks focus on sequencing and categorizing. Students are able to justify the sequences, steps, ordering and events of the passage. Also, they are able to categorize the topic, main idea, theme, main character, other characters and setting of the passage. 3. Jigsaw teaching technique refers to dividing students into groups which are called home groups then they split to another group which are called expert groups. In this group, students study the passage and assigned topic then move back to their home groups and help group members complete the target tasks. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 50 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

2. Research Methods 2.1 Research design This study aims to investigate the result of students’ English reading comprehension skills before and after using integrated tasks and the jigsaw teaching technique and to investigate how integrated tasks and the jigsaw teaching technique enhance students’ reading comprehension skills. This research is a quasi - experimental design. The English reading comprehension pre-test and post-test will be used to measure English reading ability of the control group and the experimental group. To gain more in-depth information, progress tests, questionnaires and semi-structured interview questions will be used to study how students enhance their English reading comprehension skills. The independent variable is “Integrated tasks and the jigsaw teaching technique” and English reading comprehension skills is the dependent variable. In this study, five lesson plans of integrated tasks and the jigsaw teaching technique will be used to teach in the class of the experimental group, while the traditional way of teaching will be used in the class of the control group. Quantitative data will be used mainly. Qualitative data will be used to confirm the results. 2.2 Participants Population and sample Population is 83 eleventh grade students of three classrooms at Kudkhonkean Wittayakhom School who are studying in the 2nd semester of academic year 2017. Control group is 33 eleventh grade students of Kudkhonkean Wittayakhom School who are diversified abilities and studying in 5/2 in the 2nd semester of academic year 2017, and were selected by purposive sampling. Experimental group is 30 eleventh grade students of Kudkhonkean Wittayakhom School who have mixed abilities and studying in 5/1 in the 2nd semester of academic year 2017and were selected by purposive sampling. 2.3 Setting of the study The study will be conducted for 10 weeks (20 hours) at KudkhonkeanWittayakhom School which is a secondary school and located in Phuwiang district, Khonkean province, Thailand. There are 520 students in this school with three English language teachers. In the study, there are 30 students in the experimental group and 33 students in the control group together with one teacher. The lesson will be administered in the second semester of the academic year 2017. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 51 Mahasarakham University

2.4 Conceptual framework of the study

Figure 1: Conceptual Framework of the study 2.5 Instruments There are two kinds of instruments that will be used in the study. The instruments of teaching and learning are five lesson plans of integrated tasks and the jigsaw teaching technique. Moreover, the content follows the core curriculum of the upper-secondary level in English subject. It covers five topics as follows;

1. Topic: Pollution There is one lesson plan lasting four hours. 2. Topic: Routine There is one lesson plan lasting four hours. 3. Topic: Health Service There is one lesson plan lasting four hours. 4. Topic: Nutrition food There is one lesson plan lasting four hours. 5. Topic: Accommodation There is one lesson plan lasting four hours. Total: Twenty hours of implementation

The instruments of data collection are a pre-test and a post-test of reading comprehension skills, progress tests, questionnaires and semi-structured interview questions of enhancing English reading comprehension skills through the integrated tasks and the jigsaw teaching technique. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 52 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

2.6 Data collection The total amount of time spent of collecting data will be twenty hours during the 2nd semester of academic year 2017. The experimental processes will be as follows; 1. The test of English reading comprehension skills will be conducted to measure English reading ability of the control group and the experimental group to study students’ English reading ability before implementation. 2. Five lesson plans of integrated tasks and the jigsaw teaching technique will be used to teach in the class of the experimental group, while the traditional way of teaching will be used in the class of the control group. 3. The progress tests will be used at the end of each lesson to measure the student’s progression. 4. The questionnaire of enhancing English reading comprehension skills through integrated tasks and the jigsaw teaching technique will be used to investigate how the integrated tasks and the jigsaw teaching technique enhance students’ reading comprehension skills. 5. The reading comprehension skills test will be used to measure reading ability of the experimental group and control group after learning. 6. Semi-structured interview questions will be used to ask nine focus group students of the experimental group who will have been selected by their results of the reading comprehension test which will cover high, intermediate and low proficiency since they are mixed ability as the information above mentioned in order to investigate how they enhanced their reading comprehension skills through the integrated tasks and the jigsaw teaching technique. 2.7 Data analysis The data will be analyzed by using the following processes; 1. Statistics in data analysis will be independent t-tests to compare the results of the pretests of two groups to make sure that there is no significant difference between the groups before engaging in the experiment. 2. Statistics in data analysis will be paired t-tests to compare the results of pretests and posttests of each group to see whether there is any difference between the performance of each group on pretests and posttests. 3. One –way Anova will be used to compare the results of the control group with those of the experimental group. 4. Content analysis will be used for data analysis from semi-structured interviews. 5. SPSS software will be used to analyze data from the questionnaires. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 53 Mahasarakham University

3. Expected outcome According to the research study plan, the researcher expects that eleventh grade studentsof Kudkhonkean Wittayakhom School, Phuwiang district, Khonkean province, Thailand may enhance their English reading comprehension skills. They are expected to justify the sequences, steps, ordering and events of the passage of the text. Also, they expected to be able to categorize the topic, main idea, main character, other characters and setting of the passage through the jigsaw activity which divides them in groups and helps each other complete the target tasks of the lessons. Moreover, they are expected to have more interaction among students and students who are more competent can help the less competent students. Apart from the students, English- language teachers who teach in secondary school are expected to gain some new techniques of English reading comprehension skills teaching from this research study.

References: Arends, L. A., & Kilcher, A. (2010) Teaching for student learning, New Yok: Routledge. Chalak, A. (2015). The effect of task-based instruction on reading comprehension of Iranian EFL learners, Journal of Applied Research on English Language. Retrieved November 10, 2017, from http://are.ui.ac.ir/article_15497_0.html. Closs, E. K. (2008). Teaching Reading Comprehension to Struggling and At-Risk Readers: Strategies That Work. Retrieved July 11, 2017, from http://www. readinglady.com/mosaic/tools/TeachingReadingComprehensiontoStruggli ngReaders-MastersThesisbyEllen.pdf. Johnson, D., & Johnson, R. (1987) The basic elements of cooperative learning, Learning together & alone. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Willis, J. (1998) A Framework for Task-based Learning. Edinburgh: Longman. Rad, F. N., & Bakash, S.A. (2015) Enhancing reading comprehension of Iranian intermediate EFL learners through task based reading activities, Journal of Language and Linguistics,V.1 No. 1, Retrieved August 11, 2017, from https://www. jiljorrnal.com. Saed, A. (2014). Effectiveness of jigsaw technique and reading comprehension, International Maritime English Conference. Retrieved November 11, 2017, from https:// www.researchgate.net. Taylor, B., Harris, L. A., Pearson, P. D., & Garcia, G. (1995). Reading Difficulties. (2nd ed.) The United State of America: MaGraw-Hill, p. 3. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 54 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

An English Instructional Model Using a Cooperative Task-based Approach with Scaffolding Writing Strategy to Enhance Writing Ability in EFL Large-sized Classes for Tertiary Students

Manachai Kaewseeduang1

1Lecturer, Department of English, Faculty of Education , Thailand Abstract The situations in large classes in EFL teaching still have been seriously difficult for teachers. How teachers manage and administrate the classroom activities is very important. However, there has not been consensus about the issue of large class size. The purposes of this research were to develop an English instructional model using a cooperative task-based approach with scaffolding writing strategy to enhance writing ability in EFL large-sized classes for tertiary students, to evaluate the effectiveness of the developed instructional model, and to investigate students’ levels of satisfaction towards the developed instructional model. Thirty third-year undergraduate students majoring in English at Nakhon Phanom University who studied in the academic year 2016 were purposively selected as a sample group. The study was a research with one-group pre-test and post-test design. The pre-test and post-test scores gained from the writing achievement test developed by the researcher yield quantitative data. Teacher’s journals and students’ journals were utilized to collect qualitative data concerning students’ progress in writing ability as well as their opinions towards the model. In addition, a students’ satisfaction questionnaire was employed to examine students’ levels of satisfaction towards the model and to triangulate the data to support the effectiveness of the model. The findings revealed that there was a statistically significant difference between the mean score students gained from the pre-test and post-test of writing ability at a significance level of 0.01. The data obtained from the teacher’s journals and the students’ journals showed that students had writing ability development. Students’ positive satisfaction towards the model was also detected from the students’ satisfaction questionnaires, the teacher’s journals and the students’ journals. According to the findings, it could be claimed that the instructional model using a cooperative task-based approach with scaffolding writing strategy can be effective to increase undergraduate students’ writing ability in EFL large-sized classes and to support students’ positive satisfaction towards the developed model.

Keywords: Instructional Model, Task-based Approach, Scaffolding Writing Strategy, Large-sized Classes

February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 55 Mahasarakham University

Introduction The contexts of teaching English as a foreign language (EFL) in Thailand nowadays have been focused on promoting and developing students’ listening, speaking, reading and writing skills for communication with the emphasis centered on the student. English language learning has been applied with students’ competencies and interests both in and out of the classroom, and beyond, to real life use. Nevertheless, a significant problem in instructional management is large-sized classes (Watson Todd, 2006; Nolasco & Arther, 1988; McLeod, 1989; Coleman, 1989; Gibbs, Lucas and Simonite, 1996; Bennete, 2007). The following are some of the problems that instructors have been encountering in their work of teaching English as a foreign language (EFL) in large- sized classes. Instructors have more students to know and more names to remember. It seems that students’ attention wandering happens more easily. Each student is more easily influenced by others and it is more difficult to keep good discipline going in class. The instructors have much more to prepare for students of different abilities who want to learn different things at different speeds and in different ways. Instructors cannot easily give each student the individual attention he or she needs. They may not have enough teaching and learning aids. They have to spend more time checking students’ work. They may have to employ more effort to prepare a multi-level assessment for different students, etc. Many educators have proposed some guidelines on teaching English as a foreign language (EFL) in large-sized classes. Bennett (2007) recommended teachers make a good atmosphere in classroom, with classroom regulations, interesting lessons, student-centered cooperative instruction, technology-assisted instruction, and autonomous learning. Coleman (1989) and Wattanapokakul (2006) proposed learning management by using compromising approaches and an active learning instructional model, respectively. Watson Todd (2006) employed blended learning in large-sized class. Wattanapokakul (2006) developed an active learning instructional model for developing learners in English communication. Watson Todd (2006) examined the difference between teaching English in large and small-sized classes. Darasawang & Srimavin (2006) studied on the comparison of lecture instruction and tutorial approach. Keyuravong & Manekhao (2006) investigated the use of counseling service by E-mail for large-sized classes. Successful solutions must be found to the problems of teaching English as a foreign language (EFL) in large-sized classes mentioned earlier. Consequently, a framework of task-based language teaching (TBLT) has been proposed to integrate in teaching EFL large-sized classes (Ellis, 2003; Willis, 1996; Willis & Willis, 2007; INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 56 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Nunan, 2005; Prabhu, 1987; Skehan, 1996; Edward & Willis, 2005; Samuda & Bygate, 2008; Van den Brabden, 2006; Norris, 2002; Long & Norris, 2000; Lee, 2000).

Literature Review The task-based approach aimed to provide learners with a natural context for language use. As learners work to complete a task, they have abundant opportunity to interact with each other as well as the teacher and the content. Such interaction is thought to facilitate language acquisition, as learners have to work to understand each other and to express their own meaning. By so doing, they have to check to see if they have comprehended correctly. In addition, at times, they have to seek clarification from other students or their instructor. By interacting with others, students have an opportunity to listen to language which may be beyond their present ability, but which may be assimilated into their knowledge of the target language for use at a later time. Task-based language teaching (TBLT) emphasizes on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language. It provides opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language, but also on the learning process itself. Learners get exposure to perform their language competence. They are free to use whatever language they think helps communicate according to their own personal experiences. Willis (1996) presented a three-stage process of task-based learning as follows: (1) Pre-task; introduction to the topic and task; teacher explores the topic with the class, highlights useful words and phrases, and helps learners to understand task instruction and to prepare. Learners may hear a recording of others doing a similar task, or read part of a text as a lead into a task. (2) Task cycle; is comprised Task, Planning and Report; Task - Students do the task in pairs or small groups. The teachers monitor from a distance, encouraging all attempts at communication, not correcting. Since this situation has a private feel, students feel free to experiment. Mistakes don’t matter. Planning - Students prepare to report to the whole class (orally or in writing) how they did the task, what they decided or discovered. Since the report stage is public, students will naturally want to be accurate, so the teacher stands by to give language advice. Report - Some groups present their reports to the class, or exchange written reports, and compare results. Teacher acts as a chairperson, and then comments on the content of the reports. (3) Language focus; it is comprised Analysis and Practice. Analysis - Learners may now hear a recording of others doing a similar task and compare how they all did it. Or they may read a text similar in some way to the one they have written themselves, or related in topic to the task they have done. Practice - Teacher conducts practice of new words, phrases, and patterns occurring in the data, either during or after the analysis. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 57 Mahasarakham University

Focused on the difficulties in teaching writing, scaffolding writing instruction framework is proposed as an alternative strategy to teach writing for Thai tertiary students. The principle of this framework is teaching with a gradual release. This can be done by using a scaffold which refers to a special, supportive way of interaction and to a temporary structure that assists learning (Waqui & van Lier, 2010). As both a process and a structure, scaffolding can be described as the pedagogical ways in which the zone of proximal development (the area where the potential ability can be reached with assistance from a mediator which can be a person or resources) is established. Scaffolding allows the teacher to help students transition from assisted tasks to independent performances (Bliss & Askew, 1996; Bodrova & Leong, 1998; Palincsar, 1998). It is a step-by-step process that provides the learner with sufficient guidance until the process is learned, and then gradually removes the supports in order to transfer the responsibility for completing the task to the student. For scaffolding to be successful, a foundation or organized procedure must first be developed. The teacher must provide students with the optimal amount of support necessary to complete the task, and then progressively decrease the level of assistance until the student becomes capable of completing the activity independently (Bodrova & Leong, 1998; Elicker, 1995). Tomas (2003) proposed six types of scaffolding instruction including (1) modeling comes intuitively to most teachers and entails demonstrating procedures and providing examples of work to students. (2) Bridging comprises helping students make personal connections between their individual experiences and contents. (3) Contextualization is a preparation of meaningful context for both the content and the language being taught. (4) Schema-building is an organizing knowledge based on students’ experiences and sense of the world into structures or schemas. (5) Text re-presentation refers to learning with new methods such as role-play based on the old contents. (6) Metacognitive development means the assistance for students to know what they are learning and which approach have the highest efficient. Vernon (2001) proposed a scaffolding approach in writing instruction process including six steps: brainstorming, outline, rough draft, evaluation, final draft, and publishing. (1) Brainstorming suggests a haphazard approach to getting thoughts out of the mind and onto some type of canvas (e.g., chalkboard, overhead and worksheet). Brainstorming should be guided by the teacher before students are expected to complete this step independently. Graphic organizers, such as a web, map, or frame (Ellis, 2000), are relatively simple devices that can be used to guide this step. (2) Outline is used to further organize the thoughts revealed in the Brainstorming step. Teacher-generated and later, co-constructed outlines allow students to visualize the different topics and paragraphs within the paper. (3) Rough draft, the transition between outline and INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 58 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

rough draft is a relatively small step. A solid outline visually identifies the sections of the paper so students can transfer the isolated sentences or details into flowing paragraphs. (4) Evaluation includes peer and teacher proofing as well as editing. The teacher provides a list of questions and instructions that is both general (e.g., spelling, grammar) and specific (e.g., number of paragraphs, sentence length) that guides the evaluator through this stage of the process. The writer uses the evaluation feedback to make corrections as necessary. (5) Final draft, after the suggestions from the evaluator(s) are considered, the student proceeds to the final draft. The final draft is usually a handwritten copy that the student submits for a grade. It may be necessary to require some or all students to review the corrections with the teacher before proceeding to this stage. (6) Publishing, this is considered an optional stage for the writing process. The students should be encouraged to produce some type of creative product that enhances the written work. This step incorporates technology, art, music, drama, and the like into the lesson and may provide an incentive for completing the writing task. Thus, the implementation of the English instructional model using a cooperative task-based approach with scaffolding writing strategy will enhance paragraph writing ability in EFL large-sized classes for tertiary students. Then it will encourage their learning behaviors. It is also expected that the results of the study will encourage the development of teaching EFL in large-sized classes.

Method Thirty third-year undergraduate students majoring in English at Nakhon Phanom University, Thailand who studied in the academic year 2016 were purposively selected as a sample group through the process shown below.

Writing Class Task Stage Scaffolding Activities Process Management

Instructor explores the topic with Topic Bridging the class by helping students Pre-task Pre-writing Schema-building brainstorm ideas; mapping; and Whole class and task Modeling showing pictures, paragraph examples, and ask for some details. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 59 Mahasarakham University

Writing Class Task Stage Scaffolding Activities Process Management

Contextualization Students do the tasks in groups, the (discussing), Group teachers monitor from a distance, Task feedback, Text- students feel free to do tasks with representation the help of group process. (presenting writing Task cycle Drafting task), Metacognitive Students prepare to report to the Group of 4 Planning development (using whole class. (orally or in writing) rubric and check list) Students report to the class, or Report exchange written reports, and compare results.

Instructor and peer Instructor monitors and adds feedbacks extra comments as possible to students to create the paragraph Revising and gives some useful language in Analysis and Editing writing task, students examine and Pairs discuss the specific feathers of the paragraphs, let peer comment on the other’s paragraph (turn taking). Language focus Contextualization Instructor conducts practice of (discussing), new words, phrases, and patterns Metacognitive occurring in the data, either during development (using or after the analysis, students Practice Publishing rubric and check list), get back their own paper with Individual Text-representation comments then rewrite their (submitting writing paragraph and submit to instructor. task)

Results and Conclusion The findings revealed that there was a statistically significant difference be- tween the mean score students gained from the pretest and posttest of writing ability at a significance level of 0.01. The data obtained from the teacher’s journals and the students’ journals showed that students had writing ability development. Students’ positive satisfaction towards the model was also detected from the students’ satisfac- tion questionnaire, the teacher’s journals and the students’ journals. According to the findings, it could be claimed that the instructional model using a cooperative task- based approach with scaffolding writing strategy can be effective to increase under- graduate students’ writing ability in EFL large-sized classes and to support students’ positive satisfaction towards the developed model. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 60 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

References: Akhtar, N., Khan, T.& Kiran, S. (2014). The Effectiveness of TBL in EFL Learners’ Performance in Pakistan. European Academic Research. 2(4). Azar, M.A. (2004). Mangement of Large-sized English Language Teaching Classes: A Study at High School Level in District Abbotabad, Pakistan. Doctor of Philosophy: National University of Modern Languages. Barnard, R. and Campbell, L. (2006). Sociocultural Theory and the Teaching of Process Writing: the Scaffolding of Learning in a University Context. Department of General & Applied Linguistics . Chan, C. (2010). Assessment: Assessing Large Class, Assessment Resources. University of Hong Kong. [http://ar.cetl.hku.hk/large_class.htm. Chen, J. (2010). An Exploration of EFL College Students’ Writing Process: The Interactions Among Task Type, Writing Proficiency, and Writing Strategy.Master dissertation, Hsin-Chu: National Tsing-Hua University. Chen, J. & Hsu, A. Y. (2011). Exploring Writing Strategy Use in Different Writing Tasks. Proceedings of 20th international Symposium on English Teaching, Taipei. Chen, Pi-Ching. (2008). Effectively Implementing a Collaborative Task-based Syllabus (CTBA) in EFL Large-sized Business English Classes. Department of Foreign Languages and Literature: National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan. Ellis R. (2006). “Methodology of Task-Based Teaching,” The Asian EFL Journal Quarterly, 8(3), 19-45. Fisher, D. & Frey, N. (2001). Scaffolded Writing Instruction: Teaching with a Gradual- release Framework. Scholastic. Ives, S. M. (2000). A Survival Handbook for Teaching Large Classes. UNC Charlotte Faculty Center for Teaching, University of North Carolina, Charlotte. http://teaching.uncc.edu/resources/best-practice-articles/large classes/ handbook- large-classes. Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T. & Stanne, M. E. (2000). Cooperative Learning Methods: A meta-analysis. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis: Cooperative Learning Center, http://www.cooperation.org/pages/cl-methods.html (accessed October 5, 2006). Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T. & Smith, K. A. (1998). Active Learning: Cooperation in the College Classroom, (2nd ed.); Interaction Book: Edina, MN. Jun, D. (2005). “Task-based Activities in Large Heterogeneous Classes,” CELEA Journal (Bimonthly). 28(2). Nunan, D. (1989). Designing Task for the Communicative Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 61 Mahasarakham University

Nunan, D. (2004). Task-based Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ruso, N. (2007). The Influence of Task-based Learning on EFL Classrooms. MA Degree in ELT. Retrieved from http://www.asian-efl journal. Scholes, R. & Comley, N.R., The Practice of Writing. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1989. Scott, F. & Denney, J. (1896). Paragraph-Writing (3rd Edition), Allyn and Bacon, Boston: Massachusetts. Shu-Chiao Tsai. (2013). EFL Business Writing with Task-based Learning Approach: A Case Study of Student Strategies to Overcome Difficulties.Department of Applied Foreign Languages: National Kaohsiung University of Applied Sciences. Skehan, P. (1998). A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning. Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press. Waqui, A. & van Lier, L. (2010). Scaffolding the Academic Success of Adolescent English Language Learners: A Pedagogy of Promise. San Francisco, CA: WestED.org. Willis, J. (1996). A Framework for Task-based Learning. London: Longman. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 62 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Students’ Perception Change towards International Cultures

Nawarat Saphanuchart1, Montira Khumdee2, Ampika Patarapongsanti3

1, 2, 3 Lecturers, Department of Western Languages and Linguistics Mahasarakham University, Thailand

Abstract The relationship between students’ perceptions and studying abroad has been investigated as the latter is believed to shape the former (e.g., Jackson, 2006; Murphy- Lejeune, 2002). From this perspective, the current study is interested in exploring university students’ perception of international cultures prior to and after spending time studying abroad where such cultures are experienced. Additionally, the current study attempts to investigate if the change in perception, if any, has any impact on students’ behaviors in learning context. To answer these questions, the research explored the perceptions of Mahasarakham University students towards Australian culture which clashes with the students’ cultural orientation. The research participants consisted of 40 students from 3 different programs, all of whom actively participated in a 1-month study program at the . Prior to their departure, the students were interviewed. Then, a follow-up interview was administered to the participants upon their return. The qualitative data from the interviews were analyzed by means of thematic content analysis (Saldana, 2015). The results showed that the majority of the participants viewed international cultures differently from the perception they had adopted in their minds prior to their exposure to such cultures. Furthermore, more than half of the students identified their learning behaviors as changed in that they adopted learning approaches experienced during their study in the more individualistic culture more often. According to the results, it can be asserted that the students’ perceptions of other cultures are not static but dynamic which apparently have effects on their learning behaviors. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 63 Mahasarakham University

Introduction Studying abroad is one of the best ways to learn a foreign language for teachers and learners (Isabelli, 2004; Kuntz and Belnap, 2001; Pellegrino, 1998). The Department of Western Languages and Linguistics, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Mahasarakham University realizes the importance of studying abroad, so it grants a partial fund for students to attend the Language Learning Program for four weeks at University of Sydney, Australia. This annually-launched program fundamentally aims to emphasize student’s learning experience in an English speaking environment. With this opportunity and a shared interest among the researchers, this study was carried out. The current study attempted to explore changes in students’ perception towards other cultures and their learning behavior as a result of the program participation. To achieve the goals, the research questions were set as follows: 1) Does the perception of the students attending the program towards international cultures change? If this is the case, to what extent does their perception change? 2) How does the change affect student’s behavior in learning context?

Literature review Collectivistic Culture vs. Individualistic Culture According to Hoftede’s value dimensions, collectivistic culture emphasizes the importance of the group, social cooperation, interdependence, less personal privacy, and individualistic culture underlines uniqueness, independence, privacy, self-realization, individual initiative, individual decision making (Darwish, 2014; Cherry, 2017). When having a difficult time, the collectivist is more likely to turn to their family and friends; on the other hand, the individualist is more likely to go at it alone (Cherry, 2017). A large number of Asian countries including Thailand lean towards collectivism while the United States, Australia, Great Britain, Canada, and New Zealand practice individualism (Samovar et al., 2009, p.199). From the clash between Thai culture and Australian culture, the participants are assumed to express concerns prior to their arrival, and for those who might not observe this aspect of cultural divergence are likely to set expectations of Australian culture based on their collectivist culture.

Cultural Perceptions As Gamble and Gamble (1996) point out “perception is the process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting sensory data in a way that enables us to make sense of our world”. In other words, perception is the awareness of learning or seeing something throughout the sense. According to Adler (cited in Samovar and Porter, INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 64 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

2003, p.47), “perception is culturally determined. We learn to see the world in a certain way based on our cultural background”. Simply put, people with different cultural backgrounds usually perceive the way people behave differently due to their cultural experiences. Thus, it is assumed that previous cultural experiences in which the research participants have gained will guide them in forming perceptions and expectations towards the target culture, i.e. Australian culture.

Methodology This section presents information about the research participants, the instruments employed, and the data elicitation and analysis.

1. Participants The participants of the study were 40 current students in their second and third year of study at the time of the research, majoring in English, Business English, and English for International Communication from Mahasarakham University. The students participated in a one-month study program at University of Sydney. The program offers a finance support to students annually to encourage them to learn English in an English-speaking country, i.e. Australia. All of the students passed the written test and the interview before they were recruited to participate in the research. The majority of the participants have had experiences in English-speaking countries.

2. Instruments In this study, two instruments were employed. The first instrument consisted of two sets of questionnaire comprising 9 and 12 items each prior to arrival and upon return, respectively. The first set (9 items) distributed before the arrival targeted on their perception towards the target culture while the other set focused on changes perception and behavior. Some questionnaire items were adopted from Horwitz (1988) and Amuzie and Winke (2009). The reason behind this arrangement of the questionnaire was due to the scope of the current study. That is, only the adopted items fitted the aims of the study. The other instrument of the study was a semi-structured interview. The interview questions reflecting the aims of the study were constructed to elicit qualitative data. For data analysis of the interview data, Thematic Content Analysis (Saldana, 2015) was adopted.

3. Data Collection and Analysis The first set of questionnaires was distributed online to all of the participants prior to their departure, and the other set upon return. Their responses were gathered February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 65 Mahasarakham University

and calculated. For the interview data, eight volunteer participants were interviewed and their responses were recorded via a recorder application. The first interview session was carried out prior to their departure and the second session upon their return. After that the data were analyzed by means of the thematic content analysis. The data were coded and later assigned themes relevant to the aims of the current study.

Findings 1. Quantitative Results According to the research questions whether the perception of students attending language learning program at University of Sydney towards international culture change, the questionnaire result clearly showed that 60% of students studying and living in Sydney, Australia for 1 month “strongly agree” that international experiences reshaped their idea on other cultures, and 35% “agree” that they have changed the way they view other cultures. The research further investigated in details the way the perception change affects students’ behavior in learning context via semi- structure interview. Questionnaire survey was conducted after students arrived in their home country. It was significantly reported that 82.5% of students “strongly agree” and 15% “agree” that they were encouraged to express their opinion in class both by their classmates and teachers during the stay in Australia. When in Thailand, almost all of the students tried to stay active and participate more in the class as it was statistically shown that 62.5% “strongly agree” and 30% “agree” on the term.

2. Qualitative Results 2.1 Pre-Arrival Perception 2.1.1 Previous experience of the participants shape the way they perceive other cultures. It is reported that 7 out of 8 interviewed students have never had any experience abroad, but a short visit for traveling purposes to neighboring countries of Thailand. Some details derived from the semi-structure interview showed that some students looked for information about Australia and its learning environment from their friends who attended the program last year .However, the majority of the students viewed other cultures, especially in classroom context, based on their own culture as they compare Australian classroom with Thai classroom. For example: INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 66 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Participant 3 :At first I thought studying there must be a hard, hard work … I think I will have to listen to the teacher’s lecture and study grammar .I was concerned if the teacher would rail us for speaking incorrectly. Participant 4 :For Thai teachers, if you can’t answer the question, the teachers will accuse you for not paying attention [to the lecture]… I think the classrooms there are similar to [classrooms in] Thai primary school that students sit in lines.”

2.1.2. Media portrayal of western culture paints certain images of such culture on participants’ mind. Several students quoted the media, especially movies, when asking them to explain their perception about living in Australia, its people, and culture as exemplify below: Participant 1 : I think the classroom [in Australia ]is small according from movies I’ve watched … it’s different from Thailand with forty to fifty students in a class. Participant 4 : I think [Australian ]people are like those in the movies – drinking coffee, strolling along [the street ]… [in school ]there are gangs and bullying”, “I think they are like what I’ve watched from movies .They are rush, lively, and high-technological people Participant 7 : They are like what I’ve watched from movies .They are rush, lively, and high-technological people.

2.2. Pre-Arrival Expectations 2.2.1. Negative Expectation is based on participants’ concerns towards ways of living, language barrier, and racism. Participant 2 : I am afraid that my life there would be harsh [in terms of ] food, weather, cost of living, and language. Participant 5 : I’m afraid that I cannot communicate with them [classmates and teachers .]I think they will pay more attention on those who understand that they say. Participant 6 : I’m afraid they [Australians] will see us as ‘others’. Participant 7 : My concern is that they [ Australians] will look down on us.

2.2.2. Positive Expectation on Australia relates to the country’s modernity and its people’s personality. Participant 2 : I think their country [Australia ]is better than ours [Thailand] in many ways February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 67 Mahasarakham University

… people there are adventurous. Participant 5 : I think the country is developed, and its people are more active than Thais … They are like other Farangs11, so they might be punctual. Participant 6 : I think are independent and has freedom.They don’t pay much attention of what others think about them.

2.3. Upon Return 2.3.1. Participants’ perception on culture environment has changed to be more positive. During their 1-month firsthand experience overseas, students had encountered cultures and practices which were different from theirs, and these led to changes of their perceptions towards other cultures, both in terms of living and learning context. Participant 3 : I see them sat in group and read books .They are very diligent, and I ask myself why Thai students at [my ]university are not like this .This makes me want to be more diligent too. Participant 4 : I used to think that their culture is so different that I cannot blend in .But it has changed because of my real-life experiences .It’s opposite from [what I’ve ]imagined, so I view other culture in a more open-minded way. Participant 8 : Previously, I was biased .I think they don’t have their own identity .But when I stay there for a month, I found that variety is their uniqueness .And I realized I shouldn’t judge their culture before I really experience it.

2.3.2. Participants found that classroom management and learning environment were beyond their expectation. Having been participating in language classrooms in Australia for 1 month, all of the students reported that the classroom management, teacher’s characteristics, and learning environment are hardly similar to their expectation – they are better than they’ve imagined. Participant 1 : I was surprised with everything. The learning environment is different especially the teachers. They approached individual student and encouraged ]them[ to express their opinions. Participant 2 : I was a bit shocked when I have to sit separately from my friends, but my classmates were very friendly. We cheered each other

1 A Thai term used to call Caucasian foreigners. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 68 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

up to be better in English. I really like it when the teachers corrected us instantaneously. They didn’t discourage us when we wrongly speak. Participant 3 : I was strongly impressed by the teachers. They set up a group discussion for us to practice speaking, and the teachers were always around, ready to assist.

2.3.3. The change of perception leads to the change of the behavior. Not only have the students changed their perception when viewing other cultures, but such changes have also transform the way the students behaved, specifically, in learning and classroom context. Participant 1 : I [try to ]think in English, so that I can communicate with my friends and my English teachers .I paid more attention and appreciation of English communicative skills because I want people to be able to understand me easily. Participant 2 : Once I came back [to Thailand], I’ve tried to speaking with my Thai friends in English more than ever, been more confident to approach foreign teachers. Participant 6 : I have more confidence in speaking English, particularly speaking English with foreign teachers .I could even reply my English teacher in English automatically.

Discussion and Conclusion The research significantly showed that the majority of the students changed their perception towards other cultures as a result of living in Australian culture .Initially, according to the data acquired from the questionnaires and interview, it could be observed that participants’ background experiences and culture play an important role in constructing their perception on other cultures as collaborated with the notion of pre-understanding introduced by Habermas (1984) (cited in “Communication in Context,” n.d .). Students whose past experiences are limited to Thai environment see international culture in the way they see themselves. It is believed that overseas experience affects their perceptions towards international cultures (Jackson, 2006; Murphy-Lejeune, 2002 .)The study evidently supported the notion as shown in the questionnaires as well as the interview. Students agreed to be less unprejudiced, and view other cultures with empathy. Upon students’ return, it was extracted from the data that students have changed their behavior with regards to living and learning context. Gu and Maley (2008 )mentioned in their study that: February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 69 Mahasarakham University

[F]or international students, such adaptation involves a process of learning and integrating into not only an ‘alien’ social society (living ) but also a foreign academic culture (studying) … The data revealed three key aspects of improvement( :1 )improved linguistic competence; (2 ) increased self- confidence and more involvement in class interaction; and (3 )a stronger sense of independence in learning. (p. 236) Students tried to maintain their levels of activeness and contribution to the classroom the same way they did when in Australia. Students were also cognitively aware of the notion of individualistic culture of western countries. Interestingly, not only did the past experiences of the target participants shape their perception on other cultures, but media portrayal of , or western countries in Thai perspective both in relations to living and learning context, also played a vital role in creating images of Farang societies and cultures on students’ minds .Such portrayal could be considered as a stereotypical view of on foreign countries in different aspects. To conclude, the study explored changes in cultural perceptions of university students as a result of attending a study abroad program .Furthermore, it also investigated if such changes affected their learning behavior .The findings from both the quantitative and qualitative data unveiled changes in the students’ cultural perceptions towards Australian culture, and such changes caused their learning behavior shift .The research discovered a surprising factor of media representation of western cultures which put effects on the students’ formation of initial perceptions toward the foreign culture. For further studies, to elicit more authentic data on gradual changes of students’ perceptions throughout overseas experience, researchers are suggested to encourage students to write journals every day during their stay .

References: Amuzie, G. L., & Winke, P. (2009). Changes in language learning beliefs as a result of study abroad. System, 37(3), 366–379. Cherry, K. (2017). Individualistic Cultures and Behavior. Verywellmind. Retrieved from https://www.verywellmind.com/what-are-individualistic-cultures-2795273 Gamble, T.K. & Gamble, M. (1996). Communication works, Fifth Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill. Gu, Q. and Maley, A. (2008). Changing Places: A Study of Chinese Students in the UK. Language and intercultural communication, 8(4), 224-245. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 70 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Horwitz, E.K.(1988).The beliefs about language learning of beginning university for- eign language students. Modern language lournal, 72/3, 283-294. Isabelli, C. (2004). Study Abroad for Advanced Foreign Language Majors: Optimal Duration for Developing Complex Structures in Byrnes, H., Maximum, H., (Eds.). Advanced foreign language learning, a challenge to college pro- grams. Heinle, Canada, pp. 114130- Kuntz, P.& Belnap, R.K. (2001). Beliefs about Language Learning Held by Teachers and Their Students at Two Programs Abroad. Al-Arabiyya 34, 91113-. Pellegrino, V.A. (1998). Student Perspective on Language Learning in a Study Abroad Context. Frontiers 10, 91120-. Saldaña, J. (2015). The coding manual for qualitative researchers. Los Angeles: SAGE Samovar, L. et al., 2009. Communication between cultures, Seventh Edition. United States of America: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Samovar, L. & Porter, R. (2003). Communication between cultures, Fifth Edition. Thomson Wadsworth. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 71 Mahasarakham University

Syntactic Errors: An Analysis of Students’ English Writing at BRU

Sittisak Pongpuehee1

1Lecturer of English Program, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Buriram Rajabhat University, Thailand

Abstract In teaching English writing, one important thing is to check the correctness of sentences in students’ writing. The purposes of this study were: 1) to investigate syntactic errors in English paragraphs written by English major students at Buriram Rajabhat University, and 2) to investigate the causes of the syntactic errors in English paragraphs. The samples of this study were 40 second-year English major students who enrolled in Paragraphs Writing course (1552402) in the first semester of the academic year 2016 at Buriram Rajabhat University. The selection process was done by a purposive sampling technique. Forty English paragraphs written by the students were collected and analyzed using error analysis scheme. The statistics used in data analysis were frequency and percentage. The results of the study showed that the most frequent types of syntactic errors were incomplete sentences. The second frequent types of syntactic errors were run on sentences, and the third frequent types of errors were wrong word order. The results indicated that the main causes of errors committed in this study were due to the incomplete application of rules, followed by false concept hypothesized and mother tongue interference. The results of the study could be useful for teachers who teach English writing courses. The demonstrations of gathered syntactic errors in the classroom may help students have a better understanding of L1 and L2 differences.

Keywords: Syntactic Errors, Analysis, English Writing INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 72 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Background of the Study Nowadays, English is a language for communication all around the world. It has become the universal language (Harmer, 2001). People around the world, in over sixty countries, use it as an . Contemporary technological and educational information all over the world, which is stored in electronic retrieval system, is in English (Crystal, 1997). Moreover, it is expected that the English language will be increasing its significance as an international language all through the twentieth century and into the next century (Yano, 2001). The increasing use of English as an international language affects the Thai education system (Worasuk, 2007). The present teaching techniques have been substantially altered from the past; that is, the purpose has shifted from focusing on literature toward practical use (Khaourai, 2002). Therefore, the four skills including listening, speaking, reading, and writing are highlighted, with writing as the most advanced skill among the four. It is commonly agreed that writing skills are very difficult to acquire. Writing is a complicated skill, and it is very difficult to be a good writer even for a native speaker (Nunan, 1999: 271). The practice of writing is not only complex but also time-consuming. Writing tasks are concerned with reordering words and sentences, sentence completion, and error correction (Kongpetch, 2006). According to He (2002), students commit errors largely because their language proficiency is not good enough to use the language at will. In order to fill the gap between inadequate proficiency and the tough requirements of a language task, students draw on different strategies which cause different types of errors. In foreign language learning, error correction has become one of the most important teaching processes (Fang, 2007). Corder (1967) states that error analysis is a type of linguistic analysis that focuses on the errors learners make. It consists of a comparison between the errors made in the target language (TL) and that TL itself. It is a theoretically and practically useful approach. It enables teachers to understand students’ learning process of the second language so that the result will be used to correct errors and improve skills of the students (Corder, 1981). It is beneficial, for it does not only help students acquire better skills but also teachers improve their teaching styles and materials. This could contribute to a better quality of teaching and higher possibility of success. Moreover, error analysis can be used as a guideline for a curriculum and material planning as well. As an English teacher, the researcher is well aware of the fact that Thai native students at the university level commit a lot of errors in writing. Thus, the purposes of this study were to find out the types of syntactic errors from paragraphs written by the second-year English major students at Buriram Rajabhat University (BRU). February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 73 Mahasarakham University

Purposes of the Study 1. To investigate syntactic errors in English paragraphs written by English major students at BRU 2. To investigate the causes of the syntactic errors in English paragraphs written by English major students at BRU

Research Questions 1. What are syntactic errors in English paragraphs written by English major students at BRU? 2. What are the causes of the syntactic errors in English paragraphs written by English major students at BRU?

Significance of the Study This study investigated syntactic errors found in English paragraphs written by English major students at BRU and studied the causes of the syntactic errors. The results of this research reveal insight understanding into the students’ English knowledge and learning capability to develop writing skills. The teachers of English may have a better understanding of problems; they would be able to deal with students’ problems more effectively.

Research Methodology Population The populations of this research were 40 second-year English major students studying in the second semester, the academic year 2017, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, BRU.

Samples The samples of this study, selected by the technique of purposive sampling, were 40 second-year English major students, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, BRU, studying in the semester 2/2017.

Method for Data Collection According to Norrish (1983, pp. 81-88), the materials from which the errors are taken should represent students’ standard works. A set of topic for free writing was used as writing material. The set topic was ‘My (Scariest, Happiest, Saddest) Experience’. The paragraphs consisted of 50-100 words, and the time limit was 120 minutes. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 74 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Data Collection 40 second-year English major students were assigned to write a paragraph on the topic ‘My (Scariest, Happiest, Saddest) Experience’ of about 50-100 words in class within ninety minutes on November 7th, 2017, during the second semester of the academic year 2017.

Data Analysis The collected data were analyzed and categorized as described below: 1. Coding of Errors 1.1 The researcher checked all sample paragraphs to find syntactic errors and marked all of the errors found in each sample paper. The researcher exploited the error classification scheme adapted from that of such researchers as Dulay et al. (1982). 1.2 After checking errors, the researcher typed the types of errors and typed the correct sentences under the wrong ones in order to use them as the data for categorizing the types of syntactic errors. The researcher coded the errors of paragraphs of each student one by one. 1.3 After checking and correcting errors, the researcher recruited three experts of the English language to check syntactic errors and the correct the sentences. 1.4 When the experts finished checking the errors coded by the researcher, the final errors coding were adapted according to the experts’ recommendations.

2. Categorization of Errors After checking the types of syntactic errors, the researcher categorized the syntactic errors found into eight main categories as follows: 1) incomplete sentence structures, 2) run-on sentences, 3) errors in word order, 4) inappropriate use of the active and passive voices, 5) redundancy, 6) errors in the use of comparison, 7) error in the use of parallel structures, and 8) errors in the use of ‘there’ structure.

3. Analysis of Causes of Errors After categorizing the errors, the researcher studied all types of syntactic error sentences following the scheme developed by Richard (1971) and Norish (1983) as follows: 1) Mother tongue interference, 2) Overgeneralization, 3) Ignorance of rule restrictions, 4) False concepts hypothesized, 5) Incomplete application of rules, and 6) Carelessness. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 75 Mahasarakham University

4. Categorization of Causes of Errors The researcher recorded the causes on the causes of errors recording form, and calculated the whole causes to find out the frequency and percentage.

Statistics Used in Data Analysis The researcher analyzed the syntactic errors found in students’ paragraphs by using frequency and percentage, counted and tabulated for the finding presentation.

Results 1. Overall Categories of Syntactic Errors Found in English Paragraphs The researcher summarized the types of errors and the number of errors by arranging them in order and classifying them into eight main categories.

Table 1. Number and Percent of Overall Categories of Syntactic Errors Found in English Paragraphs

Error Types Number Percent 1. Incomplete sentence structures, 63 56.76 2. Run-on sentences 25 22.52 3. Errors in word order 10 9.01 4. Inappropriate use of the active and passive voices 4 3.60 5. Redundancy 3 2.70 6. Errors in the use of comparison 3 2.70 7. Error in the use of parallel structures 2 1.80 8. Errors in the use of ‘there’ structure 1 0.90 Total 111 100.00

As shown in Table 6.1, it was found that there are eight sub-types of syntactic errors and the total number of the errors was 111. The most frequent found syntactic errors were the use of incomplete sentence structures (f=63, 56.76%), followed by errors in the use of run-on sentences (f=25, 22.52%) and errors in word order (f=10, 9.01%), respectively.

2. The Causes of Syntactic Errors Found in English Paragraphs The causes of errors were based on the schemes developed by Richards (1971; cited in Ellis 1995:59) and Norrish (1983). All causes of syntactic errors are presented in Table 6.2. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 76 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Table 2. Number and Percent of the Causes of Syntactic Errors Found in English Paragraphs

Causes of Errors Number Percent 1. Incomplete application of rules 66 59.46 2. False concept hypothesize 28 22.52 3. Mother tongue interference 11 9.01 4. Overgeneralization 3 2.70 5. Carelessness 3 2.70 Total 111 100.00

From Table 6.2, the total number of causes of syntactic errors was 111. It was found that the most frequent found causes of errors were incomplete application of rules (f=66, 59.46%), followed by false concepts hypothesized (f=28, 25.23%), and mother tongue interference (f=11, 9.91%). The results revealed that the students made syntactic errors in eight main categories. The most frequent found syntactic errors were incomplete sentence structures, followed by errors in the use of run-on sentences and errors in word order, respectively. The results of the study revealed that the most frequent found causes of errors in the writing were incomplete application of rules, followed by false concepts hypothesized, and mother tongue interference, respectively.

Discussions The results of error analysis revealed that the most frequent found syntactic errors were the use of incomplete sentence structures, followed by errors in the use of run-on sentences and errors in word order, respectively. It was found that errors in the use of incomplete sentence structures occurred most frequently. It means that English major students in the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, BRU have difficulty in the use of sentence structure when writing a paragraph. The students tend to write sentence fragments instead of sentences by omitting verbs in sentences. This could be explained that their proficiency to apply sentence structure rules to write a correct sentence is still insufficient. This occurrence may have been caused by the lack of constant practice using sentence structure in writing. The finding of the present study is consistent with Khaourai (2002) who investigated errors in both free writings and guided writings written by English major students of Rajabhat Institute Nakorn Pathom. The finding revealed that the most frequent found syntactic errors were the February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 77 Mahasarakham University

use of incomplete sentence structure. In addition, the findings of the present study do agree with Iamsiu (2014) who studied error analysis in Srinakharinwirot University students’ writing. She found that the errors in sentence structure were the second frequent found errors in students’ writing. The results of the research revealed that the incomplete application of rules was the most important cause of errors. The errors caused by incomplete application of rules may have resulted from misunderstanding and inaccuracy of some grammatical rules like sentence structure. Moreover, the teaching style may have influenced this kind of errors as well. It means that if teachers emphasize memorization and do not give exercises to the student to practice what they have studied; the students may not be able to apply the rules with the real situations. This is supported by Richards (1971; cited in Ellis, 1995:59) who states that errors caused by incomplete application of rules involve a failure to learn the more complex types of structures because the learners find they can achieve effective communication by using relatively more simple rules.

Conclusion The purposes of this research were 1) to investigate syntactic errors in English paragraphs written by English major students at Buriram Rajabhat University, and 2) to investigate the causes of the syntactic errors in English paragraphs written by English major students at Buriram Rajabhat University. The samples of this study were 40 second-year English major students, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Buriram Rajabhat University, studying in the semester 2/2017, selected by the technique of purposive sampling. Forty English paragraphs written by the students were collected and analyzed using error analysis scheme. The statistics used in data analysis were frequency and percentage. The results of the study showed that the most frequent types of syntactic errors were incomplete sentences. The second frequent types of syntactic errors were run on sentences, and the third frequent types of errors were wrong word order. The results indicated that the main causes of errors committed in this study were due to incomplete application of rules, followed by false concept hypothesized and mother tongue interference, respectively. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 78 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Pedagogical Implications 1. As a results of these finding, it is suggested that teachers at BRU should pay attention to syntactic rules such as sentence structures in teaching writing. 2. The results of the present research suggest that the teachers should design the lessons or teaching plans to help the students gain more proficiency in English writing.

Suggestions for Future Research Other interesting variables such as students’ English proficiency and teaching methods should be considered as the factors in error analysis in future research.

References: Corder, S. P. (1967). “The Significance of Learners’ Error.” International Review of Applied Linguistics. 5 (4): 161-169. Corder, S. P. (1981). Error Analysis and Interlanguage. Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press. Crystal, D. (1997). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of English Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dulay, H.C., Burt, M.K. &Krashen, S. (1982). Language Two. Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press. Fang, X. (2007). Error Analysis and the EFL Classroom Teaching. Liaoning: College of Foreign Languages, Liaoning Normal University. Iamsiu, C. (2014). An Analysis of Grammartical Errors in Srinakharinwirot University Students’ Writing. Master of Arts Thesis. Graduate School. Srinakharinwirot University. Harmer, J. (2001). The Practice of English Language Teaching. 3rd ed. London: Pearson Education Ltd. He, D. (2007). On Error Analysis of English Majors’ Writing from the Perspective of Interlanguage Theory. Master’s Thesis, Foreign Language Department of Huizhou University, Huizhou, Guangdong. Khaourai, P. (2002). A Study of Error Analysis in English Composition: Case Study of English Major Students of Rajabhat Institute Nakhon Pathom. Master of Arts Thesis, Language and Culture for Communication and Development, Faculty of Graduate Studies, . Norrish, J. (1983). Language Learners and Their Errors. Hong Kong: Macmillan Press. Nunan, D. (1999). Second Language Teaching and Learning. Boston: Heinle & Heinle Press. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 79 Mahasarakham University

Richards, J.C. (1971). Error analysis: Perspectives on second language acquisition. London: Longman Group Ltd. Worasuk, N. (2007). Using the Genre-based Approach to Improve Students’ Ability in Writing the Description. Master of Arts Thesis, Ubon Rajathanee University. Yano, Y. (2001). “World Englishes in 2001 and Beyond.” World Englishes. 20 (2): 199. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 80 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

The Use of Group Investigation in Enhancing English Cause and Effect Writing Ability of Matthayomsuksa 6 Students

Ketsirin Sakrajai1, Philanut Phusawisot2

1Graduate student of English Language Teaching Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Mahasarakham University, Thailand 2Lecturer of Department of Western Language and Linguistics Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Mahasarakham University, Thailand

Abstract The purpose of this study were 1) to improve the cause and effect of student’s paragraph English writing ability, based on the group investigation activity; and 2) attitude towards Group Investigation, through the cause and effect of paragraph writing. The samples were 35 Matthayomsuksa 6 Students of Suwannaphumpittayapaisarn school, in their first semester of the 2017 academic year, selected by purposive sampling. The instruments used in the research were 1) group investigation activity lesson plans 2) English writing test 3) English writing ability assessment form 4) teacher’s notes 5) semi-structured interviews, and 6) the students’ attitude questionnaire. Data was analyzed by mean, percentage, standard deviation, t-test dependent samples and comparing the results with a prescribed criterion of 60% passing score. The findings were as follows: 1. The achievement of students’ cause and effect English writing ability through group investigation activity after learning was significantly higher than before learning at the 0.05 level. 2. There were 27 students that passed the test, the students’ English writing ability were higher than the prescribed criterion of 60% passing score. The mean score of the posttest was 77.14 percent. 3. The students learning attitudes toward group investigation through the cause and effect paragraph writing were at the agree level ( = 3.93). In conclusion, the group investigation learning activity could enhance Mattayomsuksa 6 students’ cause and effect English writing ability. The students agreed that this activity can help them have higher writing ability. Therefore, this activity should be taught in class to improve students’ English writing ability.

Keywords: Cooperative learning, Group Investigation, Writing, Cause and Effect February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 81 Mahasarakham University

Introduction Presently, English has become an international language and the most spoken language in the world. English is used to form a bridge between people from other countries who want to communicate with each other. English contributes to learners’ development by giving learners better understanding of themselves and others. The learners are thus able to learn and understand differences of languages and cultures, customs and traditions, thinking, society, economy, politics and administration. Moreover, English is already accepted as a foreign language. In learning English, learners must practice 4 English skills; listening, speaking, reading and writing. Writing is an important and necessary skill to develop in the classroom. Writing is the most important human communication skill in conveying the intellectual heritage and measuring the progress of human culture and civilization at a time. Writing is considered a highly productive skill and arguably the most difficult of the four language skills, because its process of putting ideas or thoughts into words is combined to form paragraphs. English writing needs to follow rules of grammar much more closely than in spoken English (Valette. 1997: 131). Students should have the opportunity to learn and practice writing in their interests and relate this with their daily lives. In this regard, the teacher needs to provide and create the classroom environment that is suitable for the students’ learning. Cause and Effect is a kind of expository writing. It can be used for any of the writer’s purposes: to justify or condemn some action, to prove or disprove and idea, explain or give an account of something or situation. A cause and effect paragraph is a paragraph that indicates the cause that produces an effect, or the paragraph that points out the effect produced by a cause. This kind of writing can be used as a tool to explain the brainstorming of ideas by group members. It can also be applied in real life. According to The Basic Education Core Curriculum B.E. 2551 (A.D. 2008), Cause and effect paragraph writing is one of the learners’ qualities. Students must be able to write in order to present information, experiences, news, events, issues and their interests. They need to write to present data and a summary, including the analysis of data. Furthermore, students should discuss similarities and differences between their lifestyles, beliefs and culture of native speakers and those of Thais, and apply them with proper reasoning, using appropriate examples. Use of foreign languages in searching for, collecting, analyzing and summarizing knowledge/various data from the media and various learning sources for further study and livelihood; disseminate/convey to the public data and news about the school, community and local area/nation in foreign languages. (The Basic Education Core Curriculum B.E. 2551 (A.D. 2008): 256-259) INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 82 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

However, based on the statistical data, the achievement in the English reading and writing subjects of the Matthayomsuksa 6 students was low. (Suwannaphumpittayapaisarn School. 2016: 45) This course aims to improve students’ English writing and reading skills. Teaching activities in this course emphasized on the students to practice writing paragraphs such as narrative, descriptive and cause and effect text. According to the English teacher note, it has been found that the student’s English writing must be greatly developed because of their lack of writing ability: grammar, vocabulary, information and idea of writing. These are influenced by the ways of teaching. As a result, they were not confident when assigned to write English. They always write individually. Due to the lack of teamwork and brainstorming skills, writing is not as effective as the intended purpose. In addition, learners should develop other skills to keep up with the changing world. Group working skills are one of the important skills that students must have to succeed in education and their future jobs. One of the alternative techniques to make teaching more effective and interesting is Group Investigation (GI). This will encourage students interest, in learning and taking students into the center. Group Investigation (GI), is a learning model developed and expanded by Sharan & Sharan (1989: 17). It is one of the collaborative learning techniques that focus on learners. They were more likely to discuss and contribute certain ideas, observe their natural and co-operative speaking style, improve their social interaction, provide help, attain praise and feedback from teachers and peers, encourage students to participate actively and transfer their knowledge to outside the classroom. Thus, based on the explanation above, it is interesting to conduct the research related to teaching writing, particularly the cause and effect texts, by Applying Group Investigation. The researcher would like to apply Group Investigation because it has some advantages. It provides a cognitive set of information sharing between students. It motivates the students to construct their own knowledge. It provides formative feedback and develops social and group skills.

Purpose of the Research This study was conducted: 1. To improve cause and effect paragraph English writing ability based on group investigation activity 2. To study the attitude towards Group Investigation through the cause and effect paragraph writing February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 83 Mahasarakham University

Research Questions This study aimed to answer the following questions: 1. Does Group Investigation improve English Cause and Effect Writing Ability of Matthayomsuksa 6 students? 2. What are Matthayomsuksa 6 student’s attitudes toward using Group Investigation in enhancing English Cause and Effect Writing Ability?

Significance of the Study The findings obtained from this study might enable the readers to: 1. Improve knowledge in the area of cause and effect writing. 2. Enhance their cause and effect English writing ability by using the group investigation learning activity. 3. Provide the guideline for teachers and students to improve their English writing ability.

Methodology 1. Participants The population included 420 Mathayomsuksa six students in the first semester of the 2017 academic year, at Suwannaphumpittayapaisarn School. The participants of the study were thirty-five Matthayomsuksa 6/11 who had enrolled English Reading-Writing Course (E30205). They were selected by purposive sampling. This study took 5 weeks; 20 periods which did not include the orientation period. The content of the study was to focus on cause and effect paragraph writing. The scopes of topic were from the Basic Education Core Curriculum A.D.2008.

2. Instruments In this study six instruments were employed: group investigation activity lesson plans, English writing test, English writing ability assessment form, teacher note, semi-structured interview and students’ attitude questionnaire

3. Data Collection This study was conducted as follow: 3.1 Conducted Group Investigation activity lesson plan to teach English writing for 20 hours. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 84 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

3.2 Assessed writing ability during instructional activities by the researcher and students’ self-assessment. 3.3 Two tests were conducted, one before and one after the teaching. The integrators were a Thai English teacher who has been teaching for over twenty years, a native speaker and the researcher herself by using the English writing ability assessment form. The criteria applied was from Jacob et al (1981) and Cause and Effect assessment. 3.4 In every activity, the teacher lectured the note about teaching, observed the problem behavior, the obstacles and the overall atmosphere of the activity in each hour. 3.5 Following the instructional activities, students answered the questionnaire. The teacher took notes to check students’ learning behavior. The students were interviewed using the semi-structured interviewing form, to gain insights and summarize learning activities.

4. Data Analysis The mixed-methods design is utilized to collect and analyze data. The data were collected by using quantitative and qualitative data. Quantitative data can be found through English writing test and students’ attitude questionnaire, by using statistical analysis: mean, percentage, standard deviation, and t-test dependent samples and comparing the results with a prescribed criterion of 60% passing score. Qualitative data can be found through teacher’s notes and the semi-structured interview to obtain clear and in-depth data.

Results To answer the research question (does Group Investigation improve English Cause and Effect Writing Ability of Matthayomsuksa 6 students?), the achievement of students’ cause and effect English writing ability through group investigation activity after learning was significantly higher than before learning at the 0.05 level. In the pre-test, the learning achievement of students gained an average of 11.44 (38.13%), with the details showing that thirty-five students did not pass the prescribed criterion of 60% passing score. Post-test learning achievement gained an average of 70.703% (31.90% increase), with the details that there are 27 students passing a prescribed criterion of 60% passing score or 77.14% of the total number of students. 8 students did not pass a prescribed criterion of 60% passing score or 22.86%. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 85 Mahasarakham University

To answer research question 2 (what are Matthayomsuksa 6 students attitudes toward using Group Investigation in enhancing English Cause and Effect Writing Ability?), an average of the students learning attitudes toward Group Investigation through the cause and effect paragraph writing were at the agree level ( = 3.93). Based on the teacher notes and the Semi-structured interviewing form, it was found that the students had a positive attitude in learning with this activity.

Discussion For the first research question, “Does Group Investigation improve English Cause and Effect Writing Ability of Matthayomsuksa 6 students?” The posttest mean scores revealed that Group Investigation activity helped the students to improve their English writing ability. The possible reason is that GI allows the students to feel more comfortable in their groups and possibly to share information in a similar working style. In addition, Group Investigation technique is a technique that allows a class to work actively and collaboratively in small groups and enables students to take a lot of information which they want to investigate in writing cause and effect texts. For the second research question, “What are Matthayomsuksa 6 student’s attitudes toward using Group Investigation in enhancing English Cause and Effect Writing Ability?”; the findings revealed that students had the positive attitude at agree level. Because GI activity can help poor students participate more in activities of small group working. They can help each other between the members of the group in the right way. Students can apply gained knowledge and transfer to outside of classroom. This will result in them being more successful in learning, than learning individually (McCafferty, and Johnson, Johnson & Stanne 2000). GI is a tool to help students in learning about types of writings, especially cause and effect paragraph writing. It explains why a condition occurs or the effect that this condition brings about. This kind of writing conducted motivated students to brainstorm their ideas and share the obtained information. Students can think of content more specific. It can help them to spread the purpose of their writing more directly. Therefore, we can state that Group Investigation activity appears to stimulate the student’s English writing ability. According to the teacher note record, during learning with Group Investigation students developed their thinking skills through group working. They can determine the responsibility of members within the group easily. They were active when they got the advice from the teacher. Based on a semi-structured interview data, the main cause of the students writing dilemma were as follows; they did not know how to write, how to write INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 86 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

correctly, how to start writing and they had a limited English vocabulary. The major contributing factor for this is English not being utilized in their daily lives. Therefore, students had the positive attitude with GI because it enhances their cause and effect paragraph writing skills.

Conclusion Based on the research findings, it was discovered that there is a significant effect of applying Group Investigation activity on the students’ achievement in writing cause and effect texts. This is to say that students who were taught by applying Group Investigation activity can improve their English writing ability.

References: Jacobs, H.L., Zinkgraf, S.A., Wormuth, D.R., Hartfied, V.F.,& Hughery, J.B. (1981). Testing ESL composition: A practical approach. Massachusetts: Newbury House Publishers. Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T., & Stanne, M.B. (2000). Cooperative learning methods: A meta-analysis. University Of Minnesota. McCafferty, S. G., Jacobs, G. M. & Iddings, A. C. D. (2006). Cooperative learning and second language teaching. Cambridge University Press. Ministry of Education. (2008). The basic education core curriculum B.E. 2551 (A.D. 2008). Bangkok: Kurusapa Ladprao Publishing. Sharan, Y. & Sharan, S. (1989). Group investigation expands co-operative learning. Educational Leadership, 47(A), 17-21. Suwannaphumpittayapaisarn School. (2016). The school annual report 2016. Roi-Et: Suwannaphumpittayapaisarn School. Valette, Rebecca M. (1997). Modern language testing. 3rd ed. New York: Harcourt Brace Javanovich Inc. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 87 Mahasarakham University

Development of Learner-Centered Instructional Model in the English for ASEAN Course for Business English Majors of Buriram Rajabhat University

Puttachart Limsiriruengrai1

1Lecturer of Business English Program Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Buriram Rajabhat University, Thailand

Abstract The research objectives were 1) to develop learner-centered instructional model in English for ASEAN course for Business English majors of Buriram Rajabhat University and 2) to investigate the satisfaction towards the model. The sample group included 59 fourth-year Business English students enrolled in the course in the first semester of academic year 2016. They were selected by using a purposive sampling method. The tools used in data collection consisted of 1) the learner- centered instructional model, 2) model evaluation form, 3) pretest and posttest, and 4) satisfaction assessment questionnaire. Statistics used in data analysis were percentage, mean, standard deviation, t-test, and content analysis. The results showed that most of the samples were females (93.21%) from group 1 (50.84%). The developed model consisted of 13 lesson plans. The model focused on the instruction of Task Based Learning Instruction, pair-work/group-work, autonomous learning by using technologies, Blended Learning Instruction, rewarding, the use of scoring rubric, and the use of portfolio in authentic assessment, etc. The model had the content validity of 0.84 and Effective Index of 0.50. The samples’ satisfaction towards the model in terms of the content was overall at a high level (3.70); the instruction was overall at the highest level (4.66), followed by the teacher aspect that was at the highest level (4.64), and measurement and evaluation in overall at the highest level (4.58), respectively. Suggestion was that the teachers who are interested in the model including schools and educational institutes can apply the model with their courses in the future.

Keywords: Development, Instructional Model, Learner-Centered, English for ASEAN Course INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 88 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Introduction At present, many schools and institutes have developed their instructions to be in line with the National Education Act of B.E. 2542 which consisted of 9 chapters and 78 items. The important items in this Act regarding National Education Guidelines included item number 22, 23, and 26 which can be concluded that the main focus in providing education to all learners either through formal, non-formal, and informal approaches shall be based on the idea that the learners are capable of learning and self- development. The teaching and learning process shall aim at enabling the learners to develop themselves at their own pace and to the best of their potentiality or hereinafter called learner-centered instructions. Knowledge, morality, and learning process must be emphasized in an integrated manner depending on the appropriateness of each level of education. Moreover, the learners’ performance must be assessed through observation of their development, personal conduct, learning behavior, participation in activities, and results of the tests accompanying the teaching and learning process (Wongyai, 2001). In addition, the teachers should place their emphasis on developing the instructions by organizing various types of instructions based on the needs of the learners. This will draw the learners’ attentions to the instructions and also facilitate the learners in self-development and in life-long learning (National Education Commission, 2001). Therefore, in organizing teaching and learning process in higher education, the learners must be able to search for knowledge and self-taught by having the teachers as the facilitators in providing activities that support the learners in participating and learning both inside and outside classroom until the learners can develop themselves at their own pace and to the best of their potentiality. Business English Curriculum (Amendment of B.E. 2555) is the amended curriculum of Bachelor of Arts in Business English of Buriram Rajabhat University. This curriculum aimed at developing graduates to be in line with the National Education Act of B.E. 2542 as well as the academic and international standards and to be knowledgeable persons in terms of Business English who can adapt themselves with the changes in their region and in the world. So, they can compete with other people from the neighboring countries and countries in the world. This tertiary curriculum also aimed at producing the graduates with desired characteristics. Therefore, the learner-centered instructions that are conforming to the National Education Act of B.E. 2542 and the university’s policies are performed. English for ASEAN course is one of the subjects that were added to this amended curriculum in order to conform to the changes of ASEAN and the world (Business English, 2012). Business English program has organized English for ASEAN course as a free elective course in academic year 2015 in the first and the second semester and in academic year 2016 in February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 89 Mahasarakham University

the first semester as well. However, from the interviews with the lecturers who have taught in the course during academic year 2015-2016: Dr. Saowarot Ruengpaisarn and Ms. Purisa Watcharenwong, together with some of the students who had enrolled in the course to find out about the research problem, it was found that this course was quite new. Handouts were mostly used in the course. And there was no concrete model for teaching and learning process in the course. Moreover, the needs of the learners for the instruction including contents, patterns/activities used in the instruction as well as measurement and evaluation where the learner-centered instruction was focused have not been investigated (Watcharenwong, 2016). Therefore, needs analysis was conducted. The results of the research on needs analysis for learner-centered instructional model in English for ASEAN course for Business English majors of Buriram Rajabhat University showed that most of the samples were females (93.21) from group 1 (50.84). They needed the model in terms of measurement and evaluation in overall at a moderate level (3.30), followed by instruction aspect that was overall at a moderate level (3.28), and the content aspect which was overall at moderate level (2.91), respectively. In the group discussion, the participants needed to learn about cultures and traditions of the ASEAN countries the most; they would like to study in a relaxing atmosphere, do group activities, have technology utilization in the instruction, have evaluation of authentic works, have formative assessments in collecting scores from works, quizzes, proper uniforms, and punctuality, etc. As the teacher who would teach in the course in the academic year 2016 in the second semester, the researcher has found the needs for developing the learner- centered instructional model in English for ASEAN course for Business English majors of Buriram Rajabhat University and the needs for investigating the satisfaction of the learners towards the developed model. The results from the study will be useful for teaching and learning process of the course that is conforming to the university policy, the curriculum, and the National Act. This will offer the most benefits to the learners.

Research Objectives The research objectives were: 1) to develop learner-centered instructional model in English for ASEAN course for Business English majors of Buriram Rajabhat University and 2) to investigate the satisfaction towards the model. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 90 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Research Methodology 1. Samples The research objectives were: 1) to develop learner-centered instructional model in English for ASEAN course for Business English majors of Buriram Rajabhat University and 2) to investigate the satisfaction towards the model.

2. Research Instruments The tools used in data collection consisted of 1) the learner-centered instructional model, 2) model evaluation form, 3) pretest and posttest, and 4) satisfaction assessment questionnaire. The learner-centered instructional model consisted of 1) principles/objectives/ skills and time allocation, 2) teaching strategies and methods, 3) teaching steps and activities, and 4) measurement and evaluation. The developed model consisted of 13 lesson plans. The model focused on the instruction of Task Based Learning Instruction, pair-work/group-work, autonomous learning by using technologies, Blended Learning Instruction, rewarding, the use of scoring rubric, and the use of portfolio in authentic assessment, etc. These 13 lesson plans were examined and checked by three experts. After receiving the comments and suggestions from the experts, the model was employed in English for ASEAN class with the 59 samples. This model was developed by the researcher via the study of related documents including related research studies. The researcher analyzed and synthesized the documents in order to draw up a framework and draft the model. Three sets of the draft were sent to the three experts to examine for the appropriateness of the content, language used, and validity. And the Index of Item-Objective Congruence or IOC scores were given by the three experts. Then the overall IOC was calculated. It was in the range of 0.67-1.00 which means the model could be used. Then the model was developed according to the suggestions of the experts. Later, the model was used in a try-out with 30 third-year English major students. The results gained from the try-out were used to develop the model before using it with the sample group. Three sets of the model evaluation form together with the 13 lesson planes were distributed to the three experts. There were 2 parts in this form. Part 1 included close-ended questions regarding the model in terms of 1) principles/objectives/ skills and time allocation, 2) teaching strategies and methods, 3) teaching steps and activities, and 4) measurement and evaluation. And part 2 consisted of open-ended questions about the opinions and other suggestions of the experts on the developed model. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 91 Mahasarakham University

The pretest and the posttest were examined and checked by three experts. The pretest and posttest consisted of 30 items with 4 choices. The 59 sets of the pretest were distributed to the samples together with the answer sheets. Thirty minutes were given for taking the pretest. As for the posttest, technology called Kahoot.com was used in providing the test at the end of the course. The students could answer by choosing the choices from their mobile phone. The 30 items of questions were used randomly. The questionnaire consisted of three parts: the first part focused on their personal information; the second part was about their opinions on satisfaction towards the learner-centered instructional model in English for ASEAN course for Business English majors of Buriram Rajabhat University (30 items); and the third part was about their other suggestions. The questionnaire was developed by the researcher through the study of related documents including related research studies. The researcher analyzed and synthesized the documents in order to write up a framework and draft the questionnaire. Three sets of the draft questionnaire were sent to three experts to examine for the appropriateness of the content, language used, and validity. And the Index of Item-Objective Congruence or IOC scores were given by the experts. Then the overall IOC was calculated. It was in the range of 0.67-1.00 which means the questionnaire could be used. Then the questionnaire was developed according to the suggestions of the experts. Later, thirty sets of the questionnaire were used in a try-out with 30 third-year English major students. The results gained from the try-out were used to develop the questionnaire before using it with the sample group.

3. Data Collection 3.1 The model was employed in the English for ASEAN course during the second semester of academic year 2016. 3.2 The model evaluation forms were distributed to the three experts and collected later for improving the model. 3.3 The 59 sets of the pretest were distributed to the samples together with the answer sheets. Thirty minutes were given for taking the pretest. As for the posttest, technology called Kahoot.com was used in providing the test at the end of the course. The students could answer by choosing the choices from their mobile phone. The 30 items of questions were used randomly. 3.4 The 59 questionnaire sets on the satisfaction of the samples were distributed to the samples. The researcher collected the data by herself right after the course ended. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 92 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

It was noted that these tools constructed by the researcher were examined by three experts for their content validity approvals. In addition, the Index of Item- Objective Congruence (IOC) of the tools were between 0.67 and 1.00.

4. Data Analysis The statistics used in data analysis were percentage, mean, standard deviation, t-test, and content analysis as follows: The comments and suggestions received from the three experts on the model were analyzed by using content analysis. The data obtained from the evaluation form were analyzed by using the content validity. As for the data collected from the pretest and the posttest, they were analyzed by using t-test. Finally, the data derived from the responses of the questionnaire part 1 and 2 were computed by using percentage, mean, and Standard Deviation, while the data obtained from the responses of the questionnaire part 3 were analyzed by using content analysis and descriptively presented.

Research Results The research objectives were 1) to develop learner-centered instructional model in English for ASEAN course for Business English majors of Buriram Rajabhat University and 2) to investigate the satisfaction towards the model. The following results are presented in line with the research objectives: 1. The content validity of the learner-centered instructional model in English for ASEAN course for Business English majors of Buriram Rajabhat University The result representing content validity of the model is shown in Table 1. Table 1 Content validity of the learner-centered instructional model

No. Lesson Plan IOC Meaning 1 Introduction to English for ASEAN course + Pretest 1.00 Usable 2 History of ASEAN, Overview of ASEAN Community, 1.00 Usable ASEAN Countries 3 ASEAN Culture: Costumes 0.67 Usable 4 Don’s and Don’ts in ASEAN 0.67 Usable 5 ASEAN Culture: ASEAN Foods 1.00 Usable 6 All about ASEAN: Mind Mapping 1.00 Usable 7 Tourist Attractions in ASEAN + Itinerary 0.67 Usable 8 Selling a tour in ASEAN using handmade itinerary 1.00 Usable 9 ASEAN Languages: VDO clips 0.67 Usable February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 93 Mahasarakham University

No. Lesson Plan IOC Meaning 10 ASEAN QUIZ 1.00 Usable 11 ASEAN Magazine Project 1.00 Usable 12 Presentation of ASEAN Magazine Project 0.67 Usable 13 Summary of the English for ASEAN course + Posttest 0.67 Usable Total 0.84

Table 1 reveals that the model of 13 lesson plans had the content validity of 0.84 which means the model could be used. 2. The academic achievement of samples received from the data gained from pretest and posttest The result representing academic achievement of samples is shown in Table2.

Table 2 Academic achievement of the samples

Score N S.D. T Sig Pretest 59 6.14 1.34 12 0.01 Posttest 59 18.14 3.17 *p < 0.05

Table 2 shows that the samples had the mean score from the pretest as = 6.14 and S.D. = 1.34, and they had the mean score from the posttest as = 18.14 and S.D. = 3.17. The result reveals the effectiveness of the instructional model as the pretest score of the samples was significantly higher than the posttest score at 0.01.

3. The Effective Index of the model The result representing Effective Index of the model is shown below.

Effective Index =

Where

P1 means Total scores of the pretest of every student

P2 means Total scores of the posttest of every student Total means Result from number of students multiple by full score

P1 = 362

P2 = 1,070 Total = 59 x 30 = 1,770 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 94 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

1,070 - 362 Effective Index = 1,770 - 362 710 Effective Index = 1,408

Effective Index = 0.504 From the effective index shown above, the model had the effective index of 0.50 or 50% which means the model could be used.

4. Personal information of the samples The result representing personal information is shown in Table 3. Table 3 Personal information of the samples

No. Personal Information Frequency (n=32) Percentage (%) 1 Gender Male 4 6.77 Female 55 93.22 2 Group 1 30 50.84 2 29 49.15

Table 3 reveals that out of 59 samples, the number of females (93.22%) was much greater than that of males (6.77%). The majority of the samples were from group 1 (50.84%).

5. Satisfaction of the samples towards the model The result representing satisfaction of the samples towards the model in terms of content is shown in Table 4.

Table 4 Satisfaction of the samples towards the model in terms of content

No. Satisfaction on Content S.D. 1 The content of the course is in line with number of its credit 1.15 0.38 2 The content of the course is up-to-date 5.00 0.08 3 The content of the course is suitable and in line with the needs of the learners 5.00 0.02 4 The content of the course is in line with the background knowledge of the learners 2.54 1.13 5 The content of the course is useful for future career 4.85 0.38 Total 3.70 0.39 February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 95 Mahasarakham University

From Table 4, it was found that the samples’ satisfaction towards the model in terms of the content was overall at a high level (3.70). When considering each item, the samples were satisfied with the content because the content of the course is up- to-date at the highest level (5.00), and it is suitable and in line with the needs of the learners (5.00), followed by the content of the course is useful for future career (4.85), and the content of the course is in line with the background knowledge of the learners (2.54), respectively. The result representing satisfaction of the samples towards the model in terms of the teacher is shown in Table 5.

Table 5 Satisfaction of the samples towards the model in terms of the teacher

No. Satisfaction on Content S.D. 1 Learner-centered approaches were used 5.00 0.01 2 Objectives were informed and teaching plans were done with the learners to 5.00 0.06 determine the activities in class 3 Proper environment for learning was organized by focusing on learners’ 5.00 0.00 participations 4 Activities for knowledge construction were organized 4.85 0.38 5 Feedbacks on the behaviors and learning process of the learners were given 2.54 1.13 properly in timely manner 6 Challenging questions were asked 4.85 0.38 7 Finding learning strategies of each learner was supported 5.00 0.04 8 Learners were supported and encouraged in learning 4.92 0.28

TOTAL 4.64 0.28

From Table 5, it was found that the samples’ satisfaction towards the model in terms of the teacher was overall at a highest level (4.64). When considering each item, the samples were satisfied with the teacher since learner-centered approaches were used, objectives were informed and teaching plans were done with the learners to determine the activities in class, proper environment for learning was organized by focusing on learners’ participations, and finding learning strategies of each learner was supported at the highest level (5.00), followed by learners were supported and encouraged in learning (4.92), and challenging questions were asked (4.85), respectively. The result representing satisfaction of the samples towards the model in terms of the instruction is shown in Table 6. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 96 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Table 6 Satisfaction of the samples towards the model in terms of the instruction

No. Satisfaction on Content S.D. 1 Activities for knowledge sharing as group-work were done 5.00 0.01 2 Proper activities that in line with knowledge, abilities, and skills of the learners 4.85 0.38 were organized 3 Activities assigning the learners to search for knowledge by themselves were or- 4.85 0.38 ganized continuously 4 Hand-on activities or situations were organized 2.54 1.13 5 Activities or situations for enhancing the learners’ skills and critical thinking were 4.85 0.38 organized 6 Activities providing opportunities for learners to practice their knowledge in vari- 4.85 0.38 ous situations were organized 7 Activities with various learning methods were organized 5.00 0.03 8 Various learning resources that supports the learning of the learners were used 4.92 0.28 9 Medias and technology for gaining the attention of the learners in learning were 4.92 0.28 employed 10 Atmospheres motivating the learners to learn were created 4.85 0.38 Total 4.66 0.36

From Table 6, it was found that the samples’ satisfaction towards the model in terms of the instruction was overall at a highest level (4.66). When considering each item, the samples were satisfied with the instruction when activities for knowledge sharing as group-work were done and activities with various learning methods were organized at the highest level (5.00), followed by various learning resources that supports the learning of the learners were used and medias and technology for gaining the attention of the learners in learning were employed (4.92), and activities assigning the learners to search for knowledge by themselves were organized continuously, activities assigning the learners to search for knowledge by themselves were organized continuously, activities or situations for enhancing the learners’ skills and critical thinking were organized, activities providing opportunities for learners to practice their knowledge in various situations were organized, and atmospheres motivating the learners to learn were created (4.85), respectively. The result representing satisfaction of the samples towards the model in terms of the measurement and evaluation is shown in Table 7.

Table 7 Satisfaction of the samples towards the model in terms of the measurement and evaluation

February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 97 Mahasarakham University

No. Satisfaction on Measurement and Evaluation S.D. 1 Various measurement and evaluation techniques and methods were used 5.00 0.03 2 The measurement and evaluation were done in line with the organized activities 5.00 0.01 and the progress of the learners 3 Correct answers and guidelines of the answers were given 4.85 0.38 4 Scores from the measurement and evaluation were revealed 4.85 0.38 5 Feedback on measurement and evaluation were provided for self-development 2.54 1.13 6 The measurement and evaluation were done clearly and fairly 4.85 0.38 7 The measurement and evaluation were done regularly 5.00 0.00 Total 4.58 0.33

From Table 7, it was found that the samples’ satisfaction towards the model in terms of the measurement and evaluation was overall at a highest level (4.58). When considering each item, the samples were satisfied with the measurement and evaluation due to various measurement and evaluation techniques and methods were used, the measurement and evaluation were done in line with the organized activities and the progress of the learners, The measurement and evaluation were done regularly at the highest level (5.00), followed by correct answers and guidelines of the answers were given, scores from the measurement and evaluation were revealed, and the measurement and evaluation were done clearly and fairly (4.85), and feedback on measurement and evaluation were provided for self-development (2.54), respectively.

Discussion The following points based on the research results are discussed: 1. The developed model consisted of 13 lesson plans: 1) Introduction to English for ASEAN course + Pretest, 2) History of ASEAN, Overview of ASEAN Community, ASEAN Countries, 3) ASEAN Culture: Costumes, 4) Don’s and Don’ts in ASEAN, 5) ASEAN Culture: ASEAN Foods, 6) All about ASEAN: Mind Mapping, 7) Tourist Attractions in ASEAN + Itinerary, 8) Selling a tour in ASEAN using handmade itinerary, 9) ASEAN Languages: VDO clips, 10) ASEAN QUIZ, 11) ASEAN Magazine Project, 12) Presentation of ASEAN Magazine Project, and 13) Summary of the English for ASEAN course + Posttest. The model focused on the instruction of Task Based Learning Instruction, pair-work/group-work, autonomous learning by using technologies, Blended Learning Instruction, rewarding, the use of scoring rubric, and the use of portfolio in authentic assessment, etc. The approaches for learner-centered instruction are various; the teachers can select the approaches that are in accordance with the nature of the course. This is in line with Preedeekul (2015). She conducted a research on developing the instructional model by using Teach Less, INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 98 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Learn More (TLLM) to enhance the use of English in communication in ASEAN of first year students. And this is also conforming to the study of Sahatsathatsana et al (2014) that they had developed the problem based instructional model for English language training for youth guides to prepare for being ASEAN community members. It can be seen that the approaches in teaching such as TLLM or problem based approach were used in the above studies. However, in the current research, blended learning and task based approaches were utilized. So, the learners can learn both inside and outside the classroom. The students’ works were collected and kept in their portfolios for authentic assessment throughout the semester. When the tasks were focused, the learners could create their tasks or works by using their knowledge such as selling tour to customers by using brochures they have made and activities for producing ASEAN magazines. This is in line with authentic assessment that expected the high level outcomes such as production by using the knowledge the learners gained to create the works or do the tasks (Maneesi and Maneesi, 2003). The authentic evaluation is the evaluation by considering many aspects of the learners informally both inside and outside classroom. It can be done all the time by using various methods (Khammoon, 2001). 2. The satisfaction towards the model in terms of the instruction was overall at the highest level since the instructional model was developed by using the needs of the learners. This is in line with Srisa-ard (2003) that in organizing learner-centered instruction, there are many approaches: when considering in content aspect, the learners can study 100% according to their needs or they can choose most of the lessons, or the lessons were set but they can choose the activities they need. When considering in learners aspect, the learners can study and search for the knowledge 100% by themselves, or they can self-study most of the lessons, or they can study from the provided media. However, learning activities were done mostly by the learners. In this current research study, the samples viewed that learning atmosphere was relaxing and fun. Since Task Based Learning Instruction, pair-work/group-work, autonomous learning by using technologies, Blended Learning Instruction, rewarding, the use of scoring rubric, and the use of portfolio in authentic assessment, especially the technologies such as games, were utilized in this instruction. This is in line with 1 event from 9 events of instruction of Gagné (Gagné, R. M., Briggs, L. J., and Wager, W. W., 1992): gaining attention of the learners. When learners paid attention to the study, the learners will study very well. Therefore, in teaching and learning process, there must be activities or methods for gaining attention of the learners. This also conforms to the new paradigm in teaching and learning in the 21st century that learning which responses to the needs of the learners as individuals: the leaners are February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 99 Mahasarakham University

the center of the learning by focusing on individual program, self- learning through the knowledge search process or self-discovery emphasizing on how to study, so the learners will think, create, and learn joyfully and also have a chance in receiving the rewards (Dechakup and Yindeesook, 2015).

Conclusion This research focused on developing the learner-centered instructional model in English for ASEAN course for Business English majors of Buriram Rajabhat University and the satisfaction of the students towards the model. It can be concluded that most of the samples were females (93.21%) from group 1 (50.84%). The model that was developed consisted of 13 lesson plans with the content validity of 0.84 and Effective Index of 0.50. The model focused on the instruction of Task Based Learning Instruction, pair-work/group-work, autonomous learning by using technologies, Blended Learning Instruction, rewarding, the use of scoring rubric, and the use of portfolio in authentic assessment, etc. The samples’ satisfaction towards the model in terms of the content was overall at a high level (3.70); the instruction was overall at the highest level (4.66), followed by the teacher aspect that was at the highest level (4.64), and measurement and evaluation in overall at the highest level (4.58), respectively. It was suggested that the teachers who are interested in the model including schools and educational institutes can apply the model with their courses in the future.

Recommendations The following are some recommendations based on the research results: 1. Teachers who are interested in the model including schools and educational institutes can apply the model with their courses in the future. 2. The results from the study can be utilized with other groups with the same nature in organizing English for ASEAN course. 3. Further studies regarding the development of learner-centered instructional model in other courses should be conducted. 4. Further studies regarding the development of learner-centered instructional model in other courses that are in line with the students’ needs with other teaching methods should be conducted. 5. Further studies for comparing learner-centered instructional models should be done to analyze which models have more effectiveness on the students. 6. Further studies on learner-centered instructional model for different groups of students should be conducted, and the focus-group discussion and observation should also be applied in the research methodology. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 100 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

References: Business English. (2012). Business English Curriculum (Amendment of B.E.2555). Buriram: Buriram Rajabhat University. Dechakup, P. and Yindeesook, P. (2015). The 21st Century Learning Management. Bangkok: Press. Gagné, R. M., Briggs, L. J., & Wager, W. W. (1992). Principles of Instructional Design (4th ed.). Forth Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers. Khammoon, S. (2001). Portfolio. Bangkok: Parbpim Press. Maneesi, K. and Maneesi K. (2003). Portfolio: New Era Assessment. Bangkok: ThunkamolPress. National Education Commission. (2001). Guidelines for Higher Education Reform according to National Education Act B.E. 2542. Bangkok: VTC Communication. Preedeekul, A. (2015). Development of Instructional Model Based on Teach Less Learn More Principles to Enhance English Communicative Competence in ASEAN Community for Higher Education Students. Social Sciences Research and Academic Journal. July 2015: Vol. 10, special issue (Faculty of Education): 1-18. Sahatsathatsana, S. et al. (2014). The Development of English Instruction through the Use of Problem-Based Learning for English Training to the Youth Guides for Being Ready for the ASEAN Community. Kalasin: Rajamangala University of Technology Isan (Kalasin Campus). Srisa-ard, B. (2003). Research for Teachers. Bangkok: Suweeriyasarn. Watcharenwong, P. (2016, October). English program teacher. Interview. Wongyai, W. (2001). Classroom Research Guidelines for Learning Development: Student Centered. Teachers’ Roles and Classroom Research. Bangkok: Office of National Education Commission. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 101 Mahasarakham University

The Integration of Task-based Language Teaching and Audio-lingual Method in Improving Matthayomsuksa 4 Students’ Pronunciation Skill on the Final Sounds of Regular Verbs

Natnaree Sittikraipong1, Pilanut Phusawisot2

1Graduate student of English Language Teaching Program Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Mahasarakham University, Thailand 2Lecturer of Department of Western Language and Linguistics Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Mahasarakham University, Thailand

Abstract The traditional teaching method of the pronunciation on the final sounds of regular verbs does not succeed as expected. Students are able to pronounce correctly during the class. However, they are unable to pronounce each word correctly afterwards. Thus, this study aims to help students understand the rules of pronouncing the endings of regular verbs and to pronounce the endings of regular verbs correctly using the integration of task-based language teaching and audio-lingual method. This study is an experimental design. The control group will be of mixed abilities, 52 Matthayomsuksa 4 students and the experimental group will also be of mixed abilities, 53 Matthayomsuksa 4 students from Prathompreedaporn School. They will be selected by purposive random sampling. Eight lesson plans, pretest and posttest, the practice of pronunciation, and a questionnaire will be used to collect data. The data will be analyzed by using independent t-tests, paired t- tests, one-way anova, mean and standard deviation. At the end of the study, Matthayomsuksa 4 students of Prathompreedaporn School will be expected to have improved their pronunciation skill on the final sounds of regular verbs after learning through the use of the integration of task-based language teaching and audio-lingual method.

Keywords: Task-based language teaching, Audio-lingual method, development of pronunciation skill INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 102 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Introduction This study is a part of an ongoing research project which aims to help students understand the rules of pronouncing the endings of regular verbs and to pronounce the endings of regular verbs correctly using the integration of task-based language teaching and audio-lingual method. For better understanding, the definition of important terms will first be explained. 1. Regular verb is the past tense and past participle verbs that are generally done by adding -d or -ed to the verbs, and it doesn’t change form based on the subject of the verb. 2. The final sounds of regular verbs is the three different sounds of the past tense and past participle verbs when they are added by –ed. Rule 1: If the verb base ends in a voiceless sound, then the –ed ending sounds like “t”. The “t” is blended together with the previous consonant and not pronounced as an extra syllable. Rule 2: If the verb base ends in a voiced sound, then the –ed ending sounds like “d”. The “d” is blended together with the previous consonant and not pronounced as an extra syllable. Rule 3: If the verb base ends in a “t” or “d” sound already, then the –ed ending sounds like “id” or “ud”. It is pronounced as an extra syllable. 3. Task-based language teaching is the technique that will be used in the 1st phase to help students discover the rules to pronounce the final sounds of regular verbs by themselves. 4. Audio-lingual method for this study is the method that will be used in the 2nd phase to help students to be able to recognize how to pronounce the final sounds of regular verbs and pronounce correctly. 5. Development of pronunciation skill is the better result of students’ English pronunciation on the final sounds of regular verbs after using the integration of task- based language teaching and audio-lingual method. The paper will present context and the significance of the study, the purpose of the research,research questions, a description of the research methods, and then a presentation of the findings from the pilot study.

Context of the study Spoken language is naturally used to communicate between humans. People impart their thoughts and their feelings in the form of speech. Although people are able to develop several materials for communication, spoken language remains the main materials of people’s communication in education, art, culture, commerce and entertainment. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 103 Mahasarakham University

Julia (2002) stated that pronunciation is one of the basic skills and the foundation of oral communication for EFL learners. Without pronunciation there would be no spoken language and no oral communication. The aim of teaching pronunciation to learners is not to ask them to pronounce like native speakers. Instead intelligible pronunciation should be the real purpose of oral communication. As mentioned, improving pronunciation skill can promote the learning and teaching efficiently. According to Canale and Swain (1980), pronunciation is the basic skill of language teaching. While pronouncing, learners combine every part of hearing such as memory and imagination, like the tape recorder combines consonants, vowels, rhythm and together. At Prathompreedaporn school, as pronunciation is considered a most important skill. There are four native speakers and three foreign English teachers. Therefore, the principal is to promote and support students to be able to communicate with the foreigners, especially speaking and pronouncing correctly. The traditional teaching of the pronunciation on the final sounds of regular verbs does not succeed as expected. Students are able to pronounce correctly during the class. However, they are unable to pronounce each word correctly afterwards. This problem is not soloved and students still mis-pronounce the words. At the present time, task – based learning is worldwide and it can be a flourishing method of teaching in EFL or ESL. Thus Willis (1996) proposed the conceptual framework of task – based learning which is suitable for adaptation in the classroom lesson planning. Willlis (1996) showed that task activities helped students learn the target language. Moreover, task is a piece of work in the classroom which involves learners in production, interaction, comprehension, using the target language while they are both in and outside the classroom (Nunan, 1989). The audio-lingual method is a method of foreign language teaching which emphasizes the teaching of listening and speaking before reading and writing. It aims to develop communicative competence of students using dialogues and drills. The use of dialogues and drills is effective in foreign language teaching as it encourages the students to produce speech. Repetition of the dialogues and the drills enables students to respond quickly and accurately in spoken language. According to Freeman (2010), who stated that the audio-lingual method uses dialogues as the main form of language presentation and drills as the main training technique. Mother tongue is discouraged in the classroom. Based on what has been mentioned, it is deemed worthwhile to create learning activities based on integration task-based language teaching and audio- lingual method to solve Matthayomsuksa 4 students’ pronunciation skill of the final INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 104 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

sounds of regular verbs. The results of the study will be beneficial for teaching and learning pronunciation in Prathompreedaporn School.

Significance of the study Currently, there is not much teaching pronouncing of the final sounds of regular verbs in ELT. This study can be explained in two ways why it is significant. First, this study examine the result of students’ English pronunciation on the final sounds of regular verbs before and after using the integration of task-based language teaching and audio-lingual method. That means this study aims to find the results of using the integration of task-based language teaching and audio-lingual method that may help the students. Then, this research will examine how the integration of task-based language teaching and audio-lingual method helps the improvement of the students’ pronunciation skill on the final sounds of regular verbs. Thus, this research study might be beneficial for teaching and learning pronunciation in ELT classroom and will be a guideline for the teachers who are interested in teaching pronunciation on the final sounds of regular verbs to find and gain the appropriate ways for teaching pronunciation in ELT. Furthermore, this study can be developed for a commercial benefit in the future.

Purposes of the study 1. Matthayomsuksa 4 students can discover the rules of pronouncing the final sounds of regular verbs during learning by using task-based language teaching. 2. Matthayomsuksa 4 students will be able to pronounce the final sounds of regular verbs correctly.

Research Questions 1. Can the integration of task-based language teaching and audio-lingual method improve Matthayomsuksa 4 students’ pronunciation skill on the final sounds of regular verbs? 2. How can the integration of task-based language teaching and audio-lingual method help the improvement of Matthayomsuksa 4 students’ pronunciation skill on the final sounds of regular verbs?

Literature Review 1. Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) and Task Task-based language teaching is seen as a refinement or development from communicative approaches or CLT as well as a reaction to form-focused models such February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 105 Mahasarakham University

as the Present-Practice-Produce and other traditional or teacher centered approach (Dickinson, 2010; Willis and Willis, 2009). McDonough and Chaikitmongkol (2007) claimed that task in task-based language teaching has been motivated by two main theoretical perspectives in the second language (L2) acquisition theory. Firstly, the proponents of the psychological approach claim that task-based interaction facilitates L2 development by exploring, studying and using input, learn-internal capacities which is the ability to internalize and restructure input language and able to produce language output (Mackey, 1999; Krashen, 1985). Proponents of sociocultural theory claimed that task-based interaction encourages interlocutors to co-construct meaning by contributing aspects of language to the conversation in ways that allow for the appropriation of new knowledge and the consolidation of existing knowledge (Lantolf and Thorne, 2000; Swain,1985; Vygotsky, 1978). Vygotsky (1978) in his sociocultural view describes the process of language development using the metaphor of zone of proximal development (ZPD), referring to the zone between the individual’s actual and potential planes of development. He claims that learning begins with what the child already knows and proceeds learning through social interaction. The tasks the learners can do on their own are within their area of regulation while the development in the zone thus proceeds from other-regulation to self-regulation, from tasks carried out with the help of others to increasing self-regulation and autonomy. Moreover, proponents of Task-based language teaching (TBLT) argue that the most effective way to teach a language is by engaging learners in real language use in classrooms (Willis & Willis 2007). They added that the aim of the TBLT is to encourage learners to engage in meaning with the language resources they already have. What is more, TBLT approach can encourage intrinsic motivation as it provides opportunity for learners to use the language that they know without penalizing them for inevitable failures in accuracy. It is argued that the learners’ experience of using language can also enable them to develop a usable language system (Skehan, 1996; Ellis, 2003). Also, an important conceptual basis for task-based language teaching is experiential learning. This approach takes the learners’ immediate personal experience as the point of departure for the learning experience. Intellectual growth occurs when learners engage in and reflect on sequences of tasks. The active involvement of the learners is therefore central to the approach, and a rubric that conveniently captures the active, experiential nature of the process is ‘learning by doing’. In this, it contrasts with the ‘transmission’ approach to education in which the learners acquire knowledge passively from the teacher (Kolb, 1984; Kohonen, 1992 as cited in Nunan, 2004). Moreover, the goal of experiential learning theory is to enable the learners to become increasingly self-directed and responsible for their own learning. This process means INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 106 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

a gradual shift of initiative to the learner, encouraging him or her to bring in personal contributions and experiences. Instead of the teacher setting the tasks and standards of acceptable performance, the learner is increasingly in charge of his or her own learning (Kohonen, 1992). Task-based language teaching (TBLT) proposes the notion of ‘task’ as a central unit of planning and teaching and there has been a consensus that a task is an activity or goal that is carried out using language (Richards and Richards, 2001). Samuda & Bygate (2005: 58) cited in Dickinson (2010) argued that TBLT refers to ‘contexts where tasks are central to instruction which ‘drive’ classroom activity, define curriculum and syllabuses and determine modes of assessment. Although the task has been given many characterization by a number of researchers such as Nunan (2005) Skehan (1996) Ellis (2003) and Willis (1996) Richards & Rogers (2001) and Willis and Willis(2007), it all has similarity in which they ask questions: 1) Does the activity engage learners? 2) Is there a primary focus on meaning? 3) Is there an outcome? 4) Is success judged in terms of outcome? 5) Is completion a priority? 6) Does the activity relate to or reflect real world activities? and Ellis (2003) characterizes task as it should focus on meaning, that is, learners are required to primarily pay (if not entire) attention to what they want to convey in the process of communication. It should explicitly direct learners to achieve a non-linguistic outcome and it should allow learners to make use of any language resources that are available to them. In other words, there is no restriction as to any language features (structures, lexical items) that learners are supposed to use as part of their task completion. However, Samuda and Bygate (2008) provided a more precise definition of a task. A task is a holistic activity which engages language users in order to achieve some non-linguistic outcome while meeting a linguistic challenge, with the overall aim of promoting language learning through the process or product or both. In summary, Task -based learning offers an alternative for language teachers. In a task-based lesson the teacher doesn’t pre-determine what language will be studied. The lesson is based around the completion of a central task and the language studied is determined by what happens as the students complete it. The lesson follows certain stages. Task-based language teaching will be used in the 1st phase to help students discover the rules to pronounce the final sounds of regular verbs by themselves. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 107 Mahasarakham University

2. Audio-Lingual Method The Audio-Lingual Method aims to develop communicative competence of students using dialogues and drills. The use of dialogues and drills are effective in foreign language teaching as they lead the students to produce speech. Repetition of the dialogues and the drills will enable students to respond quickly and accurately in spoken language. The goal of this method is to form native language habits in learners (Dendrinos, 1992). Dialogues and pattern drills that students need to repeat, are often used to form habits. Hence, as Larsen-Freeman (2000) says the more often something is repeated, the stronger the habit and the greater the learning. The Audio-Lingual method mainly consists of the following features: 1. The teacher reads a dialogue by modeling it. It has always been motivating to put the subject matter in context, and students stand a better chance of retaining what they have learnt. Students learn the target language within a concrete context that will enable them to relate what they learn in real-life learning environments. Teachers as a role model will encourage and inspire the students to strive for learning the target language. 2. Students repeat the dialogue. Through repetition students can use the target language automatically, and fluently as well. In this method it is desirable that students form a habit formation to use the target language with ease, and therefore, the more they repeat, the easier they will speak the target language without thinking. 3. Some words or phrases are changed in the dialogue. Drills used in this method will allow the students to have practice. Thorough drills such as single-slot substitution, multiple-slot substation, and transformation will give the students’ opportunity to produce speech in the target language. Furthermore, these patterns will let them see how language functions. Students learn how to respond correctly when they practice the drills. The audio-lingual method will be used in the 2nd phase to help students to be able to recognize how to pronounce the final sounds of regular verbs and pronounce correctly.

Research Methodology 1. Research design This study aims to examine the result of students’ English pronunciation skill before and after using the integration of task-based language teaching and audio- lingual method and to examine how the integration of task-based language teaching and audio-lingual method helps the improvement of the students’ pronunciation skill INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 108 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

to pronounce the final sounds of regular verbs correctly. This research is experimental design. The lesson plan will be designed based on the integration of task-based language teaching and audio-lingual. The pronunciation skill test will be contributed to measure pronunciation skill of a control group and an experimental group to measure students’ pronunciation skill. The integration of task- based language teaching and audio-lingual method with eight lesson plans will be used to teach in the classroom of an experimental group while a traditional teaching will be used in the classroom of a control group. Furthermore, the tests of each unit will be used to test at the end of each lesson to measure the student’s pronunciation skill. The same pronunciation practice will be used to measure pronunciation skill of the control group and experimental group after learning. Finally, the questionnaire will be used to explore the integration of task-based language teaching and audio- lingual can improve students’ pronunciation skill. Qualitative data will be used to confirm the results. 2. Participants Population in this research will be the one hundred and five Matthayomsuksa 4 students of two classrooms at Prathompreedaporn School who are studying in the 2nd semester of 2017 academic year. Control Group will be the mixed ability, fifty-two Matthayomsuksa 4 students of Prathompreedaporn School who are studying in 4/2 of the 2nd semester of 2017 academic year will be selected by purposive random sampling. Experimental Group will be the mixed ability, fifty-three Matthayomsuksa 4 students of Prathompreedaporn School who are studying in 4/1 of the 2nd semester of 2017 academic year will be selected by purposive random sampling. 3. Setting of the study The study will be conducted for 9 weeks (18 hours) at Prathompreedaporn School which is a secondary school and located in Kranuan district, Khonkean province, Thailand. There are about 2,000 students in this school with 12 English language teachers, 4 native speakers and 3 foreign English teachers. In the study, there are 52 students of experimental group and 53 students of control group together with one teacher. The lesson is administered in the second semester of the academic year 2017. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 109 Mahasarakham University

4. Conceptual framework of the study

Figure 1 Conceptual Framework of the study

5. Instruments 5.1 The instruments of teaching and learning are eight lesson plans of the integration of task-based and audio-lingual method. The contents will be followed by the core curriculum of the upper secondary level in English subjects which will cover eight topics, two hours for each topic as followings; Unit 1 : How Are You? Topic : Be Well, Stay Well Clinic 2 hours Unit 2 : Fame Topic : Hooded Superstar’s Flying Visit 2 hours Unit 3 : Celebrate! Topic : New Year’s Day in China 2 hours Unit 4 : Advertising Topic : Phobias 2 hours Unit 5 : Phobias Topic : Brooklyn, New York : Rags 2 hours and Riches Unit 6 : Living Conditions Topic : On the Way Up 2 hours Unit 7 : Occupations Topic : On the way up 2 hours Unit 8 : Music Topic : Music Rights 2 hours Total: Eighteen hours of implementation INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 110 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

5.2 Instruments of data collection 5.1 Pre-test and post-test on the final sounds of regular verbs 5.2 The practice of pronunciation on the final sounds of regular verbs 5.3 The questionnaire of improving the pronunciation skill on the final sounds of regular verbs by using the integration of task-based language teaching and audio-lingual

6. Data collection The lesson plan will be designed based on the integration of task-based language teaching and audio-lingual. The total amount of time spent in collecting data will be during the 2nd semester of academic year 2017. The experimental processes will be as follows; 6.1 The pronunciation skill test will be contributed to measure pronunciation skill of a control group and an experimental group to measure students’ pronunciation skill. 6.2 The integration of task-based language teaching and audio- lingual method with eight lesson plans will be used to teach in the classroom of an experimental group while a traditional teaching will be used in the classroom of a control group. 6.3 The tests of each unit will be used to test at the end of each lesson to measure the student’s pronunciation skill. 6.4 The same pronunciation practice will be used to measure pronunciation skill of the control group and experimental group after learning. 6.5 The questionnaire will be used to explore the integration of task-based language teaching and audio-lingual can improve students’ pronunciation skill.

7. Data analysis The data will be analyzed by using these processes as follows; 7.1 Control and experimental group on pretests will be analyzed to measure the pronunciation ability before using tasks and audio-lingual. Statistics used in data analysis will be mean, standard deviation, independent t-tests and ANOVA. 7.2 Statistics used in the comparison of pretest and posttest on control group will be a paired t-test and ANOVA. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 111 Mahasarakham University

7.3 Statistics used in the comparison of pretest and posttest for experimental groupwill be a paired t-test and ANOVA. 7.4 Control and experimental groups on posttest will be analyzed to measure the pronunciation skill before using tasks and audio-lingual. Statistics used in data analysis will be independent t-tests.

Expected Outcome According to the research study, the research expected that Matthayomsuksa 4 students of Prathompreedaporn School, Kranuan district, Khonkaen province, Thailand will improve their pronunciation skill on the final sounds of regular verbs by using the integration of task-based language teaching and audio-lingual method. Furthermore, this research study will be beneficial for teaching and learning pronunciation in ELT classroom and will be a guideline for the teachers who are interested in teaching pronunciation on the final sounds of regular verbs to find and gain the appropriate ways for teaching pronunciation in ELT. Finally, this study can be developed for a commercial benefit in the future.

References: Cagri, T. M. (2013). The Audio-Lingual Method: An Easy way of Achieving Speech. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Science, 3(12), 1-65. Celce & Murcia. (n.d.). Pronunciation Teaching History and Scope. Retrieved September 16, 2017, from http://web.ntpu.edu.tw/~language/workshop/method.pdf Chalak, A. (2015). The effect of task-based instruction on reading comprehension of Iranian EFL learners, Journal of Applied Research on English Language. Retrieved October 26, 2017, from http://are.ui.ac.ir/article_154970.html Freeman, D. L. (2010). Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press. Willis, J. (1998) A Framework for Task-based Learning. Edinburgh: Longman. Rojanacheewinsupond, P. (2008). The Use of Cooperative Task-Based Learning in Improve student English Pronunciation. Master of Education degree, Mahasarakham University. Mahasarakham. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 112 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

The Use of Data-Driven Learning Approach in Teaching Undergraduate Students Defining Relative Clause

Worada Jarupoonphol1, Anyarat Nattheeraphong2

1Graduate student of English Language Teaching Program Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Mahasarakham University, Thailand 2Lecturer of Department of Western Languages and Linguistics Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Mahasarakham University, Thailand

Abstract This study is a part of an ongoing Master degree research project entitled “The Use of Data-Driven Learning Approach in Teaching Undergraduate Students Defining Relative Clause”. This study has two objectives. The first objective is to study the effect of using data-driven learning (DDL) approach upon students’ understanding of Defining Relative Clause and the second one is to examine students’ responses to the use of this approach in class. This study is a mixed-methods design. The British National Corpus (BNC) and concordance lines will be used in teaching Defining Relative Clause regarding the DDL approach. Participants are 80 undergraduate students from Mahasarakham University who enroll in the course 0031002 Communicative English in the second semester of the academic year 2017. The researcher will use the pretest and posttest to check participants’ grammatical competence to see whether the use of DDL method affects their understanding of this grammar point or not. During class, the concordance examples of this grammar point will be distributed, and the participants will work in pairs to do class activities based on the Think-Pair-Share strategy. In addition, the participants will participate in the semi-structured focus-group interview to investigate their responses to the use of DDL in teaching Defining Relative Clause in class. It is expected that the research could possibly present a new innovative way of grammar teaching method. Apart from this, the researcher as a teacher hopes that the data-driven learning approach will serve as an effective instruction in grammar teaching.

Keywords: Data-Driven Learning (DDL) approach, Collaborative Learning approach, Think-Pair-Share strategy, corpus, British National Corpus February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 113 Mahasarakham University

Introduction This research study is a part of an ongoing project which aims to study the effects of the use of data-driven learning in teaching students Defining Relative Clause and to examine their responses to the use of this approach in class. The paper will provide the context and significance of the study, objectives of the study, research questions, literature review, research methodology, data collection, and data analysis.

1. Context of the study Data-driven learning (DDL) is a student-centered teaching approach that encourages learners to study a great amount of authentic language in order to discover linguistic patterns or grammar rules on their own (Talai & Fotovatnia, 2010). There have been a number of studies that investigate the effects of DDL in either grammar or vocabulary instruction. Most of these studies, however, examine the effects of DDL on the performance of a small group of high proficient learners. One example is a study by Soruç and Tekin (2017) which used DDL in teaching vocabulary to 36 high proficiency learners. They stated that the approach was effective, as the learners instructed by DDL gained higher scores than those instructed by the traditional method. Relatively few studies have been conducted to investigate the effects of DDL on the performance of a large number of learners with mix abilities. One is a study by Tian (2004) which used only the pretest and posttest and cannot give exact summary whether the DDL is helpful for low proficiency students or not.

2. Significance of the study Performing an English grammar class can be such a challenge for many students, especially those who study English as a foreign language. For decades, there has always been a challenge to find the suitable methodologies in teaching grammar in a field of English Language Teaching (Borg, 1999). Several tools and resources are developed in order to help students acquire grammatical competence. However, a traditional approach like the Grammar Translation is still widely used all over the world, especially among countries that use English as a second language such as Japan and Korea (Hadley, 2002). According to the previous paragraph, a lot of tools and materials have been developed to facilitate people in learning in many ways. For example, in helping them find word definitions as in corpora or dictionaries, or in helping them find out the suitable writing style for each context as in a form of internet. Among these, corpus seems to be quite useful for a lot of linguists who tend to use them for several purposes such as in ways of terminology or linguistics. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 114 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Apart from these, corpus or corpora could be used widely in writing, for example, to study the collocational pattern in texts or to improve writing skills. In English Teaching as a Second Language field, corpus has been widely used as well for several purposes. For example, it can be used to facilitate students in learning new vocabularies from internet sources (Donesch-Jezo, 2013). Also, it could be very useful in teaching grammar to represent grammatical rules of various genres such as in newspapers, academic writing, or leisure conversation (Biber & Conrad, 2010). The researcher would, therefore, like to apply the use of data-driven learning approach in teaching grammar points effectively. Also, the researcher hopes to present the useful innovative way of teaching method for grammar classes.

3. Objectives of the study This research study has two objectives: 1. To study the effects of data-driven learning approach on learners’ under standing of Defining Relative Clause ? 2. To examine students’ responses to the use of this approach in class

4. Research Questions The research study aims to address the following two research questions: 4.1 Does the use of data-driven learning approach affect students’ understanding of Defining Relative Clause? 4.1.1 Does the use of data-driven learning approach for low proficiency students lead to their grammatical improvement of Defining Relative Clause? 4.2 How do students respond to the use of data-driven learning in class?

Literature review This paper will mention two important educational approaches being used in this research study, the data-driven learning and the Collaborative Learning. The researcher will also give general information of these two theories and present the trends of using them from the past to the present.

1. Data-Driven Learning (DDL) Approach The term “data-driven learning” was coined by Tim Johns (1991). Johns (1991) defines DDL as: February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 115 Mahasarakham University

‘a microcomputer-based approach to foreign language learning that takes seriously the notion that the task of the learner is to “discover” the foreign language, and that the task of the language teacher is to provide a context in which the learner can develop for discovery - strategies through which he or she can “learn how to learn.”’ It was stated that the DDL approach derived from the Lewis’s Lexical approach and the Grammar Consciousness-Raising theory (Blappert, 1998). For the Lexical approach proposed by Lewis (in Blappert, 1998), students got exposed to context with enough insight before acquiring grammar rules through the uses and meaning in that context. Willis (1994, also in Blappert, 1988) stated that the Lexical approach seemed to be more effective than the structural one because of three main reasons. Among them is due to the fact that in Lexical approach students will have more examples to base on for generalizing language patterns. Also, it was claimed by Lewis (1994, Blappert 1998) as well that regarding the Lexical approach, “words are more amenable to learner analysis and discovery than structures” (Willis, 1994, pp. 63-65 in Blappert, 1998). In his study, Blappert (1998) mentioned that the Grammar Consciousness-Raising (C-R) theory is likely to support the data-driven learning. He also regarded Rutherford’s statement of how to distinguish this C-R theory from the traditional grammar teaching one. That is, while the grammar teaching tried to instill the language directly to students who are “Tabula rasa”, the C-R one has students contributed and gained grammar competence by themselves. Because of this, the DDL was quite similar to the C-R in a way that it encouraged students to raise awareness of forms and structures on their own. Moreover, Johns (1991) additionally mentioned that in the DDL, students would undergo three main steps of language discovery: identification of concordance lines, clarification of features, and generalization of rules. He also mentioned the importance of teacher in selecting the particular concordance lines to be used for each topic (Blappert, 1998). Although he did not give more details about these three steps, it seemed that the DDL classes would usually start with teachers giving questions to gain students’ interest. Using this, students are likely to become more interested in class. In the first step, they took the close look at given concordance lines, either print-out or hand-on one and they would be asked to find out which language problem they were meant to solve. After that, in the second step, they would specify the category of pattern that the language form represented. In this step, Johns mentioned that students should not be overwhelmed with too many files of data or else they might get discouraged in learning. Students then might work with each other, take a look at the concordance lines, discuss, and make an attempt to solve the problem. At INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 116 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

last, students were required to create patterns and formulate rules by using data from the given concordance lines. In this step, it was more likely to suppose that students would get highly engaged in discovering language rules or patterns on their own. The diagram below illustrates the three steps of the data-driven learning session:

Diagram 1: 3 Steps of DDL session (Sah, 2015). According to Boulton (2011), data-driven was a term used in computer science to refer to a software being able to develop after receiving new data. Boulton also mentioned that as this term was first coined in language learning field by Tim Johns. His work was widely studied and used as references. This Master degree research project, then, is mostly based on Johns’s definition of DDL. DDL is adopted by several researchers in teaching either grammar or vocabulary such as collocation. Using the DDL, in fact, has several advantages. For example, it is used in teaching collocation, and in enhancing students’ writing and reading skills. A study done by Hadley and Charles (2017) used DDL to enhance students’ reading skills. It was found that the DDL together helps improve reading skills of low proficiency students as the traditional method did. However, it suggested that the low proficiency ones tend to prefer the use of this approach together with other teaching approaches that encourage collaborative learning. Second, DDL is used in teaching collocation. Smith (2009, March) mentioned the use of DDL together with the Content-Based instruction to encourage non-English-major students in Taiwan to learn collocational patterns by assigning them the real-world task together with using the corpus. The result showed that even it takes longer for students to get the collocational patterns compared to the use of traditional teaching method, they gain knowledge of the patterns anyway. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 117 Mahasarakham University

2. Collaborative Learning (CL) Collaborative Learning (CL) refers to an educational approach which requires learners to do group work to achieve their goals in learning (Laal, M. & Laal, M., 2012). This approach has been claimed to be beneficial for students’ development in learning in terms of society, psychology, academic, and assessment (Laal, M. &. Ghodsi, S. M., 2012) as, for example, learning with friends would make learners interact more with their peers and that helps strengthen their friendship. Applying CL in class also tends to create enjoyment for students. In this study, the learners will thus be asked to work in pairs so they can help each other and have more fun comparing to learning individually.

3. Think-Pair-Share strategy The Think-Pair-Share strategy is among several teaching methods of the Collaborative Learning approach (“Think-Pair-Share”, n.d.). It requires students to do in-class activities mostly in pairs and it consists of three parts. Before class, the instructor would design the learning objectives. The instructor started the class by asking students some questions related to the focused topic. Students would think about the questions and tried to find the answers individually. Next, students would be asked to pair up and share with their partners their possible answers. Also, they might discuss their thoughts and answer with each other. In the last step, each pair would present and share their answers with the whole class and all students would discuss altogether about the most possible correct answers. After that, students were allowed to ask questions and clarify their understanding with instructors and their colleagues (Simon, n.d.). According to the Think-Pair-Share strategy, instructors will help students conclude and find the solutions to the given problems in classes. By using this strategy, students will learn how to help and work together in order to get the correct answers. Moreover, they will have to try finding the answers on their own first before sharing with the peers and the whole class. This helps to create student’s accountability as they must share their own opinion with their peers and brainstorm it with other colleagues. It is claimed that the Think-Pair-Share strategy is quite helpful in teaching numbers of students and dealing with the complicated problems (“Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: Types of Structured Group Activities”, 2018). Moreover, this strategy is believed to be helpful in enhancing students’ conceptual understanding of topics. It is found as well in Sampsel’s study (2013) that this strategy helped increase students’ confidence in their mathematical competence as well as their participation in mathematic classes. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 118 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Research Methodology This section will mention the corpus, British National Corpus, research method, instruments and data collection, and data analysis.

1. Corpus Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2008) defines corpus (plu. corpora) as the electrical texts which were gathered either from a work done by one writer or could be a large writing or spoken materials related to a particular subject in order to show the state of a language. It contains huge samples of language from various resources and genres, for example, academic journals, published newspaper, and spoken language of daily-life conversation. Because they appear in an electronic form, most corpora are easily accessible online via any computers and usually consist of thousands or millions of words. In addition, Adolphs and Carter (2013) stated that corpora could appear in one-medium form like text or can contain the video medium as well. However, most existed corpora tended to be enclosed in the form of texts only. A corpus can be beneficial for language study in several ways. For example, due to the fact that a corpus is a large collection samples of languages being used in the real world, people who study it may discover the pattern of words used together quite often like in a form of collocation. They, therefore, will be able to improve their vocabulary competence using corpus. Corpus could be very useful in improving vocabulary knowledge in terms of collocation as well. Because corpus gives numbers of examples, it could help students learn both the definition and the application by studying the given concordance lines. Also, it can be used to examine how frequent the particular word is used in order to investigate the norm of word usage.

2. British National Corpus The British National Corpus (BNC) is the corpus which contains approximately 100 million samples of English language (Esimaje, 2014). It contains both written and spoken languages gathered from various resources or genre, for example, from newspapers and academic journals to daily-life conversation. Moreover, it is accessible online with a requirement of free registration. The BNC is created to represent the authentic English language used in the 20th century and has been edited for several times (‘What is BNC’, n.d.). As mentioned in the former paragraph, the British National Corpus contains both the written and spoken language in the rate of 90% and 10%, respectively (Esimaje, 2014). For the written language section, apart from the newspaper and February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 119 Mahasarakham University

academic journals, it also consists of popular fictions, school or university essays, and both published and unpublished letters as well. For the spoken part, samples are recorded by volunteers with different characteristics, for example, various ages and social classes. Also, the spoken language part contains samples from various contexts, for example, from formal business to radio shows. The British National Corpus was created from 1991 to 1994 and is run by BNC Consortium (‘What is BNC’, n.d.). The consortium consists of both the academic sector and industrial one. Most of the consortium’s members are dictionary- publishing companies like the Oxford University Press and ’ section, for example, the University Centre for Computer Corpus Research on Language (UCREL) at Lancaster University. Because this study aims to study the effects of DDL approach upon grammar point which gives importance to accuracy. The researcher will select only examples of written authentic language because of two main reasons. The first one is that examples of written languages are likely to be more accurate in terms of grammar rules than the spoken ones. Therefore, writers will pay more attention in the language uses. Also, examples of written languages are likely to be more formal than the spoken ones, meaning that grammar accuracy will be more aware of in this section than examples of the spoken language.

3. Research method This research is a mixed-methods study which comprises both the quantitative and qualitative methods. It will last eight hours in four weeks (two hours per week). 1) Before class, in the first week, the researcher will check for students’ proficiency level by having them do the grammar part of the MSU Exit Exam 2017. 2) The researcher has students pair up on their own. 3) The researcher has students write down the post-it notes individually using their pseudonyms in order to find out whether they have background knowledge of this grammar point or not. 4) In the second week, each learner will have to do a 30-items pretest and finish it within 1 hour. The pretest is in a form of fill-in-a-blank one in order to meet students’ educational level. 5) The researcher will select examples of sentences which contain the Defining Relative Clause structure, by considering its difficulty, students’ proficiency levels, and the subject’s curriculum. After that, the researcher will distribute the selected printout-form concordance from the BNC to students. The researcher will INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 120 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

then use some guideline questions and exercises to let students discover the structure and its usage, for example, “What do these nouns before the Defining Relative Clause according to the concordance lines refer to?” 6) In the third week, students will be asked to do some exercises based on the Think-Pair-Share Strategy. First, each student will have to try to understand the concept of Defining Relative Clause on their own. After that, they will be asked to share and discuss the concept they get with their partners and the whole class, respectively. 7) The researcher will distribute the post-test papers to students. Students are asked to complete the tests and submit it in the class. 8) In the fourth week, to examine students’ responses towards the use of DDL, the students are asked to participate semi-structured focus-group interview. Each group consists of 4-8 students.

3.1 Participants Students who participate in the study will be 80 undergraduate students from various faculties, Mahasarakham University. They will be selected using the purposive sampling method. The researcher is responsible for teaching only one group of students from various faculties with different background knowledge. Thus, to meet the first objective of studying the effects of DDL on students’ understanding and due to the limit of resources, there would be no control group. Also, in order to maintain the fairness and avoid bias in terms of result and treatment, all students will participate in the study.

3.2 Instruments and Data Collection 1) British National Corpus (BNC) and concordance lines: in this study, the researcher will use the BNC because of two main reasons. The first reason is that this free-online corpus consists of around 100 million contemporary words from various resources (Esimaje, 2014). Therefore, learners will gain general patterns of Defining Relative Clause being used at the present. Another main reason why the BNC is used in this study is that it consists of written language over spoken one at the rate of 70% and 30%, respectively. Also, because this study aims to encourage the use of DDL in learning grammar point which gives most importance to accuracy, the selected concordance lines would contain only written language. 2) Pretest and posttest (Appendix 1): the researcher will use the pretest and posttest to assess learners’ grammatical competence of the grammar point, the Defining Relative Clause and their progress in learning this grammar point. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 121 Mahasarakham University

3) Post-it notes: at the beginning of the class, the researcher will have each student write down his/her background knowledge of Defining Relative Clause in the post-it note to find out whether the students possess background knowledge of this grammar point or not. 4) The semi-structured focus-group interview (Appendix 2): the researcher will have learners divide into groups of 4-6 members each and ask them by using the semi-structured interview pattern about their responses toward the use of data-driven learning in class. 5) The MSU Exit Exam 2017: before class, the researcher will check for learners’ proficiency level by having them do the grammar part of the MSU Exit Exam which is a standardized test all MSU students have to do to graduate in the academic year 2017. It consists of 100 items in 4 sections: listening, vocabulary, grammar part, and the reading one respectively. In order to meet research’s requirement and avoid time-consuming, learners would have to complete only the grammar part which contains 25 items within 50 minutes. Those who get 15 - 25 scores are considered high proficiency learners while those who get lower than 15 are the low ones.

3.3 Data Analysis 1) For the quantitative study, the researcher uses the pre-test and post-test from the website www.ngllife.com which is applied as additional learning materials in this course to study students’ developing progress in grammar competency. The researcher uses the mean and Standard Deviation to analyze their learning performance between two groups. The T-Tests will be used to analyze the difference of the means of the two groups in order to study each student’s understanding in learning this grammar point. 2) For the qualitative study, the researcher uses the post-it notes to find out whether students have already possessed background knowledge of this grammar point or not. The semi-structured focus-group interview will be used to assess students’ responses to the use of the data-driven learning in class.

Expected Outcomes 1. The researcher, as a teacher, would understand and apply the use of data- driven learning approach in teaching grammar points effectively. 2. The researcher hopes to present the useful innovative way of teaching method for grammar classes. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 122 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

References: Adolphs, S. & Carter, R. (2013). Spoken Corpus Linguistics: From Monomodal to Multimodal. (1st ed.). London: Routledge. Biber, D. & Conrad, S. (2010). Corpus Linguistics and Grammar Teaching. London: Pearson Education. Retrieved from http://www.longmanhomeusa.com/content/ pl_biber_conrad_monograph5_lo.pdf Blappert, T. (1998). Data-Driven Learning: Theory and classroom implementation. Proceedings of the 1997 Korea TESOL Conference. Retrieved from http:// citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.39.4022&rep=rep1&type=pdf Borg, S. (1999). Teachers’ theories in grammar teaching. ELT Journal, 53(3), 157-167. doi: 10.1093/eltj/53.3.157 Boulton, A. (2011). Data-driven learning: the perpetual enigma. In S. Goźdź-Roszkowski (ed.), Explorations across Languages and Corpora. Frankfurt: Peter Lang, p.563-580. Retrieved from https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00528258/document Corpus. (2008). In Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (3rd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Donesch-Jezo, E. (2013). Using Language Corpus in Teaching Foreign Language Vocabulary. International Multidisciplinary e-Journal, 2(1), 11-25. Retrievedfrom http://www.shreeprakashan.com/Documents/2013128181020978.2.%20 Ewa%20Donesch-Jezo.pdf Esimaje, A. U. (2014). Languages and computers: New directions in language research and teaching. International Journal of Language Studies, 8(1), 1-14Retrieved from https://books.google.co.th/books?id=Y3PfCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA11&lpg=PA11&dq= british+national+corpus+use+paper+journal&source=bl&ots=Who4B2uxO_&sig=v3Z IpmCHe43D67BwrmZ4dLXTFxA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjPoOKJzZbZAhV Kto8KHSqCBJk4ChDoAQhTMAg#v=onepage&q=british%20national%20 corpus%20use%20paper%20journal&f=false Hadley, G. (2002). An Introduction to Data-Driven Learning. RELC Journals, 33(2), 99-124. doi: 10.1177/003368820203300205 Hadley, G. & Charles, M. (2017). Enhancing extensive reading with data-driven learning. Language Learning & Technology, 21(3), 131-152. Retrieved from http:// llt.msu.edu/issues/october2017/hadleycharles.pdf Institute for Teaching and Learning Innovation. (n.d.). Think-Pair-Share [Tip sheet]. Retrieved from http://www.uq.edu.au/teach/flipped-classroom/docs/FAB/ FABThinkPairShareTipsheet.pdf Johns, T. (1991). Should you be persuaded: Two examples of data-driven learning, J. English Language Research Journal, 4, 1-16. Retrieved from http:// February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 123 Mahasarakham University

wordsmithtools.com/wordsmith/corpus_linguistics_links/Tim%20Johns%20and%20 DDL.pdf Laal, M. &. Ghodsi, S. M. (2012). Benefits of Collaborative Learning. SciVerse ScienceDirect 31, 468-490. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.12.091 Laal, M. & Laal, M. (2012). Collaborative Learning: What is It?. SciVerse ScienceDirect 31, 491-495. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.12.092 Müller, F. & Waibel, B. (n.d.). Corpus linguistics - an introduction. Retrieved February 20, 2018,fromhttps://www.anglistik.uni-freiburg.de/seminar/abteilungen/ sprachwissenschaft/ls_mair/corpus-linguistics Sah, P. K. (2015). An Investigation into the Effectiveness of Data-driven Learning (DDL) [Diagram]. Retrieved from http://www.academia.edu/19116918/An_ Investigation_into_the_Effectiveness_of_Da ta-driven_Learning_DDL_ Sampsel, A. (2013). Finding the Effects of Think-Pair-Share on Student Confidence and Participation. Honors Project, 8. Retrieved from https://scholarworks.bgsu.edu/ cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1029&context=honorsprojects Simon, C. A., (n.d.). Using the Think-Pair-Share Technique. Retrieved from http:// www.readwritethink.org/professional-development/strategy-guides/using-think- pair-share-30626.html Smith, S. (2009, March). Corpora in the classroom: Data-driven learning for Freshman English. Paper presented at the International Conference and Workshop on TEFL & Applied Linguistics, Ming Chuan University, Taipei, Taiwan. Retrieved from http://www3.nccu.edu.tw/~smithsgj/Corpora%20in%20the%20classroom.pdf Soruç, A. & Tekin, B. (2017). Vocabulary Learning through Data-Driven Learning inan English as a Second Language Setting. EDAM, 17(6), 1811-1832. doi: 10.12738/estp.2017.6.0305 Talai, T. & Fotovatnia, Z. (2012). Data-Driven Learning: A student-centered technique for language learning. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 2(7). 1526- 1531.Retrieved from http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/tpls/ vol02/07/28.pdf Tian, S. (2004). Data-Driven Learning: Do learning tasks and proficiency make a difference?. Retrieved from http://paaljapan.org/resources/proceedings/2004/ TianShiaup.pdf University of Southern California. (2018). Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: Types of Structured Group Activities. Retrieved February 25, 2018 from http://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/groupactivities What is the BNC?. (2009). Retrieved January 18, 2018, from http://www.natcorp.ox.ac.uk/ corpus/index.xml INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 124 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Appendix 1 Pretest and posttest [ Defining Relative Clause ]: Complete these following 30 items within 1 hour Instruction: Complete the sentences with who, which, where (use that if available). 1. Rob lives in a part of the US wind turbines are widely used. 2. Most of my friends listen to music they download from the Net. 3. With Google Earth I can see the street my Canadian friend lives. 4. John Logie Baird was the man invented the earliest form of television. 5. That is the camera I saw advertised online. 6. This is an article about researchers use nanorobots for cancer treatment. Instruction: Join the two sentences with the correct relative pronoun (who, which, or where) (use that if available). 7. He designed a new gadget. It fits in your pocket. 8. I can’t remember the site. I saw the information on the site. 9. Do you know the girl? She writes this travel blog. 10. That’s the iPhone. Susan keeps talking about it. 11. I need to go back to the bank. I opened an account at the bank. 12. Joe has a cousin. Joe’s cousin designs websites. Instruction: Fill in the blank with the correct relative pronoun (use that if available). 13. Is that the MP3 player you bought yesterday? 14. That’s the building my sister works. 15. The feature I like best on my smartphone is the GPS. 16. Here’s the person wrote the instruction manual. 17. Facebook is a social network is used by millions of people every day. 18. That’s the university I studied Information Technology. 19. The optician fixed your glasses has left a message on your voicemail. 20. Did you see the note I left on your computer screen? 21. Is that the online library you found all the information? 22. He is the man invented a new kind of bicycle. 23. That’s the farm they are experimenting with new crops. 24. There is the woman works in my father’s laboratory. 25. These are the machines use less energy. 26. That is the nuclear power station they had problems at last year. 27. This is the documentary I was watching last week. 28. She’s the doctor saved my father’s life. 29. That’s the factory they developed the new lamps. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 125 Mahasarakham University

30. In recent history, there have been some amazing inventions have changed our lives.

Appendix 2 Questions for the semi-structured focus-group interview 1. In your opinion, what is corpus? Have you ever heard of it before and in which situation? 2. We call samples of sentences extracted from corpus “concordance lines”. What do you think the concordance lines are useful for? And in which situation? 3. How do you and your pair think the print-out concordance lines help in learning Defining Relative Clause, in this case, grammar point? 4. From your point of view, what are the advantages of using print-out concordance lines in learning Defining Relative Clause? 5. What are the disadvantages of using concordance lines in learning Defining Relative Clause? 6. Do you and your pair think the use of examples help in becoming much better at grammar point like Defining Relative Clause? How? 7. Compared to the traditional teaching method, are there any differences between the new method and the old one? 8. In your opinion, do you think English proficiency level affects the effectiveness of using DDL in class? 9. Based on your level of English at the present, how suitable the DDL is for you? 10. Apart from teaching methods, are there any other factors that you think affect students’ achievement in learning English? 11. How do you and your pair use concordance lines in learning Defining Relative Clause? 12. If this is the first time of you and your pair using concordance lines in class, how easy or difficult you think it is in using this tool? 13. Do you agree or disagree with the use of concordance lines or corpus in learning English? 14. Which one do you prefer more in learning English, the same-old traditional approach or the use of concordance lines (i.e. DDL)? Why? 15. Are there any factors that you and your pair think might affect the use of DDL in learning grammar point? 16. From your point of view, do you think the DDL approach alone is effective enough for teaching grammar? Why? 17. Do you think class size affect the effectiveness of DDL in class? How? INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 126 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

The Integration of Content-based Instruction and Schema Knowledge in Developing English Reading Comprehension

Phramaha Saccarak Rai Sa-nguan1, Pilanut Phusawisot2

1Graduate student of English Language Teaching Program Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Mahasarakham University, Thailand 2Lecturer of Department of Western Languages and Linguistics Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Mahasarakham University, Thailand

Abstract This study is a part of an ongoing Master’s degree research project, titled “The integration of content-based instruction and schema knowledge in developing English reading comprehension”. The purposes of this study are (1) to investigate students’ improvement of reading comprehension using the integration of content- based instruction and schema knowledge in developing students’ English reading comprehension, and (2) to study how can the integration of content-based instruction and schema knowledge help ELT students’ reading comprehension skills. Participants of this study will be 50 first-year undergraduate students majoring in teaching English. They are enrolled in the course entitled The history of at Mahamakut Buddhist University, Isan campus, Khon Kaen, in the first semester academic year of 2018. Participants are selected by purposive random sampling. The instruments used in this study are lesson plans with the integration of content-based instruction and schema knowledge in developing students’ English reading comprehension, a pretest, a posttest, a progress test, and focus group interview. The data will be analyzed by comparing pre and posttest experimental design, analyzing the result from interpreting the input from focused-group interview. At the end of the study, students’ reading comprehension pertaining to the history of Buddhism is expected to be improved.

Keywords: Content-Based Instructions, Schema Knowledge, Reading Comprehension Skill February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 127 Mahasarakham University

Introduction People’s interest in studying English grows around the world. English language is well known and used to communicate worldwide as a second or foreign language. It is used as an essentionl tool for communication with people from different countries. The instructional atmosphere will be more challenging and interesting for students and teachers. It is significantly a medium for both the students and teachers to gain all new knowledge and information from many various sources. Students with higher English skills will be at an advantage in the world of education. Four language skills are used to attain the English language proficiently: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Using these four language skills fluently is necessary. Reading is the most important skill because it is the chosen instrument to acquire knowledge. Conversely, Thai students are not successful in reading, and their reading ability is unsatisfactory (Pumirat, 1992). Reading comprehension has become a major problem in English classrooms for students. The lack of reading comprehension proficiency limits options for students to succeed in their intended objectives. Scores of examination are quite low due to their poor reading ability. Reading is very important as it helps students acquire new information and see how English is used to transfer idea expressions into writing. The researcher found out that the students and teachers of English at Mahamakut Buddhist University, Isan campus have struggled with many problems in learning and teaching. One of those problems that students encountered in their classroom is reading comprehension. Students cannot correctly identify the main idea while reading. In fact they need to be able to decode and comprehend what they are reading. The students’ English reading proficiency is at a low level, their reading proficiency needs to be improved with reading activities. They must practice their skills by reading text and teachers should enhance them in reading comprehension. In solving the students’ problems in comprehending the content of texts in the English classroom, there are various methods of teaching languages. One of the most popular methods is Content –based Instruction. Tsai (2010:80) stated that content-based instruction is one of the best methods to improve students’ reading comprehension. This approach is considered as a more natural way of teaching. Content-based instruction is a teaching method that emphasizes on content or subject matter rather than language. Richards and Rodgers (2001) say that “Content- Based Instruction refers to an approach to second language teaching in which teaching is organized around the content or information that students will acquire, rather than around a linguistic or other type of syllabus” (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p. 204). Content usually focuses on the subject matter that teachers use. (Richards & Rodgers, 2001). INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 128 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Content-based instruction is “the teaching of language through exposure to content that is interesting and relevant to learners” (Brinton, 2003, p. 201). Schema knowledge is another word for prior knowledge. According to Brody (2001), “background knowledge refers to concepts, experiences, information, and text structures that are relevant to a text under study.” (Brody, 2001 pg. 241) In conclusion, Learning a second or foreign language, especially English, is the most necessary task for people all over the world. Educational institutions bear the main responsibility for their students English language development. The effective teaching method needs to be used in the process of learning and teaching. The integration of content-based instruction and schema knowledge is considered a suitable approach to develop students’ reading comprehension proficiency. Thus, the researcher is interested in this pedogogic approach helping students acquire new knowledge and information of the subject matter they are reading.

Significance of this study This research was aimed to investivate the integration of content-based instruction and Schema knowledge at Mahamakut Buddhist university, Isaan campus in Khon Kaen, Thailand. The researcher believes that students’ reading skills improvement will have a significant development through reading comprehension activities using content-based Instruction and schema knowledge. Students will be developed in reading after implementation. It is an effective tool for literacy development.

Purposes of the study The study aims: 1. To investigate students’ improvement in reading comprehension towards the integration of content-based instruction and schema knowledge. 2. To study how can the integration of content-based instruction and schema knowledge help ELT students’ reading comprehension skills.

Research questions 1. Does the integration of content-based instruction and schema knowledge improve ELT students towards reading comprehension skills? 2. How can the integration of content-based instruction and schema knowledge help ELT students’reading comprehension skills? February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 129 Mahasarakham University

Literature Review Reading is one of the most important skills in learning a new language that should be mastered by students. As Stephen Kashen (2004) stated, reading is considered as a powerful means of developing reading comprehension ability, writing style, vocabulary, grammar, and spelling. It is an essential part of the learning process. Seyler (2000) also stated that reading is the way leading to the appropriate understanding of ideas, information or feeling which the words convey when conbined together in the specific form chosen by a writer. Readers who are trying to develop their skills of learning have to be able to comprehend the text in order to understand, evaluate and criticize when reading. Teachers should teach their students to learn how to comprehend and react to what they read or understand the context. (Tierney and Readence, 2000). Reading comprehension can be broadly defined as the process of constructing meaning by coordinating a number of complex processes that include language, word reading, word knowledge and fluency (Cain, Oakhill, & Bryant, 2004). According to Koda (2004), “Comprehension occurs when the reader extracts and integrates various information from the text and combines it with what is already known”. In the teaching and learning process, the role of textbooks seems very important at all levels of education (Foxman, 1999). In addition, reading activity and reading comprehension to enhance students’ reading proficiency also play their important roles in the academic field. Reading promotion activities must be linked to the students’ subject objective to motivate students’ reading potential. Students should read various kinds of texts, for instance, an expository text that provides suggestions or explanations that the students may find helps them understand a problem text which can also be used on a given problem in the classroom and to solve a problem in their real life situation. Urquhart & Weir (1998) say “Reading is the process of receiving and interpreting information encoded in language form via the medium of print” (p. 22). According to Hellekjær (2007), “reading comprises decoding the written text on the one hand and efficiently processing the information on the other hand” (b, p. 2). According to Pang, et. al. (2003:6), reading ability is known as an important educational goal. It has created more educational opportunities. Students can acquire new knowledge and information and enjoy reading from many various sources. Thus, students in the age of internet technology should be equipped with reading skills while studying a language. Whether the students can read better or not depends on how much effort they are willing to practice. Content-based instruction is an approach referring to content area learning. It started to become famous in 1980s in the United States with the fundamental concept. Language should be taught together with the teaching of the content area. No INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 130 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

language is instructed in isolation without subject matter, even at the beginning level (Schleppegrell, Achugar & Oteiza, 2004). In other words, the subject matter is the main emphasis of the language instruction. Snow, Met & Genesee (1989) suggested that content-based instruction equip learners with a comprehensible input where learners have the opportunity to learn the language cognitively. Based on the comprehensible input model (Krashen, 1982), and Cummins (1989) with his notion of cognitive demand and decontextualized language, content-based instruction influenced the development and promotion through theme-based ESL-EFL of sheltered modesl and adjunct courses for teaching in context areas, such as, history, geography or science, etc. (Rodger, 2006). Rodger (2006) stated that the exposure of language have seen as a natural consequence of a by-product of subject matter learning. Schema theory is the process by which readers combine their own background or prior knowledge with the information in text they are reading to comprehend that text. Readers are able to comprehend what they are reading from clues found in the text which they can relate to their own experience or background knowledge. Background knowledge (Schema) is significant for the comprehension of new information. Teachers needs to help students develop the connection between background and new knowledge. Schema knowledge will be activated when they see the familiar words and concepts in print. (Savage, 1998). Anderson and Pearson maintain that “a reader’s schemata, or knowledge is already stored in the readers memory function. In the process of interpreting new information and allowing it to enter the memory it becomes a part of the knowledge store (p. 255).” They stated that “a schema is an abstract knowledge structure” and that it “is structured in the sense that it represents relationships among its component parts (p.259).

Research Methods 1. Research design This study aims to improve students’ reading comprehension and study students’ attitude towards the integration of content-based instruction and schema knowledge. The study is a quasi-experimental design. The English reading comprehension pretest and posttest are supposed to be used to measure ELT undergraduate students’ reading comprehension skills. To gain more in-depth information, and focus group interviews will be used to investigate students’ opinions. Variables Independent Variable Integration of The Integration of content-based instruction and schema knowledge Dependent Variable English reading comprehension skill February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 131 Mahasarakham University

2. Participants The sampling group is 50 students in the first semester of the academic year 2018 at Mahamakut Buddhist university, Isaan campus selected by purposive sampling. The group is of mixed-gender students. The reason for selecting the first year ELT students is for developing their English reading comprehension skills. There are several difficulties that students and teachers of English face in learning and teaching English considering that the students’s English reading proficiency is at low level. Students can read but they cannot understand or interpret what they read. These students encounter this serious problem in the English classroom when their teachers threw questions at them and asked them to explain or identify the main idea. They were unable to explain or interpret what they were asked correctly.

3. Setting of the study The study is conducted for 5 weeks (15 hours) at Mahamakut Buddhist university, Isaan campus. It is located in Nai Muaeng sub-district, Muaeng district, Khon Kaen province, Thailand. There will be approximately 50 students on the course. In the study, the participants are all ELT students who have enrolled in the history of Buddhism course with one lecturer. The course is administered in the first semester of the academic year 2018.

4. Conceptual framework of the study

Integration of CBI 50 ELT students Pre - test approach and Post - test schema theroy

Lesson Plan

Pre - reading While - reading Post - reading

5. Instruments There are two main research tools in this study. One is the tool for the learning process: lesson plans of the Buddha’s life. The other is the data collection tool: English reading comprehension pretest-posttest, students’ attitude questionnaire and focus group interview. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 132 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

5.1 Learning process tools The instruments of teaching and learning are seven lesson plans of the integration of content-based instruction and schema knowledge. The contents cover seven topics, three hours for each topic as following; Unit 1 : Queen Maha Maya’ dream Unit 2 : The Birth of the prince Unit 3 : The naming ceremony Unit 4 : The prince leaves home Unit 5 : The sun of enlightenment shines 5.2 Tools for data collection The following are the research instruments for collecting data. These tools are pre – post tests, progress tests, and focus group interview questions. (1) English reading comprehension pretest and posttest This test is created to measure student’s reading comprehension achievement after using the integration of content-based instruction and schema knowledge. Before the start of the reading comprehension program, all participants will be allowed to take a reading achievement pretest to measure their reading comprehension proficiency. Students are asked to take the posttest, which is similar to the reading achievement pretest, at the end of the experiment. The results of the pretests and posttests will be compared in order to measure the integration of content-based instruction and schema knowledge for developing ELT undergraduate students’ reading comprehension achievement. (2) Focus group interview The students of the experimental group were selected by their results of the reading comprehension test, which covers high proficiency, intermediate and low proficiency in order to investigate if the integration of content-based instruction and schema knowledge helped develop students’ reading comprehension skills.

6. Data collection The integration of content-based instruction and schema knowledge in developing ELT students’ reading comprehension was lauched in the first semester of the academic year 2018. The participants were informed about the purpose of the study. Then, they were taught using lesson plans developed by the researcher. Moreover, there are two research tools which were employed in this study. The researcher divided the research instruments into two types in accordance with information. Pretest and posttest of English reading comprehension skills were used to measure ELT students’ reading comprehension. Seven lesson plans with the integration of content-based instruction February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 133 Mahasarakham University

and schema knowledge were used to teach the experimental group while the traditional teaching method was used on the control group.

7. Data analysis The data will be analyzed by using these processes as follows ; (1) Control and experimental group on pretest will be analyzed to measure reading ability before using the integration of content-based instruction and schema knowledge. (2) Statistics used in data analysis will be independent t-test and ANOVA. (3) Pretest for control and experimental group will be analyzed by using mean and standard deviation. (4) Statistics used in the comparison of pretest and posttest on control group will be a paired t-test and ANOVA. (5) Statistics used in the comparison of pretest and posttest for experimental group will be a paired t-test and ANOVA. (6) Control and experimental group on posttest will be analyzed to measure reading skills before using the integration of content-based instruction and schema knowledge. Statistics used in data analysis will be independent t-test.

Expected outcomes 1. Participants are expected to improve their knowledge of English reading comprehension and the contents of Buddhism. 2. Students will be able to use their reading and comprehension techniques in other learning environments (taught by Content-based instruction Model and schema knowledge)

References: Brinton, D. (2003). Content-Based Instruction. In Nunan, D. (Ed.), Practical English Language Teaching. McGraw-Hill Contemporary. Brody, S. (2001) Teaching Reading Language, Letters & Thought (2nd ed.). Milford, NH: Borasi, R. & Siegel, M. (1990). Reading to leam mathematics: New connections, new questions, new challenges. For the Learning of Mathematics, 10 (3), 9-16. Cain, K., J. Oakhill, & Bryant, P. (2004). Children’s reading comprehension ability: Concurrent prediction by working memory, verbal ability, and component skills. Journal of Educational Psychology 96(1): 31-42. Commins, J. (1984). Wanted: A theoretical framework for relating languageproficiency INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 134 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

to academic achievement among bilingual students. In C. Rivera (Ed.),Language proficiency and academic achievement (pp. 2-19). Claevedon, England: Multilingual Matters. Dreyfus, S. J., Humphrey, S., Mahboob, A., & Martin, J. R. (2016). Genre Pedagogy in Higher Education. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Foxman, D. (1999). Mathematics textbooks across the world: Some evidence from the Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS). Slough: National Federation for Educational Research. Hellekjær, G. O. (2007b). Reading: From a Forgotten to a Basic Skill. Språk & Språkundervising (2), 23-29. Krashen, S. (2004). The Power of reading. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Koda, K. (2004). Insights into Second Language reading - A Cross-Linguistic Approach. New York: Cambridge University Press. Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon. Pumirat, T. (1992). A study of ability to analyze to discourse types in English reading of Mathayomsuksa 6 students, Bangkok Metropolis. Unpublished master’s thesis, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand. R. C. Anderson, and P. D. Pearson,’’A Schema-Theoretic View of Basic Processes in ReadingComprehension,” In P. L. Carrell, J. Devine and D. E. Eskey, (eds.), Interactive Approaches to Second Language Reading. Cambridge: CUP, 1984. Richards, J. & Rodgers, T. (2001). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. SecondEdition. NY: Cambridge University Press. Rodgers, D. M. (2006). Developing of content and form: Encouraging evidence from Italian content-based instruction. The modern Language Journal, 90(3): 373-386. Savage, J. (1998). Teaching reading and writing: combining skills, strategies and literature.Boston: McGraw Hill. Retrieved from http://www. freepatentsonline.com/article/Reading-Improvement/258438663.html Snow, C. (2002). Reading for understanding: Toward an R&D program in reading comprehension. Santa Monica, CA: RAND. Sichomphoo, A. Comparison of Mattayom Suksa 3 Students Understanding and Reading Influence in English through the Instruction of DR-TA and the Teacher’s Manual. Master’s Thesis. Srinakarinwirote University, 1999. Schleppegrell, M. J., Achugar, M. & Oteiza, T. (2004). The grammar of history: February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 135 Mahasarakham University

Enhancing Content-Based Instruction through a functional focus on language. TESOL Quarterly. 38(1):67-93. Snow, M. A., Met, M., & Genesee, F. (1989). A conceptual framework for the integration of language and content in second/foreign language instruction. TESOL Quarterly. 23, 201-219. Tsai, Y. (2010). “The Impact of Content-Based Language Instruction on EFL Students’ Reading Performance”. Applied English, Vol. 6, p. 77-85. Urquhart, S., Weir, C. (1988). Reading in a Foreign Language: Process, Product andPractice. New York: Longman. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 136 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Improving English Narrative Writing Ability By Using Jigsaw Technique of Mattayomsuksa Three Students

Sasiwimon Sritong1, Pilanut Phusawisot2

1Graduate student of English Language Teaching Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Mahasarakham University, Thailand 2Lecturer of Department of Western Language and Linguistics Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Mahasarakham University, Thailand

Abstract This study aims to create a design for enhancing Mattayomsuksa 3 student’s narrative writing ability by utilizing the Jigsaw Technique, and to study their attitude towards using the technique. According to The Basic Education Core Curriculum B.E. 2551 (A.D. 2008), Mattayomsuksa 3 students must have ability to describe a story before they graduate from school. However, most of them lack of this skill. Therefore, teachers should find new approaches to help them meet this standard. The target group for this study is the 32 students of Mattayomsuksa 3 at the Pluppla Wittayakom School, selected by a purposive sampling. The instruments used in this research are 1) Jigsaw Technique lesson plans 2) English writing test 3) English writing ability assessment form 4) teacher note 5) semi-structured interview 6) students’ attitude questionnaire. This mixed method is designed to utilize, collect, and analyze data. The findings of the study indicate that the Jigsaw Technique was successful in improving student’s ability to write a narrative paragraph. In addition, the target group had a positive response towards the Jigsaw Technique.

Keywords: Narrative Writing Ability, Jigsaw Technique, Co- operative Learning. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 137 Mahasarakham University

Introduction

In this present globalized world, English plays an important role in the everyday life of people everywhere especially so here in Thailand, where the tourism industry plays such a significant role in our economy. One of the most important skills is using any language is writing. It can be described that writing is the main method to describe. However, it is a complicated skill because it requires a student to express their knowledge about vocabulary, grammar, and expression all at once. They have to begin with the brainstorming process and move through the processes of pre-writing, drafting, rewriting, proofing, and publishing in order to come to a successful completion. The National Core Curriculum (A.D. 2008) stated that before students in Mattayomsuksa 3 finish school, they demonstrate the ability to describe their experiences in writing. (National Core Curriculum 2008, p.225) Therefore, in order to help develop writing skills according to the National Core Curriculum stated, I recommend that we can do it by using the Cooperative Learning Technique. It has been shown to have a positive responses with the students that have tested it out. Many teachers are now using this technique at an increasingly rate everyday (Slavin et al, 1995, Webb et al, 2002, Siegel, 2005). The cooperative learning approach helps students by encouraging them to interact with friends in classroom discussions about a topic and to have cooperative evaluations as well (Parker, 1985; Slavin, 1990; Coppola and Lawton,1995; Gillies,2006). They can work together in groups to solve problems. In this way, they will improve their problem solving, communication, and critical learning skills. Also, they can actively engage in the learning process (Bolling,1994; Gardener and Kort h,1996;Bowen,2000;Levine,2001; Prince,2004;Eiks,2005,Gilles,2006;Hennessy and Evans,2006;Lin,2006:Prichard et al.,2006;Simsek2007). By teaching through the Cooperative Learning Approach, students will learn about the appropriate target behavior and how others are also learning the same information (Johnson and Johnson, 1999). Hawkins, Douck and Liskner have indicated that cooperative learning makes a student depend on their friends in class in order to obtain a positive result (Miller, 1998). Cooperative learning is a process that allows students to achieve a goal through group work (Slavin, 1995). Teachers divide the students in groups in order to accomplish an academic task, and the students’ skills are improved through their group work. Thus, student can increase their social and working skills simultaneously (Colosi and Zales, 1998). INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 138 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

One of the co-operative learning techniques that can be used to improve writing skills is called the Jigsaw Technique. It is based on group dynamics and social intercommunications. It is one a pure cooperative learning approaches (Açıkgöz, 2006: 210), and it was designed by Aronson in 1978 (Hedeen,2003). It recommends dividing students into small groups which, at the first level, are called Home Groups. Then, they will interact with friends in groups to accomplish academic tasks in class. Through this technique, a teacher can then divide students out of their home groups into new groups called expert groups. In these expert group, the students will try to help their new friends in the group to understand the details of the topic. Afterwards, each student will come back to his or her home group and share about what they learned in their expert group to their friends. In the final stage of the process, the students will prepare a report describe their work. The teacher can ask one of the Home Groups or individual student to make a presentation to class according to their subject. This final stage to complete is called the evaluation stage (Simsek, 2007:19). The Jigsaw Technique can motivate students to participate in learning process. They feel relaxed about their roles through interaction with friends in their class. To evaluate the group work by using this technique, a teacher can encourage students to have a sense of responsibility for their group’s task (Lucas,2000:221). It supports cooperative learning because this technique helps to separate the subject matter into smaller pieces, so that work load can be distributed amongst the group and all members can take responsibility. At present there are 4 type of Jigsaw Technique that teachers can use in the English classroom a) The Jigsaw Technique I was developed by Aronson in 1978, b) The Jigsaw Technique II was developed by Slavin in 1987, c) The Jigsaw Technique III was developed by Stahl in 1994, and d) the Jigsaw Technique IV was developed by Holliday in 2000. Jigsaw I and Jigsaw II are different because Jigsaw II allows student to do in-class group competition and games. Next, the Jigsaw III, differs from Jigsaw I and II because includes a component of evaluation forms. Finally, Jigsaw IV differs from Jigsaw I, II, III because in this variation the teacher gives quizzes to the students to evaluate their understanding of the topic both in their home group and expert group. One important set of writing skills that teachers should utilize in their classrooms are narrative writing skills. Students have to use this ability to do in order to do their Ordinary National Education Test (O-Net) in order to graduate from Mattayomsuksa 3 and pass into Mattayomsuksaa 4 (M. Plai). However, most of students do not write anything in this section of the test, due to their lack of understanding, so they lose the opportunity to get any points. Thus, many schools get very low score. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 139 Mahasarakham University

This method to develop narrative writing skills requires the students to write a description according to the picture that their teacher gives them in English class. In this way, student’s study about how to write subject sentences, supporting details, and concluding sentences. Also, they learned about how to use new vocabulary, idioms, and grammar. In this study, the researcher uses the Jigsaw II technique to improve student’s narrative writing skills. The present study was guided by the following main research question: 1. Can the Jigsaw Technique help to develop the narrative writing ability of Mattayomsuksa 3 students? 2. Do Mattayomsuksa 3 students have a good attitude towards using the

Jigsaw Technique in learning about narrative writing?

Materials and Methods The target group of the research is the 32 students from Puppla Wittakom School of the Chiang-Kwan District, in the Roi -Et Province. It was selected by the Purposive Sampling Method. These students were a group of Mattayomsuksa 3 students who registered for fundamental English in the 1st semester of 2560 semester. This study required 20 hours of classroom research time. There are 6 instruments used in this research: 1) Jigsaw Technique lesson plans 2) English writing test 3) English writing ability assessment form 4) teacher note 5) semi-structured interview 6) students’ attitude questionnaire. In order to form this process, the teacher gave a Pre-Test to student during the first hour of class. Then the teacher used the final grade of their latest semester to separate the students by their test scores into two groups: high scores and low scores. Afterwards, the teacher mixed the students into groups of four students each, between those with high test score and low test score students. Then, the students were then set up to work and learn together in their small groups, both their home group, and later their expert group. The First and Second Lesson plans were used in order to teach the content of paragraph component and narrative paragraph. Next, the teacher utilized the third lesson plan. This is the stage where a student would learn to write a paragraph. The teacher placed their students in their home group, by the above mentioned criteria. Then, each group of students received a different piece of a picture. All the pieces distributed were part of a connected event. There were 4 pictures for each group. After the students received their picture, they were placed in their new group, called their expert group. In this group, the students INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 140 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

discovered that in actuality, each group had received the same picture. Later, they discussed about what they could write to explain their picture to someone else. They then shared their opinions and wrote them down on the paper. After that, the teacher asks them to return to their home group. In this stage, the teacher gave 4 connected event pictures to the students in each group. The students had to help their friends to write a paragraph according to what they had discussed in their expert group about describing their picture. Finally, the teacher evaluated the writing task and gave them points. The group that got the highest writing score then received a prize from the teacher. After following this teaching/learning process, the teacher gave the semi- structure interview to the students in order to study the attitude of the Mattayomsuksa 3 students towards this learning technique. In the final stage, this teacher gave a post- test to the students in the final hour of class to evaluate the student’s level of academic development through the study.

Results In this part the results of the study showed in the table 1. Table1. Pre-Test and Post –Test results Test N Mean ( ) Std. Deviation t p* Pre-test 32 9.88 1.03 3.07* .000 Post Test 32 14.97 2.25 *p< 0.05

After using the Jigsaw Technique to improve the English narrative writing ability for students in Mattayomsuksa 3 during the first semester of 2560, this experimental research discovered that, out of the 32 students whom participated in this study, the of the Pre-Test was 9.88, and the of the Post Test was 14.97. The students demonstrated a significantly higher post test score than before, doing a pre- test at the level of 0.05. In addition, after using the Jigsaw Technique to improve the English narrative writing ability for Mattayomsuksa 3 students in this class, the teacher asked the students to do a students’ attitude questionnaire about using the Jigsaw Technique. The results found that every criterions was exceeded at the level of ( =4.26). The criterion which received the highest score is = 4.46. Moreover, this test demonstrated that by using the Jigsaw Technique to improve the English narrative writing ability for Mattayomsuksa 3, that the effectiveness Index : (E.I) of the study was 0.5031, which means that students’ knowledge of the subject has been increased by an average of 50.31%. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 141 Mahasarakham University

Discussion The findings and interpretations of the findings of this research are given below. According to the study, the following results were found: 1. There was a significant difference between the pre-test and the post-test scores of the student’s in the target group during the course of utilizing the Jigsaw Technique. 2. The Jigsaw Technique II is of great benefit to the learning process of Mattayomsuksa 3 students. They have a positive attitude towards learning when utilizing this technique to improve their narrative writing skills. It can be seen, after using the Jigsaw Technique to improve narrative writing skills, that there is a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test scores. These findings are in accordance with the other findings in research on this teaching method. It can be inferred that the Jigsaw Technique II helps students to completely learn their task by assigning them individual learning responsibilities. In this way, the students have to take responsibility for themselves. They have to help their friends understand the topic through the process of group interaction (Sahin 2010). Slavin (1986) stated that the Jigsaw II can establish interdependence between group members. In addition, Gomleksiz (2007) stated that the result shows that through cooperative learning, the Jigsaw Technique II can help students study English more effectively and can create a positive atmosphere in an English class. Moreover, students in Mattayomsuksa grade 3 who participated in this research have positive attitudes towards the Jigsaw Technique. These findings agree with the findings of Ghaith and Ghazi (Ghaith, Ghazi M. 2003: p.21), who studied the relationship between attitude and reading achievement using the Jigsaw Technique. They found that this method can enhance positive attitudes towards English reading. Therefore, Jigsaw Technique is not only useful for improving the narrative writing ability of Mattayomsuksa 3 students, but also for helping students develop a positive attitude towards growth in their English narrative writing abilities.

References: Bolling, A. (1994). Using group journals to improve writing and comprehension. J.Excell. Col. Teach, 5(1). Dyson, B. (2002).The implementation of cooperative learning in an elementary physical education program. J. Teach. Phys. Educ. Hedeen,T.(2003). The Reverse Jigsaw: A process of cooperative learning and discussion.Bioscience, 48 (2). INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 142 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Johnson, D. W. and Johnson, R. (1999). Learning together and alone: cooperative, competitive, and individualistic learning. Allyn & Bacon: Boston. Miller, AK. (1998). Enhancing Early Childhood through Cooperatıve Learning. Child Study, 19(4). Sahin, A.(2010). Effects of jigsaw II technique on academic achievement and attitude to written expression course. Educational Research and Reviews. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 143 Mahasarakham University

The Effects of Communication Strategies Instruction on the English Speaking of Secondary School Students

Narueta Hongsa1, Nantawan Senchantichai2

1, 2Khon Kaen University, Thailand

Abstract Communication strategies are not commonly found in secondary school books designed for EFL students. However, studies have found that the instruction of communication strategies is useful in terms of improving learners’ fluency and accuracy. Eighty seven Matayom Six students from two different schools in Khon Kaen and Maha Sarakam province participated in this study. They received a 12- week communication strategy-based instruction. Data came from two sources: (1) transcription data of three different speaking tasks—picture description, storytelling, and conversation; and (2) opinion questionnaire. The data from the transcription showed that the teaching of communication strategies promoted the use of taught strategies, especially circumlocution and fillers and hesitation devices. The results from the opinion questionnaire showed that the students were aware of the usefulness of communication strategies. They felt that the taught strategies helped facilitate communication. They also felt that they gained more confidence in speaking English.

Background of the study To be able to carry out the speech with an interlocutor throughout the conversation, a speaker needs to have basic linguistic knowledge and communicative competence (Hymes, 1972). These kinds of knowledge can lead to successful and effective communication. Supporting the idea proposed by Hymes, Canale and Swain (1980) have presented the model of communicative competence which consists of four different sub-competencies. They are (1) Grammatical--ability to produce grammatically correct utterances to provide literal meaning of utterances, (2) Sociolinguistic--ability to create sociolinguistically appropriate utterances, which concerns appropriateness of language use, (3) Discourse--ability to produce coherent and cohesive utterances (forms and meanings are combined), and (4) Strategic--ability to solve communication problems as they arise to achieve meaningful unity of spoken language. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 144 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Strategic competence is deemed essential in learning a second language (Canale & Swain, 1980; Dörnyei & Thurrel, 1991; Faerch & Kasper, 1986) since they are to compensate for breakdowns in communication due to insufficient competence in one or more components of communicative competence. Brown (2007) has suggested that communication strategies should be taught to second language learners so that they can cope with communication problems and achieve their communication goals. Dörnyei (1995), Nakatani (2005) and Lee (2006) have found that communication strategies are beneficial and needed to be taught to second language learners. Currently, communication strategies (CSs) are viewed from two main perspectives: psycholinguistic and interactional. The Psycholinguistic perspective, or known as the intra-individual perspective, focuses on learners’ behaviors in solving communication problems including lexical and discourse problems (Faerch & Kasper, 1983; Bialystok, 1990). In contrast, the interactional perspective focuses on the interaction between the speakers and the interlocutors (Tarone, 1980; Canale, 1983), which means the speakers attempt to negotiate the meaning with their interlocutors in situations where the intended meaning seems not to get across. Despite different views on CSs, the categorization of strategies seems to overlap. This study has adopted certain strategies from both perspectives; therefore, the CSs taxonomies used in this study include those suggested by Tarone (1977), Færch and Kasper (1983), Dörnyei (1995), and Dörnyei and Scott (1997). The following table presents the types of CSs used in this study as well as the explanation and examples of each strategy.

CSs Explanation and Examples Achievement or compensatory strategies (psycholinguistic perspective) 1) Circumlocution - Exemplifying, illustrating or describing the properties of the target object or action such as ‘it becomes water’ instead of ‘melt’. 2) Use of filler/ - Using filling words or gambits to fill pauses and to gain hesitation devices time to think such as ‘well’, ‘now let me see’, or ‘as a matter of fact’. Achievement or compensatory strategies (Interactional perspective) 3) Appeal for help - Asking for help from partners either directly such as ‘What do you call …?’, or indirectly such as rising intonation, pause, eye contact, or puzzled expression. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 145 Mahasarakham University

4) Asking for -Requesting repetition when not hearing or understanding repetition something properly such as Pardon? What? Again please? 5) Asking for -Requesting explanation of an unfamiliar meaning clarification structure. For instance, What do you mean? You saw what? Also ‘question repeats,’ that is echoing a word or a structure with a question intonation. 6) Asking for -Requesting confirmation that one heard or understood confirmation something correctly For example, You said…? You mean…? Do you mean…?

There has been a number of studies conducted focusing on the relationship of the students’ CSs use and various variables for over decades. However, there was a few studies focusing on the instruction CSs to students, and these studies paid attention to university students. The studies related to the instruction of communication strategies (CSI) in secondary level were hardly found, especially in the Thai context. Accordingly, the present study aimed to investigate the effects of CSI on the Mattayaom 6 students’ English speaking. This study attempted to examine how students use the taught strategies after receiving the CSI. The study also aimed to explore the students’ opinion towards the CSI. Hence, the present study was conducted to answer the following two research questions. 1) Does the communication strategies instruction (CSI) affect the students’ English speaking? If it does, how do students apply the taught CSs in their speaking after receiving the CSI? 2) What are students’ opinions towards communication strategies instruction?

The design of the study This study applied an interventionist approach proposed by Brumfit and Mitchell (1990), in which the setting is the normal classroom and there is no control group. The pre- post speaking tasks and the students’ attitude questionnaire were used to obtain both quantitative and qualitative data. The CSI was regarded as an independent variable while the students’ use of CSs in terms of frequencies was regarded as a dependent variable. While the quantitative data was used to provide general information regarding the effects of CSI on the students’ English speaking, the qualitative data will provide detailed findings of students use or not use these strategies, and their opinion toward the CSI. Eighty seven Matayom Six students from two different schools were asked to participate in this study: the first school was in the district of Khon Kean province, INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 146 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

another was in the district of Mahasarakham province. These students’ levels of English proficiency were about the same, based on the survey done before the actual study took place. All students took part in the three speaking tasks—picture description, storytelling, and conversation. Different tasks require the use of different CSs (Dörnyei, 1995; Rossister, 2003; Kongsom; 2009). The picture description was to encourage students to use the strategies such as topic avoidance and replacement, circumlocution, approximation, using fillers and hesitation devices, and code switching (Dörnyei, 1995; Rossister, 2003; Kongsom; 2009). The storytelling provided students a chance to use various kinds of CSs such as circumlocution, approximation, code switching filler hesitation device, and use of all-purpose words (Wongsawang, 2001). With regard to role-play or conversation task, this task encouraged the real conversation that may be occurred between a speaker and interlocutor. This task also promote the speaker to use the various kinds of strategies such as modification devices, second language based strategies, and non-linguistic strategies in order to achieve the communication goal (Nakatani, 2005; Kongsom, 2009; Teng, 2012). Besides, the students’ opinion towards the CSI was also investigated in the form of 5-likert-scale survey including an open-ended part.

Findings The results gained from the pre- and post- speaking tasks revealed that there was a significant effect of the CSI on the students’ use of taught CSs. (p < .05). The use of the taught CSs on the students’ performing the pre- and post- three speaking tasks was found significantly different. There was a significant increase use of CSs in term of frequencies in all three post speaking tasks. Among the six CSs taught, the circumlocution was mostly employed by the students, followed by the used of filler/hesitation devices, asking confirmation, asking clarification, appeal for help, and asking repetition respectively. While the use of all the taught strategies increased, some of the non-taught strategies such as code switching and message abandon decreased. However, the use of all-purpose words and word coinage strategies which appeared in non-taught strategies were slightly increased in the post speaking tasks. The increasing of some non-taught strategies occurred since the students had more confidence in speaking English after they have received the CSI so that they tried to continue the conversation by using words in the target language as much as they can. Therefore, the findings gained from the transcription of the three speaking tasks revealed that the CSI encouraged the students’ use of taught strategies. Most of February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 147 Mahasarakham University

students had more awareness regarding the use and usefulness of CSI. In addition, after receiving the CSI, they employed the CSs more frequently and appropriately to deal with the difficulties which occurred in English speaking. The results gained from the opinion questionnaire revealed that most of students showed positive opinions toward the CSI. The students’ responses to the first part of questionnaire revealed that they mostly agree with the ten statements given in the opinion questionnaire. The most outstanding statement was the first statement which most of students thought that the six CSs taught in class was useful for them to get message across. In addition, more than 70% of the students agreed with the tenth and fifth statements. They thought that the taught CSs helped them to improve their English speaking and the CSI helped also help them to speak English more confidently. Besides, the students’ responses were similar in the fourth and night items; also in the second and third items. The first pair indicated that the students were satisfied with the CSI and they were happy and enjoyed when they had a chance to practice and perform speaking tasks. While the next couple showed that the CSI provided more chance to practice English speaking and they felt that the CSI encouraged them to express their ability to speaking in English. The item that received less agree from students was the eighth item which revealed that the video recording was helpful to review what they have done after finished in each part of their speaking. One of the possible reasons to support the response of students might be because most of students have no time to check their video after finished recording. With respect to the results from open-ended part, most of students indicated that after received the CSI, they could be able to use the filler/ hesitation devices to gain time in their own conversations with more appropriate. Moreover, they also were able to describe things/items of which they did not know the vocabulary in English, instead of switching to use Thai language. The CSI offered the students the opportunities to practice English in the classroom and helped the students to have more confidence when they had to speak in English. From the above mentioned, the CSI had positive effects in terms of improving students’ speaking proficiency as well as increasing their confidence in English speaking.

Conclusion This study has shown that the CSI is beneficial for Mattayom six students. Not only did the students learn to apply the taught CSs in the three speaking tasks namely picture description, storytelling, and conversation, but they also felt that they became more confident in English speaking, which is the one of the ultimate goals in the teaching and learning English as a foreign language. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 148 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

References: Bialystok, E. (1990). Communication Strategies: A Psychological Analysis of SecondLanguage Use. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Brown, H. D. (2007). Principles of language learning and teaching. New York: Pearson Education. Brumfit, C. & Mitchell, R. (1990). Research in the language classroom. London: Modern English Publication in Association with the British Council. Canale, M. and M. Swain. (1980) Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language: teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics, 1(1), 1-47. Canale, M. (1983). From communicative competence to communicative language Pedagogy. In J.C. Richards & R.W. Schmidt (Eds.), Language and communication. Harlow: Longman, 2-27. Dornyei, Z. (1995). On the teachability of communication strategies. TESOL Quarterly, 29, 55-85. Dornyei, Z. (2003). Questionnaires in Second Language Research. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associated, Inc., Publishers. Dörnyei, Z. & S. Thurrell. (1991). Strategic competence and how to teach it. ELT Journal 45(1), 16-23. Dörnyei, Z. and Scott, M. L. (1997). Communication strategies in a second language: Definition and taxonomies. Language Learning. 47(1), 173-210. Faerch , C., & Kasper, G. (1983). Plans and strategies in foreign language communication. In C. Faerch & G. Kasper (Eds.), Strategies in Interlanguage Communication. Newyork: Longman, 20-60. Faerch, C., & Kasper, G. (1986). Strategic competence in foreign language teaching. In G.Kasper (Ed.), Learning, teaching and communication in the foreign language classroom. Aarhus: Aarhus University Press, 179-193. Hymes, D. (1972). On communicative competence. In J. Pride and J. Holmes (Eds.), Sociolinguistics. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 269 -293. Kongsom, T. (2009). The effects of teaching communication strategies on Thai learners of English. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Southampton: U.K.). Retrieved from: https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/69653/ Nakatani, Y. (2005). The effects of awareness-raising training on oral communication strategy use. The Modern Language Journal, 89(1), 76-91. Rossiter, M.J. (2003). “It’s like chicken but bigger”: The effects of communication strategy instruction in the ESL classroom. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 60, 105-121. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 149 Mahasarakham University

Tarone, E. (1977). Conscious Communication Strategies in Interlanguage: A Progress Report, In Brown, h. Douglas, Yorio, Calos A. and Crymes, Ruth H. (Eds.). On TESOL’ 77 Teaching and learning English as a second language’ Trends in resource and practice, 194-201. Tarone, E. (1980) Communication Strategies, foreigner talk and repair in interlanguage. Language learning, 30, 417-431. Teng, H.C. (2012). A study on the teachability of EFL communication strategies. Social and Behavioral Sciences, 46, 3566-3570. Wongsawang, P. (2001). Culture-specific notions in L2 communication strategies. Second Language Studies. 19(2): 111-135. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 150 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Integration of Process Writing and Genre-based Instruction in Enhancing EFL Second-year Students’ Narrative Paragraph Writing Ability at Sakon Nakhon Rajabhat University

Tran Thi Thuong1, Pimyupa Praphan2

1Graduate student of English Language Teaching Program Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Mahasarakham University, Thailand 2Lecturer of Department of Western Language and Linguistics Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Mahasarakham University, Thailand

Abstract This study is a part of an ongoing Master’s degree research project entitled “Integration of Process Writing and Genre-Based Instruction in Enhancing EFL Second-Year Students’ Narrative Paragraph Writing Ability at Sakon Nakhon Rajabhat University.” The aims of the current study are (1) to examine the effectiveness of the integration of process writing and genre-based approach in enhancing EFL students’ narrative paragraph writing ability, and (2) to investigate students’ attitudes towards the integration of process writing and genre-based approach in enhancing EFL students’ narrative paragraph writing ability. Participants are 30 second-year business English students enrolled in the second semester of academic year 2017 at Sakon Nakhon Rajabhat University. They are selected by simple random sampling. By using quantitative and qualitative research design, the research tools utilized in this study are lesson plans using process writing and genre-based approach, pretest, posttest, progress test, questionnaire, and focused-group interview. Mean and standard deviation, Likert’s scales and rubric scoring are used to analyze the data. It is expected that the integration of process writing and genre-based instruction will enhance students’ narrative paragraph writing ability.

Keywords: Process writing, genre-based instruction, narrative paragraph writing ability, writing improvement February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 151 Mahasarakham University

Introduction Writing skills in English as foreign language (EFL) context have become one of the most challenging aspects of English language learning. To write an effectively composition, EFL students need to be achieved extensive and specialized instructions, skills and practices what they have acquired from a long-term process of writing learning. Writing has been identified as one of the essential process skills in a word that is more than ever driven by text and numerical data; a further strengthening of the status of writing within applied linguistics has come from the expanded knowledge base on the nature of written texts and writing process that has been developed by scholars in such fields as composition studies, second language writing, genre theory, and contractive rhetoric (Hyland, K., 2003, p. xiii). In the field of L2 and EFL learning and teaching, writing skills undoubtedly encounter variable difficulties to enhance students’ writing ability, especially in writing a narrative paragraph. While a narrative is essentially a story that is created in a constructive format that describes a sequence of fictional or non-fictional events, its function of narrative text is to amuse, entertain and to deal with actual or vicarious experience in different ways; narrative deal with problematic events which lead to a crisis or turning of some kind, which in turn finds a resolution (Gerrot & Wignell, 1994:204). According to experience of English teaching at university level, it has been found that besides the most general difficulties in writing at university level including grammar errors, an appropriate selection of vocabulary, punctuation, and writing organization, a lot of EFL learners get trouble in generating their flows of ideas for narrative writing. They do not know how to write and manage their ideas properly for a paragraph, and usually these written sentences are repeated the previous content or ideas. Moreover, the components of a narrative paragraph are also covered in their writing, which makes readers misunderstand and the composition unimpressive itself. In other words, writing skills are necessary for EFL students to creating a composition and to full fill their successful preparation for their further studies or their future occupations. Therefore, this study is an endeavor to seek ways for building up EFL learners’ foundation of narrative writing and enhancing their writing ability by using integrated approaches of genre-based and process writing. The possible research questions are a) Do the students’ scores increase after implementing the integration of process writing and genre-based approach in enhancing EFL students’ narrative paragraph writing ability? INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 152 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

b) What are EFL students’ attitudes towards integration of process writing and genre- based approach in enhancing their narrative paragraph writing ability?

In relation to the recent study, two null hypotheses might be: (1) EFL students get higher scores at posttest than pretest by using integrated approaches of process writing and genre-based; and (2) process writing integrated genre-based approach affect positive on students’ attitudes towards students’ narrative paragraph writing ability.

The study aims at collection data to

a. to examine the effectiveness of integration of process writing and genre-based approach in enhancing EFL students’ narrative paragraph writing ability; and

b. to investigate what EFL students’ attitude towards integration of process writing and genre-based approach in enhancing EFL students’ narrative paragraph writing ability.

Literature Review 1. Concept of Genre-Based Instruction

A genre-based instruction Genre is defined as a goal-oriented, staged social process by Martin in 1992. Hyland, K.(2003) explained that genres are social processes because members of a culture interact to achieve them; they are goal-oriented because they have evolved to achieve things; and staged because meanings are in steps and it usually takes writers more than one step to reach their goals. By setting out the stages, or moves, of valued genres, teachers can provide students with an explicit grammar of linguistic choices, both within and beyond the sentence, to produce texts that seem well-formed and appropriate to readers. In foreign or second language writing, a genre-based approach refers to teaching learners how to make use of language patterns to achieve a coherent, purposeful; composition (Hyland, K., 2003). Hyland adds that the genre-based approach has largely drawn on the theory of systematic functional grammar originally developed by Michael Halliday (1985). Additionally, teachers can help students to distinguish between genres and to write them more effectively by a careful study of their structures (Hyland, K., 2003, p.20). February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 153 Mahasarakham University

The method used to achieve this is a process of contextualizing-modeling-negotiating- constructing, which is usually presented as a circle in the following figure (Hyland, K., 2003, p.21).

Figure 1: The circle of teaching learning

Genre or moves of narrative writing

The generic structure of narrative writing is included four main moves. They are orientation (sets the scene), complication, resolution, re-orientation as following in details. Firstly, orientation (Sets the scene) shows where and when the story happened and introduces the participants of the story, and who and what is involved in the story. Secondly, complication tells the beginning of the problems which leads to the crisis (climax) of the main participants. Thirdly, resolution presents the problem (the crisis) resolved, either in a happy ending or in a sad (tragic) ending. Finally, re-orientation/ Coda, this is a closing remark to the story and it is optional. It consists of a moral lesson, advice or teaching from the writer. Furthermore, it should be included the use of these main language features like processes verbs, temporal conjunction, simple past tense, relative clause, direct speech and indirect speech, and action verb.

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 154 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

2. Concept of Process Writing Approach

According to Linda Flower and John R. Hayes (2008) writing process is considered as: 1) Writing is best understood as a set of distinctive thinking processes which writers orchestrate or organize during the act of composing; 2) The processes of writing are hierarchically organized, with component processes embedded within other components; and 3) Writing is a goal-directed process. In the act of composing, writers create a hierarchical network of goals and these in turn guide the writing process. Hyland, K (2003, p.11), writing process is the original planning-writing- reviewing framework establish by Flower and Hayes (Flower, 1989; Flower and Hayes, 1981), which sees writing as a “ non-linear, exploratory, and generative process, whereby writers discover and reformulate their ides as they attempt to proximate meaning” (Zamel, 1983: 165). Writing process consist of four components: planning, generating, translating, and reviewing. There are many facets of writing. However, the process writing of five facets (prewriting, first draft, revising, editing, and publishing) is applied as new process (prewriting, first draft, revising, and final draft) for more appropriate to this study.

3. The importance of genre-based and process writing approach in narrative writing

A number of theories have been applied to support teaching writing effectively, and tried to solve those problems of English narrative writing. Hyland, K.(2003) identified that a number of writing theories supporting teachers’ efforts to understand L2 writing and learning have developed around a different focus on language structures, text functions, themes or topics, creative expression, composing processes, content, and genre and contexts of writing (p.2). It has significant benefits of using genre-based approach in narrative writing class from the previous studies (Cadet, 2009; Mlynarczyk, 2006; Bartholomae, 1995), which defines that narrative writing enhance student ability to acquire voice and identify, improve writing quality, encourage confidence, and paves the way for academic writing (Cornors, 1998; Elbow, 1991, 1995; Newkirk; 1997; MacCudy, 2000; Mlynarczyl, 2006). Genre is defined as a goal-oriented, staged social process by Martin in 1992. Hyland, K.(2003) explained that genres are social process because members of a culture interact to achieve them; they are goal-oriented because they have evolved to achieve things; and staged because meanings are in steps and it usually takes writers more than one step to reach their goals. By setting out the stages, or moves, of valued genres, teachers can provide February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 155 Mahasarakham University

students with an explicit grammar of linguistic choices, both within and beyond the sentence, to produce texts that seem well-formed and appropriate to readers. In foreign or second language writing, a genre-based approach refers to teaching learners how to make use of language patterns to achieve a coherent, purposeful; composition (Hyland, K., 2003). Hyland adds that the genre-based approach has largely drawn on the theory of systematic functional grammar originally developed by Michael Halliday (1985). Additionally, teachers can help students to distinguish between genres and to write them more effectively by a careful study of their structures (Hyland, K., 2003, p.20). Thus, teaching writing through a genre-based approach is considered as both product and process of the whole process of writing. Process approaches is explained as “the cognitive relationship between the writer and the writer’s internal world” (Swale, 1990, p.220). According to Hyland,. K. (2003, p. 12), a significant number of writing teachers adopt a process orientation as the main focus of their course and the approach has had a major impact on writing research and teaching in North America; the teacher’s role is to guide students through the writing process, avoiding an emphasis on form to help them strategies for generating, drafting, and refining ideas. This is achieved through setting pre-writing activities to generate ideas about content and structure, encouraging brainstorming, and outlining, requiring multiple drafts, giving extensive feedbacks, seeking text level revision, facilitating peer responses, and delaying surface corrections until the final editing (Raimes, 1992). With the extent of giving extensive feedbacks, using writing conferences to respond to students’ drafts is also developed and taken an effective result in writing process. Craig, L.J (2013, p.105) identified that a writing conference allows the teacher, who intends to adopt the role of a coach or mentor rather than the stern grammarian, to develop rapport with the student; and so this role is easier to develop this relationship in a dialog with a student. Thus, to solve these difficulties which are mentioned in the introduction, it is reasonable to focus on process writing and the genre-based approach (GBA) to help EFL students enhance their narrative writing ability. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 156 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Research Design and Methodology This present study is action research design (qualitative and quantitative). The study will include two kinds of variables like independent variable (process writing and GBA), and dependent variable (narrative paragraph writing ability).

1. Content of the study The study is divided into three phases, need analysis, model development, and model implementation representatively. Phase 1: Need analysis Using semi-structure interview and coding technique to find out the need of the study Documenting the previous related research to merge the relations Phase 2: Model development Designing conceptual framework Creating a lesson plan of Genre of narrative compositions and process writing approach Constructing a model of the study (figure 2) Phase 3: Model Implementation Applying the process of action research (planning-acting-observing- reflecting) It is based on a genre-based approach used (figure 1) the genre pedagogy’s teaching-learning cycle (Modeling, joint construction, developing control of the genre, and independent construction of text), and process writing cycle (prewriting, first draft, teacher-student conference revising, and final draft) representatively. However, there will be created a new appropriate model for this study which uses the integrated approaches as the following

Figure 2: The model of the study (created by the researcher) February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 157 Mahasarakham University

2. Treatment procedure In the beginning of the study, students are required to take a pretest on writing a narrative paragraph in order to compare with the posttest at the end, and to analyze how much effective they get after the treatment procedure.

In the writing classroom, the teacher firstly takes modeling by building students’ understanding of the purpose, overall structures, and the language features of narrative paragraph by teaching classes with two lesson plans, which makes sure that students can understand and reproduce the typical rhetorical patterns they need to express their meanings (Hyland, 2003, p.21)

After modeling, joint construction of the text is taken as the first draft, which illustrates the writing process of writing a narrative paragraph, focusing on both the content and the language.

Then students are asked to attend the one-on-one conference (teacher-student) to discuss and resolve confused writing points those they could not understand and doubtable. This helps them to get extensive feedbacks for their writing works. Students are asked which problems they would face up, and how they would solve them, and receive responses and suggestions from the teacher for their writing ability.

After that, students are asked to revise their writing and write their final draft to publish by their own and submit it as their progress tests (from statistical analysis from the first and the final draft) in the independent construction of the text stage.

Finally, the teacher requires the students to do the posttest, and analyze the data.

3. Participants Participants are 15 second-year students whose majors are in English and Business English programs at university level by simple purposive sampling technique. Participants have passed these general courses of English Writing 1,2 (basic writing courses for English-major students). Besides, they have commitments of finishing all activities during the process of the study, and attend the lesson plan including two approaches of process writing and genre-based approach as well. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 158 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

4. Research timeline The research will last in three hours per class, twice a week during 4 weeks, totally 24 hours on whole time of two months. Schedule for the study is described as follows

Week 1A Students attend semi-structure interview for need analysis introduction study’s schedule

Week 1B Pretest of a narrative paragraph Week 2A Lesson plan : Genre of narrative paragraph writing and process writing Week 2B The first draft Week 3A One-on-one writing conference, revising Week 3B The final draft Week 4A Posttest of a narrative paragraph Week 4B Questionnaire, and focused-group interview

5. Instruments and data collection

One semi-structure interview is used to seek for the need of the study.

1 lesson plan (3 hours) using process writing and GBA to help students dis tinguish genre of narrative compositions for effective paragraph writing. In troduction Narrative paragraph, materials is based on the Labov and Waletzky’s narrative structure.

Pretest, progress test, and posttest are used to compare students’ scores increase after implementing and data analysis form process writing and GBA to enhance EFL students’ narrative paragraph writing ability.

Questionnaire and focused-group interview are used to study what students’ attitudes towards process writing and genre-based approach in increasing EFL students’ narrative paragraph writing ability.

6. Data analysis.

t-test dependence is used to examine the mean and standard of pretest and posttest.

Rubrics scoring and inter-reliability (three experts) are used to analyze data for a progress test.

The questionnaire is used to find out students’ attitudes based on five agreement extension, namely, strongly agree, agree, uncertain, disagree, and strongly disagree as proposed in Likert’s work which was published in the late 1920s. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 159 Mahasarakham University

Rubric scoring is chosen to grade the focused-group interview’s statistics to find out students’ attitudes.

Coding technique is used for grouping data from the semi-structure interview at the beginning of the study.

Discussions and concluding thoughts From the point of view of mentioned schema analysis, genre-based instruction offers a basic and important foundation, which helps students grasp the whole knowledge of narrative writing. Besides, process writing give a holistic cover any composition in different topics of narrative writing. Therefore, the researcher, through above analysis and models, much believes that this study works effectively in terms of integrated approaches of genre-based instruction and process writing to assist comprehension and enhance students’ narrative paragraph writing. In doing so, the researcher hopes that this study will help EFL students to enhance their narrative paragraph writing ability by the use of integration of process writing and genre-based approach in writing classes. Besides, the study is studied to contribute and give suggestion for those two integrated approaches of process writing and genre-based for writing classes of teaching and learning in EFL or L2 context in further pedagogical implications.

References: Hyland, K. (2003). Second Language Writing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Nordquist, R. (2017). Narrative (Composition): Glossary of Grammatical and Rhetorical Terms. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/narrative- composition-term-1691417 Craig, L.J. (2013). Integrating Writing Strategies in EFL/ESL University Contexts. New York: Routledge. Andrade, S.M., & Evans, W.N. (2013). Principles and Practices for Response in Second Language Writing. New York: Routlegde. Swales, J. (1990). Genre analysis: English in academic and research settings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 160 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

French Pronunciation Learning Process in the Context of First- Year French Major Students at Mahasarakham University

Sirisuda Siripukdi1

1Lecturer, Department of Western Languages and Linguistics Mahasarakham University, Thailand

Abstract This study investigates French pronunciation learning process of first-year French major students with and without prior knowledge of French. The present paper also seeks to provide and develop teaching techniques and suitable learning materials to consolidate both groups of students who shared the same class. Data obtained from class observations and interviews of 64 students enrolled in Elementary French 1 during the first semester of 2016 academic year (July to November 2016) reflected different yet related perspectives to the development of teaching techniques and class materials. Findings also suggest that though class materials are user-friendly and designed for self-study, attaining French pronunciation as well as other languages requires regular practice. Students without prior French knowledge when engaging in class at first seemed to have lower confidence in their pronunciation when compared with their counterparts. Both groups of students demonstrated better French pronunciation after constant practice over a period of time. The development of class materials based on online materials and social networking sites together with suitable teaching techniques can be fruitfully attributed not only to better French pronunciation and fostering students’ motivation.

Keywords: French pronunciation, learning process, classroom materials, pronunciation teaching techniques February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 161 Mahasarakham University

Background Information Foreign language learning in Thailand is becoming more and more popular during the age of globalization as Thailand is one of the world’s most interesting tourist destinations. In addition, Thailand has joined the ASEAN community in 2015 motivating the government and the private sectors to improve their staff to be ready for international settings. While English is the main target for foreign language teaching in Thailand, many languages, such as French, Chinese, Japanese, and Korean are becoming increasingly popular. Many schools and educational institutions teach these languages to their students. French is one of the foreign languages taught in Thailand. Teaching French has been promoted by successive governments who see French as an alternative to English. Some other languages taught in Thailand include Chinese, Japanese, and Korean for Asian languages, along with German and Spanish for Western languages. In fact, most students study French in a secondary school and later at a university. Since language is part of culture and is used for expressing thoughts of those who speak it as their mother tongue, contact with a foreign language is thus like contact with a different culture. The learners of a foreign language would have an opportunity to reflect on the similarities and differences between their culture and that of the language they are studying. Thus, in learning French, students have an opportunity to understand and appreciate the people, culture and civilization of France. It provides the learners with links, real and virtual, with the Francophone world. Therefore, it is interesting to see how the cultural dimension of the language can be handled when the learners still have so little time to acquire knowledge of the purely linguistic dimension of a language. This question also highlights the ability of those who teach it. The attitude of the students in respect to a foreign language is a factor that greatly influences the result of learning the target language. Each year 300,000 French tourists and business people visit Thailand, so the country needs people with the ability to speak French to accommodate them. The teaching of French at school and university levels has been increasing over the years. Mahasarakham University is one of the universities in Thailand that offer a Bachelor’s of Arts degree in French. The French program at Mahasarakham University still encounters several problems. Although there are native speaker teachers and qualified Thai teachers teaching students in the program, the French language proficiency level of the students is still lower than expected. Apart from the teachers, the teaching materials and methods are also important for teaching French to the students. The most common problem for Thai students learning French is French pronunciation. The pronunciation problems can vary, but the most common ones are that the learners have INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 162 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

low pronunciation and speaking skills and that they also have no confidence when they speak as they are afraid of making mistakes. This study is thus interested in investigating French pronunciation and learning process of first-year French major students who have and do not have prior knowledge of French, aiming to provide and develop teaching techniques and suitable learning materials to support both groups of students who shared the same class. The researcher hopes very much that this study will give some practical implications for French teachers and learners as to how to teach and learn French pronunciation effectively.

Purposes of the Study This research aims to investigate French pronunciation learning process of first-year French major students with and without prior knowledge of French to evaluate and develop suitable teaching materials and teaching techniques for both groups of students.

Research Methodology Sample Selection The purposively selected sample group consisted of 64 first-year French major students enrolling in Elementary French 1 in the first semester of the 2016 academic year. 17 of them have prior French knowledge while 47 have no French knowledge at Mahasarakham University, Thailand. The samples were mixed level students.

Teaching Materials and Lesson Plans The main materials used for teaching experiment were related to pronunciation practices and pronunciation tests of the following consonantal and vowel sounds: [a], [b], [c], [d], [e], [f], [g], [h], [i], [j], [k], [l], [m], [n], [o], [p], [q], [r], [s], [t], [u], [v], [w], [x], [y], [z], [a], [e], [i], [o], [u],[y], [ a], [ɑ], [e],[ ɛ], [i],[ o],[ ɔ],[ u],[ y],[ ə],[ œ],[ ø], [ɑ̃],[ ɔ],[̃ ɛ],[̃ œ̃] in French language. Teaching materials with pronunciation practice CD for Elementary French 1 were designed for teaching three hours a week for totally 18 weeks. The lesson plans and teaching materials with pronunciation practice CD used in this research focus on the teaching situations of everyday life and the mode of daily life in France in pronunciation. These allow students to better understand the French language.

Data Collection and Analysis The data were obtained from interviews, classroom observations, teacher’s notes, and interviews with pronunciation test. The data were analyzed qualitatively using teachers’ comments, observation, description, and explanation. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 163 Mahasarakham University

Results and Discussion In the first interview before studying, it was found that the student who had no French knowledge had a great deal of difficulty in speaking French. They mostly used Thai during the interview. When they were asked to have the pronunciation tests, they made a lot of mistakes. For the students with prior French knowledge, they could speak French better than the first group. However, they also had some serious problems on pronunciation of words during the pronunciation test. In the second interview after using the materials and CD practice, it was found that the students’ overall pronunciation skills had improved. The students without French knowledge could pronounce certain words correctly although their speaking proficiency was still low. The students with French knowledge’s pronunciation also improved a lot. All in all, students without prior French knowledge when engaging in class at first seemed to have lower confidence in their pronunciation when compared with their counterparts. Both groups of students demonstrated better French pronunciation after constant practice over a period of time. From class observation and teacher’s notes, it was found that the students first struggled when they practiced via exercises in the class materials and used listening practice in the CD rom. The students enjoyed studying and using the CD. Many of them reported that they liked the teaching materials and the CD lessons as they could practice pronunciation at home. It can be said that although some of them still had serious problems on pronunciation of words during the pronunciation tests, both students with and without prior French knowledge could speak French better than before. The findings suggested that though class materials were user-friendly and designed for self-study, attaining French pronunciation required regular practice. Students without prior French knowledge when engaging in class at first seemed to have lower confidence in their pronunciation when compared with their counterparts. However, both groups gained more confidence after learning through the materials and CD practice. In terms of the students’ attitude towards class materials and teaching techniques, it was found that the majority of the students revealed positive attitude towards the teaching materials with pronunciation practice CD. About 65% of the students reported that the CD contains enough vocabulary suitable for their level although 35% of them viewed that the vocabulary was difficult for them to learn. In addition, the students suggested that there should be more information and basic knowledge about the French pronunciation. 70% of the students admitted that they did not have time to listen to the CD that comes with the teaching materials showing that self-learning was not practical for them. Actually, they prefered to listen the French INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 164 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

pronunciation test on smarts phones (mobiles) as many of them rarely used computer at homes. Therefore, it would be helpful if the pronunciation practice be placed online so that the students would access it easily. This finding is in line with Sprenger (2002) which stated that the Internet is a powerful tool for training, expression and creativity. If one would like to be successful in learning a language, he or she should learn and find an easy way to practice every day, and practicing online by a smart phone is a good way. Besides, a considerable number of the students still gave some comments and suggestions for the improvement of the teaching materials with pronunciation CD if it is to be used for more successful teaching.

Conclusion It can be concluded that the designed class materials and CD helped improve students’ pronunciation. Both groups of students demonstrated better French pronunciation after constant practice over a period of time. However, the teaching materials with pronunciation practice CD may need some improvement. It was suggested that there should be more information related to pronunciation tests. As these tests are quite difficult for them, there should be more explanations about the tests. The CD is beneficial to the learners, but it will be much useful if it is made available online. The use of tools and methods for teaching process French pronunciation as a foreign language in Thailand should thus take into account the accessibility to the materials of the students as well their motivation and eagerness to learn. The development of class materials based on online materials and social networking sites together with suitable teaching techniques can be fruitfully attributed not only to better French pronunciation and fostering students’ motivation.

References: Abry, D. et CHALARON M.-L. (2010). Les 500 exercices de phonétique CD MP3 inclus: Hachette Français Langue Etrangère, Paris. Abry D. (2006). Internet et la classe de langues: CLE International. France. Barthélemy F. (2007). Professeur de FLE historique, enjeux et perspective: Hachette Français Langue Etrangère. Paris. CHARLIAC L., LE BOUGNEC J.-T., LOREIL B. et MOTRON A.-C. (2009). Phonétique rogressive du Français avec 400 exercices Niveau Débutant: CLE International. France. Cyr P. et Germain C. (1998). Les stratégies d’apprentissage: CLE International. France. Gerbault J. (2002). TIC et Diffusion du français: Des aspects sociaux, affectifs et cognitifsaux politiques linguistiques. L’Harmattan, (Ed.). Paris. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 165 Mahasarakham University

Germain C. (2003). Evolution de l’enseignement des langues: 500 ans d’histoire: CLE International. Paris. Haller V. (2005). Les langues et Internet, Langues Etrangères : Nouvelles Politiques Educatives en Europe: Presses Universitaires de Valenciennes. Paris. Lancien T. (2004). De la vidéo à Internet: 80 activités thématiques: Hachette Français. Paris. Martinez P. (1996). La Didactique des langues étrangères: Puf, (Ed.). Paris. Porquier R. et Py B. (2004). Apprentissage d’une langue étrangère : contextes et discours: Didier. Paris. Porcher L. et Faro-Haro-Hanoun L. (2000). Politiques Linguistiques: L’Harmattan, UE. Etudes de Linguistique Applique : Politique Linguistique (Etudes de cas). La coordination dece numéro a été confiée à Henri BOYER et Pierre DUMONT. la nouvelle série 65. Janvier-Mars 1987: Didier Erudition. Qotb H. (2009). Vers une didactique du français sur objectifs spécifiques médié parl’internet: EPU (Ed.). France. Richterich R. (1977). L’identification des besoins des adultes apprenant une langue étrangère: Conseil de l’Europe (Ed.). Strasbourg. Robert J.-M. (2009). Manières d’apprendre pour des stratégies d’apprentissage différenciées: Hachette Français Langue Etrangère, Belgique. Rosen E. (2007). Le point sur le Cadre européen commun de référence pour les langues: CLE International (Ed.). Lassay-les-Châteaux. Silva H. (2008). Le jeu en classe de langue: CLE International. Paris. Sprenger R. (2002). Internet et les classes de langues: OPHRYS. Paris. Verbunt G. (2001). La société interculturelle, vivre la diversité humain: Seuil (Ed.). Paris. Viau R. (1994). La motivation en contexte scolaire. Du renouveau pédagogique: Inc (Ed.). Canada. Vigner G. (2001). Savoir-vivre en France: Hachette (Ed.). Paris. Vigner G. (2001). Enseigner le français comme langue seconde: CLE International (Ed.). France. Zarate G. (1993). Représentations de l’étranger et didactique des langues: Didier (Ed.). Paris. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 166 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Developing a Multimodal Communicative Competence in a FFL Beginner’s Course with Undergraduate Students in Peru

Igor Arrestegui1

1UPC / Université Sorbonne Nouvelle France

Abstract Learning a foreign language needs a specific competence for the production and comprehension of different modes of communication. However, this competence has not been clearly defined, which makes it harder for the educator to determine how and when the students should develop it. Royce (2002, 2007) has named it ‘multimodal communicative competence’ and although he has applied it in a second language context, it seems that the methodology used is still not ‘multimodal’ enough. Our research focuses on proposing theoretical ideas to develop this competence in a broader dimension. By following and extending the original version of multimodality (Kress & van Leeuwen, 2001), we study the conditions of how native Spanish speakers should develop the competence in an undergraduate course of French as a Foreign Language at a Peruvian university. Multimodal theory in foreign or second language learning needs to be improved first in order to better apply new methods in

further research.

Keywords: Multimodality, Multimodal Theory, Multimodal Communicative Competence (MCC), Multimodal Foreign Language Learning, French as a Foreign Language (FFL) February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 167 Mahasarakham University

Introduction Being able to communicate is the main goal in most language courses, but communication is not simple. We can say different things in different ways. Meaning is versatile and can be transformed, according to our intentional needs. We create meanings every day and often automatically in our native languages. The problem arises when we want to do the same in a different language. The purpose is that we learn how to comprehend and produce different modes of meaning in actual situations and this requires developing some language competences. We present in the first part of this work a brief historical overview of how the particular concept of communicative competence emerged and how it was introduced to language teaching. Then, we show how the concept of multimodality appears to fully describe the nature of communication (Kress & Leeuwen, 2001) and how it was related to learning. Lastly, a critical analysis of Royce’s (2002, 2007) idea of multimodal communicative competence is proposed to examine the conditions and possibilities of applying it in the context of a course of French as a Foreign Language (FFL) with Peruvian undergraduate students.

Communicative Competence and Multimodality The concept of communicative competence was developed by Hymes (1972) within the discipline of sociolinguistics in opposition to Chomsky’s abstract and disregarded concept of competence, which was not considered as important as the performance. Instead of focusing on grammar rules, the communicative approach emphasizes the importance of the social context and language use. What would be the purpose of knowing grammar? Alternatively, in other words, why do we have to study grammar and not study how and when to use it? A communicative competence (CC) is a: “knowledge of not only if something is formally possible in a language, but also whether it is feasible, appropriate, or done in a particular speech community” (Richards & Schmidt 2010: 99). It seems certain that this competence is necessary as well for learning a new language because this means, in fact, learning how to use it with different people in different circumstances. There was thus a need for language teaching methodologies to switch from a grammar-based approach to a communicative approach to focus more on social and pragmatic aspects of language that were neglected for a long time. According to one of the principles of this approach, communication includes different language skills that the learner should be able to acquire. Canale & Swain (1980) founded some influential bases for the communicative approach by applying the CC into Language Teaching and classifying four types of knowledge and skills: grammatical competence, INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 168 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence, and strategic competence. All of these are essential for communicative purposes, but we will only focus here on the strategic one. According to Canale & Swain (1980: 30-31), the strategic competence in language learning refers to all verbal and non-verbal elements strategically used in case of breakdowns in communication. Learning a language requires using these strategies to communicate appropriately but it has not always been taken into consideration in a language classroom. Despite the progress of teaching verbal strategies, non- verbal aspects have often remained marginal. Nowadays, though, this view has been challenged by different approaches. Multimodality is an important example of an approach that does not consider grammatical or linguistic elements as the main resources of meaning-making (known as semiosis). In fact, meaning can be transmitted through different modes (Kress & Leeuwen, 2001). This applies to language learning since it is necessary to be able to comprehend and appropriately use all the modes of communication. Sometimes one mode predominates, but often many modes come into interaction. We are therefore dealing with another kind of competence, which is closely related to the strategic competence proposed by Canale & Swain (1980). Alternatively, does multimodality belong to a more general communicative competence? An attempt to bring these concepts together comes from Royce (2002, 2007). The general idea is that multimodality is a more holistic way of considering the communicative competence. The author believes that we consider a Multimodal Communicative Competence (MCC) in the context of language teaching-learning. This implies emphasizing the role of the visual not only in reading and writing, but also in listening and speaking. On the one hand, students can become more aware of the different modes of communication that are in constant interaction. On the other hand, since modes are complimentary, they can help students in learning process by providing useful information to understand the global meaning of an oral or written text. However, we consider that Royce’s interpretation and application of multimodality not multimodal enough when expanding the idea of communicative competence in a language teaching-learning context. First, the problem is that multimodality is reduced to its visual dimension. The relationship between texts and images is just one of the many aspects of the multimodal ecosystem. Although Royce’s work is very accurate and full of interesting teaching activities, we think that a broader conception of an MCC is required. If we take a closer look at the problem, we realize that even the model of Kress & Leeuwen (2001) pays too much attention to visual February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 169 Mahasarakham University

texts, especially written texts. It should be emphasized that multimodality is more than that. Second, although we agree with the student-centered learning approach, we consider that the role of the so-called non-verbal information provided by the educator is essential throughout all the teaching-learning process, and is not only a particular strategy for teaching beginners as Farias and Acevedo (2008) affirm. In other terms, the body, the facial expressions and the gestures – with or without speech – are, in fact, part of what it means to ‘speak’ a language. This means that educators should be constantly aware of this reality when sharing knowledge and while guiding learners to acquire this global competence.

Applying Multimodality After a short review of some theoretical aspects, we will now proceed to study how we could apply them into our educational context. We teach French as a Foreign Language (FFL) to undergraduate students of Translation and Interpretation between the ages of 17 and 19 at the Peruvian University of Applied Sciences (UPC in Spanish), a private university in Lima, Peru. We use Alter Ego + as the main textbook, in our case the A2-level book, which has an actional-communicative approach with projects and tasks. The general methodology of our university is based on competencies. All courses are designed by specific competencies so that students achieve an integral education by the end of their studies. This competence-based methodology is accompanied by a student-centered learning, according to their needs, and we also demand from them autonomy and auto-reflection during their learning process. The MCC fits in perfectly with this context. In the case of French, students need to acquire communicative competences in this new language (the majority has no background knowledge when taking the first course). But despite our focus on different competences, our course tends to focus more on grammar and reading. That is why we believe that a multimodal approach could refresh our method in many ways. So what should we do to change a simple CC into an MCC? How could learners develop this global competency? First, we need as educators to recognize that each student learns differently and we should be able to identify gradually the semiotic modes that work best for their learning. In the process, our function is to guide them to comprehend and produce from monomodal texts to multimodal texts (oral and written). Second, we want to highlight the role of non-verbal stimuli. They are as important for us as for the students. Learning is a multimodal process since knowledge is acquired through sensory interactions with both body and mind. Students INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 170 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

learn from our eyes, our hands, and our whole actions. However, multimodality is not only passive because speaking a language demands to master specific movements that produce not just sounds, but also gestures, facial expressions, body contact and posture. Indeed, an MCC requires taking them into account, which could add some sort of playfulness and dynamic motivation to language learning. One last question would be at what moment students should begin to develop the MCC. Since communication itself is multimodal, we believe that we should teach multimodally from the beginning. The first two courses –A1 and A2 levels– are crucial for their language education and multimodality should be at the center of the learning process. But “[a]s proficiency levels increase, are there designs that are more appropriate?” (Farias et al., 2007: 195). By design, they mean the dynamic configuration of semiotic resources, following Kress & Leeuwen (2001). The question is interesting because of the implicit idea of potential flexibility of multimodality that can be transformed throughout the more advanced levels.

Conclusions As we have shown, the communicative competence needs to be viewed as an MCC to acknowledge the polysemiotic nature of communication. MCC is compatible with the classic concept of strategic competence (Canale & Swain, 1980), so the communicative approach can be easily enriched with multimodality. Students need to be aware of the different modes of communication, which are complimentary for meaning interpretation during the learning process. Nevertheless, multimodality cannot be reduced to its visual dimension. The relationship between texts and images is important to study, but it is not in any way a unique multimodal pattern. For example, the role of gestures should be more emphasized in multimodal learning as Farias and Acevedo (2008) and Farias et al. (2011) demonstrated. The so-called non-verbal stimuli are essential for students and educators and should not be neglected through the teaching-learning process. We can now apply all of these considerations in our French courses, but we recognize that there could be some limitations for other educational contexts due to the lack of technology. Teaching practices are fundamental for shaping the theory behind the MCC. Students should develop this competence from the beginning of their language studies, but more research needs to be done to verify this empirically. Multimodal learning in advance levels is also a topic that requires more attention. Finally, we suggest that the different styles of learning should be investigated from a multimodal perspective. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 171 Mahasarakham University

References: Canale, M., & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical Bases of Communicative Approaches to Second Language Teaching and Testing. Applied Linguistics, 1(1), 1-47. Farias, M.; Obilinovic, K. & Orrego, R. (2007). Implications of multimodal learning models for foreign language teaching and learning. Colombian Applied Linguistics Journal, 19, 174-200. Farias, M. & Acevedo, I. (2008). El rol de los gestos en el discurso multimodal de aprendices de inglés como lengua extranjera. In M. Farias, & K. Obilinovic (Eds.), Aprendizaje Multimodal/Multimodal learning (pp. 97-110). Santiago de Chile: Publifahu USACH. Farias, M. A., Obilinovic, K., & Orrego, R. (2011). Pontos de possível diálogo entre aprendizado multimodal e ensino-aprendizado de línguas estrangeiras. Trabalhos em Linguística Aplicada, 50(1), 133-151. Hymes, D. (1972). On communicative competence. In J. B. Pride, & J. Holmes (Eds.), Sociolinguistics: selected readings (pp. 269-293). Harmondsworth: Penguin. Kress, G., & Leeuwen van, T. (2001) Multimodal discourse: The modes and media of contemporary communications. London: Edward Arnold. Richards, J. C., & Schmidt, R. (2010) [1985]. Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching & Applied Linguistics (4th ed.). London: Pearson. Royce, T. (2002). Multimodality in the TESOL Classroom: Exploring Visual-Verbal Synergy. TESOL Quarterly, 36, 191–205. Royce, T. (2007). Multimodal communicative competence. In Royce, T. and Bowcher, W. (Eds.), New directions in the analysis of multimodal discourse (pp. 361- 390). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 172 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

The Development of an Instructional Model in Enhancing Speaking Skill of First-Year Students about Food and Beverage Section

Pimonwan Suphan1, Pilanut Phusawisot2

1Graduate student of English Language Teaching Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Mahasarakham University, Thailand 2Lecturer of Department of Western Language and Linguistics Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Mahasarakham University, Thailand

Abstract A suitable instructional model of teaching English speaking skill is necessary for students who undertake the internship especially at food and beverage section in a hotel. The present study aims to investigate the result of students’ speaking skill before and after using an instructional model as well as to investigate how the instructional model enhances students’ speaking skill. The study will conduct in 3 phases. Phase1, to investigate the satisfaction of the workplaces toward students who undertake the internship. Phase 2, to design and construct the instructional model based on the result from phase 1. Phase 3, the implementation of the instructional model into the classroom and three lesson plans based on the Communicative Learning Teaching (CLT) approach. Participants are ten staffs of food and beverage section in Pattaya’s hotel and twenty five of first year Hotel and Service students at Mahasarakham Vocational College in Maha Sarakham Province, selected by purposive sampling. The instruments used in the research are three lesson plans, pre- test, post-test, semi-structured interview and workplaces’ satisfaction questionnaire. The mixed-methods design is utilized to collect and analyze data. At the end of the study, students are expected to the First-Year students of Hotel and service will enhance speaking skill after using an instructional model and teachers of English will grain a new instructional model. This research project is still ongoing process. Consequently, the expected results of the study will be discussed in this paper.

Keywords: Communicative Learning Teaching (CLT), English Speaking Skills, Instructional model, Food and beverage section February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 173 Mahasarakham University

Introduction The role of speaking skill in the hospitality industry is also important. The speaking skill is essential or required for people working in the service business and must frequently deal with foreigners such as travel agencies, waiters, airline cabin crew, tour guides, and tellers. Due to the fact that the staff and trainee have to regularly deal with foreign customers, thus, speaking skill is considerably required. A good enough speaking skill could help the staff to communicate with their customers effectively and successfully (Hall, 1976). However, lack of using English skills, especially speaking skill that is used as a tool for communication with foreign customers, affects the service and customers’ satisfaction. Choi. T. Y. and Chu. R. (2000) mentioned that the more satisfied the customers are, the more likely they return or stay longer at the hotel. The researcher had an opportunity to discuss with the intern students and a lecturer at Hotel, and Hospitality Major who is a supervisor of the intern students. The lecturer said that the students have hotel working skills, but still lack of the English speaking skill, particularly the speaking skill related to food and beverage service. From the problem, the researcher try to study and find ways to improve their speaking skills. By recognizing that the development of the teaching style from the traditional teaching method. In addition to find the appropriate teaching method to improve the speaking skills of the students. Especially speaking at the food and beverage service. When they undertake the internship, they will be able to work effectively. Many researchers argued that nowadays, foreign language teaching has become more and more based on communicative learning teaching (CLT). There are activities that focus on learners. Let learners learn meaningfully. Practice language in situations where there is a real situation in everyday life. It still emphasizes the grammatical structure, as Littlewood (1983) argues that communicative language teaching is a teaching style that limits the ability of learners to just grammar. It encourages students to improve their language skills. In addition, in CLT’s teaching activities, Nunan and Lamb (1996) and Nunan (1991) describe the CLT teaching activities as follows: “CLT teaching activities Activities related to language use. To communicate in real life Or use a meaningful language. CLT instructional activities are activities that involve information sharing and interaction. From the concept of CLT, the researcher believe that it will improve the speaking skills of learners in the real situation effectively. Moreover, researchers and educators have found that teaching methods that emphasize task-based have the effect of enabling learners to learn the language. For INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 174 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

example, Jiraporn Sangarun (2004:1) had researched and found that the Task-based Instruction should be used for teaching English in Thailand. It might be an appropriate instruction for learning English for Thais since it’s in accordance with the nature of learning mother language which learners learned through real-life situations. Willis (1996) and Ellis (2003) stated that Task-based learning teaching will encourage learners to use the language in their work. Task will ensure the learner’s ability to use the language of the learner. The task will allow learners to practice using the language in situations that are as close to the actual situation as possible. The student recognizes that he has learned what he wants and can be used literally. Thus, this study emphasizes of developing an instructional model by combing Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) in term of communicative teaching activities and Task-based learning (TBLT). This study aims to investigate the result of students’ speaking skill before and after using instructional model and investigate how the Instructional model enhances students’ speaking skill.

Conceptual framework

A framework for designing Communicative Task task-based lesson (Ellis,2003) of teaching speaking Pre-task Framing the activity (e.g establishing the outcome of the task) Regulating planning time Doing similar task CLT teaching activities - Role play - Interview During Time pressure task Regulating topic - Group work - Information gap Post- Number of participants - Opinion sharing task Learner report Repeat task Reflection

A new instructional Model February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 175 Mahasarakham University

There are two frameworks that are going to use and design an instructional model. 1. The first one is Communicative Learning Teaching. In CLT, the researcher will use communicative teaching activities which defined that language learners in environments utilizing CLT techniques, learn and practice target though interaction with one another and use of the language both in class and outside the class. CLT teaching activities - Role play - Interview - Group work - Information gap - Opinion sharing 2. The second one is using framework of Task-based learning to designs and drives the lesson plan. The design of a task-based lesson involves consideration of the stages or components of a lesson that has a task as its principal component. Various designs have been proposed (e.g. Estaire and Zanon 1994; Lee 2000; Prabhu 1987; Skehan 1996; Willis 1996).

Phase Examples of option

A. Pre-task * Framing the activity (e. g. establishing the out come of the task) * Planning time * Doing a similar task B. During task * Time pressure C. Post-task * Number of participants * Learner report * Consciousness-raising * Repeat task

Figure 1: A framework for designing task-based lessons access to a clear framework for a task-based lesson is of obvious advantage to both teachers and learners.

Research questions 1. Does the instructional Model improve students’ speaking skill? 2. How does the instructional model enhance students’ speaking skill? INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 176 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Research Objectives The objective of this research were: 1) to investigate the result of students’ speaking skill before and after using instructional model, 2) to investigate how the Instructional model enhances students’ speaking skill.

Research Methodology The research is Action Research. It is an on-going research in semester 2 in 2017. 1. Participants The participants (in phase 1) were 10 managers or staff who supervise internship students at Pattaya’s hotel in Chonburi and (in phase 2,3) were 25 five of first year students of Mahasarakham Vocational College, Mahasarakham selected by purposive sampling. 2. Variables 2.1 Independent variable: The development of an instructional model 2.2 Dependent variable: Speaking skill 3. Instruments There were four instruments used in this research. 3.1 Task-based speaking and communicative teaching activities instructional model lesson plans were divided into 3 topics cover the food service industry, food and beverage service areas and equipment, and menus. 3.2 English speaking test, pre-test and post-test consists of 10 interview questions, which they will be verified and validated by the experts. 3.3 Semi-structure interview will be used in order to ask the managers or staff about satisfaction. 3.4 Work place satisfaction’s questionnaire will be adopted to ask the managers or staff in order to find out problems and needs to design an instructional model. 4. Data collection The process of data collection, Phase 1 1) Preparing a satisfaction’s questionnaire to study the problems and necessities of speaking English for food and beverage services. Then, to ask the managers or supervisors. 2) Interviewing the managers or supervisors of food service and beverage by semi-structured interview with open-ended question. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 177 Mahasarakham University

3) Then analyzing the data of item 1,2 by using content analysis to describe the result. Phase 2 Draft an instructional model From the result of phase 1, the researcher design the instructional model by studying the theories, core curriculum, teaching model, and design the model of teaching speaking based on Task-based speaking and communicative teaching activities. Phase 3 Implementation of an Instructional Model 1) Designing 3 lesson plans each lesson 6 hours total 18 hours. It will be checked by the specialist. Then the researcher revise form the comment. 2) Implementation of the model. The researcher will implement the model with a sample group. There are 3 lesson plans will be used each lesson 6hours total 18 hours. There are pre-posttest will be used to assess the achievement of students. The data collected based on Harmer (2001: 348-352) states six classroom speaking: script, communication games, discussion, prepared talks, questionnaires, simulation, and role play by using speaking checklist. 3) The observation checklist will be used to observe the interaction of the students while using the instructional model. 5. Data analysis This was a mixed method research, both qualitative and quantitative techniques were used to collect and analyze the data.

Expected outcome 1. The First-Year students of Hotel and service will enhance speaking skill after using an instructional model. 2. Teachers of English will grain a new instructional model.

References: Bailey, K.M. and Nunan, D.(2005). Practical English Language Teaching: Speaking. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill ESL/ELT Luoma, S. (2004). Assessing Speaking. Cambridge University Press. Pornjit Kesamol. (2009). An English Instructional Model to Enhance the Learner Autonomy Using a Narrow Reading Approach in Secondary School. Khonkaen University. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 178 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Rapeephan Suthapanakul. (2013). The Development of Teaching English Reading Model Focusing on Task and Project Based Learning to Enhance Reading Comprehension and Critical Thinking Skill. . Ratchadaporn Janudom . (2008). The development of an English instructional model using the integration of drama and questioning techniques to enhance students’ speaking achievement and critical thinking skill. Chulalongkorn University. Richards, J.C. (1994). New Ways in TESOL Series: Innovative Classroom Techniques. Teacher of English to Speakers of Other Language, Inc. Sathianphan Khunmontri. (2013). Vocational College English Teachers’ Awareness of Establishment of the ASEAN Community and Its Impact on English Language Teaching. King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi. Teerawat Arjpru. (2017). The Development of Task-based Speaking and Communication Strategies Instructional Model to Enhance Speaking Competence of 1st Year EIC students. Faculty of Education, Silpakorn University. Torky, S.,A.EL. (2006). The Effectiveness of a Task-Based Instruction Program in Developing the English Language Speaking Skills of Secondary Students. Ain Shams University. Sofia V. Vladimirova. (2016) AN EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTIONAL MODEL FOR TEACHING ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS WITHIN THE MAINSTREAM CLASSROOM. Hamline University. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 179 Mahasarakham University

The Use of Learning Together in Enhancing English Opinion Writing Ability of Grade 11th Students

Wasimon Nuntasaen1, Pilanut Phusawisot2

1Graduate student of English Language Teaching Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Mahasarakham University, Thailand 2Lecturer of Department of Western Language and Linguistics Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Mahasarakham University, Thailand

Abstract This study is a project entitled “The Use of Learning Together in Enhancing English Opinion Writing Ability of Grade 11th Students”. According to the curriculum, grade 11th students must be able to express their opinions and feelings with supportive reasons through writing, but in actual practice, it is quite difficult for them to complete it. Using inappropriate vocabulary, ungrammatical sentences and structures, as well as expressing opinions and feelings are students’ writing problems. Because students have to build content knowledge in order to be able to write, they have to interact with the thoughts and feelings of others. Therefore, learning together is cooperatively used to help them develop their writing ability, build content knowledge, benefit from group working, and also develop learner autonomy. The purposes of this study are to study English opinion writing ability and attitude towards English opinion writing through Learning Together. The participants are 18 grade 11th students from Mahasarakham University Demonstration School, selected by purposive sampling. The instruments used in this study are three lesson plans, opinion writing pretest and posttest, semi- structured interview, students’ group-work observation form, and students’ attitude questionnaire. The mixed-methods design is utilized to collect and analyze data. The findings of this study revealed that English opinion writing ability increased after learning through Learning Together. Moreover, the students taught through Learning Together had higher attitude levels toward learning English writing. In conclusion, using Learning Together helped to enhance the students’ English opinion writing ability and their attitude toward English.

Keywords: Cooperative Learning, Learning Together, Opinion Writing, Opinion Writing Ability INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 180 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Introduction According to the curriculum, grade 11th students could be able to express their opinions and feelings with supportive reasoning through writing, but it seems very difficult for them to complete it. Using inappropriate vocabulary, ungrammatical sentences and structures, as well as expressing opinions and feelings are students’ writing problems. Because they have to build content knowledge in order to write, they have to interact with the thoughts and feelings of others. From the situation mentioned, the instruction which is suitable for gathering students and can help to improve writing is Learning Together. It is the way to learn and work in small groups cooperatively which is the way to allow students to think critically without relying on an answer. Therefore, learning together is cooperatively used to help develop writing ability, build content knowledge, benefit from group working, and also develop learner autonomy (Sheng, 2010).

Purposes of the study The purposes of this study are to study English opinion writing ability and attitude towards English opinion writing through Learning Together.

Research Questions The research questions of this study are; 1.) Does Learning Together enhance English opinion writing ability of grade 11th students? 2.) Do the students taught through Learning Together have good attitude levels toward learning English opinion writing?

Literature Review Opinion Writing Opinion Writing is a type of writing to express thought and reasons creatively. The writers can write opinions to record, support, argue, and conclude what they get from any sources (KruJojo, 2014). Components of the opinion writings are 1.) strong feeling 2.) clear opinion statement and 3.) supporting reasons (Hipps, n.d.). In addition to writing their opinions, the writers have to record sequentially and consistently, as well as use the appropriate conjunctions and ideas to support the topic with the feelings of the writers and proper grammatical structures. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 181 Mahasarakham University

Learning Together and Cooperative Learning Learning Together is a cooperative learning technique that focuses on working in small groups. Each group contains members who have individual differences to help each other complete their tasks. Johnson and Johnson (1987: 13 - 14) stated the characteristics of Learning Together have 5 aspects; 1) positive interdependence; 2) face to face interaction; 3) Individual Accountability; 4) Interdependence and Small Group Skills and 5) Group Process. The Learning Together is easy and uncomplicated to use in the English classroom by 1) reviewing the contents; 2) assigning each student in a team a role (such as leader, writer, checker, and presenter; 3) doing tasks and testing in groups; 4) concluding and reinforcing with compliment and rewards and 5) evaluating tasks and group working (Jamie, 2016).

Framework

Picture 1: Framework of the study

Methodology Participants The participants are 18 grade 11th students from Mahasarakham University Demonstration School, selected by purposive sampling. They are from class 5/8 majoring in Art and Language Program. The main English subjects that they have learned already are Foundation English, English Usage, and English for Career. In addition, there are individual differences of each student in the classroom; good, moderate, and poor students classified by the GPA score.

Instruments The instruments used in this study are three lesson plans of opinion writing for 18 hours, opinion writing pretest and posttest, semi-structured interview, students’ group-work observation form, and students’ attitude questionnaire. For the pretest and posttest, there are evaluated by the writing rubrics adapted from Jacobs’s and Parenzin’s (Jacobs, 1981; Parenzin, 2013). INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 182 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

For the lesson plan, the researcher selected topics and themes which are familiar and close to the students which are about social technology, health, and situations in daily life.

Units Plans Contents Duration (Hours) 1 Expressing - Definition of Expressing Opinions 6 Opinions - Difference between Facts and Opinions - Transition Words - Vocabulary of Emotions 2 Writing - Tenses 6 Opinions - Sentences - Giving Reasons and Examples - Parts of Opinion Writing - Donating Blood - Friendship 3 Writing your - Teens and internet addiction 6 Opinions - Is technology good for our society? - Vegetarian eating for young people - 6 ways being a vegetarian could seriously mess you up - Giving Opinion

Table 1: Contents in the lesson plans

Procedure 1. Inform the instructions and guideline to the participants. 2. Test the participants with the pretest of English opinion writing before using Learning Together. 3. Teach English opinion writing using Learning Together. There are three lesson plans. A lesson plan takes 6 hours and the overall duration of the teaching is 18 hours. 4. Test the participants with the posttest of English opinion writing after using Learning Together. 5. Interview and talk with the participants about their attitude towards learning English opinion writing with Learning Together; also by using a questionnaire. 6. Collect, analyze, and conclude the data precisely to match the purposes of the study. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 183 Mahasarakham University

Data Analysis The mixed-methods design is utilized to collect and analyze data. After the pretest and posttest were compared, the semi-structured interview was conducted, the group-work observation form was collected, and the questionnaire was collected, the researcher divided the data into 4 themes: 1) The results of the exercises while using Learning Together; 2) The results of English opinion writing pretest and posttest; 3) The significance of comparing the difference between pretest and posttest from t-test (dependent samples) and 4) The attitude towards learning together in enhancing English opinion writing ability. For the results, t-test (dependent sample), means, standard deviation, and the S.P.S.S program is used to analyze the data.

Results For the results, the English opinion writing score and ability were presented as follows; 1. The English opinion writing ability of the exercises using LT: 1.1 The results of the exercises whil e using Learning Together For the drafts of writing, there were analyzed twice; which are the first and final draft. The results are shown on the table below.

English Opinion Writing Drafts Number First Draft Final Draft of Writing Writing students Means S.D. Means S.D. Ability Level Ability Level 18 13.35 1.22 Good 16.06 1.13 Very Good

Table 2: Results of the Exercises while using Learning Together

From table 2 above, it shows that the means of the final draft (16.06) is higher than the first draft (13.35). For the S.D, there were 1.13 of the final draft and 1.22 of the first draft. The writing ability level of the first draft was in a ‘Good Level’, while the writing ability level of the final draft increased and it became higher as in a ‘Very Good Level’. 1.2 The results of English opinion writing pretest and posttest The results of English opinion writing pretest and posttest were analyzed before and after using Learning Together. The results were then checked and analyzed as data results to find the means and to interpret the table shown below. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 184 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Number of Full Writing Test Means S.D. Students score Ability Level Pretest 18 20 10.17 2.47 Fair Posttest 18 20 14.39 1.61 Good

Table 3: Comparing the English opinion writing ability before and after using Learning Together

Table 3 above shows that the means of English opinion writing ability were 14.39, which was higher than the means before using Learning Together (10.17). Before using Learning Together, the writing ability level was in the ‘fair level’ and progressed to the ‘Good Level’ later. 1.3 The significance of comparing the difference between pretest and posttest from t-test (dependent samples)

English opinion Number of Full Means S.D. t-test writing ability Students Score Pretest 18 20 10.17 2.47 12.8356 Posttest 18 20 14.39 1.61 (p >0.05), df = 17 Table 4: The significance of pretest and posttest with English opinion writing ability

The results showed that there was a significant difference between the pretest scores ( = 10.17, S.D.= 2.47) and the posttest of the students ( = 14.39, S.D. = 1.61) with a statistical significance of (t = 12.8356, p > 0.05) signifying greater degrees of improvement. As for the number of students, there were only 18 participants who participated in taking the tests, since they major in Arts and Language Program (class 5/8) which includes individual differences in the classroom (good, moderate, and poor students). Then, the researcher decided to put the 18 participants as the student numbers in analysis. 2. The attitude towards learning together in enhancing English opinion writing ability. The researcher studied the attitude towards Learning Together by using the questionnaire including 10 items. Thereafter, the scores from the questionnaire were measured and analyzed to find the means and interpretation as shown in the table below. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 185 Mahasarakham University

Number Full score Means Attitude level of using of students learning together 18 5 4.34 Good Table 5: The attitude level towards learning together

Table 5 shows that the level towards learning together in enhancing English opinion writing ability is at a ‘Good level’. Considering each items of the questionnaire, the first-three items were 1) I receive more knowledge about English opinion writing while I work in groups (means = 4.53); 2) I get the help from other members of my group while working (means = 4.47); 3) I feel nervous if I have to be responsible for my own tasks (means 4.44).

Conclusions and Suggestions for Further Studies 1. Summary and Conclusions The findings of this study revealed that the English opinion writing ability was increased after being taught through Learning Together. Moreover, the students taught through Learning Together had higher attitude levels toward learning English writing. In conclusion, using Learning Together helped enhance students’ English opinion writing abilities and their attitude toward English which corresponds with Jamie’s study (Jamie, 2016). 2. Suggestions for Further Studies 2.1. General Suggestions From the study, it’s found that Learning Together helps to improve the English opinion writing ability. So, the director of schools should support and encourage teachers to develop learning instructions in order to further increase the English writing ability through Learning Together. 2.2. Suggestions for further studies Teachers/researchers should research and study about instructional design using Learning Together for other subjects and for other levels of students. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 186 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

References: Hipps, R. (n.d.). Identify and describe opinion writing. Retrieved from https:// learnzillion.com/lesson_plans/8649-identify-and-describe-opinion-writing Jacobs, H., Zinkgraf, S., Wormuth, d., F., H. V., & Hughey, J. (1981). Testing ESL composition: A practical approach. Massachusetts: Newbury House Publishers. Jamie, M. W. (2016). Investigating the effects of collaboration on first grade writing. Master of Arts in Education in Curriculum and Instruction University of Wyoming. Johnson, D. W. and Johnson, R. T. (1987). Learning Together and Alone: Cooperative, Competitive and Individualistic Learning. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. KruJojo. (2014). Organizing Paragraph. Retrieved from https://krujojotalk.blogspot. com/2014/07/organizing-topic-supporting-concluding.html Parenzin, S. (2013). Opinion Writing Rubric: Common Core State Standards Writing Rubric. Retrievedfrom https://www.fcusd.org/cms/lib03/CA01001934/ Centricity/Domain/980CCSS%20Opinion%20Rubric%20-%20 Grade%203.pdf Sheng, W. X. (2010). Promoting language Learners’ Autonomy in Cooperative Learning. Sini-US English Teaching, 7(2). February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 187 Mahasarakham University

Developing Speaking Skills Using Task-based Learning with Local Contents of Matthayomsuksa Five Students

Supinda Nuangsa1, Anyarat Nattheeraphong2

1Graduate student of English Language Teaching Program Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Mahasarakham University, Thailand 2Lecturer of Department of Western Languages and Linguistics Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Mahasarakham University, Thailand

Abstract This study is a part of an ongoing research project which aims (1) to investigate the effectiveness of task-based learning activities with local contents in developing speaking skills of secondary school students, and (2) to examine their attitudes towards the use of the approach. English, as a means of communication, plays a significant role in global communication. Thailand has realized the importance of improving communicative language skills among Thai people. In education, teaching of speaking has become priority. Therefore, effective teaching approach for speaking is a necessity in language classes. Task-based instruction is a strongly recommended approach for EFL classrooms in which learners use real language to communicate, and the approach is proven to help learners develop speaking skills. Furthermore, using local contents in language class can make it easier for learners to acquire language. In this study, task- based instruction with the integration of local contents is implemented for the students to be exposed to real use of language and to develop their speaking skills. The participants of the study are twenty students with abilities in grade eleven at Triamudomsuksa Pattanakan School in Roi-Et province, Thailand. This research is a mixed-method design. Research instruments include lesson plans of task-based activities with local contents, pretest and posttest, researcher’s journal, video recording, and focus-group interview. Eight task-based lesson plans are designed by the researcher following TBLT principles and procedures. Topics included in the lessons are local food, historical places, culture, festivals, etc., in the region where the students live and are familiar with. The speaking test covers the main aspects of accuracy and fluency. An adapted rubric is used to assess the students’ speaking skills. Video recording is also used to capture students’ interactions. A focused group interview is used to explore students’ attitudes towards the use of task-based instruction in developing students’ speaking skills. Findings and data analysis will be reported.

Keywords: task-based learning, task, speaking skill, local content INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 188 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Introduction Task-based learning has long been one of the most effective teaching approaches and strongly supported and promoted by world’s most leading linguists (Long 1985, Prabhu 1987, Nunan 1989, Willis 1996, Skehan 1998, Bygate & Ellis 2001) since the 1980’s. Its emphasis on learners’ communicative abilities gained popularity in the field of Second Language Acquisition in terms of developing process and designing communicative tasks are to promote learner’s language use. Task-based learning is a learner-centered learning environment in which learners are engaged in performing and completing task activities using target language to reach learning objectives. Learners’ interactions with one another and with the teacher, and teacher’s support are integrated in task-based learning setting (Ellis 2003, Nunan 2004). According to Willis (1996), language learning is achieved through the use of the target language in interactions between learners. The purpose of this study is to provide background of task-based language teaching, definition of a task, characteristics of task-based language teaching, and the use of culture contents in learning activities. The benefits and effectiveness of using task-based with local contents and students’ attitudes towards the approach will also be explored. Background of the study Task-based learning approach has long been widely used in the language class to promote learners interaction skill in target language. It is an alternative teaching method to the traditional language teaching as its purpose is functional communicative language use (Ellis, 2003; Willis, 1996). The term “task” is defined in many different ways according to purpose. Task could be any activity in our everyday life such as cooking dinner, writing a letter, or building a model (Long, as cited in Ellis, 2003). Nunan (1989) defined task as “Classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing, or interacting in the target language”. (p.4). The early language course that applied task-based instruction was the Bangalore project by Prabhu (1987). The program received a lot of attention from the language teaching community and was seen as a model for others to create similar programs. Task was also used in vocational training in the 1950’s and became popular in school education in the 1970’s (Richards & Rodgers, 2001). In ESL, tasks are activities in which students use the target language to complete tasks to achieve the outcomes (Bygate, Skehan & Swain, 2001).In task-based learning, students are encouraged to build and use the language on their own with the support from teacher without immediate correcting on structure. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 189 Mahasarakham University

Several scholars suggest using authentic teaching materials in language class. Task-based teaching focuses on meaning, therefore, tasks should be designed to be related to the real world. Authentic materials should be used to create a meaningful learning atmosphere (Skehan, 1996). According to Ellis (2003), authentic tasks are the tasks the simulate real-life situations. Speaking skill is one of the most focused aspects in EFL today since English is a communication tool and the need to improve students’ proficiency in language is a priority in many schools. Statement of the problem The language learning and teaching in Thailand has not been successful despite decades and huge amounts of budgets spent in all levels of education. English is recognized as a main language for communication throughout the world. However, in general, Thai students’ speaking abilities are in low level comparing to students in other nations whose English is not their mother tongue. Their low scores on the O-NET (Ordinary National Education Test) and GAT (General Aptitude Test) examinations are evidence of underachievement in language competency. (Kanoksilapatham 2007, 2009, Kirkpatrick 2010, Prapphal 2003), The students at Triamudomsuksa Pattanakan Roi-Et school are no exception and struggle with language learning especially in speaking. The teaching of speaking in English language has become the focus. The goal is to develop students’ speaking abilities so that they can communicate effectively in their daily life. However, the teaching and learning of speaking skill seem to be ineffective in this school. The first reason for that is the instruction used in the language classes in the school are mostly in traditional methods in which the focuses are on structures. As a result, the students are afraid of making grammatical mistakes. Most students are shy and have no confidence to talk. Another important factors contributing to unsuccessful learning outcome is students’ lack of opportunity to use the target language in the classroom. Brown (1994) mentioned that students are likely to use their first language instead of the target language if they have inadequate chance to practice speaking in the class. Most activities in our English classes, even though meant for practicing speaking, are often in the form of memorizing conversation dialogue. Students do not get to use the language to interact in natural way. Many students cannot concentrate during the learning session and get bored of the teacher’s lecture. Ruso (2007) stated that learners do not enjoy the learning if the teacher spends the whole class lecturing and this could de-motivate students to learn language. To solve the problems and improve the language teaching and learning of the school, it is necessary to implement a teaching approach that would provide the students opportunity to freely interact in the target language in order to enhance their INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 190 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

speaking skills. Therefore, TBLT, as a communicative approach, should be appropriate for the English classes and it is recommended by leading linguists. In order to successfully comprehend learner’s language skills, it is important that learners are engaged in learning activity. The use of local cultural contents that learners are familiar with helps learners learn language better. Culture plays an important role in language learning. Several scholars support using content of learner’s native culture in language class. Talib (1992) mentioned that using tasks related to learners’ own contexts makes it easier to acquire the language and interact in real situation. Various studies have revealed learners’ development of language competence when using content that learners are familiar with (Long 1990). Supporters of teaching local culture in language class point out that in the language class, learners should be exposed to lessons with local cultural content to enhance their cultural values and identities. Mitchell and Myles (1998 as cited in Tomlinson, 2000) state that experiencing local culture is a means to facilitate language acquisition and promote local and regional cultural awareness. Learners can be more positive and constructive when they understand cultures (Tomlinson, 2000). In the Thai context, studies related to the use of cultural content in learning activity have been conducted. Kanoksilapatham (2015) contributed to the role of local culture in language learning. Her study suggested that integrating regional knowledge in English lessons helped students enhance their language skills while appreciating their cultural values. When using tasks related to local culture, students are more engaged in the learning. Familiarity with their own context makes it easier to acquire the language and interact in real situation in their context. Consequently, I created task-based learning activities included in eight lesson plans. The lessons include comprehensive exercises and tasks that focus on meaningful communication. The contents of activities are also related to the students’ local cultural context to help them get familiar with the vocabulary, phrases that are likely to use in their setting. Through the use of task-based activity with cultural contents, students are expected to able to use the language appropriately and effectively. This study will investigate the effectiveness of task-based instruction incorporating local culture on the development of students’ speaking skills and examine students’ attitudes towards the use of task-based learning with local contents. Research Questions 1. How effective is the use of task-based learning with local contents in developing speaking skills of grade eleven students? 2. What are students’ attitudes towards the use of task-based learning with local contents? February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 191 Mahasarakham University

Objectives of the study 1. To investigate the effectiveness of using task-based learning with local contents in developing speaking skills of grade eleven students. 2. To examine students’ attitudes towards the use of task-based learning with local contents. Significance of the Study This study addresses the effectiveness of using task-based learning with local cultural content in developing speaking skills in language class. It may provide general information for curriculum developers, teachers, and educators by providing additional tools for enhancing students’ speaking skills. The outcomes of this study will be a proof of the effectiveness of task-based learning incorporating local culture in second language learning environment. Teachers of L2 learners could implement task-based lesson plans with local culture content in their classroom and gain benefits of the approach. This study can be used as a guideline in designing more focus-tasks that suit students’ particular needs.Framework of the StudyThere are three stages in the process of conducting this study. In the planning stage, tasks incorporated with local contents are designed using Willis’s 1996 model of task designing and sequencing. In the investigating stage, the task lessons are implemented in the classroom. I, as the teacher and researcher investigate my own study and write my reflections in the journal. In the last stage of reflecting, the findings are derived from data collection and data analysis.

Literature Review Task-Based Language Teaching Definition: The term “task” has been differently interpreted by many scholars since the 1980s, and the definitions are quite similar, that is the exchange of meaning is central to the notion of a communicative task. Prabhu (1987) defined task as “an activity that requires learners to arrive at an outcome from given information through some process of thought, and which allows teachers to control and regulate that process” (p.24).Likewise, Nunan ( 2004) viewed task as “a piece of classroom work that involves learners in comprehending, producing and interacting in target language while attention is focus on grammatical knowledge to express meaning, and in which the intention is to convey meaning rather than to manipulate form. The task should also have a sense of completeness, being able to stand alone as a communicative act in its own right with a beginning, a middle, and an end” (p.4).Bygate (2001) states that task is an activity that requires learners to use language emphasizing on meaning to develop language ability while accomplishing tasks.Skehan (1998) defines task in pedagogical INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 192 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

perspective in different criteria in which meaning is the main focus, problems in communication are to be resolved, real-world activities are compared, tasks are to be completed, and the outcomes are assessed.Ellis (2003) states that tasks are activities that focus primarily on the meaning of language use.Willis (1996) states that task is “a goal-oriented activity in which learners use language to achieve a real outcome” (p. 23). What is task-based teaching approach? Task- based language teaching is an approach which offers students opportunities to actively engage in communication in order to achieve a goal or complete a task. TBL has been one of the most popular and effective communicative language teaching approach in ELT in the recent years. It has received much of attention among several researchers including Candlin and Murphy (1987), Nunan (1989) Willis (1996), Skehan (1998), Ellis (2003), Garcia Mayo (2007), Ekhert and Siekmann (2008), and Samuda and Bygate(2008), whose concepts of the approach are found in articles (as cited in Ellis, 2009). In addition to the researchers previously mention, teachers and educators such as Prabhu (1987), Nunan (1989; 2 004), and Willis (1996) are also task- based approach’s advocates (as cited in Ellis, 2009). TBLT seeks to develop students’ interlanguage through providing a task and then using language to solve it. It was first developed by Prabhu in Bangalore, Southern India. The results revealed that the students learn more effectively when focusing on the task they are doing rather than the language itself (Prabhu, 1987).TBLT aims to provide students with natural context for language use. As performing task, they have opportunity to interact and express themselves in the target language, and this is how they acquire language (Candlin & Murphy, 1987 as cited in Bygate, 1999). Task-based teaching approach is contrast of form-based instruction as it involves a sequence of communicative task that learner perform using target language during learning process (Nunan, 1999). Skehan (2003) stated that TBLT is a strong version of communicative language teaching. Ellis, (2003) viewed TBLT as a refinement Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) in which students are the center of the learning. Task Types Willis (1996) classified tasks into six main types: Listing Ordering and sorting Comparing Problem Solving Sharing experience Creative task Task Cycles February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 193 Mahasarakham University

In task-based language teaching, there are steps for the teacher to follow in order to effectively carry out the learning g process. Unlike other teaching method, TBL requires the teacher to sequence tasks. Phases in Task-Based Framework Task-based framework sequences have been proposed by various scholars (Ellis, 2003; Prabu, 1987; Skehan, 1996; Willis, 1996). Three-phase framework is the common for task-based instruction. For example, Ellis (2003) names the phases as pre-task, during task, and post task. Willis’s Task Sequence Pre-task – prepare learners for the main task. Teacher introduces the topic. The purpose of this part is to introduce vocabulary, to explore the topic. This phase focuses on meaning. The task cycle- learner’s performance of the task, planning on reports and reporting( present/exchange reports) Post-task (Language Focus) - helps learners make sense of language they experienced in context, highlight language they are likely to encounter again in the real world, and to increase motivation. Speaking Skills According to Brown, (1994) and Burns and Joyce, (1997), speaking is an interactive process of construction of meaning involving producing, receiving, and processing information. The form and meaning of speaking depends on the context in which the speaking occurs, including the speakers themselves, their experiences, the environment, and purposes of speaking. The speaker, not only do they know how to produce language, but they also need to know how to use language at the right place and the right time (Cunningham, 1999). Swain (1985) also proposed the “comprehensible output hypothesis” which means, in order to learn how to speak, one has to actually speak. Teaching Speaking to Second Language Learners The teaching of English as a second language has shifted from traditional form-focus methods to more of communicative language in the past two decades. It began to emerge as a branch of teaching, learning, and testing on its own right, rarely focusing on the production of spoken discourse (Bygate, 2002). Brown and Yule (1983) stated that most language teaching involves developing speaking skills in short, interaction exchanges in which the learner is only required to make one or two utterances at a time. Accuracy and fluency are the main goals of teaching communicative language. Fluency may be the initial goal in language teaching, accuracy could also be achieved INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 194 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

when learners focus on phonology, grammar, and discourse in their spoken language. Brown (2001) claimed that language focuses on fluency in communication. Learning activities are meant to motivate learners and give them opportunity to practice language in real situations. Then learners perform a variety of tasks and get feedback. Through all these process, student develop speaking competence. Evaluation and Assessing of Speaking Skills Evaluation and Assessing of students’ speaking abilities could be done before, during, or after learning process. Underhill (2000) and Weir (1993) suggested that teachers can assess students’ speaking skills through retelling story, asking questions, interviewing, and role play. Assessment criteria applied in communicative skills are range, accuracy, fluency, and achievement of outcome Ellis (2003). Culture and Local content Definition: The word “culture” has been defined by many scholars. Condon (cited in Brown, 1994) defines culture as “a system of integrated patterns, yet all of which govern human behavior just as surely as the manipulated strings of a puppet control its motions” (p. 123). Local content means the materials, workers, etc. used to make a product that are from the area where the product is made rather than being imported (Cambridge Dictionary). Culture and Local Culture content in Language Teaching Culture has played a significant role in language teaching. There is connection between culture and language teaching. Many scholars support the teaching of culture in language class. Brown (1994) points out “ a language is a part of culture and a culture is a part of a language. The two are intricately interwoven so that one cannot separate the two without losing the significance of either language or culture” (p. 164). Culture is an integral part of language learning, and learning language is essentially a socially oriented process which is linked with the wider cultural scenario (Foley & Thompson, 2003). Integration of local culture in foreign language teaching is a main focus of today’s study. Several research studies and contributions supporting the relationship of EFL teaching and local culture are those of linguists such as Kramsch, Kachru, McKay, Canagarajah, and Talib. Target language culture should not be taught in countries where English is a variety (Kachru, 1985, 1986; Kachru & Nelson, 1996; Canagarajah, 1999). Kramsch and Sullivan (1996) and Mckay (2003) support the teaching of local culture in English class. McKay (2003b) argues that when teaching English as an international February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 195 Mahasarakham University

language, educators should recognize the value of including topics that deal with the local culture, support a methodology appropriate for the local context, and recognize the strengths of bilingual English teachers. In addition, Talib (1992) suggests using local literature in English class where non-native variety of English is used. Theoretical Background Task-based language teaching has its root in Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). As a reaction to Present-Practice-Produce (PPP), TBLT has received popularity until today. In PPP model, the teacher presents grammar rules, then the students practice and learn how to produce a particular language form. There were skeptics of the model on its inadequacy to promote communicative language. Dickinson (2010) stated that using PPP model in language class will lead to acquiring grammar too much and students will be less likely to attain communicative competence. Willis (1996) stated “ production is not achieved often outside the classroom and students fail when communicating with native speakers” (p.135). TBLT, unlike PPP, focuses on communicative language, and learners are given opportunity to use language freely. Learners can develop their communicative competence through TBLT. Accordingly, many scholars attributed the shift from PPP to TBLT. The approach then started to gain attentions and replaced the PPP model Related studies A number of research studies have been conducted to investigate the effectiveness of Task-based learning in many countries including Thailand. 1. Prabu (1987) applied task-based approach with secondary school English classes in Bangalore, Southern India, in his Communicational Teaching Project. He found his students learn language more effectively when focusing on tasks rather than the language itself. 2. Richards and Rodgers (2001) state that task-based approach was originally employed in training courses at a vocational college in the 1950’s. 3. American government language institutions found progress of language learners after implementing task-based instruction and authentic materials in language courses. 4. Fotos and Ellis (1991) demonstrated the use of task-based language teaching to communicate about grammar is conducive to learning and communication. They found that grammar-based tasks helped Japanese college students improve their grammar knowledge. 5. Bygate (1996) found that repetition of task can improve accuracy. Through repetition of tasks, students are more likely to master form-meaning relations. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 196 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

6. Skehan and Foster (1997) conducted an experiment on comparisons between interactive and monologue tasks and the results showed that the former produces more complexity and the latter generates more fluency. 7. Lochana and Deb (2006) did and experiment using task-basedn instruction tin a school in India. The results showed that learners gained benefits from the approach in terms of proficiency and motivation. 8. Farahani and Nejad ( 2009) conducted a research on the effectiveness of task-based learning approach on speaking proficiency among Iranian students with multi levels of language proficiency. The study was a comparison between a control group and an experimental group. The findings suggested that the samplings scored higher that the control group of students on the final speaking test. Therefore, it could be concluded that proficiency developed through task-based learning. 9. Various research studies were conducted to investigate teachers and students’ perceptions on task-based teaching and learning in South Korea and China. Both advantages and limitations were found in the studies. Xiongyong and Samuel (2011) studied perception and implementation of task-based instruction among 132 secondary EFL school teachers from 132 schools in China. The findings revealed the majority of teachers’ positive attitudes towards task-based instruction as well as some limitations. Some teachers did not employ task-based instruction due to their lack of confidence to assess the students’ abilities. 10. Likewise, Pahol (2009) conducted research on task-based teaching among ten Matthayom 3 students in Phanga. Pre-test and post-test were used as instruments. The findings were developed speaking abilities and positive attitudes of the students. 11. Wichitwarit, (2014) did a study to examine the success of implementation of task-based learning among 36 undergraduate students at Panyapiwat Institute of Management. Data were collected through lesson plans, instructional materials, interviews and teacher’s journal. Data analysis indicated essential elements that contribute to the success of using TBL in the class. Evidence of the success included students’ enhanced language abilities, motivation, and cooperative learning among the students.

Related Studies of Using Local Content in Language Learning 1. Talib (1992) suggests that literary works used in English language teaching should be of the non-native variety of English in countries where non-native variety of English is spoken. Integrative goal in language teaching that involves enhancement of students’ sociocultural awareness, sense of self identity, and local communicative competence in their society is easily achieved through the use of such texts. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 197 Mahasarakham University

2. Khan (2014) Studied teachers’ perceptions on the significance of local culture in foreign language learning in a university in Saudi Arabia. The findings from the questionnaire showed that the teachers were positive about the integration of the local culture/context in the target language (English) classroom. The questionnaire reflected that the integration of local culture leads to better teaching-learning experience. It could be interpreted that the learning of the target language should be connected to the local culture. 3. Kanoksilpatham (2014) did a study that aimed to enhance Thai student’s English proficiency through local cultural content and to maintain their cultural awareness. The study was conducted among Prathomsuksa or grade level 4 students at an elementary school in the Northeastern region of Thailand. Instructional innovations were designed by the researcher with collaboration of people in the community such as school teachers and administrators, local politicians, business people, and community members. Lesson topics were regional features of arts, history, geography, culture, tradition, local wisdom, architecture, and environment. Instruments used were pre-test and post-test for cultural knowledge, pre-test and post-test for vocabulary, and a simulation tour guide task. The results revealed that students got higher scores on the post tests. Students’ integrated knowledge of regional culture and English skills was successful as the majority of students were able to execute the task. They actively participated in the communicative activities and were willing to share opinions about their identities. This finding supported the role of language as a means of communication. The task did provide the students opportunity to use the language meaningfully. 4. Naddalong (2008, as cited in Wichitwarit 2014) conducted research on developing English reading exercise based on local topics of hi school students in Trat Province. Instruments were pre-test and post-test, eight reading exercises, and an achievement test, and a questionnaire for surveying students’ attitude towards the use of the constructed materials. The results revealed the effectiveness of the instructed materials with higher scores of post-test comparing to the achievement test and the post-test. And the students’ attitudes were positive. 5. Chaopaknam and Nillapun (2014) conducted a study on using local information to develop students’ reading skills of tenth grade students in Nakhon Pathom. The findings showed that the studernts’ skills improved and they had positives attitudes towards the use of the approach. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 198 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Methodology Participants The participants of the study are twenty students from a class of grade eleven at Triamudomsuksa Pattanakan Roi-Et school, in Roi-Et province. The subjects are mixed abilities and selected through purposive sampling. This class is one of the researcher’s assigned classes. Variables The Independent variable is a task-based learning with local cultural contents. And dependent variables are English speaking skills and students’ attitudes towards the use of task-based learning with local cultural content. Duration of the study The experiment takes place two class sessions per week, with a total of sixteen class sessions during the first semester of academic year 2018. Each class session lasts one hour. Data Collection Mixed methods approaches are used to collect data. For quantitative data collection, pre-test and post-test are distributed before and after the instructional sessions. The lesson plans are employed in sixteen class sessions during a two-month period. Researcher’s journal is written after each class session. Video recording is used to capture students’ interaction during learning activities in all class sessions. For qualitative data collection, focus group interview is conducted after the experiment. The participants give permission for video recording through a consent form. The interview is conducted in Thai. Video recording is used to record data from the interview for transcription and further data analysis. Instruments The instruments used in the study include eight lesson plans, pre-test and post-test, video recording, researcher’s journal, and focus group interview. In the data collection procedure, pre-test and post-test of speaking is used to collect quantitative data, researcher’s journal, video recording, and focus group interview are used to collect qualitative data. Task-Based Lesson Plans Eight task-based lesson plans topics with cultural content are Isan Food, attraction place, History of the province, local product, local musical instrument, festivals, celebration, and tradition. They are designed according to Willis’s (1996) model of task-based learning framework which includes three cycles; pre task, task cycle, and post task. Basically, these lesson plans are designed to develop oral skill on social interaction in which fluency and accuracy are priority. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 199 Mahasarakham University

Speaking Test A speaking test which is used as both pre-test and post-test consists of interview questions in which students’ language abilities are evaluated. The speaking test is designed and developed by the researcher. It includes oral interview questions and scoring rubrics for evaluation. The same test is used as pretest and post-test. The tests are conducted and evaluated by the researcher and two other English teachers. The participants are video recorded while being tested orally. A scoring rubric is used in the speaking test to assess students’ speaking performance. It is an adaptation of Underhill’s (2000) rating criteria that focuses on fluency, accuracy, pronunciation, vocabulary, and communication. Cultural knowledge is an additional component of speaking criteria that will measure the students’ knowledge of their own culture. Researcher’s journal Researcher’s journal is used to record the teacher’s (as the researcher) reflections on the effect of task-based learning on students’ motivation, and confidence. The reflections include the students’ performance of tasks, task completion, and what could be improved for further lessons. Video recording Video recording is used to capture the students’ interactions during class activities, and to support data obtained from researcher’s journal and focus group interview. Focus group interview Focus group interview is used to find out the students’ attitudes towards the use of task-based learning with local contents. The students are interviewed in groups of four. They will answer eight attitude interview questions and be video recorded. Data analysis Data obtained from pre-test and post-test scores are analyzed quantitatively using means and standard deviation. The data derived from focus group interview is analyzed qualitatively using descriptive analysis. The interview data are transcribed, coded, and categorized to summarize a picture of the students’ attitudes on the use of task-based learning with local contents. The written data from researcher’s journal are coded to provide details on teacher’s reflections.

Pilot study The purpose of the pilot study was to check the effect of task-based lessons and students’ anticipation on the activities. In the pilot study, the process of data collection and data analysis was studied in a small scale. The results of the pilot study would not be INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 200 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

analyzed in the main study. The pilot study was used to explore students’ reactions and engagement in task-based activities and motivation on language learning. The level of difficulty of contents of the lessons would also be checked if it would be suitable for the students. The findings would be beneficial guidelines for future implication of learning activities. Problems found in the pilot study could be improved in the main study. The participants in the pilot study were twenty students from a class of grade eleven with mixed abilities. Ten of them were males and ten were females. The instruments used to collect data include eight task-based lesson plans employed in sixteen class sessions in January and February, 2018. Researcher’s journal and video recording were also used to collect data. The findings are shown as followed.

Findings The findings of the pilot study revealed information on students’ reactions, engagement, and motivation during task activities. In the pre-task phase, students’ attentions were caught on by the presentation of contents in lesson plans accompanied by multimedia materials such as video clips and Power Points slides. They actively participated in task activities throughout the class sessions. For example, in the brainstorming, they spoke up and showed their background knowledge and tried to make guess to answer questions. They worked in pairs and in groups to solve problem tasks. Everyone did their part and then got together to prepare for presentations. They tried to speak to group members in English with no hesitation or shyness. They were confident when expressing what they thought. They enjoyed and were engaged in the activities the whole time. The contents were suitable for students’ language abilities since they were able to understand contents and complete assigned tasks according to objectives. These could be an evidence of the effect of task-based learning on developing speaking ability. From the findings of the pilot study, it would be helpful for the future study on applying the right contents, procedures, and activities for a language class.

Conclusion The findings of this study were from a pilot study which is a part of an ongoing research project. The findings will not be included in the main research study. They provided information on students’ reactions, engagement, confidence, motivation, and appropriateness of the contents. The results showed that the students were engaged in the activities. They had confidence in using the target language and had motivation to learn language. The contents of the lessons were suitable for their level of language competence. The result of this pilot study gave numerous information. It would be February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 201 Mahasarakham University

interesting to find results from the main study as data collection would be diverse and the other data collecting instruments would provide even more results. Additional data from pre-test and post-test and focus group interview would be reported in the research project.

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Xiongyong, C., Samuel, M. (2011). Perceptions and implementation of task-based language teaching among secondary school EFL teachers in China. International Journal of Business and Social Science 2 (24) 92. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 205 Mahasarakham University

Guilt and Destruction: Deterioration of the Flyte Family in Evelyn Waugh’s Brideshead Revisited

Gregory Luke Chwala1

1Lecturer, Duquesne University USA

Abstract Evelyn Waugh’s Brideshead Revisited is a novel themed around perpetual guilt and destruction for the Flytes, a family representing the decline and fall of Britain’s imperial aristocracy. The Flytes only find peace with their Catholic faith as part of a sacrifice that is ultimately counterproductive to their natural development and solidarity. The novel is heavily influenced by Waugh’s own struggles and scandals—with his marriage, religion, and sexuality. He continued to remain religiously devout throughout his life, even after his wife left him for another man after scandalous plots surrounding his fiction began to jeopardize their social standing. In the twenty-first century, several publications revealed Waugh’s homosexual love affairs with three fellow students at Oxford University during his time of study there, two of which according to scholar Paula Byrne’s book, Mad World: Evelyn Waugh and the Secrets of Brideshead, is believed to be the basis for the queered character Sebastian Flyte. After his first marriage failed, Waugh left the Church of England and converted to Catholicism in 1930, and he continued to struggle with his faith until his death in 1966, not unlike the characters in his novel. Rigid Catholicism destroys the Flyte family in Brideshead Revisited. The Flyte family deteriorates along with its home, Brideshead, which is symbolic of the degeneration of both the church and aristocracy. I argue that the sacrifices the Flyte family make are counterproductive and produce a haunting guilt that ruins their lives, not unlike the conflict surrounding Evelyn Waugh’s own life.

Keywords: literature and Christianity, guilt and destruction, British literature INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 206 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Introduction Evelyn Waugh converted to Catholicism early in his life because he found life unbearable without God and religion, yet it is this very belief that haunts and destroys the Flyte family in Brideshead Revisited. The novel’s plot revolves around the Catholic religion’s contribution towards the deterioration of the Flyte (Marchmain) family and their home, Brideshead, as seen through the eyes of its protagonist, Captain Charles Ryder. A common Renaissance theme, the ongoing conflict between the sacred and the secular is a dilemma that Charles battles with up to the novel’s very end. Thus, in spite of Waugh’s manifest intentions, the novel subverts Catholicism on one level, while supporting it only through the suffering and disillusionment of its primary characters, save the resolution. Charles Ryder seems to make peace with religion in the last scenes of the novel, but in his subtle conversion he does not elaborate on his new feelings towards Catholicism specifically. The rest of the novel focuses on the guilt and suffering that the members of the Flyte family experience as a result of their Catholic faith. Lord Sebastian Flyte, the son of the Marchioness and Marchmain, Teresa and Alexander, feels entrapped by Catholicism, which leads him into a self-loathing depression and hedonistic lifestyle, while his sister, Lady Julia Flyte, sacrifices her happiness to be married to Charles Ryder, whom she truly loves, in order to remain true to her Catholic faith. Teresa loses her tightly knit family because of her fundamentalist attitude towards her devout faith. Her husband Alexander and her son Sebastian flee from her despondent, rigid moral code. Hence, Brideshead Revisited is a novel of perpetual guilt and destruction for the Flyte family; they only find peace with their Catholic faith as part of a sacrifice that is ultimately counteractive to their natural development and solidarity.

Discussion Lady Teresa (Marchmain) Flyte represents England’s historically rigid, zealous devotion to Catholicism that predates the Renaissance and Protestant Reformation. She blindly follows her religion despite the fact that it causes her much pain and distances her from her family. The sacrifice she makes in being a devout Catholic destroys her family’s ability to live productive lives. Because Teresa impresses a rigid moral code over her family, Alexander leaves her and she and the children lead very unhappy, unstable lives. Yet she continues to maintain her belief that one cannot possibly find meaning and contentment in life without God and is determined to convert Charles to Catholicism. Charles recounts Brideshead and Teresa’s attitudes towards her faith and home in the following passage: Religion predominated in the house; not only in its practices—the daily mass and rosary, morning and evening in the chapel—but in all its intercourse. ‘We must make a Catholic of Charles,’ Lady Marchmain said, and we had February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 207 Mahasarakham University

many little talks together during my visits when she delicately steered the subject into a holy quarter” (126). However, Teresa is unsuccessful in persuading Charles to convert to Catholicism, and his agnostic views later cause him to lose a marriage to her daughter, Julia Flyte. Teresa’s Catholic faith is so important to her that she cannot fathom Julia marrying someone who is not Catholic. In the end of the novel Julia decides not to marry Charles because, like her mother, she too decides that one’s faith should predominate their lives regardless of one’s contentment. Lady Marchmain’s fundamentalist Catholic beliefs destroy her family and cause her much discontentment in the process. Yet she continues to blindly follow her religious convictions. Teresa is a discontented character who escapes to her religion for comfort, becoming entrapped by her adamant religious fervour. Many times in the novel she tries to reverse her discontentment with life through illogical thought processes. For instance, she justifies her extravagant way of life senselessly by using religion as a scapegoat to keep herself pure and devout. She tells Charles that her coveting the poor is a grave sin in the following passage: When I was a girl we were comparatively poor, but still much richer than most of the world, and when I married I became very rich. It used to worry me, and I thought it wrong to have so many beautiful things when others had nothing. Now I realize that it is possible for the rich to sin by coveting the privileges of the poor. The poor have always been the favourites of God and his saints, but I believe that it is one of the special achievements of Grace to sanctify the whole of life, riches included. Wealth in pagan Rome was necessarily something cruel; it’s not any more. (126-127) As this passage shows, she irrationally attempts to excuse her wealth that she comprehends as non-supportive of a pious, Christian life. She understands the doctrine of Christianity that teaches one to avoid materialistic human wants, but then absurdly uses one of the Ten Commandments to justify her deviation from a “righteous path.” In this way she is able to rectify her discontentment in leading the kind of aristocratic life she does at Brideshead. However, she is not able to find her way through her discontentment even after seeing her family torn apart. Whether she realizes it or not, her religion is the root of all the anxiety surrounding her discontentment. She loses her traditional family and tries desperately to put it back together. Her husband leaves her to live with a mistress in Italy, her son Sebastian ignores her completely after becoming an alcoholic and dropping out of school, her daughter Julia ends up divorcing a man who turns out not to be Catholic anyway, and like Teresa, her other son Bridey finds a feigned contentment in very mundane, boring life choices. All of these tragic life paths INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 208 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

that Teresa’s family members take are the result of the ideological, fundamentalist, harsh, rigid Catholic beliefs and practices she has forced upon them. He does not [love me]. But not the littlest piece. Then why does he stay with me? I will tell you; because I protect him from Lady Marchmain. He hates her; but you can have no conception how he hates her. You would think him so calm and English—the milord, rather blasé, all passion dead, wishing to be comfortable and not to be worried, following the sun, with me to look after that one thing that no man can do for himself. My friend, he is a volcano of hate. He cannot breathe the same air as she. He will not set foot in England because it is her home; he can scarcely be happy with Sebastian because he is her son. But Sebastian hates her too. (102) This passage reveals just how much hatred Alexander Flyte has developed towards his wife, Teresa. Her religion has not only driven him away, but it has also caused him to form a self-hatred so deep that he is no longer able to love another woman. As Cara says, he stays with her only to protect himself from the wrath of Lady Marchmain. Alexander’s religious convictions haunt him to his very last days. On his deathbed he reveals that his Catholic faith is still a very large part of who he is by receiving his last rights as a Catholic. Alexander Flyte eventually finds his way back to religion at the end of his life, but his peace with his faith has come only after much sacrifice and heartache. His guilt over the destruction of his family has been caused by the very religion he attempts to cling to in his very last hours. One has to wonder if Sebastian will suffer a similar fate. Although Catholicism tears apart and ruins many different aspects of the lives of the Flyte family members, none are more disturbed by it than Sebastian. Sebastian is haunted by his Catholic faith, a faith that has been pushed upon him by Lady Marchmain since his youth in a severely negative way. He is faced with a dire dilemma because his lifestyle, which can easily be deduced to include a homosexual orientation, is not supported by his Catholic faith. His Catholicism and family ties produce a self-loathing, destructive depression that causes him to spiral into an abyss of seclusion, guilt and alcoholism. After a night of drunken debauchery Sebastian tells Charles, “If it’s any comfort to you, I absolutely detest myself” (135). Part of his self- hatred comes from an inability to satisfy his mother by being someone who he is not able to be. Sebastian’s only comfort in life is his friendship with Charles, but when he perceives that their friendship is being intruded upon by his family, especially his mother, he begins to become further withdrawn and alienated from both his friendship with Charles and his family. Rex, Julia’s fiancé at the time, suggests that the family send Sebastian off to a specialist in Zurich to cure his “bad habits” and tells the family that February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 209 Mahasarakham University

the clinic “takes sex cases, too, you know” (165). However, what the family fails to understand is that Sebastian is unable to change who he is—this is part of his depression. Instead of really trying to get to the matter of the problem, his mother convinces the family to try to “fix” him. His mother continually prays for him, has a priest follow him around, and scolds him frequently with Catholic dogma. It is Catholicism that destroys Sebastian. Charles sees this when he tells Bridey, “It seems to me that without your religion Sebastian would have the chance to be a healthy and happy man” (145). Instead, Sebastian ends up spending the better half of the novel absent from England and consequently his family, while off in Europe and then onto northern Africa with a “friend.” His “friend” brings him the comfort that his family and Charles deny him. Like his father he eventually succumbs to his guilt and Catholic faith, finding solace in a monastery in northern Africa. Yet it is apparent that Sebastian is not happy. He never does return to Brideshead, even when his mother is dying. Lady Marchmain destroys her family with her dogmatic Catholic religious beliefs and ruins the life of her bright, charismatic, charming son Sebastian, who is sharply contrasted to another character, Anthony Blanche. One character who is not subjected to the harsh treatment of Catholic dogma in the novel is Sebastian’s acquaintance, Anthony Blanche. While the text is more obscure with Sebastian’s sexuality, it is overt with Blanche’s homosexuality. There are allusions drawn to Blanche’s Catholicism in the text; however, it does not seem to interfere with his life nearly as much as it does with Sebastian. In the beginning of the novel, a comment is made that appears to be in reference to Sebastian, Anthony, and their inner circle of friends that clearly asserts that they are homosexuals. Jasper, Charles Ryder’s cousin, tells him, “Beware of the Anglo—Catholics—they’re all sodomites with unpleasant accents” (26). Not much further in the novel Anthony recounts to Charles a recent event in which he was ridiculed for his flamboyant nature, called a “degenerate/ invert,” and accused of “unnatural vices” by a group of schoolboys (48-49). The boys have come to his room with the intention of throwing him into the fountain as part of their harassment. Anthony Blanche tells Charles that he averts their intentions with the following line: “Dear sweet clodhoppers, if you knew anything of sexual psychology you would know that nothing could give me keener pleasure than to be manhandled by you meaty boys” (50). There are numerous other examples in the text that clearly tell the reader Anthony Blanche is a homosexual. Unlike Sebastian, Blanche is not bothered by accusations of homosexuality. His character projects a strong, independent, authoritative personality that is not bothered by what others think or do. Anthony Blanche’s overt personality is sharply contrasted to Sebastian Flyte, who is repeatedly bothered by what his family members think of him. Sebastian seems to be under a metaphorical umbrella INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 210 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

of heavy Catholic guilt, while Anthony is free of guilt. When Sebastian is away from his family’s Catholicism he is somewhat able to function, although it still looms over him like a nightmare. The Flyte children have been indoctrinated with a heavy Catholic guilt by their mother that destroys their lives. This is evident with Sebastian, as well as with his sister, Julia. Julia Flyte is also trapped by her Catholic faith, which prevents her from living a happy, healthy life with the man she loves, Charles Ryder. When Charles first meets Julia at Brideshead in their adolescence he learns of her mother’s iron-fisted Catholic tyranny and rule, but he never discusses it directly with Julia. The first time the reader gains knowledge of Julia’s religious views is after she has sex with Rex, the man she later marries. After consummating their relationship Julia confesses her sins to a priest. When she finds the priest is not useful, telling her only to go to confession instead of how to resolve her frustrations and problems, she decides from that day forward that she will give up on her religion: “From that moment she shut her mind against her religion” (189). At first Lady Marchmain forbids all talk of engagement between Julia and Rex, demanding that they never speak, and she makes plans to shut up Brideshead to take Julia on a tour to visit her family. However, these plans are evaded by Julia and Rex. Lady Marchmain, distraught in her daughter’s rebellion against her Catholic faith, then decides that if Rex is to marry Julia he must be converted to Catholicism. Rex converts to Catholicism, not out of sincerity, but only to marry Julia. Things are further complicated when the family finds out that Rex had been previously married. Despite Teresa’s efforts Rex and Julia are married in a Protestant Church after all. Julia seems to give up on religion after her marriage to Rex, although now she harbours an intense guilt. When Julia’s father returns to Brideshead to die, Julia appears to have turned away from her faith, but it is quite evident that she is bothered by her Catholic sin and guilt. This is most evident when Bridey confronts her about the scandalous affair she has had with Charles. Bridey tells Julia that he could not possibly introduce her to his fiancé, Beryl. In a conversation to Julia and Charles he says, “I couldn’t possibly bring her here [to Brideshead]. It is a matter of indifference whether you choose to live in sin with Rex or Charles or both—I have always avoided enquiry into the details of your ménage—but in no case would Beryl consent to be your guest” (285). Julia is in tears after this statement; it is quite evident that she is upset over her “sin.” She harbours extreme guilt over her marriage to Rex and in the abandonment of her Catholic faith, as is evidenced in the following passage: Lord Alexander (Marchmain) Flyte is also trapped by his Catholic faith and guilt. However, he is able to flee from its constraints by leaving his wife Teresa behind February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 211 Mahasarakham University

at Brideshead to live in Italy with his mistress, Cara, who brings him much more happiness. Cara is also religious but she does not practice her religion with the rigidity of Teresa Flyte, which has much to say about the fundamentalist Catholic traditions and practices that destroy the Flyte family when juxtaposed to the happiness religion can provide when not abused. As a result of Teresa’s extreme Catholicism, Alexander develops a hatred of her that runs so deep that his feelings of hatred begin to be projected onto himself and his children. Cara describes the hatred Alexander feels towards Teresa in the following passage when she reveals to Charles the fact that she no longer has confidence in their love: I’ve been punished a little for marrying Rex. You see, I can’t get all that sort of thing out of my mind, quite—Death, Judgment, Heaven, Hell, Nanny Hawkins, and the Catechism. It becomes part of oneself, if they give it one early enough. And yet I wanted my child to have it.... Now I suppose I shall be punished for what I’ve just done. Perhaps that is why you and I are here together like this.... part of a plan. (259) This guilt that Julia feels, as described in the above passage, is the same type of guilt that haunts Sebastian and drives them both back to their Catholic faiths, away from happily functioning lives. Sebastian’s sacrifice comes when he joins the monastery in northern Africa, while Julia’s comes when she decides not to marry Charles at the end of the novel. When Julia’s father, Lord Alexander (Marchmain) Flyte, comes home to Brideshead to die her mother has already been long gone, along with the heavy Catholic guilt she impressed upon the household. There is a crisis over whether or not Lord Marchmain should receive his last rites on his deathbed, since he was never really religious and Catholicism is what drove him away from Brideshead. Numerous remarks are made by Charles that belittles Catholicism while Julia remains silent on the matter. Julia begins to go back to her Catholic faith as she and Charles become distanced from one another as a result. When Charles insists that Julia not force last rites upon her father, maintaining that the priest has little help to offer, she replies, “Help? I really can’t quite see why you’ve taken it so much at heart that my father shall not have the last sacraments .... What’s it got to do with you or me whether my father sees his parish priest?” (325) At this point the reader begins to realize that Julia has reverted to her Catholic faith, and after her father dies it is no surprise that she will choose to live a life that sacrifices her happiness by not marrying Charles. Julia tells Charles that she can’t marry him: “I’ve always been bad. Probably I shall be bad again, punished again. But the worse I am, the more I need God. I can’t shut myself out from his mercy. That is what it would mean; starting a life with you, without Him” (340). Her guilt makes INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 212 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

her self-destructive, and like Sebastian she finds solace in God alone in a life without Charles. Finally, the novel’s protagonist, Charles Ryder, is entrapped by Catholicism because he cannot reconcile his rational agnostic views with the religious fervour that divides the Flyte family; however, in the resolution of the novel he finds solace in the coexistence between the sacred and the secular. It is hard for Charles to realize and accept that others can have a religious faith and function alongside his agnostic views. This is most likely because of the ways in which Catholicism is obsessively abused by Lady Marchmain. However, at the end of the novel, upon realizing how much hope for humanity religion brings into one’s life, Charles finally reconciles the Catholic religion with his agnostic beliefs, finding that they can mutually coexist. In the novel’s epilogue, Captain Charles Ryder’s unit has found its way to its new army outpost in the English countryside during World War II, which coincidentally happens to be Brideshead. The mansion has been neglected and is shabbily maintained, but Lady Marchmain’s private chapel has been restored for the soldiers to worship in, giving them a sense of hope in a very troubled time of war. Thrust into this unexpected situation, Charles begins to reminisce, finding his way to the chapel where he kneels and prays. Charles tells the reader, “I said a prayer, an ancient, newly learned form of words ....,” (350) which implies that he may have only recently either converted to Catholicism or come to terms with some new found faith. He also comments on the art-nouveau lamp that burns before the altar of the chapel, likening it to “a small red flame,” (351) reminiscent of the historical, sacred traditions of religion that knights may have found solace in during the holy wars of Jerusalem. He says, “It could not have been lit but for the builders and the tragedians, and there I found it this morning, burning anew among the old stones” (351). This line leads the reader to believe that Charles has made peace with his animosity towards Catholicism; however, it could also be argued that what Charles has made peace with is that he realizes religion can bring other people comfort and solace, despite his feelings towards religion. The narrator tells us that he leaves the novel “cheerful.” He has reconciled his conflicting views between the sacred and the secular amongst the rubble left by the Marchmain/Flyte family and its Catholic guilt. Rigid Catholicism destroys the Flyte family in Brideshead Revisited. The characters find themselves caught in conflict between the sacred and the secular, filled with guilt. The struggle that these characters face in the novel is not all that different from the struggle many individuals faced during the Renaissance as they coped with the deteriorating Catholic Church, the rise of the Protestant Reformation, and their search for identity amongst an absence of authority. Several people harboured extreme guilt in their loss of faith, not knowing where to turn to for guidance, and sacrifice began to February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 213 Mahasarakham University

take on a new meaning. Brideshead Revisited gives the reader a similar circumstantial setting. The Flyte family deteriorates along with its home, Brideshead, which is symbolic of the deterioration of the power of the church and aristocracy during the Renaissance. At times in the novel Catholic beliefs are fickle, and at other times they are irrational, not unlike attitudes towards religion during Renaissance times. This created turmoil, guilt and grief. Lady Marchmain’s grief only continues to heighten as the novel progresses, yet she remains adamant in her Catholic convictions. One sentence in the novel particularly supports this claim. After Julia decides to “shut her mind against her religion” (189) in the aftermath of her premarital sex with Rex, the following passage appears: And Lady Marchmain saw this and added it to her new grief for Sebastian and her old grief for her husband and to the deadly sickness in her body, and took all these sorrows with her daily to church; it seemed her heart was transfixed with the swords of her dolours, a living heart to match the plaster and paint; what comfort she took home with her, God knows. (189) This sentence succinctly summarizes the thesis of this essay: even amongst pain, suffering, destruction, and sorrow, Lady Marchmain, like the rest of the Flyte family members, continues to turn towards her Catholic faith. Although the Flytes find their lives unbearable without God and religion, it haunts and destroys their lives. The sacrifices that the aristocratic family makes to stand by their Catholic faith seem counteractive to their natural development and happiness in the world. Guilt breeds perpetual sorrow in the novel, only for characters to end up with a “comforting” religion that is not so welcoming to twentieth-century secular ideas. Perhaps Charles Ryder finally comes to realize why Sebastian hesitated to call Brideshead his home—guilt.

Work Cited Waugh, Evelyn. Brideshead Revisited: The Sacred and Profane Memories of Captain Charles Ryder. 1944. New York: Bay Back Books, 1999. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 214 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Fantasy as a Means of Expression in Roald Dahl’s Children’s Literature

Sirilak Sriphachan1

1Lecturer at Foreign Language Department Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Sakon Nakhon Rajabhat University, Thailand

Abstract A multitude portrayal of children’s oppression dominates other issues in the Dahlian children’s stories. This prevalent emergence of these scenes indicates that Dahl’s psyche is deeply ingrained with the painful experiences he underwent during his childhood. In addition, the growing children’s maltreatments occurring in the British and American societies in the twentieth century have also functioned as the catalysts for Dahl’s fictional creation. Children’s stories have subsequently been employed by this writer to vent out his severe sorrow, speak for the oppressed children and express his opposition against children’s oppression. Experiencing oppression, the person’s voice, existence, and identity are refused and eliminated. That is to say, the Dahlian children’s stories were produced in order to regain what the writer had lost when he was very young. In his children’s stories, readers can easily find, in every literary aspect, that the adult villains’ unkind actions have been accused, condemned and even penalized. However, Dahl is fully aware that there is a slim chance for the children to beat the adults in the real world owing to their inferiorities in terms of size, physical and intellectual development or legal entity. To make Dahl’s dream world, the world without children’s oppression become true, fantasy is purposively selected to be the literary genre of his writings for the children.

Keywords: fantasy, oppression, children’s literature, means of expression, Roald Dahl February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 215 Mahasarakham University

Introduction Roald Dahl was marginalized and oppressed when attending schools. So Dahl feels closely related to the oppressed children. He understood completely well how terrible anyone’s life would be if his existence seems to be unseen and his tongue is tied. Thus, inarticulateness and selflessness inspire Dahl to have a desire to tell the stories about the oppressed children. The strong evidence of Dahl’s wish to speak for the unfortunate kids can be seen from the prevalent allusions of school fagging and corporal punishment in his first autobiography Boy: Tales of Childhood which Dahl insists that he cannot “get over” the bitterly ill-treated school life (Dahl 145). In most of Roald Dahl’s stories for the children, readers always find that the child protagonists are regularly misused by their senior relatives and teachers; this situation is similar to that of Dahl in his childhood living account. Based on Ross Levin and Hugh Young’s The Relation of Waking Fantasy to Dreaming (2002), the person with “physical abuse and early punishment in childhood” like Roald Dah is reported to be high-fantasy prone (203). Psychologically, fantasizing or dreaming helps the abused and oppressed child to get away from the unhappy and miserable situations. It can be said that dreams and fantasies have been used by the maltreated children as the means of escape and wish-fulfillment. As posited in by Freud, both conscious and unconscious phantasies and day-dreams are “cathected with a large amount of interest” (88). Therefore, fantasies serve as psychic retreats for Dahl. His painful childhood memories are revived and turned into the creative fiction for the children. Writing children’s stories concerning children’s mistreatment and deprivation has become the channel to let out Roald Dahl’s childhood pains. In the meantime, his children’s stories have been employed as the tools to make his dreams become true, the dreams about winning the cruel adults who oppressed him at his early ages. In order to retrieve the selfhood, voice, victory, happiness and freedom taken away during his boyhood, Roald Dahl has created the stories which the child heroes have always conquered their battles and rebellions against their adult enemies. The study points out fantasy elements in the chosen Dahlian stories. The benefits of this study are to indicate the calamities of children’s oppression, to help readers realize the power of fantasy children’s literature in promoting the readers’ imagination and language skills.

Objectives of the Study 1. To explore fantasy components in Roald Dahl’s children’s stories 2. To investigate the meanings and implications of fantasy elements employed in Roald Dahl’s children’s stories. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 216 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Scope of the Study Ten works for the children were chosen for the investigation of fantasy elements blended in Roald Dahl’s children’s literature. These stories included James and the Giant Peach, Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, The Magic Finger, The Enormous Crocodile, The Twits, George’s Marvelous Medicine, The BFG, The Witches, Matilda, and The Minpins. Research Methodology The qualitative research method was adopted to investigate the purposes set in the paper and results of the investigation were presented in descriptive form.

Results The investigation reveals that fantasy elements have been employed in all ten selected Roald Dahl’s children’s stories for different reasons. There are the talking insects who serve as the child protagonist’s family members in James and the Giant Peach. They appear in the story to make James desolate life become lively and cheerful. In the meantime, the enormous peach performs its role as the vessel enabling James, his friend, and family to get away from their miseries plagued by Aunts Sponge and Spiker’s mistreatment. In Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, the chocolate factory owned by Mr. Wonka is equivalent to an imaginary world. Stepping in the factory compound, children will meet various unrealistic living things and items such as talking squirrels, the oompa loompas, the chocolate river, and the flying elevator, for instance. In The Magic Finger, as the title of the book conveys, the girl protagonist in Dahl’s next book can use the light from her index finger to transform any bad adults who provoke her anger to become the animals. Like general fantasy stories for the children, many talking animals, animate objects, mythical creatures emerge in the rest Dahlian writings for the children. The crocodile, the birds, the hippopotamus, the elephant and the monkeys all converse, argue to each other, and act like human beings in The Enormous Crocodile and The Twits. There are the giants in The BFG while the witches certainly appear in The Witches. However, although neither animate objects, mythical creatures nor talking animals are found in George’s Marvelous Medicine, the farm hens in this book can be enlarged or downsized when they are fed by the ingredients cooked by George, the main child character of this Dahlian fiction. In Matilda, the girl protagonist is endowed with her telekinetic power and this Dahlian girl uses it to threaten Miss Trunchbull, the cruel school headmistress until she flees from the school. Living in the Forest of Sin, the monstrous Gruncher in The Minpins will eat all humans and the minpins, the tiny people who roam close into the range of his smell. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 217 Mahasarakham University

Discussion and Conclusion Oppression does exclude the child from the society. In other words, it can be claimed that the oppressed children will become marginalized to the peripheral sphere of the society (Young 2). This means that their beings are socially deleted or their identities will not be recognized by other people. Lacking their beings or selfhood, the oppressed children’s voice will subsequently be unheard (Paul 181). Realizing such the devastating effects of oppression, Dahl who used to be oppressed, desires to speak for himself as well as for all the oppressed children. Therefore, the scenes of children’s oppression have been prolifically depicted in Dahl’s books for the children. In other words we can say that Dahl has deployed his stories to illustrate the devastating lives of the oppressed children. His children’s books are used as the apparatus to rebuke the adult oppressors for their misdeeds. Roald Dahl’s condemnation of the adult oppressors can be evinced by the results of the fights between the child protagonists and their adult villains; the triumphant victories always befall the child characters in all Dahl’s ten selected books. Psychologically, it is very difficult for the oppressed children to survive or continue living to function their daily activities. To lessen their living difficulties caused by oppression, the oppressed children need to transform and adjust themselves. The oppressed children’s adjusted reactions may be carried out either consciously or unconsciously (Kingston, Regoli & Hewitt 249; Freud 88). Or, both conscious and unconscious reactions can be deployed one at a time or at the same time by the oppressed children. In the case of Roald Dahl’s children’s stories, the ways the Dahlian child protagonists respond to their adult antagonists’ oppression can be classified into two main categories. In the books created at an early stage of his writing profession, most child protagonists such as James Henry Trotter of James and the Giant Peach, Charlie Bucket of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, and the children in The Enormous Crocodile either admit oppression or their defense devices of withdrawal, conversion or somatization are unconsciously activated to reduce tension and protect themselves from fears of threats and dangers imposed on them by their adult antagonists. On the contrary, the child protagonists in the stories especially those which were written in the latter stage of Roald Dahl’s writing life do not passively accept oppression from their adult enemies. Instead, the unnamed girl in The Magic Finger, Sophie of The BFG, and Little Billy of The Minpins simultaneously fight back, adopt delinquency, and try to take revenge on their bigger and stronger opponents without showing any symptoms of fear. The most evident case can be witnessed from Matilda and the school children in Matilda who aggressively revolt and retaliate against their own neglected parents and tyrannical school principal, Miss Trunchbull. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 218 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Regarding the author of these books, it can be assumed that Dahl’s unconscious defense device of sublimation has been activated by his childhood oppression prompting him to write consistently about the lives of the oppressed children. As stated in Sigmund Freud’s Civilization and Its Discontents, sublimation is regarded as the mature defense device which is defined as the process of diverting sexual instincts or harmful impulses into the socially and culturally higher acceptable behaviors. The mechanism had been elaborated further by this renowned Austrian neurologist and theorist of psychoanalysis that this kind of defense activation was “an especially conspicuous feature of cultural development; it is what makes it possible for higher physical activities, scientific, artistic or ideological, to play such an important part in civilized life” (79-80). Moreover, sublimation has been viewed by Carole Wade and Carol Tavris in their Psychology (2000) as the necessary defense device which is needed by any artists and creators because its activation will assist them to produce exceptional works of “arts and inventions” (478). Hypothetically, undergoing oppression imposed by the older school boys and school masters made Dahl feel very sad and painful when he was young. Besides, his voice, existence and identity were refused and eliminated due to the mistreatments at an early age. Hence, when getting older and become mature, Roald Dahl was unconsciously stimulated by these childhood abuse and ill-treatments. When he grew up fully and earned his living as a writer, all the adverse childhood impulses had been sublimated into his superb children’s literary works. That is to say, Roald Dahl can regain what has been lost during his childhood by writing the stories which the children can defeat their oppressive adults. All his voice, identity, and existence can be reclaimed through these children’s stories. However, Dahl completely realizes that there is no way that the small and fragile children will win over the bigger and stronger adults in the real world. To make his dream world become true, several fantasy elements such as paranormality and enchantment are chosen to strengthen his child characters to become capable enough to fight against and resist to their adult enemies. It can be said that fantasy is intended to be the literary genre of the Dahlian stories for the children. As Tamora Pierce’s Fantasy: Why Kids Read It, Why Kids Need It posits, fantasy is “more than any other genre” because it’s a “literature of empowerment” (51). With the strong support and the magical power penned by their author, the empowered Dahlian child characters can easily overcome the difficulties caused by their adult oppressors. In spite of numerous impossibilities, all the oppressive adult antagonists have been conquered in Roald Dahl’s writings for the children. Therefore, it can be concluded February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 219 Mahasarakham University

that the Dahlian fantasy writings for the children can be deemed not only the remedial potions for the author. They can also be regarded as the tools employed by the author to scaffold all the abused children and the child readers to survive until they can safely reach their maturity.

Implications It is discernible that the Dahlian fantasy children’s stories can be deemed not only the remedial potions for the author. They can also be regarded as the tools employed by the author to scaffold all the abused children and the child readers to survive until they can safely reach their maturity. To encourage the children not to give in to any hardship in their lives, fantasy elements have been bestowed to transform the weak child characters to become even more powerful than their adult enemies. Therefore, it can be concluded that Dahl’s children’s stories reflect both the writer’s resistance to children’s oppression as well as his protection of them.

References: Dahl, R. (2001) Boy: Tales of Childhood. London: Penguin Group. Freud, S. (1930) Civilization and Its Discontents. New York: W.W. Norton. ______. (1901) The Psychopathology of Everyday Life. London: Penguin Freud Library 100. Kingston, B., Regoli, B. & Hewitt, J.D. (2003) The Theory of Differential Oppression: A Developmental-Ecological Explanation of Adolescent Problem Behavior. Critical Criminology, Vol. 11, Issue 3, pp. 237-260. Levin, R. & Young, H. (2002) The Relation of Waking Fantasy to Dreaming. New York: Baywood. Paul, L. (1987/1990) Enigma Variations: What Feminist Theory Knows about Children’s Literature. In Hunt, P. Criticism, Theory, & Children’s Literature. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Pierce, T. (1993) Fantasy: Why Kids Read It, Why Kids Need It. School library journal. 39(10): 50-51. Wade, C. & Tavris, C. (2000) Psychology. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Young, I. (2004) Five Faces of Oppression. Oppression, Privilege, & Resistance. Boston: McGraw Hill. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 220 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

From Being Represented to Representing Themselves: A Study of Toni Morrison’s Beloved from the Perspective of Functional Linguistics

Xiaodong Liu1

1Lecturer, School of English Studies Xi’an International Studies University, China

Abstract Structuralists believe that linguistic phenomena need to be investigated in literary works. In fact, the dichotomy between langue and parole proposed by Saussure can assist to explain the dilemma that confronted the African American writers whose native language has long been deprived. With a purpose to expand the study of Toni Morrison’s Beloved, this paper explores this literary text on the basis of three different linguistic metafunctions, namely ideational function, interpersonal function and textual function, developed by Halliday, the forefather of Systemic Function Linguistics (SFL). The author argues that if English can be viewed as a norm and a symbol of American cultural hegemony, Morrison’s text is a deviation from the standard form of English so as to show the uniqueness of her African American culture. More importantly, it is a piece of self-representation of the black people and the African American culture.

Keywords: representation; African American culture; Toni Morrison; functional linguistics February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 221 Mahasarakham University

Introduction One of the key issues raised by Edward Said in his monument work Orientalism is the ability to represent oneself with regard to an indigenous culture. Said indicates, “From the beginning of Western speculation about the Orient, the one thing that the Orient could not do was to represent itself” (283). What Orientalists have done, according to Said, is falsely representing the Orient so as to create a contrasting image. At the very beginning of his book, he uses the quote from Karl Marx, “They cannot represent themselves; they must be represented.” From Flaubert’s representation of Arabs to Saxon’s depiction of Dr. Fu Manchu, from Christie’s portrayal of Egyptians to Conrad’s drawing of the dark figures in Africa, westerners present a whole array of images of the “Other” as morally decadent, intellectually stupid, culturally alien and exotic and physically feeble. For the indigenous people, to be able to finally represent themselves and their culture in world literature is something worthy of celebration. Homi Bhabha, in his book The Location of Culture, depicts a kind of in-between situation to illustrate his points concerning hybridity and ambivalence. He says, “It is not the colonialist Self or the colonized Other, but the disturbing distance in-between that constitutes the figure of colonial otherness” (45). Such in-between situation poses a real dilemma for the postcolonial writers, who had to struggle between the weight of two cultures—their indigenous culture and the imposed Western culture. The most evident of this dilemma is the use of language to express oneself. This is, in fact, the situation that faces the African American writers. They were dislocated from their homeland; their sense of their own history and culture has been brutally disrupted; and their language has been deprived. What they can do is to live in their newly adapted culture and write in English. How can the African Americans represent themselves in a language that is not their own? This is a daunting task for African American writers. The overwhelming obstacle, meanwhile, affords an opportunity for genius to emerge. One such genius is Toni Morrison, whose monumental work—Beloved has become one of the classics in American literature. Like the works of her predecessor, her work deals with slavery. But unlike those works, which either lament the misery suffered by the black slaves during the time of slavery or strike a conciliatory tone, Morrison’s work celebrates the African culture and tradition. There is neither sense of forgiveness nor capitulation to the dominant culture. Instead, as a reader, I get a strong sense that the people depicted in the novel are upbeat and proud. In her great work Borderlands, Anzaldua claims, “I am my language. Until I can take pride in my language, I cannot take pride in myself” (59). How does Morrison take pride in her people when she has to compose her work in a language that is not her own? To know what Morrison’s text does, we need to know how is does it. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 222 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Saussure, the founder of structural linguistics, introduced two important linguistic concepts to describe language: langue and parole. He distinguishes langue the abstract, socially agreed norm—from parole—the concrete individual expression. I use these two concepts to describe the relationship between the so called Standard English and the English spoken by the black. In addition, my textual analysis of the novel is also based on the theory of Systemic Function Linguistics (SFL), developed by Halliday, a well-known British linguist. According to Halliday, a text is a piece of language in use, which is functional because the use of language is considered as a purposeful behavior, and it provides a whole array of resources, by which we select and arrange in ways to realize our communicative purposes. He classifies the functions of language into three metafunctions: ideational function, interpersonal function and textual function. We use language to “talk about our experience of the world . . . to describe events and states and the entities involved in the world,” and this is what he calls ideational meaning (Thompson 28). The second function, interpersonal function, is concerned with the use of language to “interact with outer people, to establish and maintain relations with them, to influence their behavior, to express our own viewpoint on things in the world” (Halliday 20). Finally, textual function is related to the internal organization and communicative nature of a text, and it organizes the ideational and interpersonal functions. The three metafunctions provide semantic potentials, which are realized by the form of text itself. Once we take a functional view of language, we will take language as a process of making meaning, waving these meanings together, and shaping them into texts with purposes through conscious acts. In such a sense, form is meaning.

Discussion The dichotomy between langue and parole can help interpret Morrison’s work Beloved from a different perspective. The novel was published in 1987, a time English reached its height of global popularity, which assumes the role of the langue and represents cultural hegemony in a way. Writers who wished to have their literary works recognized by society must be subject to this cultural hegemony, and Morrison was of no exception. As an author, Morrison takes the full advantage of the parole within this linguistic system to express her African American identity, such as the use of Black Vernacular English, including the use of double descriptive, the use of the verbal phrases, and the use of black dialect. To demonstrate her Afro-Americanness in this language system, Morrison applies the linguistic devices to realize the ideational function of her text. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 223 Mahasarakham University

According to Halliday, ideational function is realized by various linguistic elements mainly at both phonological and syntactic levels (31). A brief examination will show that there are cases of linguistic deviations from Standard English located from the beginning to the end in Morrison’s novel, ranging from phonology to syntax. Actually, the phonological shift from strongly consonanted word like “aren’t” to “ain’t,” which are considered unstandardized or incorrect use of “aren’t,” or “am not,” can be found throughout the novel. Such regular substitution, in fact, provides reader a clear sense of the true representation of Afro-American speech, and this message is further demonstrated by the linguistic violations at syntactic level as well. The auxiliary verbs like “be” and “have/has” that are used to form continuous tense or perfect tense are not applied to speeches, such as, “What you talking about?” (211) or “What I been?” (53), and the use of double negative is of no freshness to audience at all, for example, “What, I don’t see nothing” (146). Another interesting example is the use of double descriptive, such as “weary little one” and “quiet cozy home,” which sounds not only vivid but also unique (95). For Westerners, however, all these structure variations are non-standard forms used by the indigenous inferiors of the blacks, which represents the pre-civilized who deserve to be repressed and controlled. In fact, such a stereotype of view falls into the category of linguistic prescription. Saussure distinguishes description from prescription. From the prescriptive perspective, the purpose of studying language is to define its standardized forms and structures, including spelling, grammar, pronunciation, texture, and the like, such as what Standard English is. In this light, any deviation from this standard is regarded as incorrect; consequently, Standard English is presupposed as an authority. Modern linguistics, however, is quite different from this tradition, and it places its focus on the specific descriptions of language, such as the way people actually speak. In this regard, English is rule-governed by nature, but it does not mean that all English speakers must follow precisely the same rules. In this sense, the deviation from Standard English manipulated by Morrison is, in fact, a challenge to this authority. Geoff Thompson, in Introducing Functional Grammar, claims that one of the main purposes of a text is to interact with readers: to establish and maintain appropriate social relations with them. The interpersonal function just serves such a purpose. It expresses the writer’s identity, status, attitude, motivation and his/her inference of matters. Behind every text, there is a relationship between reader and writer; this is the interpersonal meaning. The fundamental purpose of a discourse is not a simple presentation of information but an actual communication (79). Morrison reached this goal effectively via infusing the language of English with her African indigenous traditions and values. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 224 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

In African American literary works, the use of folk motifs is a typical means to inherit the heritage of African American culture from generation to generation, which includes a wide range of character types and folk practice. Some of the distinctive character types consist of the healer, conjurer, matriarch, storyteller, trickster, and religious leader while folk practice contains singing, dancing, or story-telling. One typical character Morrison created in her novel is Baby Suggs, a healer, a story-teller, and a religious leader, who helps her people to heal the century-old wound and locate the real source of their livelihood. Morrison shows clearly in her novel that there is no one to rely on but the black people themselves. African-Americans certainly cannot entrust their salvation on the whites, the very people who inflicted the pain and injustice on them. To permanently lift themselves from the past, they need a moral ground of their own to free themselves. In this regard, Baby Suggs, provides for her people both the moral ground and the ritual mode. After being a slave for sixty years, Baby Suggs finally became a free woman. On Sundays, she presided over a ritual, in which she leads a group of her people—men, women and children to a place in the wood, which she calls “Clearing.” She preaches to her people not as a Christian priest; the ritual has no bearing of the church service, but resembles a great tradition of African culture. In this way, Baby Suggs hands down to her people the tradition that does not only serve as a healer of their past wound but also as an inexhaustible source for them to move on. For Morrison, Babyy Sugg is a person of power, trickster, and a mediator, who connects with her African American origin. It becomes a medium through which Morrison realized her interpersonal function. She knew clearly that such typical character type was her African heritage. With the manipulation of the folk motifs, Morrison gives the full authority of speech to Baby Suggs, through which she roots her stories deeply and firmly in her African traditions, and her text, thus, serves as not only an intimate link between her with her black readers but also a defender of her native culture. Finally, the textual function, which, according to Halliday, is concerned with the permutation and organization of ideational and interpersonal information as a text in context, is realized by Morrison in her oral tradition (112). In African American culture, oral literature is highly appreciated. This is the distinctive performative quality that African rhetorical tradition has brought to both the author and the reader. Beloved is a story of pain, too painful to recall or remember, and too painful to forget or bury. Sethe, the protagonist, reincarnated daughter, whom she kills by her own hand, comes back to haunt her. She must face her, and live through it again in order to bury it. To relive the pain that keeps her chained to the past, Beloved incites February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 225 Mahasarakham University

her to tell stories; in the words of Beloved, it “became a way to feed her” (69). This surprises Sethe because the mention of her past life hurts, and everything in her story is painful. However, when the past is directly confronted through words, the process of healing begins. Storytelling serves as a way to heal the pain; more importantly, through this process of storytelling, the reader becomes aware of how history repeats itself and how the wounds of slavery go back and continue to repeat again and again. To Morrison, storytelling is an embodiment of the past that must be remembered in order to be forgotten, and it symbolizes what must be reincarnated in order to be buried. By using the African tradition of orality to relate history and folklores, Morrison connects her people to their roots. Minh-ha regards the oral tradition of story-telling as the simplest vehicle of truth. In her book, Woman, Native, Other, she claims that, “The story of a people ... Story, history, and literature—are all in one” (119). In such a light, “[s]tory writing becomes history writing” (120). Story and life merge, and story is the revelation of life, so it must be told. More importantly, storytelling maintained the difference that allows the Afro-Americans to distinguish their identity.

Conclusion Through the above analysis of ideational, interpersonal, and textual meaning, it is clear that Morrison’s deviation from the so called Standard English is not a challenge to the norm only, flowing from the signifier to the signified; rather, it is the authors’ intention, shifting from the signified to the signifier. With the achievement of such purposes, she rooted her story deeply and firmly in the “black” soil, and her literary work serves as a defender of both her African culture and black identity. Leslie Marmon Silko claims, “The great struggle is to make whatever language you have really speak for you” (qtd. in Adamson 116). Toni Morrison did it. By placing her text in her African American cultural context, Morrison makes English sound “black.” When Marx claims, “They cannot represent themselves. They must be represented,” Morrison, whose native language was historically robbed, and who was once denied the power of language, demonstrated a true representation of her culture and her people.

Works Cited: Adamson, Joni. American Indian Literature, Environment Justice, and Ecocriticism: The Middle Place. Tucson: U Arizona P, 2001. Anzaldua, Gloria. Borderlands: The New Mestiza. San Francisco: Aunt Lute Books, 1987. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 226 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. London and New York: Routledge, 1997. Halliday, M. A. K. An Introduction to Functional Linguistics. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research, 1994. Minh-ha, Trinh. Woman, Native, Other: Writing Postcoloniality and Feminism. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1989. Morrison, Toni. Beloved. New York: A Plume Book, 1987. Said, Edward. Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books, 1979. Saussure, Ferdinand de. Course in General Linguistics. Trans. Roy Harris. Chicago: Open Court, 1986. Thompson, Geoff. Introducing Functional Grammar. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research, 2000. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 227 Mahasarakham University

Family, Trauma, and Cultural Memory in Toni Morrison’s The Bluest Eye

Khanthaporn Changprasert1

1Lecturer at Department of Western Languages and Linguistics Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Mahasarakham University, Thailand

Abstract This study explicates the notion of family as indispensable fabric of cultural memory depicted through Toni Morrison’s The Bluest Eye (1970), specifically the Breedloves - the main character’s family as well as to explore how traumatic experience of being racial oppressed and father-daughter incest is represented and worked through the main character, Pecola, as root of memory and witness. In order to address how individual and collective memory is constructed within socio-cultural context, this study also employs the framework of cultural memory studies to elaborate the major role of family as a site of national memory. Resulted from the impact of class and racial oppression conveyed through the story, The Bluest Eye vividly portrays the deformed family and transmits through the main character, Pecola, the disruptive figure in the family and of the community. By reading Toni Morrison’s The Bluest Eye as incest narrative in conjunction with contemporary trauma theory, this study finds that under the male-dominated society, paternal authority not only renders the deformation of the Breedloves as a canvas of African American family in the past, but also recalls the traumatic narrative as a form of cultural memory, thus, turn to be the site of memory for bearing silent witness to the traumatic experience of the nation.

Keywords: Family, Traumatic Experience, Collective Memory, Cultural Memory INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 228 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Introduction Toni Morrision, the first African-American Nobel laureate, is a well-known novelist, editor and professor devoting her entire life to write experience and psychology of her black folks who are affected and deeply suffered from the trauma of racism. Morrison’s novels are set in the root of black communality with mostly the focal point of black female and young children characters, which she considers the vulnerable ones of the cultural history in American society. The impact of slavery and later racism is always portrayed in various facets of Morrison’s novels ranging from wrecked family, domestic violence and abuse, child molestation, rape and incest. These negative issues are also certainly depicted in Morrison’s first novel The Bluest Eye (1970). Despite the critical reception of this short novel and the attempt to ban it in public sphere, later it caught critical attention from critics. In the Afterword to a 1993 edition of the novel, Morrison expresses what she perceived as the offense to this novel, “with very few exceptions, the initial publication of the The Bluest Eye was like Pecola’s life: dismissed, trivialized, misread.” However, The Bluest Eye for today has widely received recognition and has proved that it is the undeniable evidence of legacy of racism as well as the cultural memory in which it has long lastingly interwoven in the face of American society. American life was hard, in 1941, the year following the Depression, when The Bluest Eye was set, and even worse for black people. The Breedlove family in the novel was one among those suffered that course of time. All three main characters analyzed in this study; namely, Cholly, Pauline, and Pecola, are depicted as the traumatized in the familial realm. Toni Morrison decisively employs Dick and Jane primer leading into each part of the book; nevertheless, the primer not only sets itself as the contradictory message of each part but also suggests the readers the paradox of the very societal institute as family as well as to critique the primer story as the master narrative. As the most poignant character, Pecola, the black and ugly protagonist has longed for and prayed for blue eyes with hope that she would become beautiful, loved and cared for by those people both in and outside her family. Having unheard and never been answered, Pecola’s prayers not only failed, but also turned out to be part the dangerous weapon making her psychologically wounded and traumatized. Family is the initial site generating Pecola’s traumatic experience. It is supposed to be the first and foremost safe place on earth to protect her from any negative encounters. Instead, her abusive parents are the first ones who drive her to the tragic life. Apart from witnessing her parents’ physical and verbal fighting most of the time in family, Pecola is also treated poorly by both her mother and father: being unaccepted as a newborn, labeled as black ugly little girl, scolded at and slapped, beaten up in front of the white girl in her mother’s master February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 229 Mahasarakham University

family, being hatred and raped by her father. These incidents are accumulated day after day in Pecola’s entire life, then mostly results in her physical and psychological agony. These accounts are considered the main part of situation driving her to end up with the insanity. With the acute narrative engine Toni Morrison employs throughout the story, the abjection and fate of each main character in the Breedlove family is vividly illustrated. Even the Breedlove family is specifically set and narrated differently from the other average black families, and Morrison chose the unique situation for Pecola’s case to pinpoint that her life’s devastation and extremity “stemmed largely from a crippled and crippling family” (Morrison, 168). Morrison attempts to make the link of African-American past and present familial experience interrelated. Pecola’s case is not the only one undergone such familial trauma events, but her parents too. Both of them underwent the common trauma experience basically molded from each of their childhood and family background. Each of them is the product of hatred, scapegoat in the history of American society where Toni Morrison does not want to keep them “quiet as it’s kept” (Morrison, 4). Among other functions of the novel, The Bluest Eye is invented to criticize the pattern of patriarchal dominance in the black community and to break the community’s silence. It is considered the groundbreaking piece of work and as literary canon to some extent encouraged many female authors to bear witness to such matters as incest, racism, and domestic colonialism. Father-daughter incest appears as a metaphor for racial relation; paternal incest is also treated as literal, traumatic, and tragic. In this study, I argue that the deformed black family as illustrated in The Bluest Eye is one of the lens to learn literature in light of traumatic experience and to explore its effects against the fictional characters. How black family with the disruptive features in the past is explored, memorized, and inscribed in American social and historical context is the approach of learning. The notion of family in The Bluest Eye also provides the comprehension from the perspective of cultural memory studies that family is inseparable unit of the whole society containing traumatic experience of a certain group of people, which is hard to forget. Family unit is also the essential piece of jigsaw to show the bigger picture of a specific group in society, thus turn to be representation of the nation’s identity.

Theoretical Framework 1. Family – Individual and Collective Memory in site of Cultural Memory Maurice Halbwachs (1980, 1992), The French sociologist, explored social factors in the construction of individual memories. According to Halbwachs, individual INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 230 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

memories are the essential fabric of the expansive discourse of memories of a certain communities or societies, which he terms collective memory. In collective memory, individual memories are states that remembering is not only an individual, psychological process but is also socially and culturally mediated. Shared communication about the past constitutes collective memories. A great deal of mnemonic communities always hold each one of individual as part of them, and collective memories exists on very different levels such as families, professions, political generations, ethnic groups, religious groups, social classes, and nations. According to Halbwachs (1992), family plays a major role in society in both literal and metaphorical sense. Family members are the people who usually constitute the first and often most important, social framework for child. And family life is arguably one of the main sites where sociocultural schemata are required (61). Halbwachs emphasizes the relations of individual and collective memory that they are interrelated. The individual obtains memory through social interaction among group members. Thus, the role of everyday communication is essential in the way that it interacts with a group memory so to stimulate individual memory. Halbwachs further pointed out that one can only produce memories when one communicates; therefore, both individual and group memory is constructed in and through daily conversation among group members, thus refocused through the lens of small-scale family memories. Halbwachs emphasized that family is essentially located within collective memory. Halbwachs’ concept of collective memory, which mainly focuses on the memory construction within small group, such as families, was later re-named communicative memory by Jan Assman (1995). Communicative memory functions in social frameworks; memories of every individual are linked to and thus influenced by the memories of other group members. The construction of communicative memory always occurs within social interaction, especially in direct, oral communication. Under cultural memory, communicative memory is embodied in and disseminated through cultural artifacts, like literature, film, TV, monuments, memorials, in large scale imagined communities like nations and religious denominations. Cultural memory refers to how people in such large-scale communities with a shared history and cultural identification create a cultural identity and historical consciousness. According to Astrid Erll (2011), collective memory is described as an all-compassing cultural, interdisciplinary and international phenomenon. How the “past” is created and recreated within sociocultural context is the question revolved around in cultural memory studies. A number of research questions in the studies include social shape of individual memory as well as the dynamic of conventional remembering within social group to national remembrance and to the transnational circulation of memory (303). February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 231 Mahasarakham University

2. Contemporary Trauma Studies According to the dominant trauma theory (Daniel L. Schacter (1996), Judith Herman (1992), Ruth Leys (2000), Cathy Caruth (1995, 1996), and Dominick LaCapra (1998), when an individual is traumatized, s/he represses the traumatizing events partially or even entirely which results in psychological stress symptoms. It is common belief that a traumatized person can be treated by ‘working through’ the problem, i.e., putting the traumatized events into words within psychological treatment. In contemporary trauma studies there emerged Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) termed by the American Psychiatric Association and the effort of psychiatrist Judith Herman who reveals that experience of trauma caused by domestic and sexual violence the women symptoms came to be understood in connection with PTSD. Cathy Caruth argues that psychic trauma is related to the “structure of its experience”. For Caruth, the event is not assimilated or experienced fully at the time, but only belatedly, in its repeated possession of the one who experiences it. The experience of trauma is not completed registered in the first place, but experienced as trauma only belatedly and someplace else when and where it re-surfaces in a fragmented form as traumatic flashbacks, nightmare, intrusive thoughts, and repetitive re-enactments. In relation to contemporary trauma studies, incest became linked to trauma again in literary studies after the feminist movement of the 1960s and 70s, when it became known that more women than men suffered from the long-term effects of psychological trauma. These women were traumatized in private life rather than in war. A number of researches employ contemporary trauma approach to study Toni Morrison’s novels since her works mostly deals with psychological conflicts as well as traumatic experience of racism. Evelyn Jaffe Schreiber explains in Race, Trauma, and Home in the Novels of Toni Morrison (2010) how trauma, whether initiated by physical abuse, dehumanization, discrimination, exclusion, or abandonment, becomes embedded in both psychic and bodily circuits. In this work, Schreiber discusses slavery and its legacy of cultural rejection create trauma on individual, familial, and community levels, and unwittingly parents transmit their trauma to their children through repetition of their bodily-stored experience. According to Schreiber, the concepts of “home” or family, whether a physical place, community, or relationship, are reconstructed through memory to provide a positive self and serve as a healing space for Morrison’s characters.

The Traumatized Characters in Memory of Family Cholly Breedlove: The effects of racism and classism on individual are not only explored in Morrison’s The Bluest Eye but also she places the issue of familial sexual abuse in her work. Morrison provides details of the trauma Cholly experienced earlier INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 232 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

in his childhood, and the sense of sympathy to an incestuous father like him. Before turning to the chapter of Cholly, Morrison supplies the prefatory pages illustrating him with stereotypical traits of the black man as irresponsible, abusive, and criminal, but then explaining how he turned to be that way. As an infant, he was critically abandoned by his mother at his only four days old, and his father left town before his birth. Later in his teens, he has to come to terms with the loss of his only stable figure in his life - Aunt Jimmy. The bereavement of Aunt Jimmy leaves him lonely and become once again an orphan. In search of his estranged father, Cholly also confronts the experience of being unwanted and deserted, desperately longing for paternal love, yet he was rejected and casted away by his real father upon the meeting as Samson Fuller dismisses him harshly: “Tell that bitch she get her money. Now, get the fuck outta my face!” (123). These words pierce through his heart, and the scene crumbles down Cholly with grief crying for his Aunt Jimmy. His familial trauma is summed up as: “Abandoned in a junk heap by his mother, rejected for a crap game by his father, there was nothing more to lose” (126). The details of Cholly’s agonized past and witnessing depicts how he is victimized and after the traumatized experience, he becomes the victimizer. It is no wonder why he does not know how to be a good father – for he never had one himself. Even worse than that, he distorts the expression of love in form of paternal incest. Pauline Breedlove: Pauline is also one of the traumatized characters in the novel who has got to deal with loneliness, neglect, and humiliation back in her hometown just because of her deformed leg and appearance. Later when she got married to Cholly Breedlove, she confronts with her abusive, irresponsible and alcoholic husband. Pauline, the lame foot woman with Southern background, once again bears her life as poor, lonely, isolated, and humiliated. In an attempt to escape the real world of bitterness unfulfilled by her family life as poor black folks, she takes refuge in dreams, hopes and fantasy in the movies she enjoys viewing. She compensates her ragged-family life by turning to the perfect white family for happiness and fulfillment. Having devoted in the well-to-do white family, taking very good care to their kitchen as if it is her own kingdom, as well as nurturing the daughter of her white master as her own, all these are the form escaping from the true bitterness she confronts back at home. To this extent, Pauline herself also needs cure and treatment psychologically. Even she is most likely seen as the least traumatized character among the three main characters, somehow, she bears the witness of being oppressed and repressed both from her family situation and from the white aesthetic standard in the community where she is maltreated. Pecola Breedlove: Pecola is the most vulnerable figure who explicitly depicts the story of trauma. Throughout the story, her life absorbs a number of traumatic episodes leading her towards the figure of abjection. Stepping into her neighborhood, February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 233 Mahasarakham University

Pecola is humiliated and dehumanized by most of school friends, teachers, and other community members who considered themselves superior to her. Turning back into her own family, Pecola once again treated as the unwanted, invisible, and even abused. Instead of the healing, her parents turn their demonized behaviors to squeeze against her psychologically agonized wound. At the very place of family, Pecola’s pain, both psychological and physical, galvanized with her parents’ hatred against her, she breaks her silence and her traumatic experience by the narrative voice Morrison gives her. Her voice presents a realistic portrayal of a female character suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder brought by her father-daughter incest. The dialogue between Pecola and her other self, one may consider her imagery friend, reveals that she was raped at least twice. The fact that Pecola no longer goes to school, and thought that she has got the blue eyes as prayed for all along are the details exposed to readers by Pecola herself at final phase of the story, thus we learn that she steps over to the madness. Narrative engine here in the novel functions as vehicle enabling Pecola, the incest victim, to work through her trauma. Through talking and witnessing her traumatic past, in the light of contemporary trauma approach, Pecola heals herself as in the process of psychological treatment. With attempt to escape trauma, Pecola rebuilds her cohesive self through physical transference, or to project her pain onto others through aggressive behavior as observed in the dialogue with her imaginary friend. In place of Pecola, the traumatized, only when trauma is confronted through verbalization and challenged with reparative images of home, can memories of a positive self overcome the pain of past experiences (Schreiber, 2010).

Representation of Family in Pain and in Memory As discussed earlier, all three main characters bear the psychological and physical trauma in different angles of their familial sphere. The representation of the Breedlove family and its traumatized family members is considered the remembrance of African American family and thus turns to be the cultural memory in the extensive social level. The Bluest Eye is one of Morrison’s masterpieces of cultural artifact interrogating how racism has “bred” not “love”. It is the depiction of insecurity and self doubt and how black fatherhood has been deteriorated in a Western society as America, consequently scapegoats by black children. The rape or incest in this novel is read and presented as metaphor in the ways that black characters were raped by whiteness. The domestic trauma suffered by the Breedloves as a family is dramatized by the author, and Cholly’s sexual violation against Pecola is inseparable from the larger context of racism and domestic imperialism. Father-daughter incest is indispensable part of the larger cycle of abuse. However, Morrison chooses not to blame any individual, but to INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 234 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

bear witness to the victims of systematic violence. The wounds, metaphorically depicted in the novel, caused by father-daughter incest is the most destructive to young black children as represented through Peocola. The wounds, or so to speak, the effects of institutional racism and classism in American history not only entails the incest but also embedded in the deep root of African American self. Here the paternal incest is no different from the seeds put into the little plot of black dirt, where it yields nothing but perish. The ideal of home and family presented in the nationally known Dick and Jane primer story is deconstructed in the novel’s first page and subsequently the following chapter headings. Intentionally, Morrison juxtaposes “family” in such a way that while the whole nation promotes literacy, in between, discriminated racist, classist messages at the cost of black children is paid. In the social context that white-male dominance is supremacy and standard, the voice of female victims remain unheard and unspoken as late as 1970s. Thus, it is hard for Morrison to tell Pecola’s story and it is her very effort to break aculturally enforced silence. The case of Pecola is the unforgettable one and so deserves to inscribe into the canvas of Black American history.

Conclusion Family as metaphorical figure connotes the public sphere of American society as a whole, Literary works, as their intertexual reflexivity, insist that they inscribe themselves into cultural memory while they also become an expression as well as an object of cultural memory. Morrison’s individual memory interact with her social group memory, the collective one, they both stimulate their social group together through the narrative of The Bluest Eye, thus it commemorate their past experience and identity. The narrative is the device Morrison employs to recall her respective community and their traumatic events of racism and classism portrayed through the fictional story and characters. As a master piece of literary work, The Bluest Eye not only features itself as the cultural artifact, but also stimulates reflection both on the history of America, and on the way this history is presented in the medium of fiction. Apart from the role of cultural artifact, The Bluest Eye serves as memory artifact because it constitutes simultaneously a memory narrative. It thus constitutes instances of communicative memory for it conveys a fictional memory narrative to audiences. By the same time, as memory artifacts, it is instances of cultural memory because it is constructed by memory maker like Toni Morrison, with an attempt not to mute an event in collective memory. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 235 Mahasarakham University

References: Assmann, Jan. “Collective Memory and Cultural Identity.” New German Critique 65 (1995): 125-133. Caruth, Cathy. Ed. Trauma: Explorations in Memory. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995. Caruth, Cathy. Unclaimed Experience: Trauma, Narrative, and History. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996. Erll, Astrid. “Locating Family in Cultural Memory Studies”. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, vol. 42, No. 3, 2011, pp. 303-318 Halbwachs, Maurice. The Collective Memory. New York: Harper & Row, 1980.---. On Collective Memory. Chicago: The U of Chicago P, 1992 Herman, Judith. Trauma and Recovery. New York: Basic Books, 1992. LaCapra, Dominick. History and Memory after Auschwitz. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1998. Leys, Ruth. Trauma: A Genealogy. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 2000. Morrison, Toni. The Bluest Eye. New York: Vintage Books, 1970. Morrison, Toni. The Bluest Eye. New York: Vintage Books, 1999. Schacter, Daniel L. Searching for Memory. The Brain, the Mind, and the Past. New York: Basic Books, 1996. Schreiber, Evelyn Jaffe. Race, Trauma, and Home in the Novels of Toni Morrison. Baton Rouge : Louisiana State University Press, 2010. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 236 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Categories and Themes in Hla Taw’s Jests in Watlat Township, Shwe Bo District, Sagaing Division, the Republic of the Union of Myanmar*

Wai Yee Khine1, Catthaleeya Aungthongkamnerd2

1Master Student in Folklore Program, Department of Folklore Philosophy and Religion, Faculty of Humanities, , Thailand 2Lecturer at Department of Folklore, Philosophy and Religion Faculty of Humanities, Naresuan University, Thailand

Abstract Hla Taw people are famous for having a sense of humor. Moreover, they are good storytellers and witty conversationalists. Wherever and whenever they are, both adults and children are able to get a conversation going with their witty tongues. As a result, Hla Taw’s jests have become very well-known and widespread among Myanmar people. The main purpose of this study is to classify the categories and themes of Hla Taw’s jests. Out of 667 stories, Hla Taw’s jests can be classified into 2 categories based on their characteristics: 1) taboo-related jests and 2) non-taboo related jests. Based on their size, 660 stories can be classified as one single episode jests while another 7 stories are trilogy jests. Regarding their themes, 665 non-taboo related jests can be divided into 10 major themes as follows: 1) reflection of state of society and way of living, 2) social criticism, 3) conflicts, 4) foods, 5) foolishness and cleverness, 6) temptation, 7) boasting, 8) stinginess, 9) disability, and 10) laziness. Based on the above division, most of the Hla Taw’s jests are either one single episode jests or non-taboo related jests.

Keywords: Hla Taw’s jests, Myanmar, Categories, Themes

* This article is a part of the Master of Arts in Folklore program thesis, Department of Folklore, Philoso- phy and Religion, Faculty of Humanities, Naresuan University. The title “An Analysis of Hla Taw’s Jests, Watlat, Shwe Bo, Sagaing, the Republic of the Union of Myanmar”, Master of Art Program in Folklore, Naresuan University. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 237 Mahasarakham University

Introduction In English, jests are called humorous anecdotes, merry tales, and numskull tales; similarly, in German they are known as “Schwank,” which are actually short anecdotes having a storyline with only one motif. The characters found in jests may be humans or animals, and the important characteristics of this kind of jests are impossible in various typical characters (Prakong Nimmanhaemin, 2545, p. 20-24). Kingkaeo Attagara said the important characteristic of the jests was that jests were distorted from the truth or natural rules. In jests, one could see foolishness leading to luck and fortune, laziness ultimately resulting in financial gains and promotion through ranks. In addition, violations of nature or tradition sometimes make the narratives in jests controversial. However, such odd stories become a delight for some readers because they are viewed as imaginary tales that are not limited by morality. Therefore, jests are often regarded as ways of imaginatively transcending the real constraints of people in society (Kingkaeo Attagara, 2514, p. 35). Although jests challenge the rules that govern our society, they are allowed to have such unusual narratives simply because they give humor to listeners. According to Kingkaeo Attagara, Jests are similarly to “bitter pills coated by sugar… The reason why we laugh when we listen to jests is because we listen to something strange from the normal or listen to deviation from expectation or deviation from the norm or social abnormality. That’s why jests are folklore which the society permits to parody with some kinds of ethical criteria and social standard. (Siraporn Nathalang, 2552, p. 409) Jests can be found in every language and every nation; therefore, jests are no strangers in the Republic of the Union of Myanmar. Jests play an important role in making people in society feel good and stay in high spirits. Tint Swe Moe, a famous Myanmar author of jests, makes a remark about the importance of Myanmar jests by saying, “There are so many stresses in our daily lives. Therefore, we need to laugh because laughing brings good physical and mental health to us and so, we can live our lives happily in society. Good jests never make a listener distressed or embarrassed but, can make the listener laughs. Thus, Jests have the important role in creating happiness for the people in society (Tint Swe Moe, 1995, p. 5-6). Hla Taw’s jests2 are the most well-known jests all over Myanmar (Maung Thar Lin, 1998, Introduction). Hla Taw people are very famous for having a sense of humor. Furthermore, they are surprisingly sharp-witted, tactful especially at story-telling and

2 Hla Taw village is situated in Watlat, Shwebo, Sagaing, located in north-western part of the Myanmar. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 238 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

conversation. Their jests are popular among Myanmar people, and everybody finds humor in their jests. Humors found in Hla Taw’s jests come from similes, hyperboles, and metaphors which are used to make comparisons. It is widely believed that even a child from Hla Taw village has an ability to tell jests (Lal Twin Thar Saw Chit, 2012, p. 3). Despite Hla Taw’s jests’ popularity and permeation throughout Myanmar, there has not been any research done on Hla Taw’s jests until recently. Now researchers are interested in analyzing Hla Taw’s jests.

Aim of the Research To classify the categories and themes of Hla Taw’s jests from Watlat Township, Shwe Bo District, Sagaing Division, the Republic of the Union of Myanmar.

Methods and Materials 1. Researchers collected Hla Taw’s jests from a total of 10 books which were published between the years of 1990 to 2011. 2. Researchers analyzed the categories of the collected Hla Taw’s jests based on the categories of jests by Prakong Nimmanhaemin and the themes by using the theme-concept of Stith Thompson and Prakong Nimmanhaemin as a framework, and then presented the findings through descriptive analysis. 3. The researchers summarized and discussed the results.

Research Scope In studying the categories and themes of Hla Taw’s jests from Watlat township, Shwebo District, Sagaing Division in Myanmar, the researchers used Hla Taw’s jests published by Phoe Yar Zar in a total of 10 books. They are: (1) Saga Taung Sar And Hla Taw People, (2) Shwe Mann People and Hla Taw People, (3) Using Metaphors Of Hla Taw People and Myanmar People, (4) U Paw Oo And Hla Taw People, (5)Thingazar Monk And Hla Taw People, (6) Hla Taw’s Jests Told Among Hla Taw People In Hla Taw Village, (7) Selected Treasure Hla Taw’s jests, (8) Selected Hla Taw’s Jests And Metaphors, (9) Piggy Bank Of Hla Taw Including Love Stories, and (10) Hla Taw Men and Ladies’ Jests known all-around continental Zabu. All in all, these 10 books consist of 667 jests.

Results of the Research The categories and themes of Hla Taw’s jests can be classified into categories and themes elaborated below: February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 239 Mahasarakham University

Categories of Hla Taw’s Jests Prakong Nimmanhaemin (2545, p. 144) classified the categories of Thai jests using two methods. They are (1) category of jests based on characteristics and (2) category of jests based on size. For classifying the categories of Hla Taw’s jests in this research, the researchers applied the method of classification by Prakong Nimmanhaemin as mentioned below: 1. Category Of Hla Taw’s Jests Based On Characteristics Based on characteristics, Prakong Nimmanhaemin classified Thai jests into two: 1. taboo-related jests and 2. non-taboo related jests. Thai taboo-related jests are about relationships between monks and nuns, relationships between son-in-law and mother-in-law, brother-in-law and sister-in-law, father-in-law and daughter-in-law. As for non-taboo related jests, they have many themes such as cleverness, foolishness, laziness, strangers and outsiders, boasting, etc. (Prakong Nimmanhaemin, 2545, 144- 149) After studying 667 Hla Taw’s jests, they were classified into 2 categories as in Thai jests, and found to have 2 Taboo-related jests (0.3 % in percentage) and 665 non-taboo related jests (99.7 % in percentage). 2. Category Of Hla Taw’s Jests Based On Size Prakong Nimmanhaemin differentiated Thai jests based on their sizes into two: (1) one single episode jests and (2) trilogy jests. One single episode jests consist of short contents having single or multiple motifs, and single or multiple humorous characters, possibly without mentioning the names of the characters. These kind of jests center around when and where of the events happening in the stories. And, the trilogy jests are partitioned into many parts based on the narrator. (Prakong Nimmanhaemin, 2545, 145-149) Hla Taw’s jests can be differentiated into two categories based on their sizes according to Prakong Nimmanhaemin. They are one single episode jests and trilogy jests. According to the study of 667 Hla Taw’s jests, it was found that there were 660 of one single episode jests (98.95 % in percentage) and 7 trilogy jests (1.05 % in percentage).

Themes of Hla Taw’s Jests As mentioned before, there are 665 non-taboo related jests. The researchers classified the themes of Hla Taw’s jests mainly by using the concept of theme- classification by Stith Thompson and Prakong Nimmanhaemin. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 240 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Stith Thompson found that there were 16 themes in the jests. They were cleverness, foolishness, deceptions of all kinds, winning the race by using tricks, negotiation, stealing and cheating, escaping by using tricks, seduction and fornication, cruel fraud, fraud by competing, counterfeiting, false allegations, bad wife, laziness, dumbness, priest and boasting (Prakong Nimmanhaemin, 2545, 20). As per Prakong Nimmanhaemin, there were 9 themes of jests found in Thai Folktales. They were cleverness, foolishness, laziness, sexuality, disability, priests, strangers and outlanders, people with high social status. (Prakong Nimmanhaemin, 2545, 149-158). Studying the themes of Hla Taw’s jests resulted in the discovery of 665 non- taboo related jests. The researchers found that Hla Taw’s jests have both similar and different themes compared to the concept themes of Stith Thompson and Prakong Nimmanhaemin. The researchers can classify the themes found in non-taboo related Hla Taw’s jests into 10. They are: 1. Reflection of state of society and way of living (236 jests) 2. Social criticism (136 jests) 3. Conflicts (97 jests) 4. Foods (71 jests) 5. Foolishness and cleverness (56 jests) 6. Temptation (23 jests) 7. Boasting (16 jests) 8. Stinginess (13 jests) 9. Disability (9 jests) 10. Laziness (8 jests)

The theme of reflection on the state of society and the way of living is mostly found among Hla Taw’s jests. The researchers classified this theme into 3: public utility, events that happened in society, and modern media. Public utility found in Hla Taw’s jests refers to expectation for basic necessities in daily lives of Hla Taw people such as irrigation, electricity, roads, and public transportation. For instance, public transportation issues was the central theme in the jest called “Serving with a golden stemmed-tray” A long time ago, there was just only one bus line which ran between two cities, Mandalay and Shwe Bo, passing through Hla Taw village and, there was no competition for better service. Bus drivers had always shown bad manners upon passengers. Later on, when there were many bus lines passing through Hla Taw village, the drivers had become friendly and started showing smiles towards passengers. A Hla Taw man said “Now, there are more bus February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 241 Mahasarakham University

lines, it is good for passengers for they don’t have to take overcrowded buses.” Another Hla Taw man also says, “In addition, passengers can take buses comfortably now, the manners of the drivers have also changed, too. Before, there was only one bus line so, the drivers spoke with the passengers very rudely, sarcasm and a bad-temper. When a passenger came on the bus carrying a small bell, the drivers would not want to take that passenger on the bus. But now, even if a passenger is carrying a huge-sized Sarong-wrapped- up package, the drivers would pick him up and serve his needs on a golden stemmed-tray. The events found in Hla Taw’s jests mostly come from the events that Hla Taw people have seen in their daily lives - for example, the car accidents near Hla Taw village, the conflicts and quarrelling between Ta Yai village and Hla Taw village during football matches, the fire incident in the city nearby, etc. For instance, fire incident in the jest called “Smoke Rises All the way to The 20th floor of Brahma’s celestial abode” is based on a typical real-life incident. On a bullock cart, a group of Hla Taw villagers happened to visit a city which had just caught a fire. When the guys saw the situation in the city, everyone felt uneasy. The cart driver says “Seeing this city burning in fire like this, I feel so sorry to the citizens. They should really be careful with fire.” Upon witnessing the fire incident, a Hla Taw man remarked, “The fire station was also burned in fire. Maybe this is worse than when the cows owned by the policemen got stolen.” Another Hla taw man replied “The Firemen have had to control the fire not to spread to important places that they couldn’t get to extinguish the fire that burned down their fire station. The fire was so strong that the zinc roofing of burning house blew up into the sky just like the way Aladdin rode a magic carpet into the sky.” Another Hla Taw man interjected, “The fire here isn’t much severe as the fire incident in Shwe Bo When the shwe Bo city was burned in fire, the smoke rose up to the 20th floor of Brahma’s celestial abode. Therefore, the Brahmas living in the sky became fire refugees just like the people in Shwe Bo. The modern entertainment in Hla Taw’s jests such as movies, radio dramas, songs, loud speakers, video games seem to be having a lot of influence on the daily lives of Hla Taw people and causing changes to Hla Taw people’s manners. Social criticism theme is the second-most common theme among Hla Taw’s jests. Those jests are mainly centered around satires to people with high social statuses like government officials in villages, wealthy men and people with in a higher social hierarchy. Satirical stories were made about their inappropriate manners. An example of that can be seen in the jest called “Show your Respect.” INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 242 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

A government clerk had been treating people in the village indifferently and sarcastically. He would show his respect only to those people who dressed up nicely. When he met those people with high social statuses, he would even show his respect by standing up, bowing his head all the way to the waist with great humanity. A Hla Taw man satirically said the following when he saw this government clerk who was overly servile: “OMG! If you stand up and bow down for many times, you must be tired definitely. So, you should crouch and crawl on the ground, and let your chest stick on the ground like a tortoise. That way, you won’t be tired at all.” The theme of conflict in Hla Taw’s jests can be differentiated into two: (1) conflicts between families and (2) conflicts between people in society. The conflicts between families such as conflicts between a father or mother and a son or daughter, between brothers and sisters, between a husband and a wife, between a father-in-law and a son-in-law or a mother-in-law and a daughter-in-law. Those conflicts between people occur between people who have different views and incompatible personal interests. An example of such social conflict can be found in the jest called “Burglar! Please Rob Us Just the Way You Are.” A group of Hla Taw villagers travelled around Yangon by bus. The bus fare per person was only half a Kyat (Kyat is the currency unit in Myanmar). One Hla Taw guy gave 5 kyats for 5 people, so the bus ticket seller was supposed to refund 2 and a half kyats. Instead of giving the correct amount of change back, the ticket seller gave them back only 2 kyats and kept half a kyat for him. Upon receiving the incorrect change, one of the Hla Taw men complained to the ticket seller, “OMG! You must be a burglar. Hey you know what? To rob us of our money, you didn’t have to disguise yourself as a ticket seller like this.” Food related themes can also be typically found among Hla Taw’s jests because consumption is one of the basic needs in daily lives. How Hla Taw people prioritize foods can be found in the jest called “Tough and Chewy” There was a time when a Hla Taw man ate rice with chicken curry at a religious ceremony celebrated in Hla Taw village. The chicken was very tough and undercooked that he could not take a bite of it. It was also chewy and sticky like glutinous rice. Thus, he became very angry and complained to everyone heard “Oh dear! This chicken curry is very chewy like glutinous rice. I think it was an old chicken – much older than I am now. That must be the reason why its meat was not tender at all. Instead of eating it, I’d better pay respect to it for having been an older chicken than my own age.” February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 243 Mahasarakham University

The theme of foolishness and cleverness is also found in some Hla Taw’s jests. Regarding foolishness, characters in those jests show awkward behaviors due to lack of experience in the things they encounter such as unfamiliarity with the culture and customs of big cities. With regard to the theme of cleverness, Hla Taw’s jests reflect intelligence and witness of Hla Taw people in their conversations. Interestingly, the researchers found that there have been more of cleverness-related themes compared to the theme of foolishness. They also realized that the theme of cleverness mostly centered around the language used in debates and conversations rather than in means to deceive and take advantage of other people. The jest named “Advertising An Encyclopedia” is a good example of Hla Taw villagers cleverness in their use of language. Hla Taw people were drinking together in a house. There was an old man who was sitting all by himself and smoking quietly in the corner of the room. One of the men who was drinking saw him and said, “Uncle! You are smoking alone without any company. Why don’t you join us?” The old man replied, “I have already had drinks and eaten as well. If I ate more, my belly would split into pieces.” Another man exclaimed, “Hey uncle! Come on, please join us and speak with us. Don’t be sitting there alone quietly.” The old man replied, “OMG! Now I’m talking with you guys. How could you say I am alone and sitting quietly? If I spoke more words, the words that I speak would fill up the house so much that it would blow up and break into pieces. If you wrote down the words I’d already spoken with you guys in a book, that book would be heavier than an Encyclopedia”. Everyone who heard the old man burst into laughter. The theme of temptation found in Hla Taw’s jests is more or less related to drinking and gambling. The jest “Toddy Palm Wine Is Quite Strong.” Once, a Hla Taw man happened to be keeping some bad company of bad- mannered people who were alcoholic and drug-addicted. One day he had toddy palm wine with those friends. He got very drunken. When he woke up the next morning, he expressed his feeling of drunkenness the night before using a metaphor, “OMG! When I got drunk last night, I felt very dizzy and nauseous. I felt like vomiting my gut out. I really felt like I was Vidhura- Pandita who got dragged along by the tail of the Punnaka’s horse brushing up against the rocky terrain while Punnaka galloped across 7 mountains.” The theme of boasting found in Hla Taw’s jests can be differentiated into two: (1) Boasting about incredible things (2) boasting about incidents that break discipline. The theme of boasting about incredible things mostly revolves around bragging about agricultural crops, material wealth and the water level in canals. The jest called “Penetrate through The Clouds and Go to The Heaven” clearly demonstrates it. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 244 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

There was a large banana tree located in a house in Hla Taw village. The root of the banana tree was as large as a palm tree. There was this time when guests came to visit the house, seeing that banana tree they told the owner of the house, “This banana tree is so large. I think when it bears bananas, they would also be so large size that the size would properly be equal to the leg of a calf.” The owner replied, “It always produces big bananas. The bunch of bananas is so huge and long that it goes up into the sky penetrating through the clouds to reach all the way to Suchada’s celestial house in Tavatimsa heaven.” The stinginess theme that is found in Hla Taw’s jests refer to parody and satire concerning people who are stingy. For instance, people who refuse to share or give away their properties or foods and people who are cheap to spend money even on themselves can be found in the jest called “KoteKuSa, a Stingy wealthy man.” There was this well-off but stingy man in Hla Taw village. One day he decided to have tea in a tea shop. Normally, he would never go to any tea shop. As the guy came in, people in the tea shop were very shocked that they exclaimed “Is it Guardian spirit Boe Boe Aung who has disguised himself as this stingy man and come into this tea shop?” After drinking tea, the stingy man left the tea shop. Upon his leaving, another man said, “A deity coming down from heaven to buy tea for his fellow deity Suchada would be a more plausible storyline than this stingy man finally having come to drink tea here because this man was so cheap that he never wanted to spend money even just to have tea. Even when it comes to dry feces around his toilet, he would rather keep them in a safety box than to let birds or any animal pick them.” Everyone who heard it burst into laughter. Under the theme of disability, Prakong Nimmanhaemin has studied Thai folktales and found that there have many different kinds of disabilities in various plots ranging from mutism, blindness, limbs-related incapacities, cleft lips and stuttering. Unlike what Stith Thompson has found before, There was only speech related disability theme.( Prakong Nimmanhaemin, 2545, 152-153) Disability is physical and mental inferiority that is not seen in a normal healthy able person. Among Hla Taw’s jests, as far as disability is concerned only cases of crossed-eyes, deafness, lack of general well-being, and physical deformities have been found. “A Man Who looks like a sick horse” is an example of such physical abnormality. At a pier by the waterfront, both young and old workers are loading things into boats. There is this old worker taking a break and sitting under a tree near the waterside. He is so skinny that he is literally like a bag of bones. The February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 245 Mahasarakham University

thin tanned skin on his skeletal body is shining in the sun. His chest contracts and expands noticeably as he breathes in and out. Upon seeing this skinny old man, a Hla Taw man says, “When I see him, I feel so worried about him because he looks like a horse suffering from asthma.” The theme of laziness found in Hla Taw’s jests normally revolves around non-fulfillment of duties as expected by the society. “Haven’t eaten rice for seven days” is one of the jests that displays such a theme. A group of men are digging holes to build a cowshed. Except for four men, the rest are doing their job with complete fervor. Upon seeing them, an old Hla Taw man makes a remark, “Hey guys! That soil won’t bite you. Please dig it hard and deep.” Another onlooker adds on, “Oh god! You guys are digging holes like you haven’t eaten rice for seven days.” Everyone who heard him laughs, and then only those four young diggers get embarrassed and start digging ardently to accomplish their job as others.

Summarization and Discussion From categorizing Hla Taw’s jests based on their characters, the researchers found that there were a lot of non-taboo related jests rather than taboo-related ones. It reflects that Hla taw people are so strict about sex-related taboo matters even in casual small chit-chat. It is almost certain that Hla Taw people don’t feel comfortable talking about sex-related taboos in public areas. The reason could be that Myanmar society including those in Hla Taw village is under the influence of traditional very Buddhism that people are quite conservation in publicly displaying affection and expressing opinion on sex-related topics. (Myanmar General Administration Department, 2017, 71) It can also be seen that there are no jests that involve mocking monks and nuns. With regard to the categories of Hla Taw’s jests based on size the researchers observed that most of the Hla Taw’s jests are one single episode jests that have short storylines that briefly go through the plots without mentioning the names of characters. One single episode Hla Taw’s jests usually have at least two characters for the purpose of making conversation between the two of them. It can be summarized that Hla Taw’s jests can be differentiated based on their characters, and most of them are non-taboo related jests. These non-taboo related jests can be grouped into 10 themes. They are reflection of state of society and way of living, social criticism, conflicts, foods, foolishness and cleverness temptation, boasting, stinginess, disability and laziness. Out of those themes, the Hla Taw’s jests mentioned-above reflect the state of society and way of living, incidents in Hla Taw village and issues faced by Hla Taw people. Those jests perfectly reflect the character and identity of Hla Taw people. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 246 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

References: A Lin Po. (2003). Selected Treasure Hla Taw’s Jests. Yangon: Phoe Yar Zar Publishing. A Lin Po. (2005). Selected Hla Taw’s Jests and Metaphors. Yangon: Phoe Yar Zar Publishing. Chaw Yupar. (1994). Using Metaphors of Hla Taw People and Myanmar People. Yangon: Ye Aung Publishing. Kingkaeo Attagara. (2514). Local Literature. Phranakhon: Supervisor Education Unit, Department of training teachers, ministry of education. Lal Twin Thar Saw Chit. (2012). Hla Taw’s Sakar (Words) and Hla Taw’s Jests. Yangon: Pann Myaing Lal Publishing. Maung Thar Lin. (1998). Nat Kan Oo’s Sakar (Words). Yangon: Sarpay Lawka Publishing. Prakong Nimmanhaemin. (2545). The Study of Folktales. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Press. Siraporn Nathalang. (2552). Folklore Theories: Methodology in Analysis Of Myths –Folktales. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Press. Tint Swe Moe. (1995). Guests Jokes 2. Yangon: Sarpay Lawka Publishing. Theint Theint Nwe. (1990). Saga Taung Sar and Hla Taw People. Yangon: Phoe YarZar Publishing. Theint Theint Nwe. (1993). Shwe Mann People and Hla Taw People. Yangon: Phoe Yar Zar Publishing. Theint Theint Nwe. (2008). Piggy Bank of Hla Taw’s Jests. Yangon: Yone Kyi Chat Publishing. U Hla Aung. (1995). U Paw Oo and Hla Taw People. Yangon: Phoe Yar Zar Publishing. U Hla Aung. (1996). Thingazar Monk and Hla Taw People. Yangon: Phoe Yar Zar Publishing. U Hla Aung. (1996). Hla Taw’s Jests Told among Hla Taw People in Hla Taw Village. Yangon: Phoe Yar Zar Publishing. U Hla Aung. (2011). Hla Taw Men and Ladies’ Jests known all-around continental Zabu. Yangon: Phoe Yar Zar Publishing. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 247 Mahasarakham University

A Study of Motifs Appearing in Pla Bu Thong in the Thai Language and Morana Meada in the Khmer Language

Peng Phat1, Pathom Hongsuwan2

1Graduate student at Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 2Lecturer of Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Mahasarakham University, Thailand

Abstract The aim of this research was to study motifs appearing in the Thai folktale Pla Bu Thong and Morana Meada, a similar story in the Khmer language. The study focused on three literature motifs including motifs of characters, motifs of events, and motifs of matters. The results of the study reveal that these three important motifs appear in both Pla Bu Thong and Morana Meada. Regarding motif of characters, in the two versions, there are characters—humans, animals, and trees—which are beyond reality and regular beings. An example of this type of motifs is a golden goby fish which is a rebirth of a dead mother. For motif of events, again, it was found that there are events which seem supernatural and surpass ordinary events. An angel getting into the dream of Eouy, for example, can be regarded as one of the motifs of events. Finally, the motifs of matters, or irregular matters, appear in both versions. For instance, the King orders his guard to kill Ay and bring her flesh to make human flesh paste before bringing it to Ay’s parents to eat. Overall, there are both similar and different motifs appearing in the two versions. However, they are regarded as a great way to entertain people, and with didactic elements in the stories they serve as means to teach moral to their audience.

Keywords: Motif, Folktale, Pla Bu Thong, Morana Meada, Thai, Khmer INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 248 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Introduction Thailand and Cambodia are neighboring countries which have been in closed relationship for a long time. As stated by Santi Phakdeekham (2007: 2), Thailand and Cambodia have similar geography, and they have had a good relationship for a long time ago, mainly on sectors such as politics, economy, society, population, language, and culture. If we study the history, we will clearly see that Thailand and Cambodia have had similar customs, culture, and belief such as how to celebrate New Year, worship the Buddhism, and so on. Thais and Cambodians like to listen to storytelling which can help them to release stress and tiredness from work. Moreover, the storytelling can educate people. Siraphorn Na Thalang (2016: 144 – 145) proposed that people are able to tell the story naturally, and when they move to the new place, they always tell the story to the new people whom they just meet in the new community as well. The popularity of storytelling among all levels of people is a drive to make the tales which were written in many books. The whole story shows the experiences and the minds of the people which can help people reduce stress and depression because the meaning of the stories reflected on the people’s thought. This makes the fairy tales very popular in all aras (Sigaphorn Thitathan, 1985:5) Pla Bu Thong (Golden Goby Fish) was written and published in Thai language; it became very popular all over Thailand. Thai people have deeply understood the meaning of Pla Bu Thong. Moreover, Pla Bu Thong was spread and stayed in Thais’ minds. This story is regarded as a useful story which teaches daily-life moral and offers pleasure in reading as well. In Cambodia, there is a tale, Morana Meada (Dead Mother), which was written in Khmer language and has similar contents to Pla Bu Thong. Morana Meada of Cambodia reflects on the real life of people in Cambodian society in that era. Morana Meada has been presented in Cambodian society for long time ago and it provides a lot of benefits to all Cambodian people, helping them to relax. These are reasons why this story is very popular in Cambodia. It can be said that both stories have offered many benefits to people in the two countries, so these fairy tales become more popular and attractive, making the researcher interested in studying motifs appearing in the above two stories.

The Purpose of the study The research aimed to study the motifs appearing in Thai folktale version under the title of Pla Bu Thong and in Khmer folktale version under the title of Morana Meada. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 249 Mahasarakham University

Definitions of Terms Motif: the meaning in folklore is the smallest element in a power tale which persist in tradition. In order to be powerful, it must have something unusual striking. Most motifs have fallen into three main categories, such as motif of characters, motif of events, and motif of matters. Folktale is a tale or legend originating as traditional tale among people or folks, especially ones forming part of the oral tradition of the common people. Pla Bu Thong is the name of a folktale written in Thai Language. Morana Meada is the name of a folktale written in Khmer Language. Thai refers to Thai people, or their language. Khmer refers to or their language.

Summaries of the folktales Pla Bu Thong (Golden Goby Fish) There was a rich man named Tharok who had two wives named Khanithee and Khanintha. Khanintha was the first wife who had a daughter named Eouy. Khanithee was the worst mistress ever, and she had two daughters named Ay and Aee. Ay and Eouy had the very similar appearance due to having the same father. This would be a cause of problems in the future. One day Khanintha and her husband went out to catch some fishes, but it was the hard time to catch them because of the extremely hot weather. The husband finally caught one Golden Goby Fish, but Khanintha let it go back to the water. Tharok was mad at her and suddenly stabbed her by the woods and she fell down into the water and died later. When Khanithee knew about the death of Khanintha, she was so happy and confident that her husband loved her so much. After Khanintha passed away, Eouy who was her daughter had a hard time to live because Khanithee tried so hard to bully her. After that Khanintha was reborn as a golden goby fish and always came back to her daughter. Eouy was so happy to meet her mother again. She usually came to visit her mother at the edge of the lake. Sooner or later, Ay and Aee found that the golden goby fish was Khanintha. So, they went to catch the fish and let Khanithee cook it for the husband. However, luckily one duck came to keep a little part of the fish for Eouy and she buried it, which later grew as a bean tree. Eouy was happy to visit the bean tree which was known as her mother. Later, Ay and Aee, again, knew about the bean tree and came to destroy it. This time, Eouy took the bean to plant as a golden banyan tree. Due to its size and strength no one could destroy the tree again. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 250 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

One day the king went hiking and saw Eouy in the middle of the forest with the tree. He suddenly fell in love with her beauty and would like to marry her. Therefore, he asked Eouy to live in the palace with him. This was a cause which made Khanithee and her two daughters jealous of her. When Tharok, who was the father of those three daughters, was not at home. Khanithee and her two daughters had a plan to lie to Eouy that her father was seriously sick right now and asked her to visit home. Eouy arrived the home and went inside the home. Suddenly, Aee pushed Eouy into the boiled oil pot and then she died immediately. Ay who had the similar appearance to Eouy disguised herself as Eouy and went back to the palace. Even though they looked alike, their behavior was completely different. Soon later, people in the palace noticed something wrong about her. Meanwhile, Eouy was reborn as a bird and flew into the palace. Ay knew about this and tried to catch Eouy to cook, but she could fly into the rat hole to ask the hermit Ey-Sey for help. Ey-Sey helped Eouy by magically turned her into human again and called her son to meet with her. Eouy’s son asked about his father, so Eouy told her son everything about her husband. Eouy’s son went to meet the King and told all the truth. After the King knew about this, he asked Eouy to come back to the palace. Ay knew about this, so she committed suicide to escape from the guilt. However, Eouy wanted to ask the King for forgiveness for Ay, but Ay was already dead. After all bad things have passed, the King, Eouy, and their son lived happily ever after.

Morana Meada (Dead Mother) After her mother was killed by her father during the fishing, Miss. Komaree got a new name Morana Meada, meaning dead mother. Morana Meada worked so hard every day. Her life was full of sadness and misery. Moreover, she was hit and attacked by her cruel, lazy stepmother and stepsisters as well as her father. However, her mother’s body turned into a golden goby fish which came to soothe her when she was sad. Knowing about this, the stepmother started a plan to kill the poor golden goby fish. She told her daughter who had the same appearance as Morana Meada to deceive goby fish into the trap and killed it to make food. Morana Meada found out about this and cried alone under the house. Suddenly, a talking duck gave her the fin of her mother. So, she buried it, and amazingly grew into an eggplant tree. Later, the stepmother knew about it, so she cut out the eggplant and grilled it for food again. Morana Meada still found a plant’s leaf and buried it far away from the house. After that, it suddenly grew up as a little golden Rolos tree and slivered Rolos tree (one kind of tree in Cambodia) which could talk to her every time she wanted to. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 251 Mahasarakham University

Many years later, Morana Meada grew up as a beautiful and kind girl. One day, a young King visited the village. He saw the trees and loved them, so he ordered his servant to take them but nobody could do it successfully. Finally, he asked Morana Meada to do it, and she successfully took the trees to the King, so he crowned her as his Queen. However, the stepmother and stepsisters started a plan to kill her and disguise one of the stepsisters as Morana Meada. Fortunately, the king knew about this and he punished the disguised Morana Meada by killing her and chopping her for food. Then, he sent her to her mother. The mother and family were afraid and tried to run away but they were killed by a cobra. Now, Morana Meada was turned into a bird by a fairy and flew to live with her husband to wait to be turned into human again. One of the king’s girls hated the bird and wanted to kill it. However, the bird was rescued by a white king mouse which then killed the king’s girl by biting her nose. Three years later, the king found Morana Meada as a human had a three-year- old son. They finally returned to the palace and lived happily forever.

Motifs appearing in Pla Bu Thong and Morana Meada In analyzing motifs appearing in Pla Bu Thong and Morana Meada, the researcher has applied the theory of Siraphorn Na Thalang (2016: 40) which defies motif as following: Motif in folktale is the smallest element in a power tale which persists in tradition. In order to be powerful, it must have something unusual and striking. Most motifs have fallen into three main categories including motif of characters, motif of events, and motif of matters.

1. Motif of Characters The characters in the story reflect humans in the society because all the characters in the story are made by the feelings and thoughts of the writer. The characters can be good or bad. The characters in Pla Bu Thong and Morana Meada of Cambodia include humans, non-humans, animals, and trees. 1.1 The characters as humans These characters have special characteristics and they are better than an ordinary people such as a special sense to know future events. In addition, Eouy in Pla Bu Thong and Komaree in Morana Meada have a special characteristic to speak with the golden goby fish (the golden goby fish was Eouy’s mother in the Thai tale and the goby fish was also the mother of Komaree in the Cambodian tale). Moreover, these two characters of Eouy and Komaree pray and make wishes in their minds then their wishes come true. For example, in Pla Bu Thong (p. 25-26) and in Morana Meada (p. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 252 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

52-53), Eouy and Komaree buries the fish scales and wish them to grow as eggplant trees. Their wishes are granted, as eggplant trees grow out of the fish scales. 1.2 The characters as animals These characters have special characteristics, and they are better than the other ordinary animals. For example, they have the ability to laugh, cry, and speak with people. In both stories, Morana Meada and Pla Bu Thong, the animal characters such as the goby fish can speak. This goby fish is able to speak to her daughter in Morana Meada: “While your dad and I were fishing in the river, your dad killed me and dropped me into the river” (p. 37-38). When the golden goby fish sees her daughter crying, it soothes her, tells her not to cry, and teaches her the rules of a lady. In Pla Bu Thong (p.17) the story is similar to Morana Meada. The golden goby fish tells her daughter, Eouy, that her father kills and drops her into the water before she was reborn into a golden goby fish. The character as the duck According to the story, the duck can speak with people. In Pla Bu Thong, when the duck sees Eouy crying, it brought the fish scale to her and says, “This fish scale is your mother. Your mother as the golden goby fish was killed by Khanithee when you went to the farm” (p. 24). The character as the cat According to the story, the cat can also speak with people as can be seen in Morana Meada that the cat tells Komaree, “The root of eggplant is your mother. She was pushed picked by Channsalinee then brought to Kalee to make food” (p. 53). 1.3 The character as the tree In both stories, the tree has 6 characteristics which are different from the ordinary trees. In Pla Bu Thong, there are the golden banyan tree and silver banyan tree which grow from golden seeds of the eggplant. When the king sees the golden banyan and silvered banyan, he is very satisfied with them and asks why they have different color from other trees; they were really beautiful (p. 31). In Morana Meada, there are the golden Rolos tree and sliver Rolos tree (a kind of trees in Cambodia), which grows from roots of the eggplant. When the king sees the golden Rolos tree and silver Rolos tree, he is very satisfied and describes them as very beautiful (p. 54).

2. Motif of events Motif of events is an event which is beyond reality and logic, such as flying, changing the body, or special magic which makes ones more special than ordinary people. There are many motifs of events in Pla Bu Tong and Morana Meada, such as the activities of Eouy and Komaree, the white mouse biting the nose of Channtea, and the use of magic to change a painting to be a man. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 253 Mahasarakham University

2.1 The angel getting into Komaree’s dream The angel changes her body and then get into Komaree’s dream in Morana Meada and tells her that her father killed her mother and then mother was reborn as the golden goby fish in the river in front of her house. When Komaree gets up, she walks straight to that river and meets with her mother in the form of the golden goby fish as she heard in her dream (p. 36-37). 2.2 The actions of Eouy and Komaree In Morana Meada, there is an amazing action which can be regarded as a motif of events. Komaree uses her hand to hit the water and says, “Mother, I arrived with food. Please came to take it.” She repeats the same speech for three times and then the golden goby fish comes and eats the food happily (p. 39). 2.3 The white mouse biting Channtea’s nose In Morana Meada, when the white mouse knows that Chantea has ordered the chief to pull off the feathers of Sarika or Sarika Keo (a type of birds in Cambodia), it is very angry. The white mouse enters the palace and finds one beautiful lady sleeping in the room. It knows that she is Channtea, so it bites her nose. Chantea gets hurt and dies (p. 176). 2.4 Using Magic to change a painting to be a man The hermit’s ability in using special magic makes him more powerful than ordinary people. He is able to fly and create anything as he wishes. In Pla Bu Thong on page 76 stated that the hermit knows that Eouy loves a painting very much, so he uses the magic to change the painting to be a man, Lobkoma (p. 76).

3. Motif of matters The first motif of maters appears in both stories as the human flesh paste, or the paste made by human flesh, which the king orders his guard to bring to Ay’s family to eat. In Pla Bu Thong, after the king knows that Ay disguises herself as Eouy and uses tricks to kill Eouy, he orders his body guard to kill Ay and then bring her flesh to make paste. This paste is then brought to Ay’s parents to eat (p. 86-88). Another motif of matters is about the fish scale. In both stories, the scale of the golden goby fish (a rebirth of Eouy’s mother) can grow into something else. In Pla Pu Thong, the duck brings the fish scale to Eouy and say to her that it is her mother. Then, Eouy buries it in the soil, and it grows as an eggplant tree (p. 25). Apart from the above items, there is also another motif of matters which is about the eggplant. It is found that the roots and the seeds of eggplant are buried in the soil and they become other things. In the Pla Bu Thong on page 27-29, Eouy brings the seeds of the eggplant to bury in the soil. Then they become the beautifully golden INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 254 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

and silver banyan trees (p. 27-29). In Morana Meada, after Komaree buries the roots of the eggplant tree in the soil, they become beautiful golden and silver Rolos trees which are very attractive.

Conclusion As discussed above, there are three motifs found in Pla Bu Thong and Morana Meada. For the motif of characters, it was found that there are human-like motifs as Miss Eouy, Miss Komaree, Thanee, Kalee, and the old woman Khlee Sat, Glade, etc. The human-like particles are the hermit, the characters of the gold and silver banyan trees. In Morana Meada there are the golden Rolos tree and the slivered Rolos tree (one kind of tree in Cambodia). There are also animals as motifs of characters such as the duck, the cat, the golden goby fish, etc. Regarding motif of events or behavior in Pla Bu Thong and Morana Meada, it was found that the hermit uses his magic to turn the cockatoo into a man, and the painting of Eouy/Komaree into a child. For the motif of matters, it was found that the fish scale of golden goby fish and the seeds of the eggplant are magically turned into something else. Overall, there are both similarities and the differences between the motifs in the two stories. However, both of them serve as a great way to entertain and to educate people in society.

References: Buddhist Institute. 1964. Morana Meada. 3rd edition. Phnom Penh. Buddhist Institute. Literature and History Office, department of Arts. 2016. Pla Bu Thong Hymn. Bangkok, edition place product. Santi Phakdeekham. 2007. Thai-Khmer literary relations. Bangkok, Amarin Press. Siraphorn Thitathan. 1985. The folklore in social Thai-Thai. Bangkok, Chulalongkorn University Press. Siraphorn Na Thalang. 2016. The folklore theory: methodology in mythological-folktales analysis. 3rd edition. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Press. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 255 Mahasarakham University

An Analysis of Language and Content of English Football Slogans

Kantar Suwannalar1, Bussabamintra Chaluaisaeng2

1Graduate student, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences , Thailand 2Lecturer, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Khon Kaen University, Thailand

Abstract Although in scientific literature, a unifying definition of a slogan does not exist (Dubovičienė & Skorupa, 2014), one main feature of slogan is a unique phrase to identify its’ brand identity or image with a catchy phrase easily recognizable and memorable (Dowling & Kabanoff 1996; Kohli et al., 2007; Clow & Baack, 2012). Also, slogans of football, the biggest of modern sports are employed for similar purposes. Thus, two main objectives of this study are language and content analyses focusing on, 1) systematically analyzing football slogans’ stylistic devices at the graphical, phonological, lexical, syntactic and semantic levels and 2) analytically investigating football slogans’ contents to identify their main conceptual themes. One hundred thirty three purposively selected football slogan samples with one to five words from four hundred sixty eight football slogan populations in twelve most relevant football slogan websites during 2016. A quantitative and deductive research type was used to analyze the slogans’ stylistic devices based on the work of Christopher (2012), Kohli et al (2007), Ding (2003), Foster (2001), Myers (1997) and Leech (1972), Dyer (1992) and Greenbaum (1990) including a qualitative and inductive method to investigate major conceptual themes of their contents based on the work of Krippendorff (1980), Downe-Wamboldt (1992), and Sandelowski (1995). The main findings showed that capitalization at the graphical, noun at lexical, declarative sentence at syntactic, assonance at phonological and metonymy at semantic levels are the most prominent stylistic devices used in target football slogans while the findings of the content analysis yielded eight main conceptual themes ranging in decreasing of frequency from advice/suggestion, courage/motivation, attitude/ tradition, unity/family, passion/ obsession, challenge/competitiveness, trustworthy/ dependability, to idol/role model. In sum, the findings from this innovative research showed all the chosen slogans fitted all the theoretical fame work in terms of stylistic devices, and eight conceptual themes representing the social and cultural features of football game clearly reflected of natural phenomena of the game required high levels of cooperation of team work with fierce competition.

Keywords: football slogans, language analysis, content analysis INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 256 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Introduction Traditionally slogans were used in religious and political fields to convey particular meanings to specific audiences (Abdia & Irandoustb, 2013). However, at present slogans have been employed in business and industry in order to promote their products and services including entertainments and sports like football. Football, one of the most favorite past times of people in this modern world, is not just a sport game, but it has become a global sport business for professional famous football teams or leagues and football players whose football slogans are used to support their teams and their players to win. As a result, it is useful to study the language and the content of football slogans which have been shown through both their posters and banners or chanting to cheer their teams during the games to achieve their goal i.e. to convey their thoughts and intentions in human communication as a social process (Akinbode, 2012) as a language is considered a device to carry messages and to show one’s feeling whether in form of words, gestures, or speech (Do Van Anh, 2012) among human beings to be understood and performed (Pryse, 2002). Nevertheless, there has not been an empirical study directly undertaken to systematically analyze football slogans to identify their prominent language features and main conceptual themes of their contents. This study appears to be the first one to do so.

Objectives of the Study are to analyze both language and content of football slogans through 1) systematically analyzing the football slogans’ stylistic devices at the graphical, phonological, lexical, syntactic and semantic levels, and 2) analytically investigating the football slogans’ contents to identify their main conceptual themes.

Conceptual Framework: The conceptual framework of this study focuses on football slogans with their language and content analyses.

Football Slogans: Football slogans shown on posters and banners or chanted to cheer their teams in the football stadiums are assumed to predominantly come from their supporters like their football team fans, their coaches, their sponsors and others involving in the game. Football slogans share similar main features with advertising slogans in forms of catchy phrases with special effects on football players’& fans’ minds to remember its team with a specific concept like “Fear the (Team Name) reflecting challenging or “Sweat plus Sacrifice equals Success” representing motivation and so on. These catchy phrases are “memorable, original, intentional, competitive and credible (Foster, 2001: 3). To successfully influence their audiences, football slogans can come either in forms of a new phrase or one that is already familiar like general February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 257 Mahasarakham University

advertising slogans with these key measures: enjoyment, involvement, understanding, key message and reason to believe (Brown, 2011). For instance, memorable football slogans are always relevant and meaningful for readers or listeners like One town, One team, One dream symbolizing regional pride. Moreover, a catchy slogan with some types of stylistic language like rhyme or alliteration to connect the phrase to a team’s attitude like Look up, Get up but never Give up. Similar to general slogans, football slogans aim to achieve their two main goals i.e. promoting awareness of brand, and creating, protecting, or changing image or perception of brand that causes its repositioning. (Abdia & Irandoustb, 2013). Particularly, with the time constraint, football slogans studied in this research are based on the ideas proposed by Hamlin (2017) who stated that “most slogans are catchy, declarative phrases that use devices such as metaphors, alliteration or rhymes with simple, vibrant language” which is usually a short tagline – less than five words --”. Language Analysis of Football Slogans: The language analysis of football slogans in this study employs the theoretical framework of Christopher (2012), Kohli et al (2007), Ding (2003), Foster (2001), Myers (1997) and Leech (1972) based on a typical language and rhetorical devices for designing slogans covering five levels i.e. the graphical, lexical, syntactic, semantic and phonological levels. 1. A Graphical Level covers Capitalization which represents a full or partial capitalization and unconventional spelling to specifically and deliberately to effectively attract attentions of readers like Say Soccer – Play Soccer. Also Symbols are widely used to form efficient command to attract readers’ attention and interest like I love CR 7 <3. 2. A Lexical Level covers these aspects to have a particularly special effects on the readers: 2.1 Coined Words are considered as neologism, a new word or expression, or a new meaning for an existing word or jargons, special words and phrases that are used by particular groups of people, especially in their work (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, 2016) like football and soccer. The coined word “Football” may be from the words Foot + Ball which are originally referred to a variety of games in medieval Europe, which were played on foot. (https://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Football (word), retrieved on 9 April 2018) while the coined word “Soccer” is an abbreviation for Football Association (FA), the ‘official’ name for the game added the suffix –er. (https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/explore/whats-the-origin-of-the-word- soccer, retrieved on Dec. 2017) 2.2 Numeral, Pronoun, Adjective, Verb, Noun and Unqualified Comparison are specifically used in slogans also to have a profound effect on the INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 258 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

readers or listeners like these football slogans. They are shown through these examples: Numeral: 11 players, 1 heart beat, Pronoun: Surrender the ME for the WE, Adjective: Fast and Furious, Verb: Believe and achieve, Noun: Pride, Power, Victory and Unqualified comparison which is purposefully used in advertising slogans to increase the readers’ / listeners’ interest especially by not explicitly stating the second term of comparison but leaving the readers or listeners to decide or guess what it is resulting in unqualified comparison. (http://literarydevices.net/comparison/): like Sweat plus sacrifice equals success. 3. A Phonological Level is about the sound techniques referring to the way the word is pronounced, not spelled ranging from rhyme, alliteration, assonance, consonance, rhythm to onomatopoeia as shown below: 3.1 Alliteration is “a figure of speech in which consonants, especially at the beginning of words, or stressed syllables, are repeated” (Cuddon, 1999:23) like Faith, Family, Football. 3.2 Rhyme is “the movement or sense of movement communicated by the arrangement of stressed and unstressed syllables and by the duration of the syllables”; therefore, rhymes in the form of slogans enable the transmission of simple information through facilitating better memorization of the slogan as it resonates in readers’ or listeners’ mind (Cuddon, 1999: 753) like Teamwork Makes the Dream Work. 3.3 Repetition comes either in form of a verbal and visual repetition (Dyer, 1992) with two types of repetitions: Anaphora is the type of repetition when words or groups of words in successive clauses are repeated (Cuddon, 1999, 37) like Look up, get up, but never give up. Also, Epiphora /epistrophe is the type of repetition which sentence or clause ends with the same word (Cuddon, 1999, 279) like Say Soccer – Play Soccer. Similarly, Assonance or “vocalic rhyme” “consists of the repetition of similar vowel sounds, usually close together, to achieve a particular effect of euphony” (Cuddon,1999: 58) to get the quality of having a pleasant sound like Score More. Finally, Consonance is “the close repetition of identical consonant sounds before and after different vowels” (Cuddon, 1999: 176) like Sweat makes the green grass grow. 3.4 Onomatopoeia is another sound technique based on “the formation and use of words to imitate sounds” (Cuddon,1999: 614–615) like WASSSSSUP?!. Viva Futbol! Or “Boom”. 4. A Syntactic Level in this study covers four major syntactic types mostly corresponding with four different discourse functions i.e. declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamative sentences. (Quirk and Greenbuam, 1990) 4.1 Declarative Sentence express some statements either in affirmative or negative forms to primarily convey information like Actions speak louder than coaches. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 259 Mahasarakham University

4.2 Interrogative Sentence are used to express the lack of information on a specific point and request the listener to supply missing information like Life’s a soccer ball. Can you kick it? 4.3 Imperative Sentence are used for requesting actions under the form of orders or sometimes invitations, imperative sentences or commands like Don’t Think, Just Shoot! 4.4 Exclamative Sentence are used for primarily expressing subjective reactions and feelings like What a kick!! 4.5 Ellipsisis is ‘a situation in which words are left out of a sentence but the sentence can still be understood (Cambridge Advanced Learners Dictionary, 2017) like Bekham who? 5. A Semantic Level includes figurative language like pun, metaphor, simile and personification, metonymy, metaphor, apostrophe, symbol, synecdoche, hyperbole, antithesis and paradox (Dyer,1992). 5.1 Simile is “a figure of speech in which one thing is likened to another, in such a way as to clarify and enhance an image. It is an explicit comparison (as opposed to the metaphor, q.v., where the comparison is implicit) recognizable by the use of the words ‘like’ or ‘as’” Cuddon (1999: 830) i.e. Life is like soccer, we need GOALS. 5.2 Metaphor more directly compares two unlike objects than simile like Football is life…Get in the Game! 5.3 Metonymy is “a figure of speech in which the name of an attribute or a thing is substituted for the thing itself” (Cuddon, 1999:510) or is “where the product is associated with some person or surroundings” (Myers, 1997: 127-8) like Let The Feet Do The Talking (referring to football). 5.4 Personification is “the impersonation or embodiment of some quality or abstraction; the attribution of human qualities to inanimate objects. Personification is inherent in many languages through the use of gender” (Cuddon, 1999: 661) like Luck favors the prepared. 5.5 Pun involves a play on words frequently applied to get a humorous effect (Cuddon, 1999) because it represents lexical items with more than one meaning; sometimes a word play occurs on different senses of the same word and sometimes on the similar sense or sound of different words (Mifflin, 2000) like Don’t go through life without goals. (The first meaning is a football goal and the second is a life goal.) 5.6 Apostrophe is one of figurative language devices which means “a thing, a place, an abstract quality, an idea, a dead or absent person, is addressed as if present and capable of understanding” (Cuddon, 1999: 51) like Talk with your feet. Play with your heart. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 260 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

5.7 Symbols “is an object, animate or inanimate, which represents or ‘stands for’ something else” (Cuddon, 1999: 885). For example, No Soccer? No way! symbolizes the passion for or even obsession with football. 5.8 Parallelism “consists of phrases or sentences of similar construction and meaning placed side by side, balancing each other” (Cuddon, 1999, 637) which is intentionally employed to persuasively express a balanced flow of ideas through repetition technique like Failing to prepare is preparing to fail. 5.9 Antithesis is “fundamentally, contrasting ideas sharpened by the use of opposite or noticeably different meanings” (Cuddon, 1999, 46) like Pain of sacrifice or pain of regret? 5.10 Hyperbole is “a figure of speech which contains an exaggeration for emphasis” for emphasizing the best features of the advertised objects (Cuddon,1999:406) like Losers quit when they’re tired. Winners quit when they’ve won. 5.11 Paradox is “an apparently self-contradictory (even absurd) statement which, on closer inspection, is found to contain a truth reconciling the conflicting opposites’. (Cuddon,1999: 634) like Second place means First Loser! Content Analysis of Football Slogans: Content analysis is a research method with a systematic and objective means of describing and quantifying phenomena (Krippendorff, (1980); Downe-Wamboldt, (1992); Sandelowski, (1995) whose main purpose as a method of analyzing documents is to systematically understand the main concept of the collected data by distilling words into fewer content related categories or to test theoretical issues for better understanding (Elo & Kyngas, 2007) with the assumption that words, phrases and the like share the same meaning when classified into the same categories (Cavanagh,1997). In other words, categories, conceptual a model system or map is the expected outcome from content analysis as a research method through making replicable and valid inferences from data to their context (Elo & Kyngas, 2007). In short, content analysis in this present study refers to a flexible but systematic content-sensitive research method whose concept analysis facilitates better understanding of communication with meanings, intentions, consequences and context of football slogans. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 261 Mahasarakham University

Research Methodology covers two research designs i.e. a quantitative and deductive type for language analysis and a qualitative and inductive research type for content analysis.

The Research Population are 468 football slogans from 12 most relevant football slogan websites during 2016 such as 1.https://brandongaille.com/list-44 catchy- soccer-slogans-and taglines/2.http://blog.customink.com/2012/09/youth-football- slogans-sayings/ and 3.http://blog.customink.com/2012/03/soccer-slogans/.

The Research Samples are 133 catchy memorable football slogans consisting not more than five words selected from all 468 football slogan population out of 12 relevant football slogan websites.

The Research Instruments are divided into the research instruments for language and content analyses employing coding schemes adapted from the work of Ding (2003) and Elo & Kyngas (2007). They are illustrated in the following tables. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 262 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Table 1 Coding Scheme of Language Features or Stylistic Devices

Levels of Language Language Features or Coding Schemes Analysis Stylistic Devices Graphical Capitalization CZ Symbols SB Lexical Coined word CW Numeral NO Pronoun PN Adjective AJ Verb V Noun N Phonological Alliteration, AL Rhyme RM Anaphora AN Epiphora EP Assonance AS Consonance CO Onomatopoeia ON Syntactic Declarative DE Interrogative IN Imperative IM Exclamative EX Ellipsis EL Semantic Simile SI Metaphor MP Metonymy MY Personification PT Pun PU Apostrophe AP Symbols SY Parallelism PA Antithesis ANT Hyperbole HY Paradox PAR February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 263 Mahasarakham University

Table 2 Coding Scheme of Content Analysis of the Football Slogans

Content Samples of Samples of Conceptual Coding Analysis Football Slogans Keywords Themes Schemes

Charac- teristics Heading to the top. Heading/shoot Advice /Sug- AS Don’t Think, Just gestion Shoot! No Pain No Gain No/ play/ pride Courage / CM Play with Pride. Motivation A winning tradition Win/tradition Attitude/Tra- AT dition Unity is strength/ Unity/ family Unity/Family UF We are family. Soccer is my passion. Passion /born Passion/Ob- PO Born to play soccer session Our goal is stopping Stop/ yours/ Challenge/ CC yours. Your turf is mine Competitive- mine. ness Count on me Count on Trustworthy/ TD Dependability I love CR 7.<3 love Idol/ Role IR Model

The Process of Accessing the Source of Data: The process for source and data collection is shown in figure 1. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 264 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Data Collection and Data Analysis: The 133 data were collected through the process of deselecting the football slogans; all 468 football slogans were deselected because they either duplicate or contain more than five words. The data analysis of both language and content was carried out through three main phases: preparation, organizing and reporting. The Language Analysis is conducted through a quantitative and deductive method based on the framework of Elo and Kyngas (2007) by categorizing each data to fit each stylistic device ranging at graphical, phonological, lexical, syntactic and semantic levels through these deductive process of language analysis: 1. selecting the unit of analysis, 2. developing structures of analysis matrices, 3. gathering data by stylistics devices, 4. identifying categories of language features and 5. presenting the results. Then the results are presented in terms of frequency and percentage. The content analysis is carried out through a quantitative and inductive research method in order to identify the main conceptual themes of football slogan content based on the research work of Krippendorff, (1980), Downe-Wamboldt, (1992), Sandelowski, (1995) and Elo and Kyngas (2007). The findings reflected eight main conceptual themes describing the social and cultural phenomenon of football game using the same three phrases like those of language analysis and analyzing through 1) selecting the unit of analysis, 2) making sense of the data and whole, 3) opening coding, 4) coding sheets, 5) grouping, 6) categorizing, 7) abstracting, 8) deciding conceptual themes or categories and 9) presenting results.

Results The findings of language analysis showed that Capitalization is the most prominent stylistic device (38 or 30%) at a graphical level between capitalization itself and symbols while Noun is the major one (16 or 15%) at a lexical level among Coined Words, Numerals, Pronouns, Adjectives, Verbs and Noun itself. Then, Declarative sentence or a Statement is the major stylistic device (30 or 22%) at a syntactic level among the others like Interrogative Sentence, Imperative Sentence and Ellipsis whereas Metonymy is the most frequently used language feature (15 or 23%) at a semantic level among the rest like Simile, Metaphor, Personification, Pun, Apostrophe, Symbols, Parallelism, Antithesis, Hyperbole, Paradox. Next, Assonance is the main stylistic device at the phonological level (9 or 10%) among Alliteration, Rhyme and Repetition with five sub-classifications like Anaphora, Epiphora /epistrophe, Consonance, Onomatopoeia and Assonance itself. The rest includes the combination of other language features (25 or 18.79%) like symbols or puns which are minor stylistic devices or less frequently used among these most prominent ones at each level of language analysis. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 265 Mahasarakham University

The results of the content analysis revealed eight main conceptual themes of the football slogans showing the equally most prominent conceptual themes i.e. advice/suggestion and courage/motivation (40 or 30.08%) while the average ones are attitude/tradition (17 or 12.78%) followed with the less significant ones like unity/family (13 or 9.77%), passion/ obsession (11 or 8.28%) and challenge or competitiveness (10 or 7.51%). Finally, the least significant ones are trustworthy/dependability (1 or 0.75%) as well as idol or role model (1 or 0.75%).

Discussion Although all types of stylistic devices are employed for designing football slogans at every level, among the133 purposively selected football slogans, it seems mainly simple typical stylistic devices are most frequently used. For example, at a graphical level, the football slogans, Capitalization is mostly used to specifically and deliberately to effectively attract attentions of readers with the bigger size of letters to be easily seen as a means to increase opportunities to attract viewers’ attentions. In addition, at a lexical level, Noun is mostly utilized which is assumed that noun is used to presented much broader definitions than other type of words as nouns carry the information and represent “people, animals, places, things, quality, actions or ideas” (Jeffiries L, and Mikulecky, B,S., 2012: 37) while verbs carry the relationships. Moreover, at a phonological level, Assonance is mostly prominent language feature among other stylistic devices at this level. This may be because assonance is easy to remember and its quality of having a pleasant sound for “achieving a particular effect of euphony” (Cuddon, 1999: 58) like this slogan: Score More. Furthermore, at a syntactic level, a declarative sentence is the most prominent one used in the target football slogans. This might be due to its flexibility in expressing ideas either in affirmative or negative forms to primarily and simply convey any information. Moreover, at a semantic level, metonymy is the major stylistic devices used among other figurative language which might be because Metonymy implies specific which has stronger impacts on readers or listeners than other common types meanings like Let the Feet Do the Talking (referring to football). More interestingly, the outcomes of both the language and content analyses are ambiguous. In other words, they are interchangeable with their overlapping meanings as some of them can be classified into various categories. For example, the slogan: 1 Team, 1 Mission can be considered as either Capitalization or Numbers in language analysis or it can be classified as unity or attitudes in content analysis. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 266 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Conclusion It can be concluded from this an innovative research that all the chosen slogans fitted all the theoretical fame work of stylistic devices out of language analysis, and the main eight conceptual themes out of the content analysis clearly reflect the social and cultural features of natural phenomena of a football game demanding high levels of cooperation of team work with fiercely competitive football game as the most popular international game in this modern world. This new body of knowledge is assumed to make a good contribution to the applied linguistic field both in an advertising slogan industry and teaching and learning English especially for English for Specific Purposes (ESP) as well as copywriters or creative advertisement designers for promoting football industry through potential innovative football slogans including all parties involving in a football game such as their leagues, teams, players, fans and sponsors for better communication with each other and others outside the football field.

References: Abdia, S. & Irandoustb, A. (2013). The importance of advertising slogans and their proper designing in brand equity. International Journal of Organizational Leadership, 2(2), 62-69. Akinbode, O. (2012). A sociolinguistic analysis of advertising language in selected Nigeria mass media commercials. Research on Humanities and Social Sciences, 2(8), 26-33. Brown, T. (2011). Change by Design. The Journal of Product Innovation Management, 28(3), 381-383. Cavanagh, S. (1997). Content analysis: concepts, methods and applications. Nurse Researcher, 4(3), 5-16. Christopher, A. (2012). Deixis and personalization in ad slogans. World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology, 64, 526–530. Clow, K. E. & Baack, D. (2012). Integrated advertising, promotion and marketing communications. Edinburgh: Pearson Education. Cuddon, J. A. (1999). The penguin dictionary of literary terms and literary theory. London: Penguin Books. Ding, X. (2003). Stylistic features of the advertising slogan. Retrieved November 8, 2017, from http://www.translationdirectory.com/article49.htm. Dowling, G. R. & Kabanoff, B. (1996). Computer-aided content analysis: What do 240 advertising slogans have in common? Marketing Letters, 7(1), 63–75. Downe-Wamboldt, B. (1992). Content analysis: Method, applications, and issues. Health Care for Women International, 13, 313-321. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 267 Mahasarakham University

Dubovičienė, T. & Skorupa, P. (2014). The analysis of some stylistic features of English advertising slogans. Man and the Word / Foreign Languages, 16(3), 61–75. Dyer, G. (1992). Advertising as communication. London: Routledge. Elo, S. & Kyngas, H. (2008). The qualitative content analysis process. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 62(1), 107–115. Foster, T. R. V. (2001). The art and science of the advertising slogan. Retrieved October 29, 2017, from http://www.adslogans.co.uk/ans/adslogans_artscience.p. Greenbuam, S. (1991). An Introduction to English Grammar. Longman Group UK Limited. Kristen Hamlin. (2017). The importance of ad slogans. Retrieved November 22, 2017, from http://smallbusiness.chron.com/importance-ad-slogans-31343.html. Kohli, C., Leuthesser, L., & Suri, R. (2007). Got slogan? Guidelines for creating effective slogans. Journal of Business Horizon, 50, 415- 422. Krippendorff, K. (1980). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications. Leech, G. (1972). English in advertising: A linguistic study of advertising in Great Britain (English Language Series). London: Longman. Myers, G. (1997). Words in ads. London: Hodder Arnold. Pryse, W. (2002). A Headache Aianisis Project. The Journal of Head and Face Pain, 42(8), 728-737. Sandelowski, M. (1995). Sample size in qualitative research. Research in Nursing & Health, 18(2), 179-183. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 268 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Trends of Studies on Cultures and Language Uses in Thailand

Somkiet Poopatwiboon1

1Lecturer, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Mahasarakham University, Thailand

Abstract Attention to cultures and language uses has been centered on anthropological and linguistic studies for decades. A number of studies have been conducted, published and presented yearly. The purposes of this study were 1) to categorize the studies on cultures and language uses found in the TDC Database Collection; and (2) to describe characteristics of the studies on cultures and language uses in the TDC Database Collection. The data in this study were 161 studies with an emphasis on cultures and language uses found in Thai Digital Collection (TDC), a database website, operated by Thai Library Integrated System or ThaiLIS, in which studies in various fields and forms can be searched and directly downloaded. The data were collected in January 2017. In response to the two purposes of the study, the data were analyzed, using the Content-based Analysis Framework. Four findings were concluded as follows: firstly, based on the scope and purpose, the studies were conducted under different five categories: “Linguistic Disciplines”, “Effective Communication”, “Cultural Reflection”, “Social Communication”, and “Non-verbal Communication”. Secondly, the studies on cultures and languages found in TDC were mainly written in Thai with a few titles in English. Thirdly, the studies were prepared in three various forms which consist of theses/ dissertations/ independent studies, research articles, and research studies. Finally, the target languages and cultures were mostly standard Thai, Thai dialects, ethnic and local languages some of which are the combination with two types of the target languages. The findings of this study will help increase more quality research studies and establish bodies of knowledge ready for use to improve and develop better understandings amongst people from different cultures.

Keywords: cultures, language uses, research trends February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 269 Mahasarakham University

Introduction Cultures and language uses closely work as a communicative tool. In order to have an effective communication, it undoubtedly needs to understand the culture and people who speak such a language. For this reason, many undergraduate and graduate study programs, especially in Thai and foreign languages embrace courses focusing on linguistics and studies of cultures and language uses in order that students gain sufficient knowledge on the language learned and also recognize the relationship between the culture and language use. For instance, courses entitled “Khmer for Communication and Culture”, “Language and Cross-cultural Communication between Thai and Chinese” and “Language, Society, and Culture”, in BB.A. Programs in Khmer, Chinese and Thai, respectively, were designed to encourage students to learn the target language in connection to its people and culture. As a result, students of each study program will be able to realize the roles of the learned culture and language in promoting better understanding and cross-cultural communication (Division of Registration, Mahasarakham University, 1917). Furthermore, a linguistic course entitled “Culture and Language Use” has been continuously offered as a minor subject for students from different foreign language programs to strengthen their acquisition on the being learned language and its culture (Division of Registration, Mahasarakham University, 1917: 286). Throughout almost last four decades, a number of studies on cultures, language uses and the relationship between the two study disciplines have been immensely conducted. With reference to various study programs in Thai and foreign languages, students, especially in graduate level have been continuously promoted to conduct studies in various forms, such as a term-paper to fulfill the course requirement, or an independent study, a thesis or dissertation to complete the degree. It is also true that the faculty members who are in charge of each study program need to handle this responsibility, consistently creating state-of-art research studies in this area. Thus, it is not uncommon to see a number of research studies contributed by the lectures’ side. Having a swift glance, studies on cultures and language uses cover those of standard Thai, dialects, ethnic, local, and familiar foreign languages, such as English, Chinese and Japanese. Comparative studies between Thai and other foreign languages can also be initiated. Looking a little bit more closely, the studies predominantly focus on linguistic disciplines, including phonological, syntactic and semantic systems, using different cultural aspects to describe and explain certain forms of language use, and vice versa. In addition to this, different areas of study are also lighted on effective communication, cultural reflection, social and non-verbal communication. As a fruitful guide, this reviewed categorization will be used as a starting point to classify studies on INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 270 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

cultures and language uses found in the Thai Digital Collection (TDC) in the present study. TDC (2018) is one of the projects under the administration of Thai Library Integrated System or ThaiLIS. One of the main purposes is to provide researchers and students with information and bodies of knowledge necessary for creating expanded and advanced research studies. Students, university faculty and researchers are allowed to search for relevant academic documents and full papers can be directly downloaded from the collection’s website. Based on the Content-based Analysis Framework, the collection network classifies documents in accordance with their forms of appearances, including various kinds of papers, sounds, and images. The category searching is composed of research reports, articles, abstracts, texts, sound effect, sound ambient, music, sound narration, speech, archive, rare books, e-books, graphic presentations, images, films and animations. In addition to the appearance form, document searching can be successfully operated by intuitions from where documents were taken, titles, subjects and authors. The database collection allows both single and multiple entry searching. For example, a database user can select category “thesis” to search for theses under the required study fields. In the same way, he/she is allowed to reach all kinds of documents from the database under the entailed study field by just simply selecting the category “all kinds”. Since the advantages in providing researchers, students, and other interested people with bodies of knowledge necessary for academic works, the TDC Database Collection is constantly getting more popular and frequently visited. Most colleges and Universities, if not all, are responsible to upload at least theses conducted to complete the study degrees into the database collection. Students, lecturers and also researchers are suggested to visit the database collection to form research topics or search relevant information for literature reviews. For instance, students taking a course in culture and language use at Mahasarakham University are also recommended to consult the database collection in order that they can light up an inspiration and increase their knowledge to create their own research topics. In gaining more benefits, the present study is interested in making use of the data from the TDC Database Collection to seek for in-depth knowledge on cultures and language uses. Consulting the Content-based Framework, categories of the studies and their characteristics will be established. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 271 Mahasarakham University

Purposes The current study aims to: 1. Categorize the studies on cultures and language uses found in the TDC Database Collection; and 2. Describe characteristics of the studies on cultures and language uses in the TDC Database Collection.

Scope This study focused on the studies on cultures and language uses found in the LDC Database Collection in January 1917. The main task was placed on finding the categories and their characteristics.

Theoretical Framework The present study was conducted by using the Content-based Analysis or Content Analysis Framework. Content analysis is the process of “summarizing, quantitative analysis of messages that relies on the scientific method (including attention to objectivity, inter-subjectivity, a priori design, reliability, validity, generalizability, replicability, and hypothesis testing) and is not limited as to the types of variables that may be measured or the context in which the messages are created or presented” (Neuendorf, 2002 cited in Lai, 2015: 140). Traditionally, content analysis involves the following steps: (1) selecting a topic, (2) deciding on the sample, (3) defining concepts or units to be counted, (4) constructing categories, (5) creating coding forms, (6) training coders, (7) collecting data, (8) determining inter-coder reliability, (9) analyzing data, and (10) reporting results (Lia, 2015: 140).

Research Questions In order to reach the two purposes of the study, 2 research questions were set up as follows. 1. How many categories can be used to describe the studies on cultures and language uses found in the TDC Database Collection? 2. What are the characteristics of the studies on cultures and language uses in the TDC Database Collection?

Data and data collection The data were 161 studies found in the TDC Database Collection in January 2017. Two searching key phrases, including “Linguistics” and “Language and culture” were used throughout all areas and kinds of the database collection’s searching boxes. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 272 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

The data were rechecked by the following additional searching phrases which consist of “communicative or communication strategies”, “Socio-linguistics” and “Language use”.

Data Arrangement and Analyses Based on the Content-based Analysis Frameworks, the data were prepared by the help of Microsoft Excel 2010 program in which grouping of similar criteria was well managed. As illustrated in Table 1, each study from the database collection was marked by its category, language version, study form and target language and culture. Numbers were used to code the names of categories, language versions, study forms and target languages and cultures. For example, the study by Nommanus (2003) was marked with numbers 1, 1, 1, and 1 in the four analyzing columns. This was decoded that this study was grouped into Category A: “Linguistics Disciplines”; it was in a Thai version; it was in the form of thesis; the target language and culture was Thai. Similarly, “A study of Pattani Malay Color Terms” by Saleh (2009) was decoded as a study in Category A “Linguistic Disciplines”, Thai version, thesis form with focusing on a foreign language.

Authors Titles Date categories Language Study Target Versions Forms Languages and cultures Nommanus Negation in Responses 2003 1 1 1 1 of Thai Speakers Saleh A study of Pattani 2009 1 1 1 3 Malay color terms

Table 1: Data arrangement of the studies on cultures and language uses

Findings In response to the two research questions, focusing on categories and characteristics of studies on cultures and language uses, this section is composed of 2 sub-sections, namely, categories of the studies and characteristics of the studies.

Categories of the studies In response to the first research question, the data of 161 studies were analyzed by their scopes and purposes. As shown in Table 2, the data analysis informs that there are five different categories of the studies on cultures and language uses, namely “Linguistic Disciplines”, “Effective Communication”, “Cultural Reflection”, “Social Communication” and “Non-verbal Communication”. The highest in number of studies February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 273 Mahasarakham University

falls in Category D: “Social Communication” which is 69 (42.86%) while the 2 lowest are Category E: “Non-verbal Communication” and Category C: “Cultural Reflection” which hold only 4 (2.48 %) and 12 (7.45%), respectively.

Categories Category Names Number Percent A Linguistic disciplines 47 29.20 B Effective Communication 29 18.01 C Cultural Reflection 12 7.45 D Social Communication 69 42.86 E Non-verbal communication 4 2.48 Total 161 100

Table 2: Categories of the studies on cultures and language uses found in the TDC

To have a more accurate picture, a detailed description of each category will be further investigated in this section. To begin with Category A: “Linguistic Disciplines”, it was found that many studies were aimed at presenting the overall picture of a language and culture (Witeerungrot, 1994) In addition to this, some studies intended to find out a particular linguistic system, such as the word system (Phimjun, 2004), address terms (Wattanatham, 2001; Wongkhachorn, 1999; Chanta, 1992), naming (Sookprasert, 2006; Komitin, 2005; Sang-On, 2011; Boonkongsaen, 2000), and kinship terms (Dompriwan, 2012). Still another detailed description, the studies under Category B: “Effective Communication” geared toward comprehending effective communicative strategies in different kinds of settings, such as indirectness (Khobluang, 2004), expressing conflict (Pothiwit, 2012), requests (Naktrakoon, 2012), impoliteness (Sawanglap, 2013), negation in responses (Nommanus, 2003), presentation (Pimpanit, 2010), euphemism (Srimunta, 2012) and apologizing (Makthavornvattana, 1998). In addition to the previous two categories, the studies under Category C: “Cultural Reflection” concentrated on impacts of cultures on language uses, and vice versa. The impacts of cultures on various forms of written work were brought into focus, for example, the study of proverbs (Thiplueporn, 1985), and idioms (Boonphan, 2004). Under a similar classification, the studies under Category D: “Social Communication” focused on various forms of medias, for instance, magazines (Kasiwat, 2007), movies (Jarerninprom, 2010), newspapers (Dhoppupa, 2002), pop- songs (Wattanasuk, 2006), radio programs (Tantinakorn, 1995), advertisements on INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 274 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

television (Kasemsuwan, 2005), novels (Apisuntarangkoon, 2007) and social medias (Bumrungphakdee, 2014). Last but not least, the studies under Category E: “Non-verbal communication” gave an emphasis on the impacts of culture on acceptable non-verbal uses, for example, cross cultural non-verbal communication (Akkarawattana, 1998), and Haptic usage (Supida, 2001).

Characteristics of the studies With reference to the 5 categories previously found, 3 main characteristics of each study category were further investigated. As mentioned earlier, the 3 main characteristics were “Language Version”, “Study form” and “Target Language and Culture”. To begin with the “Language Version”, it was found that only Thai and English were used through 161 studies. As shown in Table 3, the studies in Thai version are up to 154 titles or 95.65% of the total number of the studies. In contrast, there are only 3 studies in English version, each of which is in Category A: “Linguistic Disciplines”, Category C: “Cultural Refection” and Category E: “Non-verbal Communication”.

Categories Category Names Thai English Total A Linguistic disciplines 46 (97.87%) 1 (2.13%) 47 B Effective Communication 29 (100.00%) 0(0.00%) 29 C Cultural Reflection 11 (91.67%) 1 (8.33%) 12 D Social Communication 65 (94.20%) 4 (57.80%) 69 E Non-verbal communica- 3 (75.00%) 1 (25.00%) 4 tion Total 154 (95.65%) 7 (4.35%) 161

Table 3: Language version of the studies on cultures and language uses found in the TDC

Still another characteristic of the studies on cultures and language uses is the study’s target language and culture. Based on the Content-based Analysis Framework, it was found that there were 4 different types of target language and culture found in the data of 161 studies. They were “Standard Thai”, “Dialect or Ethnic Languages”, “Foreign Languages” and “Two Languages”. Table 4 demonstrates that the most popular target language and culture found is the “Standard Thai” which the highest number of 99 or 61.49 % of the total number of the studies. The first and second follow-up positions are the “Dialects/Ethnic Languages” and the “Two Languages” with the number of 30 (18.63%) and 22 (13.67%), respectively. In contrast, the least popular is on the “Foreign Languages” which holds only 10 studies or 6.21% of the total number of the studies. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 275 Mahasarakham University

In connection to the 5 categories, it was found that the “Standard Thai” was widespread among the studies in Category D: “Social Communication” while the slot of “Dialects/ Ethnic Languages” was fascinated by the studies in category A: “Linguistic Disciplines”. As shown in Table 4, the “Standard Thai” shares 81.16 % of the total number of the studies in Category D; the “Dialects/Ethnic Languages” moves up to 44.68% of the total number of the studies in Category A.

Categories Category Names Standard Thai Dialects/ eth- Foreign Two Total nic languages Languages Languages A Linguistic disciplines 14 (29.79%) 21 (44.68%) 5 (10.64%) 7 (14.89%) 47 B Effective Communication 21 (72.41%) 0(0.00%) 2 (6.90%) 6 (20.69%) 29 C Cultural Reflection 5 (41.67%) 3 (25.00%) 1 (8.33%) 3 (25.00%) 12 D Social Communication 56(81.16%) 5 (7.24%) 2 (2.90%) 6 (8.70%) 69 E Non-verbal communica- 3 (75.00%) 1 (25.00%) 0 (0.00%) 0 (0.00%) 4 tion Total 99 (61.49%) 30(18.63%) 10 (6.21%) 22 (13.67%) 161

Table 4: Target culture and language of the studies on cultures and language uses found in the TDC

Last but not least, the last characteristic of the studies on cultures and language uses is on their forms, such as theses, research studies, research articles, and etc. The analysis of 161 studies indicated that 4 different forms of studies were applied to conduct the study on cultures and language uses. The four forms included “Theses/ dissertations”, “Research Articles”, “Research Studies” and “Independent Studies”. In comparison, as shown in Table 5, the “Theses” takes the first highest position which holds the number of 139 studies or 86.34% of the total number, while the “Research Studies” hits the second position with the number of 12 studies or 7.45% of the total number. The remaining forms share approximately 7% of the total number. That is, the “Research Articles” has a share of 3.73% and the “Independent Studies only 2.48% of the total number. Interestingly, under the categories of “Cultural Reflection” and “Non-verbal Communication” all studies are in the form of “Theses”. The studies in the form of “Research Studies” are moderately seen under 2 categories: the “Linguistic Disciplines” and “Socio-linguistics”. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 276 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Categories Category Names Theses Research Research Independent Total Articles Studies Studies A Linguistic disciplines 38 (80.85) 2 (4.26) 6 (12.76) 1 (2.13) 47 B Effective Communication 29 (100.00) 0 (0.00) 0 (.00) 0 (0.00) 29 C Cultural Reflection 10 (83.33) 1(8.33) 1(8.33) 0 (0.00) 12 D Social Communication 58 (84.06) 3 (4.35) 5 (7.25) 3(4.35) 69 E Non-verbal communica- 4 (100.00) 0 (0.00) 0 (0.00) 0 (0.00) 4 tion Total 139 (86.34) 6(3.73) 12 (7.45) 4 (2.48) 161

Table 5: Forms of the studies on cultures and language uses found in the TDC

Discussion and Suggestion As presented earlier, five main categories on the studies on cultures and language uses from the TDC, the only source of database used in the current study, were configured. Of the five categories, in terms of number, Category D: “Social Communication” was ranked first, while Category A: “Linguistic Disciplines” second. This is because impacts of culture on language uses are one of the key issues to be used to understand people in the society. As mentioned in the introduction, for an effective communication both in daily life and business negotiation, it is worth understanding the relationship between the culture and language use. Many research studies, therefore, have geared toward this discipline. However, in capturing a clear picture, studies in a particular linguistic system, including naming and address terms are also being interested by many researchers in the field. Studies under these 2 categories are expected to continuously grow up with more emphasis on various forms of social Medias which will be applied to promote better understandings between people within the same and across society. In view of characteristics, most, if not all, the studies were in the form of theses/ dissertation/ independent studies, leaving a tiny gap for full research studies and articles. For further In-depth investigation, this phenomenon can be explained as follows. To begin with, since the data used for this study were taken from the TDC which initially encourages colleges and universities offering graduate degrees, both for masters’ and doctoral degree, to upload the academic products into the collection, it is not surprising to see a big number of theses, dissertations and independent studies. As mentioned before, this form of studies is essential to the completion of a course and degree. In addition, due to a small number of full time researchers who play attention to this field of study, it is reasonable to expect a small number of academic works which normally come in the forms of full research or research articles. Apart from this, research studies in Humanities and Social sciences have been less supported than February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 277 Mahasarakham University

those of pure and applied sciences since the nation prioritizes its research policy for building up the body of knowledge for rising up Thailand as an innovation country. In the same way, to response to why most studies are written in Thai, not in English, this is because a majority of studies on cultures and language uses are end products of studying programs. As renowned, within a domestic study program which Thai is mainly used as the language of instruction, unsurprisingly, lectures, teaching and learning products are in the native language. Therefore, it is suggested that it is time to update Thai educational systems from domestic to global oriented frameworks, merely being practiced in our neighboring countries like (Grapragasem, Selvaraj, Krishnan, Anbalagan and Mansor, Azlin Norhaini, 2014).

Conclusion With reference to personnel and financial shortages in Thailand, studies on cultures and language uses are still fossilized. To step out of this trap, future research in this field needs to have more application and implication to promote better political and business negotiation both nationally and globally, not just innocently aims to establish bodies of knowledge just for only better understanding of cultures and language uses.

References: Akkarawattana, C. 1998). The use of nonverbal communication between Thais and Americans in pre-service training for peace corps, Thailand. (M.A. Thesis in Communicative English). . Apisuntarangkoon, P. (2007) An Analysis Study of Metaphor Appeared in Tomyantee’s Novels. (M.A. Thesis in Applied Linguistics). . Boonkongsaen, T. (2000). Study of Naming in Thai of American Film. (M.A. Thesis in Language and Culture for Communication and Development). Mahidol University. Boonphan, J. (2004). The Metaphorical Meanings of Animals in Thai Idioms. (M.A. Thesis in Linguistics). Thammasat University. Bumrungphakdee, A. (2014). A study of non-standard worlds on facebook. (M.A. Thesis in Applied Linguistics). Kasetsart University. Chanta, R. (1992). Sociolinguistic Study of Address Terms in Dialect. (M.A. Thesis in Lanna Language and Literature). . Dhoppupa, K. (2002). Gender Messages in Thai Daily Newspapers. (M.A. Thesis in Thai Language for Communication). Prince of Songkhla University. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 278 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Division of Registration, Mahasarakham University. (1917). Undergraduate Level Study Programs of the Educational Year 2017: Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences. Mahasarakham University. Dompriwan, J. (2012). A comparative Study of the Thai and Mien (Yao) Kinship System. (M.A. Thesis in Thai). Silapakorn University. Grapragasem, S., Krishnan, A. and Mansor, A. N. (2014). Current Trends in Malaysian Higher Education and the Effect on Education Policy and Practice: An Overview. International Journal of Higher Education. Vol. 3, No. 1, 85-93. Jarerninprom, S. (2010) Narrative Humor and Social Context in Contemporary Thai Film Comedy. (M.A. Thesis in Mass Communication). Ramkhamhaeng University. Kasemsuwan, P. (2005). A linguistic Analysis of Advertisement Slogans on Television. (M.A. Thesis in Applied Linguistics). Kasetsart University. Kasiwat, S. (2007). The Representation and Value of “Modern Women” in Cleo Magazine that Have Effect on Reader’s Attitudes. (M.A Thesis in Communication. Dhurakij Pundit University). Khobluang, W. (2004). Indirectness as communicative Strategy in . (M.A Thesis in Japanese Studies). Thammasat University Komitin, A. (2005). A Cognitive Semantics Study of Food Naming in Thai. (M.A. Thesis in Linguistics). Thammasat University. Lai, Linda S.L. (2015). “Content Analysis of Social Media: A Grounded Theory Approach”. Journal of Electronic Commerce Research, VOL 16, NO 2, 138-152. Makthavornvattana, T. (1998). The Speech Act of Apologizing in Thai. (M.A Thesis in Linguistics). Chulalongkorn University. Naktrakoon, S. (2012). The Study of Requests in Thai and English. (M.A Thesis in Applied Linguistics). Kasetsart University. Nommanus, T. (2003). Negation in Responses of Thai Speakers. (M.A. Thesis in Linguistics). Thammasat University. Phimjun, T. (2004). A Comparative Study of Lexical Items and Attitudes of Kuy, Kuay and Nyeu Speakers in Srisaket Province. M.A. Thesis in Linguistics. Mahadol University. Pimpanit, N. (2010). Strategies Presentation and Social Perspective in Love novels of Panomtain. (M.A. Thesis in Thai). Mahasarakham University. Pothiwit, S. (2012). Strategies for Expressing Conflict in Thai. (M.A. Thesis in Linguistics). Thammasat University. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 279 Mahasarakham University

Saleh, M. (2009). A Study of Pattani Malay Color Terms. (M.A. Thesis in Linguistics). Mahidol University. Sang-On, N. (2011). Name Change Practices of Thai lady-boys. (M.A Thesis in Linguistics). Mahidol University. Sawanglap, J. (2013). Impoliteness Strategies in Thai Reality Shows. (M.A. Thesis in Thai). Chulalongkorn University. Sookprasert, T. (2006). Commercial Naming of Lipstick Colors. (M.A. Thesis in Linguistics for Communication). Thammasat University. Srimunta, T. (2012). Euphemism in Contemporary Thai and . (M.A. Thesis in Thai- and Literature). Mahasarakham University. Supida V. (2001). Haptics Usage between Close Friends. (M.A. Thesis in Language and Culture for Communication and Development). Mahidol University. Tantinakorn, P. (1995) Study of the characteristics of Thai usage by radio announcers. (M.A. Thesis in Linguistics). Mahidol University. Thai Library Integrated System. (2018). Thai Digital Collection. http://tdc.thailis. or.th/ tdc/basic.php Thiplueporn, S. (1985). An analysis of English and Thai proverbs. (M.Ed. Thesis in Educational Linguistics). Srinakharinwirote University. Wattanasuk, S. (2006). Love metaphors in Thai teenage pop-songs. (M.A. Thesis in Linguistics for Communication). Thammasat University. Wattanatham, S. (2001). Address Terms of Sales People. (M.A. Thesis in Linguistics). Thammasat University. Witeerungrot, S. (1994). The Language and culture of Muslims in the town of Songkhla (Research report). Sonkhla: Rajabhat Institute Songkhla. Wongkhachorn, P. (1999). The use of Address Terms among Bangkok Thai Adolescents. (M.A. Thesis in Linguistics). Mahadol University. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 280 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

English Translation Ability of Thai Students

Thawatchai Bunjantr1, Waraphorn Phuangbut2

1,2Kasetsart University, Chalermprakiet, Sakonnakhon Province Campus Thailand

Abstract The purpose of this research was to find out the translation ability of Thai students from English into Thai at the levels of words, sentences, and idioms of the fourth-year English major students at Kasetsart University, Chalerm Phrakiat Campus. The test of translation ability was designed to collect data from 36 fourth-year English majored students. Statistical programs and descriptive explanation were used to analyze the results. The findings showed that students were better at interpreting meanings at word level than translating sentences and idioms. It also indicated that English idioms were a great translation barrier as it is a part of the culture that is rarely used in students’ life.

Keywords: English translation, competence translation, idiom February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 281 Mahasarakham University

Introduction English is a universal language used for communication in all types of all activities – business, investment, education, communication, tourism, or daily use. In addition, people from countries where English is not the first language use translation as a tool of communication. The role of translation is to transfer meaning of the original text in source language into text in target language and gives the same or closest meaning to the original language. It is obvious that translation is very important because it helps convey meaning between L1 to L2 in order to make people understand the message of each other. According to Hatem and Mason (2005), translation was defined as “the transfer of meaning from one language to another.” Wakyama (1987), on the other hand, states that language and culture are obvious components that affect translation efficiency. Campbell (1998), in his study a group of students translate Arabic into English, found that the translator had to first proceed to use grammar of the target language at sentence level before doing translation tasks at the original level. However, he believed that translation skills should be assessed of learners’ status at the stage of development. According to him, the problem of language development was often neglected because of the assumption of the existence of excellent bilingual translators. In fact, language competence at different levels had a direct link to the issue of how translation competence would develop and what strategies should be used to stimulate them as the main goal of the translation was to create translation work with closet meaning to the text in source language. A study of upper secondary students at a Serbian School by Stefanovi (2000) in the topic “The Problem of Translation Training - How Can We Get Them?”, aimed to study the type of translation problems and how to overcome them. In this study, Students were invited to take some translation competence tests. From her study, many translation errors were identified. However, it was also found that students could do better if the original text was changed to what familiar with them. It is obvious that translation is essential as it is the interpreting process of text from one language to another language so that people around the world can thoroughly receive the same message. Kozminsky (1998), in his study of “Teaching translation in Israeli Secondary School” by using a designed translation program to teach at institutions. The program was intended to raise linguistic awareness and the ability of foreign languages. In order to do that, Israeli high school students grade 10th to 12th were invited to take pre-test and post-test of the translation test. The pre-test took about 45 minutes per session and 25 minutes per session for post-test. The findings showed that with translation program, students were able to increase their translation ability from Hebrew into English. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 282 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Although language skills are very important in translation, translators should also take cultural references into account because translation is more than just word decoding. In assessing of skills and strategies used to understand the message in English at the university level, Mongkolchai (2000), in a study of University Students’ Ability in Using Collocations, found different levels of errors in collocation use. Those errors were the results of many factors, including knowledge fixed of collocations use, application procedure transferring from L1 into L2, the form determination of original message, applications of synonyms, and specific knowledge about cultural collocations use. These factors were considered as “Linguistic weaknesses” and should be improved so that students can learn English at a higher level. English major students have been studying many translation courses at the Department of Thai and Foreign Languages, Kasetsart University Chalermprakeat Sakonnakhon Province Campus. These courses include translation principles, translation from English into Thai, and translation from Thai to English. They were expected to perform well in the field of translation in general. From the examination results, however, it was found that their translation ability was still unsatisfactory. Therefore, a lot of them failed in these courses. The necessity was to find out the ability of their translation and to identify the areas that cause problems for them.

Purpose The purpose of this study is to study the translation ability from English into Thai at word level, sentence level, and idiomatic level, as a reflection of students’ English skills and to find out solutions to the problems.

Participants The participants in the translation ability test were 36 fourth-year English majored student at the department of Thai and Foreign Language, Kasetsart University, Chalermprakeat Sakonnakhon Province Campus, taking translation courses in the Second Semester of 2016.

Methodology The tool for data collection in this study was the test. The participants must take the translation proficiency test within 60 minutes. They were not allowed to use dictionaries and could not ask anyone. Instrumentation of the research was translation tests consisting of 3 parts: Part one: Translation from English into Thai at word level. The students translate English words into Thai. There are 20 items of word-level translation. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 283 Mahasarakham University

Part two: Translation from English into Thai at sentence level. The students translate sentences from English into Thai. There are 20 items of sentence level translation. Part three: Translation from English into Thai of idiomatic expressions. The students translate idioms from English into Thai. There are 20 items of idiomatic expressions.

Limitations of the study 1. All of the English words in this study are selected from the items in the Interactions 2 Reading textbook. It is in the chapter 4 “Jobs and Professions”, part 1: Reading Skills and Strategies—changing career trends essay. It was taught for the second-year students. 2. All of the English sentences and idioms in this study were selected from the items in the translation courses, both Translation from English into Thai and Translation from Thai into English courses.

Procedure The researchers distributed the tests to the participants, 36 fourth-year English major students. Then, the collected data were analyzed and summarized.

Data Analysis The data were analyzed by using the Statistical Packages for sciences (SPSS) program, version 23. The statistics used including frequency, percentage, mean and standard deviation. All sample English words are going to be analyzed by using semantic translation.

Result The score used to evaluate the test of ability of translation from English to Thai based on the evaluation points system used in translation courses that student had already studied. The evaluation score was as follows: Average scores Interpretation 0-49 Fail / Not pass 50-55 Nearly Medium 56-60 Medium 61-65 Fairly Good 66-70 Good 71-75 Nearly Very Good 76-80 Very Good 81-100 Excellent INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 284 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Table 1: The results of translation from English into Thai at word level

Item Frequency Percent Mean S.D. Score Vary 28 77.8 1.22 .42 Very good Secure 33 91.7 1.08 .28 Excellent permanent 26 72.2 1.28 .45 Nearly very good Rigid 18 50 1.50 .517 Nearly Medium globalization 25 69.4 1.31 .46 Good workplace 36 100 1 0 Excellent drawback 22 61.1 1.39 .49 Fairly Good workaholism 34 100 1 0 Excellent leisure 33 91.7 1.08 .28 Excellent passionate 15 41.7 1.58 .50 Fail

Table 1 shows the results of translation from English into Thai at the level of words. It was found from the table that the student ability of word translation could be ranging from the highest to the lowest percentage. The highest one was in the excellent level whereas the lowest one was classified as fail. There were four words that students did well, while there was one word that they performed poorly. The ranging could be seen as follows; the excellent level, workplace and workaholism (percentage=100%), secure and leisure (percentage=91.7%). On the other hand, for the lowest level of word translation that could be classified as in the fail level, there was only one word which is passionate (percentage=41.7%). February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 285 Mahasarakham University

Table 2: The results of translation from English into Thai at the sentence level

Item Frequency Percent Mean S.D. Score (36) Time flies like an arrow. 29 80.6 1.9 .4 Very good Fruit flies like a banana. 19 52.8 1.47 .51 Nearly Medium Visiting hospital can be 23 63.9 1.36 .49 Fairly good boring. Visiting relative can be 10 27.8 1.72 .45 Fail boring. The ball rolled down the 20 55.6 1.44 .5 Nearly hill. Medium The ball lasted until 0 0 2 0 Fail midnight. There are plenty of fish 9 25 1.75 .44 Fail in the sea. Teenaged gangsters were 32 88.9 1.11 .32 Excellent arrested by police. Smelling the lavender, 2 5.6 1.94 .23 Fail it has a wonderful fragrance. Which of the applicants 15 41.1 1.58 .50 Fail has got the job?

The results of translation from English into Thai at the sentence level in table 2 indicated that students had a lot of problems in sentence translation. There was only 1 sentence that most of students (32) could translate correctly. However, the results in table 2 showed that they failed to translate correctly in 5 sentences. The ability level of translation could be ranged as follows; excellent level: Teenaged gangsters were arrested by police (percentage=88.9%). It could be indicated that most of them understood passive structure very well. However, the ability of sentence translation was classified as fail in the sentences as follows: The ball lasted until midnight. (percentage=0%,), Smelling the lavender, it has a wonderful fragrance (percentage=5.6%,), There are plenty of fish in the sea (percentage=25%), Visiting relative can be boring (percentage=27.8%), and Which of the applicants has got the job? (percentage=41.7%). Most translation problems could come from the misunderstanding of meaning of words and the use of word for word translation method. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 286 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Table 3: The results of translation from English into Thai of idiomatic expressions

Item Frequency Percent Mean S.D. Score (36) Thick skin 9 25 1.75 .44 Fail Thick skin 10 27.8 1.72 .45 Fail Spill the bean 9 25 1.75 .44 Fail Chicken hearted 36 100 1 0 Excellent In the same boat 34 94.4 1.06 .23 Excellent Tighten his belt 10 27.8 1.72 .45 Fail Hate like poison 18 50 1.5 .51 Nearly Medium Swallowed the bait. 6 16.7 1.83 .38 Fail As like as two peas 15 41.7 1.58 .5 Fail in a pod. Touch wood 10 27.8 1.72 .45 Fail

Table 3 showed the results of translation from English into Thai of idiomatic expressions. It could have been seen from the table 3 that most of students failed to translate idioms correctly. According to the translation courses that all of them had already passed, they should have remembered some of those idioms in the table 3. However, the results showed clearly in the table that there were only two items of the idiomatic expressions that students could translate correctly at excellent level as in the idioms; Chicken-hearted (percentage=100%) and In the same boat (percentage = 94.4%). Nevertheless, there were 7 idioms that the students were unable to translate correctly and were classified at the fail level. Those idioms were as follows: Swallowed the bait (percentage=16.7%), Thick skin and Spill the beans (percentage=25%), Thin skin, Tighten his belt, Hate like poison (percentage=27.8%), and As like as two peas in a pod (percentage=41.7%). In comparison of the student ability in translation from English into Thai from table 1, table 2 and table 3, we found that the most correctly translated answer in each level was chicken-heart for idiomatic expressions (100%), workplace for word level (100%), and teenaged gangsters were arrested by police for the sentence level (88.9%), respectively. The comparison of the most mistranslated items in each level, we found that the translation depended on word in the text. Although the sentence translation had percentage less than another translation, the competence of idiom translation got the least percentage. The most mistranslated answers in each level were the ball lasted until midnight for the sentence level (0%), swallowed the bait for idiomatic expressions (16.7%), and passionate for the word level (41.7%) respectively. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 287 Mahasarakham University

Summary From the results of translation ability from English into Thai at word level, sentence level, and idiomatic expressions of the 36 fourth-year English majored students at Department of Thai and foreign Languages, Kasetsart University, Chalermprakeat Sakonnakhon Campus, second semester 2016, showed that at word level, most students performed very well. They could translate most of the words correctly and the percentage was very high. The translation ability was in a higher percentage than other levels of translation. The words that participants translated correctly were: workplace and workaholism. This showed that most participants studied vocabulary by memorizing method. Nevertheless, the results of the ability of translation at sentence level were calculated in the nearly medium level because the students were able to translate and interpret the meaning of sentences only half of the items. There were 5 sentences that students could be evaluated as passing the test requirement. All participants could not translate the sentence The ball lasted until midnight. The inability of translation this type of sentence happened when students failed to consider the multi-meaning of the word ball in the context. In some sentences, they focused on the words more than the meaning of the sentence. All sentences were taken from the translation courses that all of them had already passed. It could be concluded that they could interpret the meaning at a low - moderate level. That was the average of the correct and wrong answer is similar. For the ability of translation of idiom, the findings showed that the ability in idiom translation into Thai was poor. The students failed to translate 7 items from 10 items correctly as shown in table 3. It might be said that the ability in idiom translation was language and cultural interface. Many participants were not able to interpret the correct idiom because they took the combination of the meaning of verb and noun into one meaning. They created a new meaning which was wrong. The results also indicated that students still attached to the word-for-word translation method. In addition, most students guessed the meaning of the idioms in order to transfer the meaning to the closest meaning of the original language. First, they translated the meaning of each word and then brought the meaning of the two words together. In the other word, they took the meaning translation of the text into a comprehensible language. The idiom thin skin, for example, most students translated as facial expressions. In conclusion, students were able to translate words better than sentences, and idioms. It could be suggested that most students were good at more than one-word translations. When words were combined into a sentence or took a form of new words, students were confused and unable to immediately interpret. They took time for transferring the translation of meaning in sentence and idiom level. According to the result of linguistic ability, it could be concluded that the lowest score of the idioms swallowed the bait (16.7%), INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 288 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

and the idioms thick skin and, spill the beans the same score as (25%), the students did not study sufficient vocabulary and were not clearly understand the structure of the English sentence. In this case, Hatim and Mason (2014) advised that it was necessary to access to specialized knowledge as a hindrance to understanding the original text. On the other hand, the most common translation problem for the fourth-year students was the understanding of language and cultural differences. For this reason, it has been suggested by Larson (1984) that cultural differences can lead to different perspectives on the use of words. For a student of language, it is important to get acquainted with different expressions and cultural ideas. It is very important to improve the translation skills of cultural references.

Recommendation This quantitative research studied the participants’ translation ability for translation from English into Thai. Additional research in this topic should be conducted for the use of translation techniques from Thai to English. The research should add contextual analysis of context and meaning, especially the use of Google Translation that is very popular among students.

References: Campbell, S. (1998) Translation into the Second Language. New York: Addison-Wesley Longman. Hatem and Mason. (2005). The translator as communicator. London: Routledge Hatem and Mason. (2014). Discourse and the Translator. London: Routledge Larson, Mildred L. (1984). Meaning-based translation: A guide to cross-language equivalence. Lanham, MD: University Press of America. Mongkolchai, A. (2000). A study of University Student’s Ability in Using English Collocation.Bangkok: Srinakharinwirot University. Newmark, P. (1988). Approaches to Translation. London: Prentice Hall International Ltd. Wakayama, Y. (1987). International Workshop on Translation. Bangkok: The Foundation for the Promotion of Social Sciences and Humanities Textbooks Project. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 289 Mahasarakham University

Metaphorical Extension of ‘Mother’ in Thai, Lao, and Chinese Compound Words

Thananan Trongdee1, Waralak Sae-Ueng2, Uraiwan Sae-Wong3, Liu Kaili4, Zhou Tingting5

1, 2, 3, 4, 5Lecturers, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Mahasarakham University, Thailand

Abstract All lexemes have their own denotative meaning. Some of them may be semantically extended to have metaphorical meanings as well. In English, the lexeme ‘foot’ denoting ‘terminal part of a leg’ can be metaphorically extended to ‘lowest part of a hill or mountain’. In Thai, the lexeme ‘mother’, for example, has undergone the extension from ‘a female human who has children’ to ‘a chief’ as attested in a compound word like mɛ̂ : tháp (mother+army) ‘commander in chief’. In this paper, the compound words formed by adding the lexeme ‘mother’ to other lexemes in Thai, Lao, and Chinese are studied so as to find out how many senses of meaning the lexeme ‘mother’ can be extended to cover. These three languages are selected simply because scholars have proved that they have a closer relation to each other in the aspect of language and culture than to other Asian languages. The data were gathered both from dictionaries and from native speakers. There are 41 compound words with ‘mother’ in Thai, 20 words in Lao, and 44 words in Chinese. The study reveals that the lexeme ‘mother’ in these 3 languages can be compounded to other lexemes to refer to many entities ranging from ‘human’, ‘animal’, ‘nature’, ‘utensil’, ‘insect’, etc.; and the senses of meaning can be extended from ‘female human’ to ‘female animate’, ‘chief’, ‘big’, ‘strong’, etc. The findings also shed light on topics in anthropological studies, especially on that of matriarchy and patriarchy in Thai, Lao, and Chinese society.

Keywords: Metaphorical Extension, Compound Word, Mother, Thai, Lao, Chinese, Matriarchy, Patriarchy INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 290 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Introduction The lexeme ‘foot’ in English, denoting ‘terminal part of a leg’, as Lyons (1995:59) stated, also came to mean ‘lowest part of a hill or mountain’. Likewise the lexeme ‘head’, as mentioned on Henning (1995), denoting ‘the top round part of one’s body’ can mean the head of a nail, a screw or a pin. It is apparent that the sense ‘top part’ is mapped to the ‘top part’ of a nail. The bulb of a lettuce is also mapped by ‘head’ since both of them are ‘round’. This kind of semantic process, a lexeme undergoing transference to mean more things beyond its core meaning, is known as metaphorical extension. Metaphorical extension seems to be a universal process. Apart from English, scholars have studied metaphorical extension in many languages, just a few examples are the study of ‘eat’ and ‘drink’ in Hausa by William (1991) and the study of ‘excrement’ in Lao, Thai, Malay, and Chinese by Trongdee (2012). The metaphorical extension of ‘mother’ is the objective of this paper, it is of interest because scholars have said about the patriarchy in Thai and Chinese society, but we considered that it is still obscure and linguistic evidence is in need for this matter.

Theoretical Framework There are some concepts to be clarified in our framework of the present study. Since the data we need for this study is only compound words in Thai, Lao, and Chinese; therefore, the first concept is what the compounding is. Matthews (1991:82- 83) stated that “compounding is a lexical process : it derives lexemes from lexemes (BLACK+BIRD →BLACKBIRD)…that derived lexemes tended to have idiosyncratic meanings…a blackbird is not predictably any bird that is black; a raven, for example, or a coot.” The data to be gathered in this study, accordingly, is the words derived from lexeme+lexeme or more; and they must have idiosyncratic meanings. The second concept is that of metaphor. Kovecses (2002:4) define metaphor as “understanding one conceptual domain in terms of another domain”. There are two concepts involved in metaphor, says Saeed (1997:303). The starting point or described concept is often called the target domain while the comparison concept or the analogy is called the source domain. The lexeme ‘mother’ in this study is, therefore, the source domain. The last concept concerning our study is about the radiation of metaphorical extension. Radiation, according to Henning (1995), is metaphorical extension on a grander scale, with new meanings radiating from a central semantic core to embrace many related ideas. In the case of ‘mother’, ‘one’s female human who gives birth to oneself’ is its semantic core, but the sense of ‘mother’ in แม่เลี้ยง (mother+nurture) February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 291 Mahasarakham University

‘stepmother’ has been included in the former; and moreover the sense of ‘mother’ in แม่น�้ำ (mother+water) ‘river’ has been included as well. The concept of radiation in metaphorical extension thus has been adopted in this study also.

Sources of the Data The data for this study were gathered from dictionaries and from native speakers. The main source of data on Thai compound words with ‘mother’ lexeme is from the dictionary complied by Bhandhumetha (2007). The data on Lao compound words with ‘mother’ lexeme are from the dictionary complied by Onmaneeson (2000). And the data of Chinese compound words are from Center for Chinese Linguistics PKU (2003).

Radiation of Extension of ‘Mother’ in Thai, Lao, and Chinese As a result of the study, it is found that the compound words with ‘mother’ in Thai, Lao and Chinese are derived to refer to many entities; or to say precisely are radiated to mean many entities, ranging from female relatives, female pseudo relatives, female professionals, female ghosts, Goddesses, utensils, insects, animals, plants, natures, male humans, and others as shown in the following (for convenience, the data from Thai, Lao, and Chinese are listed together).

Female relatives แม่ยาย (mother+grand mother) ‘mother-in-law’ ແມ່ເຖົ້າ (mother+old) ‘mother-in-law’ 姑母 (aunt+mother) ‘father’s sister’ 姨母 (aunt+mother) ‘mother’s sister’ 婶母 (aunt+mother) ‘father’s elder sister’ 嫡母 (first wife+mother) ‘father’s first wife’ 伯母 (aunt+mother) ‘father’s elder sister’ 伯祖母 (aunt+grand mother) ‘father’s father’s elder sister’ 叔母 (aunt in law +mother) ‘father’s younger brother’s wife’ 叔祖母 (aunt in law +grand mother) ‘grand mother in law’ 外祖母 (out+grand mother) ‘mother’s mother’ INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 292 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Female pseudo relatives แม่นม (mother+milk) ‘nurse’ แม่ทูนหัว (mother+carry upon head) ‘godmother’ แม่เลี้ยง (mother+nurture) ‘stepmother’ แม่บุญธรรม (mother+merit+dhamma) ‘foster mother’ แม่อุปถัมภ์ (mother+foster) ‘godmother’ ແມ່ນົມ (mother+milk) ‘nurse’ 庶母 (ladylove+mother) ‘stepmother’ 教母 (teach+mother) ‘godmother’ 后母 (back +mother) ‘stepmother’ 养母 (support+mother) ‘foster mother’ 义母 (adopt+mother) ‘foster mother’ 乳母 (milk+mother) ‘nurse’

Female professionals แม่พระ (mother+monk) ‘kind-hearted woman’ แม่เรือน (mother+house) ‘housewives’ แม่บ้าน (mother+house) ‘maid’ แม่สื่อ (mother+medium) ‘matchmaker’ แม่แปรก (mother+ shrew) ‘shrew’ แม่ชี (mother+nun) ‘nun’ แม่ค้า (mother+trade) ‘market woman’ แม่ครัว (mother+kitchen) ‘female cook’ แม่มด (mother+witch) ‘witch’ แม่เล้า (mother+sty) ‘head of whorehouse’ แม่อธิการ (mother+rector) ‘female rector’ แม่ร้า (mother+fermented) ‘shrew’ แม่ร้าง (mother+divorce) ‘grass widow’ แม่ม่าย (mother+widow) ‘widow’ แม่เพลง (mother+song) ‘main singer’ แม่ศรีเรือน (mother+house) ‘housewives’ February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 293 Mahasarakham University

แม่เหย้าแม่เรือน (mother+house) ‘housewives’ ແມ່ສື່ (mother+medium) ‘matchmaker’ ແມ່ຮ້າງ (mother+divorce) ‘grass widow’ ແມ່ຄ້າ (mother+trade) ‘market women’ ແມ່ຄົວ (mother+kitchen) ‘female cook’ ແມ່ເຮືອນ (mother+house) ‘housewives’ ແມ່ຂາວ (mother+white) ‘nun’ ແມ່ມ້ອຍ (mother+witch) ‘witch’ ແມ່ມົດ (mother+witch) ‘witch’ ແມ່ຕ�່ຳແຍ (mother+ midwife) ‘midwife’ 圣母 (priest +mother) ‘Blessed Virgin Mary’

Female Ghosts แม่ซื้อ (mother+buy) ‘ghost protecting newly born child’ แม่ย่านาง (mother+Yanang) ‘ghost protecting one’s boat’ แม่วี (mother+blow) ‘ghost protecting newly born child’Goddesses แม่โพสพ (mother+Phosop) ‘goddess of food’ แม่พระธรณี (mother+earth) ‘Mother Earth’ Utensils แม่สี (mother+color) ‘primary color’ แม่ลาย (mother+marking) ‘primary pattern’ แม่เตาไฟ (mother+stove) ‘wood frame of a stove’ แม่แบบ (mother+model) ‘archetype’ แม่พิมพ์ (mother+print) ‘mold’ แม่แรง (mother+ force) ‘jack’ แม่หินบด (mother+ stone crusher) ‘big stone crusher’ แม่เหล็ก (mother+metal) ‘magnet’ ແມ່ຂັ້ນໄດ (mother+ladder) ‘ladder frame’ ແມ່ຄົກ (mother+ mortar) ‘big mortar’ ແມ່ຄີໄຟ (mother+stove) ‘wood frame of a stove’ ແມ່ພິມ (mother+print) ‘mold’ ແມ່ແຮງ (mother+force) ‘jack’ 螺母 (screw+mother) ‘female nut’ INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 294 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

子母弹 (child+mother+gun) ‘bullets’ 子母扣儿 (child +mother+buckle) ‘button’ 母带 (mother+stripe) ‘master tape’ 母机 (mother+ machine) ‘main machine’ 母线 (mother+wire) ‘main electric wire’ 母钟 (mother+clock) ‘main clock’

Insects ແມ່ນອນເວັນ (mother+daytime sleep) ‘a kind of wasp’ 母蜂 (mother+bee) ‘bee queen’

Animals แม่พันธุ์ (mother+breed) ‘breeder animal’ แม่เบี้ย (mother+chip) ‘cobra hood’ 母畜 (mother+breed) ‘breeder animal’ 母老虎 (mother+tiger) ‘tigress’ 水母 (water+mother) ‘jelly fish’ 酵母 (yeast+mother) ‘yeast’

Plants 母本 (mother+root) ‘mother plant’ 母树 (mother+tree) ‘mother plant’ 母株 (mother+trunk) ‘mother plant’

Natures แม่น�้ำ (mother+water) ‘river’ ແມ່ນ�້ຳ (mother+water) ‘river’ 母亲河 (mother+river) ‘main river’ 母液 (mother+liquid) ‘crystalline’ 母质 (mother+substance) ‘primary substance’ 云母 (cloud+mother) ‘Mica mineral’

Male Humans แม่ทัพ (mother+army) ‘commander-in-chief ແມ່ທັບ (mother+army) ‘commander-in-chief ແມ່ກອງ (mother+division) ‘chief’ February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 295 Mahasarakham University

Others 母法 (mother+law) ‘constitution’ 母公司 (mother+ company) ‘main company’ 母金 (mother+gold) ‘budget’ 母校 (mother+school) ‘old school’ 母音 (mother+voice) ‘vowel’ 声母 (sound+mother) ‘consonant’ 字母 (script+mother) ‘alphabet’ 母语 (mother+language) ‘mother tongue’ 分母 (divide+mother) ‘denominator’

The Senses of ‘Mother’ in Thai, Lao, and Chinese Apart from the original senses of ‘female’, ‘human’, ‘have children’, more senses have been included to the lexeme ‘mother’. Among them the senses of ‘big’, ‘grand’, ‘chief’, ‘main’, ‘primary’, ‘model’, ‘frame’, ‘strong’ can be understood. And it seems that the adding senses to ‘mother’ in these 3 languages are in conformity as shown in the followings.

‘big’/ ‘grand’ แม่เบี้ย (mother+chip) ‘cobra hood’ แม่น�้ำ (mother+water) ‘river’ ແມ່ນ�້ຳ (mother+water) ‘river’ ແມ່ຄົກ (mother+ mortar) ‘big mortar’ 母亲河 (mother+river) ‘main river’

‘chief’ แม่ทัพ (mother+army) ‘commander-in-chief ແມ່ທັບ (mother+army) ‘commander-in-chief ແມ່ກອງ (mother+division) ‘chief’ 母蜂 (mother+bee) ‘bee queen’

‘main’ แม่เพลง (mother+song) ‘main singer’ 母法 (mother+law) ‘constitution’ 母公司 (mother+ company) ‘main company’ 母音 (mother+voice) ‘vowel’ INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 296 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

声母 (sound+mother) ‘consonant’ 字母 (script+mother) ‘alphabet’ 母带 (mother+stripe) ‘master tape’ 母机 (mother+ machine) ‘main machine’ 母线 (mother+wire) ‘main electric wire’ 母钟 (mother+clock) ‘main clock’

‘primary’/ ‘model’ แม่สี (mother+color) ‘primary color’ แม่พันธุ์ (mother+breed) ‘breeder animal’ แม่ลาย (mother+marking) ‘primary pattern’ แม่แบบ (mother+model) ‘archetype’ แม่พิมพ์ (mother+print) ‘mold’ ແມ່ພິມ (mother+print) ‘mold’ 母质 (mother+substance) ‘primary substance’ 母本 (mother+root) ‘mother plant’ 母树 (mother+tree) ‘mother plant’ 母株 (mother+trunk) ‘mother plant’

‘frame’ แม่เตาไฟ (mother+stove) ‘wood frame of a stove’ ແມ່ຄີໄຟ (mother+stove) ‘wood frame of a stove’ ແມ່ຂັ້ນໄດ (mother+ladder) ‘ladder frame’

‘strong’ แม่เหล็ก (mother+metal) ‘magnet’ แม่แรง (mother+ force) ‘jack’ แม่หินบด (mother+ stone crusher) ‘big stone crusher’ ແມ່ແຮງ (mother+force) ‘jack’

‘powerful’ แม่ซื้อ (mother+buy) ‘ghost protecting newly born child’ แม่ย่านาง (mother+Yanang) ‘ghost protecting one’s boat’ February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 297 Mahasarakham University

แม่วี (mother+blow) ‘ghost protecting newly born child’ แม่มด (mother+witch) ‘witch’ ແມ່ມົດ (mother+witch) ‘witch’

It can be seen that no senses of pejarotive meaning is found in ‘mother’; this leads to the skeptism of the study of patriarchy in Thai, Lao, and Chinese society.

Contributions to Matriarchy, and Patriarchy in Thai, Lao, and Chinese Society Some scholars (Chahongram et al. 2017 ; Rodsap 2012; ) have pointed out that Thai and Chinese society have been that kind of patriarchy from the former time to the present but the Lao society is somewhat matriarchy. Based on the results of our study, it could be inferred that in the ancient time ‘mother’ had been the very important person. Thus, we would like to propose that matriarchy in Thai, Lao, and Chinese society has been realized in the former time, but in small scale that is to say, in the household.

Conclusion This study has expanded the knowledge on the relation of language and thought in Asian languages, especially in Thai, Lao, and Chinese. The results have pointed out that the people in these three societies have regarded ‘mother’ as someone who is big, grand, strong, powerful and so on, at least in the former time and in the household when the compound words with ‘mother’ lexeme were coined.

References: Bhandhumedha, Navavan. (2007). Lexicon. Fourth Edition. Bangkok: Amarin Printing & Publishing Limited. (in Thai) Chahongram, Paranee et al. (2017). Ideological reproduction relating patriarchy in textbooks at primary school levels. Srivanalai Wichai. 3 (5). pp. 11-27. (in Thai) Kovecses, Zoltan. (2002). Metaphor, A Practical Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Lyons, John. (1995). Linguistic Semantics: An Introduction. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press & Cambridge University Press. Matthew, P.H. (1991). Morphology. Second Edition. Beijing: Foreign LanguageTeaching and Research Press & Cambridge University Press. Onmaneeson, Thongkham. (2008). Dictionary of . Vientiane: National Library. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 298 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Rodsap, Narongkan. (2012). Patriarchy: the reflection of the inequality between male and female in Asian society. Journal of Ratchabhat Burirum. 4 (2). pp. 30- 46. July-December, 2012. (in Thai) Royal Academic Institute. (2013). Dictionary of Thai. Third Edition. Bangkok: Royal Academic Institute. (in Thai) Saeed, John L. (1997). Semantics. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press & Blackwell Publishers Limited. Trongdee, Thananan. (2010). Conceptual extension of ‘excrement’ in Lao, Thai, Malay and Chinese. Paper presented at the 20th Anniversary Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society, 10-11 June, 2010, University of Zurich, Switzerland. William, Kemp. (1991). Radial structuring in the Huasa lexicon: A prototype analysis of Hausa ‘eat’ and ‘drink’. Lingua 85:321-40.

Websites Center for Chinese Linguistics PKU. (2003). Chinese Linguistic Database. www. http:// ccl.pku.edu.cn:8080/ccl_corpus/index_bi.jsp (accessed on Jan 11, 2018) Henning, Jeffrey. (1995). I love English Language, Semantic Change. www.langmaker. com/ml0104.htm (accessed on Feb 10, 2018)

Acknowledgement Many thanks is to the following informants, Ms. Yu Fang, Ms. Sommpawan Kaewbudda, and Ms. Palitha Ladsimma. Without them this paper could not be complete. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 299 Mahasarakham University

Categories of Thai-Burmese Code-Switching in the Speech of Myanmar Workers in Khon Kaen Province of Thailand*

May Thazin Aye1 Thananan Trongdee2

1M.A. student in Thai program, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Mahasarakham University, Thailand 2Lecturer, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Mahasarakham University, Thailand

Abstract Myanmar Worker has been living in Khon Kaen province of Thailand in many year. So, Myanmar workers community effected to produce code-switching and influence of Thai words over code-switching of Myanmar workers. The main purpose of this study is to study categories of code-switching in the speech of Myanmar Worker in Khon Kaen province of Thailand. The data has been collected by questionnaires and interviews from June 2017 to December 2017. The result of study reveals that there are 2 categories of code-switching can be found in the speech Myanmar migrant workers. They are: conversational code- switching and situational code-switching. But metaphorical code-switching cannot be found in the categories of code-switching in the speech Myanmar migrant workers. As for conversation interviews, Myanmar’s worker used Thai vocabularies and sentences in Burmese conversations both in words and sentences levels. The result of usage of part of Thai words by the speech in Myanmar workers can be classified in 5 parts i.e. Noun, Verb, Pronoun, Adjective and Adverb, respectively.

Keywords: Code-Switching, Categories of Code - switching, Myanmar worker.

* This article is a part of the Master of Art Program in Thai Language thesis, Thai-Burmese Code- Switching in the Speech of Myanmar Workers in Khon Kaen Province of Thailand in the Thai and Oriental Languages Department, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Mahasarakham University. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 300 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Introduction Taken together, capitalism and globalization accelerate one such pervasive phenomenon as migrant labor and labor emigration has been one important alternative for Thailand due to its fast-growing economy and it is undeniable that Thailand is one of the fastest-growing countries in . Central to economic growth is workforce and it has always been one of the most economic factors for industries and service industry. In this regard, the process has had both legal and illegal migrant workers entering Thailand. Based on recent statistical information dated back to February 2015, workforce has mainly been from 3 countries: Myanmar, , and Cambodia yet a total number of legal migrant workers are 1,190, 214 in accordance with the memorandum of understanding (MOU) and 933,219 workers are largely from Myanmar (Foreign Workers Administration Office, 2015). The numerous number of economic, political, and social factors in Myanmar has sped up the increase of Myanmar workers entering Thailand. In particular, these factors in Myanmar have created problems making its population more difficult to live. Thailand’s economy, in addition, attracts a lot of migrant workers, who struggle to live their lives, to leave the country behind (Sornbanlang, Sasipim, 2012). As previously mentioned that, a majority of migrant workers settling down in Thailand came from Myanmar. Thus, Myanmar migrant workers need to adapt themselves to appropriate with Thai society, especially in communication, they definitely need to speak Thai Language for communication and it is possible to sprout code- switching language. Kalnawakul (2001) states that code-Switching3 is the alternative use of language contact within multi-racial or multi-lingual community. The accounts of switching behaviors are from trades, knowledge sharing and cultural understanding and a natural process of language contact ultimately occurs. Prasitrathasint (1997:91) also defines that code-switching is a mixture of one language with another of one speaker in all levels of language use: words, phrases, phonemic characteristics, or sentences, e.g., the use of connected English messages in Thai. There are Myanmar migrant workers which have been working in 17 industries, located in Khon Kaen province of northeast Thailand, produce Beers, cassavas, soft drinks, fishing nets, sewing accessories, shoes, potteries, tissues, sugar, liquor, ethanol for fuels, ropes, electronic equipment. (Khon Kaen province industrial office, 2550) There are a lot of Myanmar migrant workers (3,148 people) from the total registration of 5,416 migrant workers in Khon Kaen province. (Statistics from recruitment employee office in Khon Kaen province, 2559)

3 Code-Switching is a mixture of one language with another of one speaker in all levels of language use: words, phrases, phonemic characteristics, or sentences, e.g., the use of connected English messages in Thai. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 301 Mahasarakham University

The researcher studied in the industries in Khon Kaen province. The researcher had interviewed with the workers at an industry which had more than 3,500 workers in which there were about 2000 local workers and 1500 Myanmar migrant workers. Among them, most of them were Myanmar nationality (90 % in percentage) and the least were mixed with Karen, Mon and Chin ethnic people. Those Myanmar workers migrated into Thailand and worked in the area of new hopes but, they built their own community not to have different life styles from their native town. However, when they settled down in Thailand, Thai language had much influence over Myanmar migrant workers certainly. Therefore, the researcher is so interesting that Myanmar workers community effected to produce code-switching and influence of Thai words over code- switching of Myanmar workers in Khon Kaen province. The reason underlying this present study was already mentioned. Characteristically, though being a monolingual community, Khon Kaen was chosen due to its economically active reason and migrant workers from Myanmar, Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia live and work at several factories there. The assumption behind this is that though the community is monolingual, it’s possible to observe code-switching strategies among these Burmese migrant workers. The focal attention of this study highlights codes-witching characteristics, types, and word categories of these workers and pinpoint how the use of Thai in Burmese utterances. This present study also reflects concepts, language features of code-mixing and code-switching in different perspectives.

Aim of the Research 1. To study category of code-switching in the speech of Myanmar workers in KhonKaen Province of Thailand 2. To study usage of part of Thai words by the speech in Myanmar workers in Khon Kaen province of Thailand

Methods and Materials 1. Researcher collected data by questionnaires and interviews to Myanmar migrant workers in Khon Kaen province of Thailand during the period of June-December in 2017(about 10 months). 2. The researcher applies Code-Switching theory by Amara Prasitrathasin (2548: 96-97) and the concept of word categories by Amara Prasitrathasin (2544: 20) as a framework, and then present their findings in descriptive analysis. 3. The researcher summarizes and discusses the results. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 302 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Research Scope In studying Thai-Burmese Code-Switching in the Speech of Myanmar migrant workers in Khon Kaen province of Thailand, the researcher collected data at an industry which which had more than 3,500 workers in which there were about 2000 local workers and 1500 Myanmar migrant workers living in Myanmar worker village. And the researcher surveyed the questionnaires and interviewed from the selected 10 Myanmar workers who have working experiences over 10 years and who had studied at least elementary education.

Category of Code-Switching in the Speech of Myanmar Workers in Khon Kaen Province According to Code-Switching theory by Amara Prasitrathasin (2548: 96-97), there are classified into 3 Categories of Code-Switching. Among them, there are (2) categories of code-switching can be found in the speech Myanmar migrant workers. They are: 1) conversational Code-switching and 2) Situational Code-switching. But Metaphorical code-switching cannot be found in the categories of code-switching in the speech Myanmar migrant workers 1. Conversational Code-Switching This type of code-switching occurred from the conversations without determinants and controlling which is the natural conversation. From the code-switching language in conversation phenomenon of Myanmar migrant workers have 4 status (60% in percentage). 2. Situational Code-switching This type of code-switching occurred from switching two language in conversation which has determinants. For example, not sure in the meaning of word, interjection, repeated-words for emphasizing in main points, etc. But, the speaker knows that what language should be used in conversation in any circumstance. From the phenomenon of Code-switching of Myanmar worker based on the status can be found 40 % in percentage which can be shown as follow:

Example 1 บัตร ဘတ္မရွိလို႔ မတို္င္ရဲဘူး။batʔ ma5 shi34 lo ma tai31 yɜ bu: ( ถ้าไม่มีบัตร ก็ไม่กล้าไปฟ้อง ) (If I do not have CI card, I do not dare to complain.) အလုပ္သမားအခြင့္အေရးဆိုတာ บัตร ရွိတာနဲ႔ မဆိုင္ဘူး။ ʔlouʔ ta45 ma: ʔkhwinʔ ʔ ye: ka45 batʔ shi31 ta: nɜ ma45 sai41 bu:314 (Having a card cannot ensure if one can have a labor right or not.) February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 303 Mahasarakham University

The above conversation is made by a Burmese worker who is talking to a translator from the Department of labor Protection and Welfare. The two interlocutor code-switch between Burmese and Thai languages in the conversation. Thus, Myanmar workers code-switch between Burmese and Thai languages when speaking to translators. The result shows that Myanmar workers choose Thai language to communicate. In addition, the Myanmar worker’s and the translator’s ability in using both Burmese and Thai languages is attained.

Example 2 The example is the conversation between a translator and a Myanmar labor when an accident happens and the labor has to hospitalize which makes him absent from the job. Hence, he is eligible to be covered medical expenses from the agent or the insurance. The dialogue is as follow:

အလုပ္လုပ္ရင္း ဒဏ္ရာရရင္ ประกันสังคม ကေလ်ွာ္ေၾကးရမယ္။ ʔlouʔ louʔ yin45 dan31 ya:21 ya45 yin314 prakan saŋkhom ká yᴐ: ya mɜ: (ถ้าได้บาดเจ็บจากการทำ�งาน ประกันสังคมก็จะให้ค่าประกัน) (If any accident happens, the insurance will cover all the expenses.)

The above dialogue is made between a Myanmar worker and a translator. The worker is mainly using . And, the situational code-switching is applied since the interlocutor cannot think of a word in Burmese language. Thus, he uses Thai language to refer to the word.

Example 3 The following dialogue is made between two Myanmar workers. When working, they will always have a chat about their work. The first interlocutor (a Myanmar worker no.1) talks to the second one (a Myanmar worker no.2) that the errand he was responsible for has been done. The dialogue is as follow:

ဒါေတြျပီးသြားလို႔ အသစ္သြားယူလိုက္ဦးမယ္။ งานกองแล้ว နင္ဆက္လုပ္လို႔ရျပီေနာ္။ da: dwe31 pe: twa: loʔ ʔti45ʔ twa: yu: ʔu: mɜ: ŋa:n kᴐ:ŋ lɜw ( งานนี้ส่วนของฉันทำ�เสร็จแล้ว เดี่ยวฉันจะไปเอาอันใหม่อีก งานกองแล้ว คุณทำ�ต่อได้เลยนะ) (The work I was responsible for has just been done. I am going to get more. They are ready now. You can have them if you want to.) INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 304 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

The example is the dialogue between two Myanmar workers made while working. The conversational code-switching is applied. The fact that both of the interlocutor code-switching between Thai and Burmese languages shows that while the Myanmar worker no. 1 is using Burmese language to communicate with one another, he is also applying Thai language. Therefore, it can be concluded that both of the Myanmar workers are capable to use both Thai and Burmese languages.

Example 4 This example is the dialogue between a Myanmar worker and an agent which is the situation when the worker wants to change the position because she feels uncomfortable with her errand. Thus, in the dialogue, the worker is consulting with the agent about how to find a new job as follow:

အလုပ္အသစ္ สมัคร ခ်င္တယ္။ အလုပ္ สมัคร ေနရာကဘယ္မွာလဲ။ ʔlouʔ ʔti45 smat32 chin tɜ: ʔlouʔ smat32 ne: ya: ka45ʔ bɜ31 ma: lɜ: (อยากสมัครงานใหม่ สถานที่ที่สมัครงานอยู่ที่ไหนคะ ) (I want to apply for a new job. Can you tell me where I can apply for a new job?) แม่บ้าน အလုပ္ကမဆိုးဘူး။ ဒါေပမဲ့ အရမ္းပင္ပန္းတယ္။ mɜ32 ba:n32 ʔlouʔ ka ma so: bu: ʔa yan35 pin pan tɜ: (ทำ�งานเป็นแม่บ้านไม่ค่อยโอเค เหนื่อยมาก) (Being a maid was not okay for me. It was too exhausting.) The dialogue is made by a Myanmar worker and a foreman. The conversational code-switching between Burmese and Thai languages are used in the dialogue. It reveals that while the Myanmar worker uses Burmese language with the agent, she also uses Thai language to code-switch with the Burmese language. Hence, it shows that both the worker and the agent are able to use not only Burmese language, but also Thai language.

Example 5 The example is the dialogue of a Myanmar worker talking to another worker. They will always have a chat about their work while working. The first interlocutor (a Myanmar worker no.1) is talking to the second one (a Myanmar worker no.2) that the errand he was responsible has been done. The dialogue is as follow:

ซองเปล่า ရွိေသးလား။ ရွိေသးရင္ ေပးပါ။ sᴐŋ plaw31 shi45 te: la: shi45 yin pe: pa: ( ยังมี ซองเปล่า อีกไหม เอามาให้หน่อย ) (Is there any more envelopes left? If so, can I have one?) February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 305 Mahasarakham University

The dialogue is made by a Myanmar worker, talking to another Myanmar worker while working. The conversational code-switching is applied. The speaker is code-switching between Thai language and Burmese language in the context. It shows that the Myanmar worker not only uses Burmese language when speaks to another one, but also Thai language. Thus, code-switches between Thai language and Burmese language when speaking. Thus, both of the workers are able to use both Thai and Burmese languages to communicate.

The usage of part of speech in Myanmar workers at Khon Kaen province According to the concept of word categories by Amara Prasitrathasin (2001: 20) can be differentiated into Noun, Verb, Adjective, Adverb, Quantifier, Preposition, Conjunction and Motif. As the result, the common use of Thai words in the speech of Myanmar workers can be classified in 5 class i.e. Noun, Verb, Pronoun, Adjective and Adverb, respectively. Noun is a word that is used in naming things which can be found in terms of nonspecific noun and specific noun. Noun that mainly used in daily life can be classified as food name – Khao Man Gai (Thai Chicken Rice), Kanohm Jeen (Fermented Rice Flour Noodles), Mookata (a combination of a Korean barbecue and a Chinese hot pot), etc., and words about working such as social security, form of work permit cancellation, employer, and new employee, etc. Verb is a word that is used to describe action. It can be found in both transitive and intransitive verb such as extend, apply, and report. Adjective is a word that is used to modify. It can be found in form of adjective of quality such as large, small, etc., and the following detailed example as follow.

Example 1 ข้าวผัดหมู အမ ခ်က္တတ္တယ္။ (Pork Fried Rice) This sentence is a basic grammatical Burmese sentence structure, yet it was switched with Thai words then combined in Burmese language and it means I can make Pork Fried Rice (ข้าวผัดหมู). According to the above sentence, a Thai word, “ข้าวผัดหมู”, is considered as one type of noun that mixed in Myanmar worker’s speech which means cooked rice fried with oil and added with pork, (the Royal Institute Dictionary, BE 2554). As a result, this sentence consists of Thai noun mixed in Burmese language. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 306 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Example 2 สายพาน မလုပ္ခ်င္ဘူး။ (Conveyor belt) This sentence is a basic grammatical Burmese sentence structure, yet it was mixed with Thai words in Burmese language and it means I don’t want to work on the conveyor belt (สายพาน). According to the study of the above sentence, “สายพาน”, a Thai word, is considered as one type of noun which means a thread tied with waving machine, a leather string or wire that tied with motor to spin the machine, for example, sewing machine belt or fan belt (the Royal Institute Dictionary, BE 2554). Hence, “I don’t want to work on the conveyor belt (สายพาน) is a sentence that forms of Thai noun mixed in Burmese language.

Example 3 သူကဗီဇာသြား ต่อ တယ္။ (Extend) This sentence is a basic grammatical Burmese sentence structure, yet it was mixed with Thai words in Burmese language and it means he/she is extending (ต่อ) his/her visa. According to the above sentence, it can be concluded that “ต่อ”, a Thai word, is considered as one type of verb which means to stretch or expand, for example, to expand a robe, to attach bogies, and to extend a terrace. Meanwhile, it also means to stretch out, such as extending time or extending contract (the Royal Institute Dictionary, BE 2554). As a result, this is a sentence that forms of Thai verb mixed in Burmese language. Accordingly, it was indicated from the study of Thai part of speech in Burmese language that there are many types of Thai part of speech that switched and mixed in Burmese language and mostly used in communication by Myanmar worker, such as noun, verb, and adjective, etc. However, noun that is used in daily life is mostly found to be used.

Conclusion and Discussion The study of code-switching in Myanmar worker at Khon Kaen province aimed to examine Thai code-switching and part of speech used by Myanmar worker. Hence, the underline article shown the result of the study as follow. The study of characteristics and roles of code-switching in Myanmar worker at Khon Kaen province shows that most Burmese worker uses Burmese language as a February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 307 Mahasarakham University

mother language and switches into Thai language which is the standard language using in Thai’s communication. The language ability of Myanmar workers at Khon Kaen province in using Thai language is moderate since Myanmar worker associates and communicates within the group. Additionally, the environment in Khon Kaen province affords the incoming of Myanmar worker, such as providing signs in Burmese language, making an effort to listen and learn Thai accent of worker. Because of the community that includes a multi-lingual speaker who perhaps learns from the rhyme between two languages and is capable in code-switch, it causes the influences amongst those languages. Therefore, due to the rhyme of language, it leads to various phenomena in terms of language (Amara Prasithrathsint, 2005). The conversational code-switching is found used the most by Burmese workers in Khon Kaen, for instance, the word and phrase code-switching, in-sentence code-switching and between-sentence code-switching. Since in Myanmar worker communities, there are bunches of people who are bilingual. That is to say, they can speak both Burmese and Thai language, used regularly in their daily-life and to consult with each other about their works. Nevertheless, mostly, Burmese workers tend to use Burmese language. Only in some situations when they would like to elaborate and assure the meaning of a context, Thai language is code-switched into. The situational code-switching is reviewed as the second most applied by the Myanmar workers. Possibly, the reason might be that the representative samples tend to have conversations with various people in various fields of occupation, depending on situations. The Myanmar workers tend to have a conversation with their colleagues who are fluent in Burmese language. However, in some contexts that some words or meanings cannot be come up with in Burmese language, or the speakers are not sure or do not know some specific words for specific contexts, Thai language is therefore code-switched into as the situational code-switching. According to the purpose of code-switching is to: 1.) Express their mutual understanding 2.) Express the speakers’ solidarity 3.) Express various feelings and opinions According to the study of code-switching in Myanmar worker at Khon Kaen province, Thai part of speech that appeared in Burmese language includes noun, verb, and adjective, etc. Meanwhile, noun that is used in daily life was found mostly to be used. The analysis of Thai code-mixing in Burmese language of Myanmar workers turned out that words in Thai language about food are mostly used to code-switch into Thai, words about work are the second most applied, and words about people were INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 308 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

classified as the least popularly used in using Thai language to code-mix with Burmese language.

References: Blom, J. P. and J. Gumperz. (1972). Socio Meaning in Linguistic Structure: Code- Switching in Norway. Direction in Sociolinguistics: The Ethnography of Communication. p. 407-434. Editedby John J. Gumperz and DellHymes. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Darachai W. (2557). Switching Thai Language and Chinese Teochew Language of Chinese Thai People in Yaowarat Community. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Press. (in Thai) Fongrit, M. (2556). Language Switching between Central Thai and Local Northeast Thai Language of Radio Program Manager in Khon Kaen Province. Khon Kaen: Khon Kaen University. (in Thai) Kannawakun, P. (2544). Mixed English Language in Thai Language of Television Programs in The Form of Attitude, Perception and Motivation. Hat Yai: Prince of Songkla University. (in Thai) Phantufak, K. (2544). Communication and Adaptation of Burmese Migrant Workers in Thai Society. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University press. (in Thai) Prasitratsin, A. (2543). Types of Words in Thai Language: Synthesis Analysis Based on the Current Thai Language Databases of Two Million Words. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Press. (in Thai) Prasitratsin, A. (2548). Language in Thai Society: Diversity, Change and Development. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Press. (in Thai) Thitut, B. (2541). Language switching between Central Thai Language and Local Southern Thai Language. Bangkok: Thammasat University press. (in Thai) February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 309 Mahasarakham University

Using Class Activities in Teaching VietnameseVocabulary (Pre-intermediate Level)

Doan Thi Thu Huyen1, Pimsen Buarapha2

1, 2Lecturers, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Mahasarakham University, Thailand

Abstract As Vietnamese is not a popular foreign language in Thailand, students who are learning Vietnamese rarely have opportunities to practice Vietnamese skills and to enhance vocabulary acquisition in their daily lives. Therefore, class-time practicing is extremely important. This paper investigated how class activities assisted Thai pre- intermediate language learners who are studying Vietnamese as a foreign language to retain vocabulary as well as explored the students’ attitudes towards the activities. The participants of the study were 37 freshmen majoring in Vietnamese at the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Mahasarakham University, Thailand. Mixed method was employed as a research tool. The findings revealed that the class activities were beneficial for the students in not only linguistic aspects such as lexical resources, speaking skills, and listening skills, but also social skills. The activities also appealed to the students and encouraged the students’ involvement during learning sessions. Even the students who normally speak almost nothing in classrooms were also fully involved in the activities. In terms of students’ attitudes, most of the students held highly positive feelings towards the activities and agreed that the activities were fruitfully beneficial for them in learning Vietnamese. However, there were also some limitations, so various recommendations were suggested.

Keywords: class activities, Vietnamese vocabulary in pre-intermediate level, students’ attitudes INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 310 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Introduction “If language structure makes up the skeleton of language, then it is vocabulary that provides the vital organs and flesh” (Hammer, 1991, p.153). Vocabulary, as one of the knowledge fields in language, is often considered a significant tool for second language learners, because a limited lexical range is the main cause of numerous difficulties in receptive and productive language skills (Nation, 1990, cited in Perveen et al., 2016, p.633). Wilkins (1972, p.259) argued that without grammar very little can be conveyed but without vocabulary, nothing can be conveyed. All language skills, listening, speaking, reading and writing, depend mostly on the learners’ lexical resources, and the language competence of learners can be improved by vocabulary improvement (Lewis, 2006, cited in Larrota, 2011, p.2). Hence, retaining a wide range of vocabulary is one of the most challenging and important tasks for foreign language learners. Everyday practicing or frequent communication with native speakers or other language learners can be one of the most effective ways to fulfil the task. However, this can be difficult for learners in Thailand. Since the establishment of the Association of Southeast Asia Nations (ASEAN) in 2015, learning ASEAN languages in general and specifically the Vietnamese language has attracted considerable attention from Thai students. Nonetheless, Vietnamese is still unpopular in the country. In 2018, there are only three universities opening Vietnamese major annually for students’ enrollment. These three universities are Srinakharinwirot University (Bangkok), Ubon Ratchathani University (Ubon Ratchathani province) and Mahasarakham University (Mahasarakham province). Among these three, Mahasarakham University is the only university offering the Vietnamese language and culture as a major subject. Furthermore, Vietnamese culture, songs or movies are not widely known in Thailand. As a result, students who are learning Vietnamese rarely have opportunities to practice Vietnamese skills and to enhance vocabulary acquisition in their daily lives. Therefore, class-time practicing plays a crucial role in developing the students’ competence. Beginning language learners often have to store a large amount of vocabulary in their long-term memory within a short period of time. Vietnamese pre-intermediate students at Mahasarakham University are not exceptions. They have to learn about 500 words in their first course book3 within 4 months of their first semester at university. Most of them choose learning words by heart as their main learning method. However, a study showed that if memorization is the primary learning method, motivation can greatly decrease second language classroom (Ellis, 1997, cited in Perveem et al., 2016,

3 Vietnamese in Daily life, Buarapha P., Chantharakhami N., Nguyen H., Tran T. & Le H., Mahasarakham University, 2013 February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 311 Mahasarakham University

p.633). Additionally, through observation while teaching, I could see that a number of students did not dare to speak Vietnamese in classrooms and due to the lack of time in learning sessions, sometimes they did not have any chance to speak if the teacher did not call them to answer the questions. Thus, pedagogical intervention such as using class activities was needed as it could create an active foreign language speaking environment, motivate students in learning process, as well as reduce the lack of interest or attention.

Research objectives • To examine how class activities assisted Thai pre-intermediate language learners studying Vietnamese as a foreign language to retain vocabulary. • To find out the students’ attitudes towards the activities.

Methodology Research procedures In this experimental research, initially, for the first research objective, through observing and assessing the students’ performances in class, the researcher, who was also the students’ instructor in Vietnamese in Daily Life subject, divided 37 freshmen majoring in Vietnamese language and culture at the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Mahasarakham University, Thailand, into two groups. Group 1 consisted of 13 students who were good at vocabulary and other language skills. They also received high scores (mark 8 or above 8/10). Group 2 consisted of the other 24 students who were fairly good or bad at vocabulary and other language skills, shy to speak in class or did not have outstanding scores (below 8/10). Pedagogical intervention, which was using class activities, was applied to the second group to see whether this teaching method was beneficial for them in terms of vocabulary and language skills or not and to examine their attitudes towards the activities. Class activities are the educational activities used inside class that impart knowledge and skills. According to Byrne (1995, cited in Al-Bulushi, 2017, p.183), they are not just a diversion, a break from routine activities, but a way of getting learners to use the language in the course of various activities. In this research study, I mostly utilized class activities such as role play and educational games with the students. The research was carried out in two months. After two months, each student in the target research group was evaluated in three aspects: vocabulary, skills and class involvement. An evaluation form with 10 criteria in those aspects was created to evaluate the students’ enhancement after the pedagogical intervention. Each student would get 2, 1 and 0 point for “good”, “fairly good”, and “bad” improvement, respectively. Thus, overall they each could get a maximum point of 20 and a minimum point of 0. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 312 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Criterion 0 1 2 1. Students fully understood the meaning of new words. 2. Students knew how to use new words correctly in terms of grammar. VOCABULARY 3. Students utilized new words. 4. Students used new words correctly in spoken utterances and appropriate language contexts. 5. Students remember new words after lessons. 6. Language skills SKILLS 7. Interpersonal skills 8. Students fully took part in the activities. 9. Students were motivated to speak while CLASS INVOLE- joining the activities. MENT 10. Students had fun and more concentration on class after the activities.

Table 1: Students’ improvement evaluation form

After being evaluated, 24 students were categorized into four groups: Excellent (16-20 points), Good (11-15 points), Fairly Good (6-10 points) and Bad (0-5 points), based on their scores. Meanwhile, for the second research objective, that is, to find out the students’ attitudes towards the activities, the students were requested to answer one question, which was “How was your experience of learning Vietnamese vocabulary through class activities?”. The students had four choices: Excellent, Good, Average, and Bad, and they had to choose one of those. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 313 Mahasarakham University

Findings and recommendations

Chart 1: Students’ improvement after pedagogical intervention

The pie chart reveals that most of the students (92%) showed an improvement in terms of vocabulary, skills and class involvement after joining the class activities. 4 students even achieved “Excellent” improvement, accounting for 17%. Meanwhile, 7 students achieved “Good” improvement, and 7 students achieved “Fairly Good” improvement, accounting for namely 29% and 46%. The activities gave the students a chance to be exposed to the language and to widen their vocabulary range. As a result, the language skills such as listening, speaking, reading, and writing, were also sharpened and the students could memorize the words longer as they could effectively harness their lexical resources in such activities as well as in all language-based contexts. This result supports the study of Youxin (2010), in which class activities like games helped to enhance the students’ language acquisition. They are also powerful learning aids which spur the students’ motivation and inspiration for learning, making them absorb the competitive aspects of the activities and definitely fully participate in class. Naturally, the activities can capture the students’ attention and participation, reducing little class involvement (Avedon, 1971). Besides, the activities such as pair work or group work could improve the students’ interpersonal skills. One of the most important benefits of class activities was they increased interaction amongst the students. Cooperating in pairs and groups enabled the students to build relationship in a stress-free way with their mates, to know how to communicate effectively in teams and transfer the cooperation to outside classrooms. These findings are also in line with the studies of Ajibade and Ndububa (2008, cited in Al-Bulushi, 2017, p.182) and Ersoz (2000, cited in Al-Bulushi, 2017, p.182) which revealed that games helped the students to engage in cooperative and team learning. In this sense, Shameem and Makhan (2001, p.148) claim that INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 314 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

students will develop interpersonal communication skills and fluency through the use of activities. Escudeiro & Carvalho (2013, cited in Al-Bulushi, 2017, p.182) also state that class activities improve teamwork, social skills, leadership, and collaboration. However, not everyone benefited from the activities. There were 2 students who had “Bad” improvement after this pedagogical intervention. The possible explanation was one of the students had a concentration disorder and the other missed the lessons frequently. Regarding the second research objective, the students were requested to answer the question “How was your experience of learning Vietnamese vocabulary through class activities?” to identify their feelings towards the activities.

Chart 2: Students’ feelings towards learning Vietnamese vocabulary through class activities

Pie chart 2 depicts that none of the students had bad feelings towards the activities. All of them held highly positive attitudes towards them. 12 students, accounting for 50%, considered their experience “Excellent”. The finding is in line with the studies of Perveen et al. (2016, p.636-637) and Al-Bulushi & Al-Issa (2017, p.187-189) which revealed that the students had positive attitudes towards commucative games.

2. Recommendations Despite the outstanding benefits, the class activities also had several drawbacks. I will introduce some suggestions to tackle the problems that occurred in this study so that vocabulary could be taught and learned in the most effective way. • Due to the big class size, the teacher could not control everything and take care of every student. As a result, students sometimes used their mother-tongue when February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 315 Mahasarakham University

joining the class activities. To solve this problem, the teacher should set strict rules such as implementing some interesting but effective punishment and explain them clearly to the students from the beginning. • When the students use old words instead of new words, the teacher can encourage them to use new vocabulary by repeating the words and reminding them to use them. The teacher can also give some bonus points for each new word to encourage the students to use them. • The last problem was the activities took a lot of class time. This is a common problem that the teacher frequently confronts. With this one, I highly recommend designing a teaching plan with suitable timetable and strictly following it.

Conclusion and future research Conclusion The class activities are undoubtedly effective learning aids in teaching Vietnamese vocabulary for the pre-intermidiate students. They acquaint the students with new words, help the students remember vocabulary better and develop their language competence as well as interpersonal skills. The activities assist the learners to widen their vocabulary range through funny and interesting language-based contexts and friendly competitions, which retains their interest. Thus, they promote motivation, reduce boredom, and increase attention in class. In addition, the research results revealed that the students also had favourable opinions towards the activitites. To sum up, the class activities were good source of inspiration for the learners of Vietnamese language.

Future research • As this study used only one question to investigate the students’ opinions towards the class activities, more detailed work on the students’ opinions and attitudes towards the use and benefits of class activities should be done to have a clear understanding of it. • Research on what vocabulary strategies are used by students should also be carried out in order to understand students and be able to give them the most suitable advice to follow when learning vocabulary.

References: Ajibade, Y., & Ndububa, K. (2008). Effects of word games, culturally relevant songs, and stories on students’ motivation in a Nigerian English language class. TESL Canada Journal. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 316 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Al-Bulushi, A., & Al-Issa, A. (2017). Playing with the Language: Investigating the Role of Communicative Games in an Arab Language Teaching System. International Journal of Instruction, 10(2), 180-198. Alqahtani, M. (2015). The importance of vocabulary in language learning and how to be taught. International Journal of Teaching And Education, 3(3), 21-34. Byrne, D. (1995). Teaching oral English. England: Addison Wesley Longman Limited. Ellis, N. (1997). Vocabulary acquisition: Word structure, collocation, word-class, and meaning. Ersoz, A. (2001). Six games for the EFL/ESL classroom. The Internet TESL Journal, 6. Escudeiro, P., & Vaz de Carvalho, C. (2013). Game-based language learning. International Journal Of Information And Education Technology, 3, 643-647. Larrotta, C. (2011). Second language vocabulary learning and teaching: Still a hot topic!. Journal Of Adult Education, 40(1), 1-11. Nation, I. (1992). Learning vocabulary in another language. New York: Cambridge University Press. Perveen, A., Asif, M., & Mehmood, S. (2016). Effectiveness of language games in second language vocabulary acquisition. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate. net/publication/299632007_EFFECTIVENESS_OF_LANGUAGE_ GAMES_IN_SECOND_LANGUAGE_VOCABULARY_ACQUISITION Shameem, N., & Makhan, T. (2001). New ways in using communicative games in language teaching. The Modern Language Journal, 85, 148-149. Wilkins, A. (1972). An Investigation into the Linguistic and Situational Content of the Common Core in a Unit Credit System. Youxin, N. (2010). Using games to motivate Chinese college students’ interest in learning English. University of Wisconsin-Platteville. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 317 Mahasarakham University

The Types of Alphabets, Languages, and Contents in Ancient Manuscripts (Khoi books) from Mahachai Temple Ancient Manuscript Library at Mahachai Temple, Maha Sarakham

Rachan Nilawanapha1

1Lecturer, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Mahasarkham University, Thailand

Abstract The paper aims to study alphabets, languages, and contents in manuscripts (Khoi books) from Mahachai Temple Ancient Manuscript Library at Mahachai Temple, Talad Sub-district, Mueang District, Maha Sarakham Province. The primary objectives are: 1) To study the alphabets used in ancient manuscripts (Khoi books), 2) To study the language used in the ancient manuscripts (Khoi books), 3) To study the content of the book in ancient manuscripts (Khoi books). The type of alphabets, language, and content in ancient manuscripts (Khoi books) are studied from Mahachai Temple Ancient Manuscript Library at Mahachai Temple, Maha Sarakham Province. The results are as follows. In terms of the alphabetical system of ancient manuscript of Esan Region, there are four types of alphabets: Khom, Dhamma, Thainoi, and Thai. Recordings in Khoi books are available in both single and complex alphabets. Regarding language aspects, Pali, Lao and Thai exist. Many ancient manuscripts (Khoi books) use a single language. However, some use multi-lingual language. The content of the book can be classified into eight categories: mantra and Incantation, astrology, Buddhist scriptures, ancient laws, literature, language fundamental, medicine textbooks and memorandum.

Keywords: ancient manuscript, Khoi book, ancient languages, literature, Mahachai Temple INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 318 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Introduction The background of the ancient Khoi books manuscript and importance of Mahachai Temple. Mahachai Temple is the crucial former temple of Maha Sarakham. It was the center of Pali study for monks, especially in Maha Sarakham Province and the nearby provinces. Later, it was promoted to be a royal temple. This made Mahachai Temple become very important. It was also gradually taken care by the governors and people from the key families of Maha Sarakham Province. This supported collecting of important ancient documents both from religious and the outside worlds from past to present. Some of them were from the central administration, Bangkok. Some of them were local. In the era of Phra Ariyanuwat Khemajaree; a conservative and cultural academic; as the reverend, a policy to collect documents and antiques in different areas of the Northeastern region to be kept at this Mahachait Temple was raised. Therefore, there are numerous amounts of ancient documents kept in the temple; both from the reverend’s search and donations from the central and Northeastern regions, as well as from other regions. This results in diversity of types of the alphabet, language use, and content.

Findings From the collected data on types of alphabets written in ancient manuscripts, Khoi books, kept at Mahachai Temple, Talad Sub-district, Muang District, Maha Sarakham Province; found four types of alphabets; Khom, Dhamma, Thainoi, and present Thai. The collected details on the types of alphabets and languages are as follow. 1. Alphabets in Mahachai Temple’s ancient manuscripts 1.1 Khom ancient manuscripts; out of 24 Khoi books, find Khom Alphabets in 5. 2 of them are written using Khom alphabets entirely. The titles of the 2 are about incantation and cabalistic writings; Khoi book 1, and Abhidhamma Pitaka; Khoi book 10. In the other 3, find Khom alphabets written among other types of alphabets. The titles of the 3 are about incantation; Khoi book 12 and 19, and astrology; Khoi book 19. The followings showed how Khom alphabets were written in the books.

Khoi book 1: Khom alphabets are used in Moon (bold) and Jariang (normal) forms, which are found together with Thai alphabets. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 319 Mahasarakham University

Khoi book 10: The book is written using Khom alphabets only. No other type of alphabets is found in the book.

1.2 Dhamma ancient manuscripts; out of 24, it was found that six manuscripts contain Dhamma alphabets. 4 of them are written using only Dhamma alphabets. Those are Khoi book 4; Laws, Khoi book 5; Sutanta Pitaka, Khoi book 7; Patimokkha, and Khoi book 18; incantation cabalistic writings. Moreover, there are two more books that are written using Dhamma alphabets together with other types of alphabets. Khoi book INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 320 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

nine is written about private records, accounting, and incantation. Dhamma alphabets are used in the book with Thai alphabets. Khoi book 20 is written about astrology. It is found that Lanna dhamma alphabets are used to record in the book. The followings are how Dhamma alphabets are used in the books.

Khoi book 4: black ink is used to write Esan Dhamma alphabets on the white Khoi book about Laws.

Khoi book 9: White-charcoal pencils are used to write Esan dhamma alphabets on the black Khoi book about incantation and private records. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 321 Mahasarakham University

Khoi book 20: Black ink is used to write Lanna dhamma alphabets on the white Khoi book about astrology.

1.3 Thainoi ancient manuscripts; out of 24 Khoi books, it was found that six books that contain Thainoi alphabets. Three of them are written using Thainoi alphabets only; Khoi book 6, ancient laws; Khoi book 11, Phaya literature; and Khoi book 17, establishing of cities. Moreover, there are four Khoi books that are written in Thainoi and other types of alphabets. Khoi book 9 is about private records, accounting, and incantation; Thainoi and Dhamma alphabets are found. Khoi book 19 is about astrology. It is found that Thainoi, Khom, and Thai alphabets are used in the book. Khoi book 21 is about ancient laws. Thainoi and Dhamma alphabets are used in the book. The followings are how Thainoi alphabets are written in the books.

Khoi book 6: Black ink is used to write Thainoi alphabets on the white Khoi book about ancient laws. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 322 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Khoi book 19: Thainoi alphabets are found together with Khom and Thai alphabets. They are used to write about ancient laws.

1.4 Ancient Thai manuscripts; out of 24 Khoi books, it was found that 14 books use Thai Alphabets. Nine of them use Thai alphabets entirely; Khoi book 3, Patom Kor Ka; Khoi book 8, the Promise Book; Khoi book 13, Phra Rod Meree; Khoi book 14, Phra Laksanawong; Khoi book 15, moral teaching literatures; Khoi book 16, Patom Kor Ka; Khoi book 22, Lokaniti poem; Khoi book 23, Lintawong; and Khoi book 24, astrology. Moreover, there are five Khoi books that are written using Thai and other types of the alphabet. Khoi book 1 is incantation and cabalistic writings and written using Thai and Khom alphabets. Khoi book 2 is about proverbs and astrology and written using Thai and Khom alphabets. Khoi book 9 is about private records, accounting, and incantation; and written using Thai and dhamma alphabets. Khoi book 12 is about incantation and cabalistic numbers and written using Thai and Khom alphabets. Khoi book 19 is about Vesantarajataka and Abhidhamma, a book of Tripitaka. This book is written using Thai and Thainoi alphabets. The followings show how Thainoi alphabets are written in the books.

Khoi book 3 February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 323 Mahasarakham University

Khoi book 8

Khoi book 22

Khoi book 1 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 324 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Khoi book 9

Khoi book 19

2. Language in Mahachai Temple’s ancient manuscripts From the collected data on types of languages in ancient manuscripts, Khoi books, kept at Mahachai Temple, Talad Sub-district, Muang District, Maha Sarakham Province; find three languages; Pali, Lao, and present Thai. The collected details on the types of languages are as follow. 2.1 Pali ancient manuscripts; out of 24 Khoi books kept at Mahachai Temple, it was found that eight books were written in Pali. However, there are other languages found in those books together with Pali. 4 Khoi books are written in Pali and Thai; Khoi book 1, incantation and cabalistic writings; Khoi book 4, ancient laws; Khoi book 9, incantation and cabalistic writings; and Khoi book 10, Abhidhamma a book of Tripitaka. The other four are found to be written in Pali and Lao; Khoi book 5, Sutta Pitaka; Khoi book 7, Pattimokka; Khoi book 12, incantation and cabalistic writings; and Khoi book 18, incantation. Below are the samples of the books written in Pali. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 325 Mahasarakham University

Khoi book 1

Khoi book 7

2.2 Ancient Lao manuscripts; out of 24 Mahachait Temple’s Khoi books, it was found that 10 books were written in Lao. They are classified into three groups. The first group contains ten books entirely written in Lao only; Khoi book 6, ancient laws; Khoi book 11, Phaya literature; Khoi book 17, establishing of Kantawasai and Kamalasai cities; Khoi book 20, astrology; and Khoi book 21, ancient laws and astrology. The second group contains four books written in Lao and Pali; Khoi book 4, ancient laws; Khoi book 7, Pattimokkha; Khoi book 12, incantation and cabalistic writings; and Khoi book 18, incantation. The third group contains 1 Khoi book written in Lao, Pali and Thai; Khoi book 19, astrology. Below are the samples of the books written in Lao.

Khoi book 6 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 326 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Khoi book 17

2.3 Ancient Thai manuscripts; out of 24 Mahachai Temple’s manuscripts, it was found that 15 books were written in Thai. They are also classified into three groups. The first group contains 10 Khoi books written entirely in Thai; Khoi book 2, Proverbs for lady being and astrology; Khoi book 3, Patom Kor Ka and cropping manuals; Khoi book 8, the Book of Promise; Khoi book 13, Phra Rod Meree; Khoi book 14, Phra Laksanawong; Khoi book 15, moral literatures; Khoi book 16, Patom Kor Ka, Khoi book 22, Lokaniti poem, Khoi book 23, Lintawong; and Khoi book 24, astrology. The second group contains 4 Khoi books written in Thai and Pali; Khoi book 1, incantation and cabalistic writings; Khoi book 4, ancient laws; Khoi book 9, incantation, cabalistic writings, and records; and Khoi book 10, Abhidhamma a book of Tripitaka. The last group is Khoi book 19, astrology, in which Thai and Lao are found. Here are samples of the Khoi books written in Thai.

Khoi book 13 February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 327 Mahasarakham University

Khoi book 19

3. Contents in Mahachai Temple’s ancient manuscripts. From the study of 24 Khoi ancient manuscripts kept at Mahachai Temple, it is found that the contents of the books are classified into eight categories as follow: 3.1 Mantra and Incantation were found in 5 Khoi books. In Khoi book 1, its entire content is about mantra and Incantation. In Khoi book 2, mantra and Incantation are found in some parts of its content. In Khoi book 9, mantra and Incantation are found in some parts of its content. In Khoi book 12, its entire content is mantra and Incantation. In Khoi book 18, its entire content is as well about mantra and Incantation. Here is the sample of mantra and Incantation, Khoi book 12.

3.2 Astrology was found found in 6 Khoi books. In Khoi book 2, astrology is found in some parts of its content. Khoi book 8’s entire content is about astrology. In Khoi book 19, astrology is found in some parts of its content. Khoi book 20’s entire content is about astrology. In Khoi book 21, astrology is found in some parts of its content. Khoi book 24’s entire content is about astrology. Here is the sample of astrology content in Khoi book 8. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 328 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

3.3 Buddhism scriptures were found in 4 Khoi books. Khoi book 5’s entire Content is about Suttanta Tripitaka. Khoi book 7’s entirely content is about Pattimokka. Khoi book 10’s entire content is about Abhidhamma. In Khoi book 19, Abhidhamma is found in some parts of its content. Here is the sample of Buddhism scriptures in Khoi book 10. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 329 Mahasarakham University

3.4 Ancient Laws were found in three Khoi books. Khoi book 4’s entire content is about ancient laws. Khoi book 6’s entire content is also about ancient laws. For Khoi book 21, some of its content is about ancient laws. Here is the content of ancient laws from Khoi book 4.

3.5 Literature were found in 7 Khoi books. Some of the content of Khoi book 2 is about proverbs for lady being. Khoi book 13’s entire content is about Phra Rod Meree. Khoi book 14’s entire content is about Phra Laksanawong. Some of Khoi book 19’s content is about Vesantarajataka. The entire content of Khoi book 22 is about Lokaniti poem. Khoi book 23’s entire content is about Intawong. Here is the sample of literature content from Khoi book 13.

3.6 Language Fundamental was found in 2 Khoi books, Khoi book 3 and 16. Both of them are about Patom Kor Ka. Here is the sample of Patom Kor Ka from Khoi book 3. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 330 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

3.7 Medicine textbooks were found in some parts of Khoi book 8. Here is some sample of medication recipes from Khoi book 8.

3.8 Memorandum was found in 2 Khoi books. Khoi book 9 is about establishing of Kantawisai and Kamalasai cities. Khoi book 17 is about records on trading and accounting. Here is some sample of Khoi book 9’s content on records. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 331 Mahasarakham University

Remarks on data found in Mahachai Temple’s Khoi ancient manuscripts The variety of alphabets, languages, and contents found in Mahachai Temples’ Khoi ancient manuscripts results from the diversity of language cultures, influenced by the mobility of ethnics; Khmer and Tai-Lao; in each historical period, in the Northeastern region. Thus, evidence of the diversity of alphabets and languages are found. Gathering from the evidence in Khoi books kept at Mahachai Temple, it is found that Khom, Dhamma, Thainoi, and current Thai alphabets are used to write in the book. Regarding language employment, it is found that Pali, Lao, and Thai are used in the book. However, gathering from the ancient palm leaf manuscripts kept at Watmahachai Temple, Khmer language is also found. This evidence matches up with ethnics of the people and communities living in the Northeastern region at present; in the south of the region find Khmer, Suay, Kuay or Kui, and Yer. Those belong to Khmer cultural groups found in Srisaket Province, Surindhra Province, and Buriram Province. Most of them speak Khmer. Some minority groups speak Suay and Yer only in their own groups. For the central and northern parts of the region, Lao, Phu Tai or Tai Dam, Yor, Saek, and Soh; which belong to, or influence Tai-Lao cultural group, mostly communicate in Lao. Phu Tai, Yor, and Soh languages are usually used in their own ethnic groups.

The Summary of the study The study of types of alphabets, language characteristics, and contents in the ancient manuscripts at Mahachai Temple, Talad Sub-district, Muang District, Maha Sarakham Province; concludes the following results. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 332 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Four types of the alphabet are found: Khom alphabets are used in 5 Khoi books, Dhamma alphabets in 6, Thainoi in 6, and Thai in 14. Regarding employment of the types, it is found that some types are used to write entire books. Some books are written using more than one types of the alphabet. Regarding language characteristics, it is found that there are three languages used to record in Khoi ancient manuscripts. 8 Khoi books are found to be written in Pali, 10 in Lao, and 15 in Thai. Concerning language employment, it is found that some languages are used to write entire books. Some books are written using alphabets of more than one language. The contents of the Khoi books can be classified into eight categories in descending order of numbers of the books each category is about; mantra and Incantation, five books; astrology, six books; Buddhism scriptures, four books; ancient laws, three books; literature, seven books; language fundamental, two books; Medicine textbooks, one book; and Memorandum, two books. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 333 Mahasarakham University

Dance Parade: A Cultural Activity in Mahasarakham Province Symbolizing the Culture and Dance Tradition

Rattiya Komintarachart1

1Faculty of Fine and Applied Arts Mahasarakham University, Thailand

Abstract This research focused on the dance parade in Mahasarakham province. The objectives of the study were, 1) to study the history of local culture in Mahasarakham province and 2) to create a dance by using the traditional parade. From the study, it was found that the parade happens once a year during the months of March and April. As a part of this activity, the dance focuses on practicing the teachings of Buddhism, building cultural relationship, and maintaining local tradition. In addition, there are eight steps involved in the creation of this new dance concept. Also, this new dance is performed to a group of audience. The dancers are in fine costumes, while the dance is accompanied by music. It can be concluded that this dance helps promote local culture and tradition of Mahasarakham province. In addition, this dance helps to raise people’s awareness, which would make the cultural values and local tradition remain forever.

Keywords: Dance parade, tradition, culture INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 334 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Introduction Background and importance of research Cultural studies are a study to understand the phenomenon of cultural diversity of people with different lifestyles for social coexistence. Cultural education is learning to understand the diversity of cultures through the study of the will of the people. A group is a society that interacts to and creates a “culture” that is a way of life in society. Culture is a practice, helps to plan and expresses the feelings in different situations that members of the same society can understand, appreciate, accept, and practice together. It will lead to the development between people. Study of culture will bring about learning and understanding of local wisdom, knowing the value of culture and to adapt to sustainable development. Heet Sib Song is a valuable cultural heritage, which contains twelve customs in twelve months. This is a practice that exists for a long period. It is based on beliefs and traditions as a result of natural and social conditions, attitudes, identities, and beliefs in society. Belief systems support survival of the society. Belief is the foundation of culture and tradition. The life style of the people in each side is in the good aspects, such as the traditions related to life, including burial and traditions that follow the principles of Buddhism, such as Buddhist Lent. Moreover, it is important to create local wisdom about society, economy, occupation, etc. It is a very important. Culture can add value to the context of the community. Boon Pha Whet Tradition is a traditional festival taking place in the 12th month of the calendar. Pha Whet is an Issan word. The word “Phra Wet” refers to Pra Wetsandorn, a great pious practitioner by the doctrine. It is a great realization of the Bodhisattva before enlightenment. Pra Wetsandorn, so the people of Isaan considered Boon Pha Whet as the highest tradition according to Buddhist beliefs. Boon Pha Whet Tradition of Ban Kham Riang Kantharawichai District, Mahasarakham province. Currently, Boon Pha Whet Tradition continues to adopt the traditional ritual practices. It is held every year, once a year, during the month of March - April. It is held for two days, the first day will be preparation work for Boon Pha Whet day. Khan Lhorn, Khan refers to the text as a teaching. Lhorn is an Isan word meaning “come to find out.” Therefore, Khan Lhorn refers to the story is not told before. It is a story that villagers want to hear. They set it up at home and tell it to their relatives who are nearby. Donations such as rice, 1,000 pieces of flowers, betel nuts, candles, detergents, coconuts, bananas, home remedies, etc. are given. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 335 Mahasarakham University

A study of Khan Lhorn Parade’s problems in Boon Pha Whet Tradition; Khan Lhorn Parade is currently less important. There are many reasons, such as the social and cultural conditions that change in the world of globalization. Currently, there are less social activities and interactions. Only some groups still follow local traditions. In the future, Khan Lhorn Parade in Boon Pha Whet Tradition may die out due to people’s lack of awareness of the importance of this tradition and local wisdom. Researchers are interested in studying the local culture and Boon Pha Whet Tradition as well as its history, patterns, Khan Lhorn Parade, and the Boon Pha Whet Tradition that is on the verge of change and loss. Moreover, the dance parade has become a dance that supports local culture in the Boon Pha Whet Traditions of Ban Kham Riang, Kantharawichai District. The society should be aware of local cultural heritage. They can create cultural values and​​ local traditions.

Research Objectives 1. To study the history of Local Culture and Boon Pha Whet Tradition 2. To create a dance for the Northeastern dance parade for the Boon Pha Whet Tradition in Maha Sarakham

Research Methodology In this research which aimed to study Boon Pha Whet Tradition and create dance for the parade in this tradition, several methods of data collection were used. 1. Documents related to Boon Pha Whet Tradition and Khan Lhorn Parade were collected. Interviews were conducted to study about the modeling in dance and design. 2. Field study was done using interview form. Those who have knowledge about Boon Pha Whet tradition of Ban Kham Riang Kantharawichai District, Mahasarakham province were interviewed. 3. Participant observation and non-participant observation were used. 4.. Data were analyzed to create a sketch of creative dance, according to concept model. 5. The dance was modeled. 6. Creative dance as the structure of the show was designed. 7. The creative dance was performed to the public. 8. The dance was evaluated for improvement. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 336 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

The scope of research The researcher selected Boon Pha Whet Tradition and Khan Lhorn Parade in Ban Kham Riang, Kantharawichai District, Mahasarakham province.

Results It was found that the pattern of Boon Pha Whet Tradition in Ban Kham Riang, Kantharawichai District, Mahasarakham province has been reduced in practice. At present, villagers have less activities and social relations. Based on the data and the interview, local Boon Pha Whet Tradition and Khan Lhorn Parade are less significant in the community.

Discussion Based on the history and the current information about Khan Lhorn Parade in Boon Pha Whet Tradition of Ban Kham Riang Kantharawichai District, Mahasarakham province, the Khan Lhorn Parade in the Boon Pha Whet Tradition is held annually. It is still happening as the community’s cultural activity, despite its decreasing significance. Regarding current situations and problems about Khan Lhorn Parade in Boon Pha Whet Tradition of Ban Kham Riang, Kantharawichai District, Mahasarakham province, it was found that the current Khan Lhorn Parade in Boon Pha Whet is seen by people in this community as less important. Therefore, they participate in this tradition less than before. In terms of the creation of Isaan dance for this tradition, it consists of four creative components: choreography, line form, motion direction, and music. In conclusion, the Parade Dance is a dance that supports local culture in Boon Pha Whet Tradition in Ban Kham Riang Community, Maha Sarakham Province. The dance parade can raise people’s awareness of their local cultural heritage which can create cultural values and​​ help to conserve local traditions.

Suggestions 1.Culture is meaningful. Government agencies responsible for arts and culture should clearly define the scope and goals of state cultural practices. It should also be managed or supported in conservation, dissemination, and utilization. The culture should be promoted and supported with budget and resources in accordance with these guidelines and order. 2. Creative dance should be promoted by production of a video. 3. Research, cultural development, and local wisdom and culture should be promoted. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 337 Mahasarakham University

References: Arjwichai, A. (2008). Guidelines for restoration of Boon Pha Whet tradition of Phuthai Ethnics in Mukdaharn Provice for the promotion of local identity. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Mahasarakham University: Thailand. Koonkham, A. (2011). Local tradition as social capital and a way of community: a case study of Thai-’s Boon Pha Whet tradition. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Ubon Ratchathani University: Thailand. Phuangphanboot, W. (1999). Foundation of Thai Culture. (n.p.). Sripunnadet, L and P. Promda. (1996). Heet Ban-Klong Wat: Regarding Boon Pha Whet and collection of Isan didactic literature. Bangkok: Maha Chulalongkorn. Yoopho, T. (1981). The legend of Maha Jataka preaching (4th ed.). Bangkok: Ministry Secretary Press.

Acknowledgments This research has been completed successfully. The research was supported by students from Ban Kham Riang and Mahasarakham University. The researchers would like to thank the local people and people in Ban Kham Riang who gave their time to consult and for collecting information. The research was found very useful to develop a sustainable local community. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 338 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Drama for Consciousness: Developing the Minds of Youth Using Dramas to Create Public Awareness

Suwapat Punpapop1

1Faculty of Fine and Applied Arts Mahasarakham University, Thailand

Abstract This research was aimed to create awareness among the youth by using dramas. The objectives of the study were 1) To use dramas to raise awareness among high school students. 2) To use dramas to develop the minds. 3) To teach them about process drama, concepts of drama and their applications. The results were as follows: 1) The concept of drama helps high school students understand their own public awareness to the community. 2) A drama model was presented to the participants to create dramas using the concepts from the model. Audience of 50 people was found as a good number for this study. Moreover, in terms of quality, feedbacks from the participants revealed that they were able to gain self understanding and cooperation to help each person in the community. 3) Young students learned the strategies to create drama (Process Drama) and concept of applied theater. Also, the participants learned about behaving as a Thai citizen in the community by mutual acceptance and focusing on consciousness.

Keywords: Participatory Action Research, Theater for Consciousness, Applied Theatre, Drama Process, Public Mind, Youth, and Participation February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 339 Mahasarakham University

Introduction Maha Sarakham is one of the provinces in the Northeast of Thailand, comprising a community of arts, folk life and the great variety of tradition. It is important to preserve, restore and protect this art and culture to remain sustainable. However, what is missing is the cooperation of the youth generation because of the influence of foreign culture in the education system, pushing the youth to seek knowledge and work with a western concept, leading to the development of prosperity side rather than knowledge. The development of the human mind is so important. Some youth lack the moral and ethical development which is related to consciousness. They are influenced by the media, and other global issues. Moreover, it took them away from the traditional customs, ways of life, arts and culture as well. Furthermore, the public awareness among the new generation of youth is necessary. The youths should know about their own duties and be aware of their responsibility to the public more than to themselves. People should not think about destroying and exploiting others. Rather, they should have the mental ability to be creative, and do good things to the community and society. If most people have public consciousness, it can result in less problems, social peace and sustainable development. Also, people should be beneficial to the nation and do things which will make the society good and leading to social development. Although there are attempts made to give priority to the public consciousness in the course of study such as the core curriculum in basic education. Buddhist calendar B.E. 2551 defined “public mind” as a fine feature of our students (2551). In the education system, it does not involve parents and communities to participate in the development of virtue. People do not give priority to the development of the moral structure of the curriculum. Moreover, a case study of general and vocational students, Bindi found that right now teens in Thailand lack the public consciousness (2549). The community is weak and lacks social activities and honesty, blaming other people and so on. Because there is no public consciousness, the youths do not want to do anything for the community. In addition, process drama can awaken consciousness among youth (Theatre for Conscientization). An activity “One Model” under the umbrella of Applied Drama (Applied Theatre) seems to be the tools to help make the youth in secondary-school level visualize problems of themselves and of the community. Besides this, drama can create conceptual consciousness (Theatre for Conscientization). A drama can focus on the participants from the community. This activity can also develop the minds and create confidence. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 340 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Moreover, this research is a participatory action research (Participatory Action Research). It is a form of a combined concept of action research (Action Research) and a participatory research. This type of research can provide maximum benefit. Therefore, everyone must be involved in the development process of every step that is free and democratic, (Chatchawan, 2552). By conducting this research, researcher will serve as an artist - lecturer (facilitator) in design and arrange activities. Participants in the research were 10 students majoring in Art of the Drama from the Department of Performing Arts, Faculty of Fine and Applied Arts, Mahasarakham University. The concept of Applied Drama also emphasizes the use of community, where myths, stories, folk tales can be presented to the community to build a theatre and to know about the real life problems and create a sense of consciousness. The local arts were used in the show, such as language, folk songs, dances, instruments and fabrics.

Objectives of the research 1. To use process drama to awaken the minds of youth’ about public consciousness 2. To create a musical remark about the public consciousness. 3. To use the strategies of creative drama that can communicate and reach the minds of youth

Scope of the research 1. The concept of Applied Drama (Applied Theatre) is used in the design of activities to awaken consciousness process concepts (Theatre for Conscientization). 2. Tales from the northeast are applied in creative drama that can communicate and reach the audience (youth).

Participants Participants in this research include: 1. Youth group: 3 teachers and 8 students majoring in Theater Arts, Department of Performing Arts, Faculty of Fine and Applied arts, Mahasarakham University 2. 10 school students from Maha Sarakham 3. The musical group of 50 people which provides ideas about public consciousness

Conceptual framework 1. The researcher must build process drama activities (Drama Process) according to the guidelines of the drama to wake the consciousness by using (Theatre for Conscientization). 2. Creative stage by participants: this must communicate ideas about public February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 341 Mahasarakham University

consciousness to the audience with the introduction of Isan folktales and apply in creative drama that can communicate and reach the audience (youth).

Research method This research method used was Participatory Action Research or PAR as a guide to action. Research follows 5 steps: 1) Primary school context 2) Understand the problems 3) Plan work 4) Stage monitor and improve 5) Summarize

Nine steps in setting up the drama 1. Contact and coordinate with other school goals. 2. Study about the development of public consciousness in children and youth education theories, research papers and the relevant way to drama (Applied Theatre). 3. Carry out activities in the process of determining the problem. The researcher and youth study group search for meaning, the importance of the consciousness of the public and analysis of the problem of lack of public consciousness of the youth in modern society. 4. Plan the work: design the process to develop a series for public consciousness among the youth in secondary school. 5. Advanced monitoring and improve the school goal. 6. The researcher and youth in the study group get together to create stage and write scripts. In the script writing stage, Isan folktales are introduced to the youth to give ideas about public sense. 7. Together act on stage with audience watching. 8. Act it to the public. 9. Evaluate the research.

Results and Discussion 1. Using plays to awaken “consciousness Mano” and to develop a public consciousness in youth Researchers used strategies to make plays to awaken consciousness Mano (Theatre for Conscientization). Developing participation created the public consciousness. In this research, researchers have taken the concept and theory of drama (Applied Theatre), both as a form to develop them and form of drama to community INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 342 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

development. To exchange ideas and engagement between performers with viewers, it is also focused on ensuring that the process is helping to find a solution together, which would cause a change in the community and society, and is one of the tools that can be used to create public consciousness in youth. Researchers began using the process to develop the character of identity first which have adopted a theory of learning through play of theatre-in-education and character-created with the aim to make the partnership see the value of their own (Self Esteem), that is, to make the contributors see their own abilities and potential. Besides this, students felt proud in youth activities. Students worked with honesty and responsibility. They took pride in the success of the work, which will lead to a person who has initiative and is committed to solving the problems and be able to control themselves to achieve the goal. Furthermore, process drama created public consciousness among 10 students from secondary school in Maha Sarakham and third-year students majoring in theatre arts. 8 students from Faculty of Fine and Applied Arts, Mahasarakham University took part in this activity, which started took place every Thursday starting from January 2017 during 14.00-15.30 hrs. for 1 and a half hours per day for 2 months. In each of the activities, the focus was on the development mental confidence and self understanding. As a theatrical process to participation in training activities, students were able to develop their self-esteem. Moreover, activities on learning through play focused on the participation of the need to work together as a group. Participants were encouraged to be disciplined, to listen to others, and express their thoughts. Besides, to develop skills in various fields, games and activities such as ice breakers were used. So, the participants can adapt and achieve mutual trust between the leaders and the participants. Role plays were also used to develop minds. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 343 Mahasarakham University

2. Role playing The development of concentration and cooperation lead to the development of the public consciousness through playing the role (Role Play) from the stories, folk tales. Role play helps children understand life experience and relationship in the family. In addition to role play, tales were selected to make drama through role play. It helps learning easier and help children recognize the details as well. It cultivates honesty and morality to children (2547).

When the show ended, students who participated were allowed to comment on the drama and their or problems that occur in everyday life. It was found that students were able to understand about themselves and their surroundings.

3. Using folk tales to create public consciousness Folk tales are a form of storytelling that people have used for generations. Apart from them being entertaining, the concept of public consciousness is implicitly taught through them. It is a tool that plays a role in socialization in children and young people. Even more, Paya Kark, a local literature of the northeast that reflects the way of life, beliefs and cultural traditions from the past to present, was one of the selected folk tales in this study. The literature teaches about the principles of Buddhism that everyone in the cooperative society has to think about the social problems, even ones caused by natural disasters and try to solve them.

4. Faith traditions and rituals that appear in the local of each act. In the northeast, people believe in Naga. Naga festival is celebrated. It is a rocket festival that typically includes preliminary music and dance performances, competitive processions of floats, dancers and musicians on the second day, and culminating on the third day in competitive firings of home-made rockets INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 344 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

5. Paya Kark: the creative stage Local folk tales were used among the high school students. It was mainly used to teach about the traditional festivals and culture and to find out about the attitude of young people today. Tales used were able to communicate with people and make them understand about the past and the present.

For creative musical drama using traditional folk tales, a character was created based on the situations. In addition, the use of local folk music into the show revealed about the traditional festivals and their importance. The actors used cotton cloth as clothing.

Conclusions After the play was completed, questionnaires were given to the audience of 50 people. It was found that the essence or idea that they got after the theatre were about the history of the faith and tradition of fireballs. Also, they were aware that if people come together and make contributions to their own community, society, and country, it will result in the society being happier. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 345 Mahasarakham University

During the 2 months of research project, it could be concluded that the process drama leads to the realization of one’s duties and their responsibility for the public. From the youth group, the third-year students majoring in Art Drama, Department of Performing Arts, Faculty of Fine and Applied Arts, learned about the strategies to create drama (Drama Process) based on the concept of Applied Theatre.

References: Chaiwat Suttirat. 2555. Teaching children to public consciousness. Bangkok: Print Company (1991) Limited folk tale about King Kark. [Online]. Access http:// chali0701.blogspot.com/2008/ 09 / 2542-588-1.html searched on July 23, 60 Martin Blessing perform maintenance. 2547. Theater for Youth. Bangkok’s Chulalongkorn University. Morning glory. (2551). Guidelines for the development of public awareness for the Youth Thailand: A Case Study. And youth networks working in the public consciousness. Education: Master’s thesis Department of Development Studies Department of Policy, Management and Leadership in Education, Faculty of Education, Chulalongkorn University. Parichat The evolution GARMENT. Marseille 2546. Research Report on the use of creative drama in the development of the students. New York: Academic Development. Results showed Thailand’s wireless public awareness clutter. “Sufficient economy”. Kom Chad Luek. December 18th 2549. STIC LA Care. 2548. Action research and participatory. Journal of the Assumption 1: 1 (July-December, 2548), pages 20-21. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 346 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Phum Mor Lam: Isan Dance Identity, Choreography and Cultural Heritage in Popular Culture

Kornpatsorn Kanchanaphan1

1Faculty of Fine and Applied Arts Mahasarakham University, Thailand

Abstract The aims of this study were 1) to learn about the intellectual and cultural heritage of the Mor Lam artist and 2) to analyze the process involved in Mor Lam and transfer the knowledge about the same to the dance community. From the study, it was found that, Mor Lam was a popular dance among the rural community in the northeast of Thailand. Also, the dance conveyed a message to the public through its song. Usually, the messages were about the education, family, politics and lifestyle. Moreover, the audience was illiterate enjoying the dance performance by artists. They were able to understand the message. Besides this, the movements in this dance were distinct to the other dance movements. Therefore, it can be said that, Mor Lam dance was found to transfer the knowledge from the singer to the public about the culture and other important issues in the society.

Keywords: Mor Lam Dance, Cultural identity, Northeastern dance February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 347 Mahasarakham University

Introduction The Isan region of Thailand has inherited culture from the past whether it is food, arts, crafts and historic monuments, which indicate the prosperity of the past and it also tells the story about the origin of ethnic group (Jaruwan Thammawat, 2005: 15.) The minority of people in Isan region are Thai-Lao group, living throughout the region after they emigrated from the Mekong River basin. The settlers live closer together; blend well with other tradition and culture (Boonyong Ketthet, 1993: 111). Communities at the local level are simple. Folk music is introduced into the traditions. Folk music contributes to strengthening of culture among the villagers. Also, there is a positive impact on the community. Isan culture reflects the identity of the northeast one as culture reflecting social conditions and lifestyle of the people. There is clearly a role to entertain the society from the past to present. In addition, Mor Lam is an art of creative singing accompanied with dancing. It is possible to serve society as well as its role in participation and engagement with the lives of people in the Isan region. Mor Lam singers can convey ideas and feelings of the very close to reality. It is the work of creative people in the Isan region, who seem to be expressing their feelings (Charoenchai Chonpairot, 1993: 2). Moreover, whether it is in the past or present, the application of poems in Mor Lam has to be considered according to their content and type. Each Mor Lam singer will be selected to match the tempo of the music content. Also, Mor Lam plays a major role in motivating the audience. The Mor Lam singers have shown an improved form of dress, body type, melody and rhythm of musical instruments used. By doing so, the singers get a lot of attention among the crowd. Therefore, the dance and its identity hidden behind the Mor Lam performance is considered as a cultural identity. The process of transferring the wisdom of the Mor Lam singers to the audience in the current generation seems to be constantly changing.

Research Objectives 1. To study the intellectual and cultural heritage of Mor Lam singers in the popular culture. 2. To analyze the identity and the process of choreographic invention of Mor Lam singers. 3. To transfer the wisdom of Mor Lam singers to the selected community.

Theoretical framework In this study, the researcher employs the notion and theory of performing arts. It is important in the creative process of dance invention to convey the wisdom of Mor Lam singers. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 348 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Research Process This research is a qualitative research and has four methods of study. Firstly, the documents related to the process of transferring knowledge of Mor Lam singers were collected. Secondly, the researcher interviewed the key performers and five Mor Lam experts. Thirdly, the researcher observed the audience in the Mor Lam performance. Lastly, three Mor Lam artists Chaweewan Dumnern, Por Chalad Noi, and Banyen Rakkaen were interviewed.

Research Outcomes 1. The concept and wisdom of the Mor Lam singer in the popular culture has been analyzed. Mor Lam is also a cultural heritage in the Northeastern Thailand as well as being high class performing arts. Mor Lam also serves the lives of rural people in Isan region. Besides this, Mor Lam can convey knowledge through a variety of stories that are related to the country’s culture, politics, family, education, knowledge and morality through the form of Mor Lam performances. Thus people in the community who are not literate can learn a lot from the contents of Mor Lam performance. 2. The identity and choreography of Mor Lam dance consists of singing accompanied with dancing. Here, the dance movements have been taught by a dance master who creates this pattern for dance performance.

Illustration 1: Archetype of Isan dance Source: Kornpatsorn Kanchanaphan, 2018

Illustration 2: The movement of Song Sa Garn Source: Kornpatsorn Kanchanaphan, 2018 February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 349 Mahasarakham University

Illustration 3: Archetype of Isan dance Source: Kornpatsorn Kanchanaphan, 2018

Illustration 4: The movement of Song Sa Garn Source: Kornpatsorn Kanchanaphan, 2018

Illustration 5: The movement of Song Sa Garn Source: Kornpatsorn Kanchanaphan, 2018

Illustration 6: The movement of Song Sa Garn Source: Kornpatsorn Kanchanaphan, 2018 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 350 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

3. The choreographic invention is related to a cultural heritage that is being preserved in the current culture. The composition of the invention includes: 3.1 Choreographic invention - Form and pattern of performance - Music and lyrics - Performers - Costume - Choreography 3.2 The process of transferring the invention to the community The traditional knowledge and the invention by the researcher create a form of Mor Lam dance performed to the community. Then, people in the community can learn this sort of dance and can learn how to perform this dance by themselves.

Discussion of Research Outcomes Phum Mor Lam: Isan Dance Identity, Choreography and Cultural Heritage in Popular Culture is a conservative study by creating and maintaining the Isan dance, Mor Lam. It is considered as the new form of performance in the popular culture and can serve to the community’s sustainability. The identity and choreographic process in this study suggests that the Isan dance has been created by the form of lyrics in Mor Lam dance. An adaptation of original dance movement is employed according to the concept of choreography. Sirithorn Srichalakom (1994: 39) suggests that the artist has an inspiration to create new work by him/herself by working together.

Suggestions Research should be done carefully while studying about the knowledge of people. Also, People are unique to gather knowledge on choreographic invention.

References: Chonphairoj, Chareonchai. (1993). Isan Folk Music. Maha Sarakham: Srinakharinwirot University. Ketthet, Boonyong. (1993). Ethnic Culture of Humans. Bangkok: Yongsawat Printing. Srichalakhom, Sirithorn. (1996). Contemporary Thai Dance: Creation of Thai Dance and other Dances from Different Families between 1967-1999. Thesis. Chulalongkorn University. Thamawat, Charuwan. (1997). Wisdom from Masters of Mor Lam: Past Prosperity and Present Mor Lam Problems. Maha Sarakham: Mahasarakham University. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 351 Mahasarakham University

Interview: Banyen Rakkaen, Thai national artist award for Mor Lam: Interviewed on November 20, 2017 Chaweewan Phanthu, Thai national artist award for Mor Lam: Interviewed on November 20, 2017 Porchalad Songserm, Thai national artist award for Mor Lam: Interviewed on November 20, 2017 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 352 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

“Der Nang Der”: Installation Arts, Semiology and Beliefs in Isan Rocket Festival

Adisak Phupha1

1Faculty of Fine and Applied Arts Mahasarakham University, Thailand

Introduction Boon Bang Fai or the Rocket Festival is a ritual of prosperity, illustrated by a small wooden amulet of penis (Pa-Lad-Kik), –called as Bak Ban or Bak Dan, the image of monkey in sex intercourse, and music in the Naga sculpture of the festival. Then, villagers in all genders and ages can overtly perceive the sexual study in this festival. Meanwhile, people are rarely gained this kind if content in daily-living towards the social rules. Chankupt, 2533 BE: 3). Also, the laws of sex were apparent in a satirical poem stated by Sueng. Boon Bang Fai Festival is held in May or June as the start of farming season. In other words, the festival is the ritual to request rain from a god, which is seen as a parade in the Central part of Thailand as well. The symbol of sexual intercourse is additionally revealed in the parades in both of the Central and Northeastern (Isan) regions through their artworks: linga carving –in Isan dialect called ‘Bank Ban’ or ‘Koon Pet’ in the Central dialect. Furthermore, the contents of sexual seductions were written in a song ‘Sernthat’, as a satirical poem. (NithiIeawsrivong, 2536 BE: 3). For example, ‘Let’s dance (Serng) together till you get wet. I’m ready for you. During a rainy day, I invite you to dance with me. If you’re married, let’s eat and make love on the rainy day. If you’re a woman in large waist with shiny face, don’t be worried. I (man) ’ll dance with you in this rite of Nong Harn guardian’ (Kampoon Boontawee, 2543 BE: 111). Entertainment has become a part of Isan culture for all genders since the old days. Happiness and enjoyment can be shown by the dancers’ body movements and the musician’s dancing (Mor Can) while playing a musical instrument (the Can). Both men and women can sing the local songs or Mor Lam that convey messages to listeners. The songs are composed in repeated patterns called ‘Wgic’ or ‘Lam Cheng Choo’. Mor Lam songs have been developed throughout the periods of time until they are influenced by western music called ‘Mor Lam Zing’. During the Mor Lam performance, the singer and the musician or Mor Can attract audiences towards their movement patterns. Remarkably, the movements of Mor Can while blowing his musical instrument –the Can. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 353 Mahasarakham University

At present, an issue of gender exposition has still restricted in the public. This can be seen by the symbolic representation in the cultural entertainment since the past revealing the sexual contents towards dancing, music, and visual arts from various artists, including the hidden figures in the rocket festival. In respect of the cultural trait, this study views those hidden sexual messages as a value of enjoyments in Isan culture, not as the obscene symbols. The performance called ‘Der Nang Der’ refer to local knowledge as well as tourist attraction in the Isan region. This study, subsequently, intended to create an installation artwork entitled, ‘Der Nang Der Tung Tung’ to transform the gender issue as the cultural entertainment and knowledge.

Objectives 1. To explore the ideology, knowledge and beliefs of Isan people in relation to the symbols of art, specifically in the rocket festival 2. To create the installation arts

The scope of study There are 3 aspects of the scope of this study: 1) the gender issues, Isan ideal, in this study were focused as messages conveyance through Boon Bang Fai (or Rocket Festival) and Mor Lam performances –the entertainment to attract people in the rocket festival; 2) the western context in relevant to the sexual issue that influent on the form of performance and the creation of the bamboo wooden puppets –the loss of media production and sound recording in the past; and 3) the lyrics ‘Der Nang Der’ with the rhythmic drum in the dancing movements called ‘Ten Dao’

Definition of terms ‘Der Nang Der’ refers to dancing with the rhythm of the drum representing the symbol called ‘Ten Dao’. Interactive installation art refers to an artwork which is installed with the cooperation with audiences.

Preparation Procedures The installation artworks were created by tracing back to the initiation of the rocket festival. They represented the parade from the past to present and the performance in the parade –the monkey movements (Bak Ling Dao). INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 354 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Data Collection 1. Primary data were gathered from the researcher’s childhood experiences in the context of rocket festival. 2. Data were also collected from the essences of cultural activities around the communities of Khamriang Sub-District, NongOum Village, Mahasarakham Province. This village has conserved the cultural activities that can be seen both in Yasothon province Mahasarakham province.

Creation procedures 1. Creating a monkey puppet with soft wood as the first draft. 2. Taking photographs of the puppet. 3. Decorating the photographs on the Photoshop computer program.

Illustration 1: First Draft Source: Adisak Phupa (2018)

Illustration 2: Structure of the soft wood in the shape of the puppet body Source: Adisak Phupa (2018) February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 355 Mahasarakham University

Illustration 3: The complete bamboo wooden puppet

Illustration 4: Making colorful dresses for bamboo wooden puppets

The installation​​ arts were placed in an outdoor space for the bigger sizes of the artworks. The creator intended to enlarge the works to make the artworks higher than the original ones and made them into colorful puppets. There were totally 80 pieces of the puppets on the bamboo ridges in this exhibition. Thus, this installation art of the puppets could be seen from the distance, like a rocket festival procession. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 356 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Illustration 5: The installation artworks shown at Jim Thompson farm

Concept of Creation The interactive installation art entitled “Der Nang Der”: Installation Arts, Semiology and Belief in Isan Rocket festival was conducted to influent on a new creation. This installation represented the wooden puppet mechanism as a part of creation. This study was also based on the primary notions of Isan people who had revealed their impressive ideas, philosophy, and local wisdoms. Furthermore, the creation of the wooden puppets towards local wisdom has become the local cultural heritage through this installation artwork. The wooden puppets represent as ‘Ling Dao’ –Ling means monkey and Dao means the movement of sexual intercourse. Ling Dao, subsequently, refers to a symbol, aesthetics, and entertainment, which give cheerful moments in the rocket festival from the past to present. However, the essence of the rocket festival is going to be gradually disappeared due to the influence of globalization, which also mean the loss of local culture as well.

Discussion 1. Regarding the belief in gender and sexuality of Isan people, specifically in the context of rocket festival, the wooden puppets and patterns of Mor Lam performance February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 357 Mahasarakham University

indicate the symbolic belief in Isan culture through the festival. So, it is anticipated that this study could reflect the identity of Isan people through the installation artwork of the wooden puppets. 2. The perceiving of artwork can be exposed by a value of an interactive art. In other words, this interactive installation art was an example in this case, which was proceeded by exhibiting the artwork –a specific cultural entertainment in Isan region in a different place, out of the local context for people in other community getting to know Isan people.

Conclusion The creation of interactive installation art can reveal the notion of local Isan culture. Particularly the belief in gender and sexuality of Isan people through the rocket festival represents various entertainment through its culture such as Mor Lam performance, dance and music. Concerning the flow of new technology in relation to globalization, the essence and form of the rocket festival has gradually changed. Therefore, this interactive installation art intend to recollect and conserve the traditional way through this cultural entertainment for people from generations to generations.

References: Boontawee, K. (2000). Paladkhik in Serng Bung Fai Dance. Arts and Culture, 21(9), 110-112. Iewsriwong, N. (1993). Isan Boon Bung Fai Tourism: Boon Bung Fai must serve Yasothorn people, not Yasothorn people serving Boon Bung Fai. Bangkok: Pikkhanet Printing. Kamonserarat, Y. (2003). Boon Bung Fai in Yasothorn, the biggest festival in Isan to ask for the rain. Bangkok: Dansuttha Printing. Samutkoop, S. (1990). Important symbols in Boon Bung Fai: analysis and interpretationin anthropology. Khon Kaen: Khon Kaen Printing Wongyannawa, T. (2008). Gender: from nature to ethics and aesthetics. Bangkok: Matichon. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 358 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

The Yangna Tree: Representation, Social Memory, and the Art of Making Image for Remembrance of King Rama IX

Santi Singsu1

1Faculty of Fine and Applied Arts Mahasarakham University, Thailand

Abstract The Yangna tree, the tree of father, is a symbol or representation of King Rama IX. The objectives of the study were to 1) study the history of Yangna tree in Mahasarakham Province, 2) study the tree in the context of representation to King Rama IX, and 3) form the image of Yanga tree for King Rama IX as an expression of gratitude. In this article, the importance of Yangna tree according to King Rama IX was studied. The tree is also regarded as a precious wood to Mahasarakham Province. Moreover, this tree is considered important to Thai people. The primitive arts method was used to study the tree’s representation of King Rama IX. It was found that the artwork represented people’s gratitude to King Rama IX and was an expression of faith to the King.

Keywords: Yangna tree, King Rama IX, Primitive arts February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 359 Mahasarakham University

Introduction His Majesty King Bhumibol Adulyadej was the longest reigning king of Thailand. He is a monarch who had the ability to perform in all fields, such as science, arts, and sports, to name a few. He was also people centered. His Majesty King Bhumibol Adulyadej was a constitutional monarch. He was given the title as King of Kings. On October 12, 2016, His Majesty King Bhumibol Adulyadej arrived at Siriraj Hospital. The Thai people from all over the world gathered to hear the news about the sickness of King Rama IX at Siriraj Hospital. People dressed in yellow and pink shirts gathered at the royal court HRH Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn Admiral Vikrom Prachachuen in front of the Hall Siriraj offering prayers for the King to live 100 years. Besides this, on October 13, 2016 at 2.40 pm, the Bureau of the Royal Household announced that more and more people came to the Grand Palace and Siriraj Hospital, praying for the King. People gathered in large numbers and offered prayers louder than any other day. However, at 6.47 pm, the Bureau of the Royal Household made an official announcement that His Majesty King Rama IX had passed away. Even though the medical team offered the best treatment possible, they could not save the life of King Rama IX. The King passed away at the age of 89 years. He reigned for 70 years. In addition, Prime Minister Prayut Chan-o-cha announced on television that the death of His Majesty King Bhumibol Adulyadej is the greatest tragedy in the lives of people of the Thai nation. Also, Mahasarakham Province showed loyalty, honor and respect to the late king. It is considered as a social memory in the hearts of people of Mahasarakham Province. There were paintings and artworks done to represent people’s gratitude to King Rama IX and their expression of faith to him.

Objectives 1. To study the history of Yangna tree in Mahasarakham Province 2. To study the Yangna tree in the context of representation to King Rama IX 3. To form the image of Yangna tree for King Rama IX as an expression of gratitude

Social Memory Halbwachs (1992) gave the meaning of social memory by representation of the past that combines the symbol of the celebration. Connerton (1989) identifies the role of social memory as social cohabitation that does not preserve the essence of the historical story. Dietler (1998) says that memories connect the past to the present, the truth, the story, the mythology, and the present situation. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 360 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Moreover, Confino (1997) reviewed the concept of shared social memory and the key element “common social memory”. It consists of 1) how we create the past, 2) the use of “memories” to explore the role of the past in society, 3) what the word “memory” is in the relation between culture, society and politics, between representation, and social experience, 4) the creation of the former not as a fact, but as an illusion to serve the interests of a particular community, 5) history to study the consciousness that affects the mind, the belief and the practice, and 6) social memorization as a way of exploring one way of identifying social cohesion.

Mahasarakham Province Mahasarakham is a province in the northeastern region of Thailand. It is located in the middle of the Northeast. In general, Mahasarakam Province has a relatively flat area. It is about 130 - 230 meters above the sea level. In the west is and north is Chiang Yuen District and Kantharawichai District. Mahasarakham is considered an important and long-standing archaeological site for hundreds of years. It has found archaeological evidence that has influenced Buddhism. Since the Late Gupta Empire, the form of Dvaravati art was found in Kantharawichai District. In addition, Brahmins were influenced by Khmer Rouge. Ku Suat, Ku, Ban Kha and Ku Ban Dang dynasties had the idols and pottery of Khmer which were found in Mahasarakham. Besides this, the people of Mahasarakham speak Isan. Similar to the majority of the Thai people Mahasarakham locals are mainly Buddhists. People in Mahasarakham are mostly into agriculture. Besides this, On August 22, 1865, King Mongkut graciously offered Yangna tree saplings to the city of Mahasarakham. During that period, Mahasarakham was with the city of Roi-Et. Later, Mahasarakham was separated from Roi-Et and had a population of about seven thousand. The original inhabitants migrated from Champasak. Thao Mahachai and Thao Bua Thong were the direct descendants of Phraya Khunying Wongsa, the second governor of Roi-Et. The headquarters of the city of Maha Sarakham was located at Kut Nang; it has the main shrine of the city and the court of the city. In addition, Mahasarakham has a temple named Wat Khao Wao built in 1913. Noppamas Nawarat is the Provincial Permanent Secretary. With the approval of King, Mahatma Thadeepdee (Seng Viriyasiri) moved the town hall to the (Muang District, Mahasarakham Province) in 1999. Now, it has a governor. Besides this, Mahasarakham Province has many works of art and many artists who created the works, including the Hoop, appearing in many places in the province of Mahasarakham, temples, as well as original murals. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 361 Mahasarakham University

Moreover, at Wat Ban Dong, Na Dun, and at Wat Ban Yang, an artist has conveyed the story of Phra Wesson, a Painting on the temple wall which is more than 100 years old. The people call it “Sam Hook”. This was created by Luang Por Chan and the villagers in that community. The materials used in the construction were mostly made of cow bones and clay burned into mortar. Furthermore, Suthat Phutthong, a philosopher, said, “When Luang Pho Khao Chan completed the work to be used for religious affairs, it helps to understand the idea of this painting to teach about Buddhism to relatives, neighbors and to the public. It is one of the most beautiful murals and it should be preserved for the people. Even more, the artists in Isan not only reveal about the religion. Buddhists have the same religious beliefs as the Hindu Brahmins, who came to Isan. Both religions have been respected in this region at different times. In addition, the Hoop Points in the Northeast tells the story, the way of life and local traditions of Isan. Also, it helps to develop the culture and create mutual understanding among people of different beliefs (Thepporn Thani, 2011).

Theory of Perception and Interpretation The artist wants to convey the emotions that matter about the story and wants the viewers to know. It is the perception of emotion that transmits the subject to the form of things. The artist is trying to capture their emotions, feelings about the stories, and then imagining them as a form of feeling. Also, using materials to record them by using different methods to achieve the same style as imagined and then try to recognize the emotions of the artist.

Semiotic Theory Semiotics is the study of sign process and meaningful communication, widely used in social sciences. The phenomenon of events or objects in society does not have any meaning in itself, but depends on the social system as a whole and most of them do not reveal. But, we have to make sure to find the signs. In society, it depends on experience and ability. The identity of each person is important. The essence of what is called “Code in Communication Theory” 1. The code must be before the messenger and before the message, because the code determines how to send the message, and the recipient must learn to understand the code. 2. The code is independent of the message sent. Communication is not a message, but a sign which is sent under the control of a set of codes. 3. Code is free from the messenger and it is the control that the messenger has. How do recipients know when a messenger and receiver understand a common code? INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 362 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Also, at this level, the code is kept at the unconscious level until it becomes invisible and the message or substance that is sent is important. The codes above are both for the sender and the receiver; it is the direct understanding of both the sender and the receiver of what to say? This is why the code is stored at the unconscious level.

Principles of Semantics 1. The symbol must come first. Language is not a tool. In naive communication as popularly understood, language is the subject of a systematic norm that makes communication possible. Semantics is a matter of understanding the rules of the language and the ability to apply it correctly. 2. Meanings are derived from symbols; it is the origin of the ideas. So the language used is the code or the rules that define meaning. Existing code cannot decrypt the face. We do not think, when faced with the unknown, until we find the meaning of the code, we are very limited. There is something we do not know much about as a result of not having a code. Because there are not many things we do not know, creating a text or picture is accepted in the community that uses that language, but without definite meaning and is used when faced with unknown things such as symbols.

Meanings When the original symbol is no longer important, the new symbol is created and used in the new sense because of the limitations of each society and the conditions of the age. Meaning of the sign is also an important tool in communication. Yangna Tree - a tree showing memories of Mahasarakham. The tree was planted during the reign of King Rama IX. It is a valuable tree to the nation. In 1955, the King came to Mahasarakham for planting yang na trees. Mahasarakham has so many Yangna trees, and they have provided shade to the people of Mahasarakham for a long time. The Yangna tree is a representation of His Majesty King Rama IX. It also represents the abundance of peace to the people of Mahasarakham. Besides this, the Yangna tree also appears in the Hoop Tam (Ancient murals) in Wat Ban Dong, Na Dun, and at Wat Ban Yang in , Mahasarakham Province. The composition of the image is a large tree portraying the way of life of the people of the past. The paintings of Sangsilchai (Sinsai) and Phra Wessontara Jataka reveal the Buddhist way of life and the culture of the village. It is one of the most beautiful murals and should be preserved for people interested in learning about aesthetics and applied arts. The author of the work used the shape of the Yang Na tree and a tree representing the father. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 363 Mahasarakham University

Moreover, Hoop Tam is a folk art or a Primitive Art. It is an art that is important in the traditions, religions, beliefs, faiths and cultural ties of any community. The creator of the statue symbolizes the king with a style of art expressed in the subject of faith. This primitive art is also known as the father’s tree of faith. This time, the purpose of this is to dedicate to HM the King Rama IX, to raise awareness to the people of Mahasarakham Province to whom the tree was given by the King to conserve. This symbol is used by all government officials, students and the general public.

Conclusion The tree of father (Yangna) is a symbol or image of King Rama IX to the people of Mahasarakham. It is a valuable tree for the nation and has to be preserved. Mahasarakham is a suitable place for growing Yangna trees. Mahasarakham has a lot of Yangna trees. Also, Primitive art used in this study is created by faith. It does not emphasize the accuracy, but emphasizes the expression of faith. Large numbers of people are participating in the picture. But it is still a form of art for faith. It is a representation of the devotion and recognition of gratitude of the people of Mahasarakham.

References: Chongwilaikasem, W. (2011). War of memories: recognition of mutual memories in the southern crisis. Journal of Thammasat University. Confino, A.(1997). Collective Memory and Cultural History: Problems of Method. The American Historical Review, Vol. 102, No. 5, pp. 1386-1403. Halbwachs, M. (1992). On Collective Memory. Transl./ed.LA Coser. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press. Leerasiri, S. (2014). Video art: intertext and interpretation of social memory from Thai-Chinese perspective in contemporary Bangkok. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Chulalongkorn University, Thailand. Mangthani, T. (2011). Hoop Tam in Isan Sim: reflection of diversity in doctrines. Journal of Fine and Applied Arts, Khon Kaen University, 3.1, pp. 40-45. http://www.komchadluek.net/news/edu-health/283786 https://www.thairath.co.th/content/1107445 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 364 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

The History and Development of Erhu

Zhang Chao1, Khomkrich Karin2

1, 2College of Music Mahasarakham University, Thailand

Abstract The Erhu is the most famous stringed instrument in China and its origin dates back to more than one thousand years ago when it was mainly popular among ethnic minorities in northwest China. In years of its development, its shape, production, function and performing skills have changed greatly. The construction of Erhu is simple. Its main frame is a thin wooden bar which is about 80 cm long, and two strings are attached to this bar and a tube under the bar. Its bow is made from horses’ tail. There are many techniques in playing Erhu, --- the fingers of the left hand press on the two strings while the right hand handles the bow. The tonal range of Erhu can reach to three octaves, which allows for playing all kinds of melodies. The Erhu is also used to accompany vocal songs. Because the tones of Erhu sound slightly sad, so it always expresses deep feelings and emotions. In addition to demonstrating a few pieces of Erhu music, I will also show several video clips of masters of Erhu playing in China, and comment on the changes in styles of playing.

Keywords: Erhu, Chinese stringed instrument, music history, oriental music February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 365 Mahasarakham University

Introduction Erhu is one of the most representative traditional bowstring instruments in china. It has a long history and development, which contains profound Chinese culture and art. Its tone is rich, round, pure, and refined. It is also good at expressing a variety of tunes, which has a unique artistic charm. Many scholars are interested in the historical study of Erhu in China. Personally I have learned Erhu for many years before I became a professional teacher in a university. Being in this position, I have an obligation to make the detailed summary on the origin and development of Erhu.

The History of Erhu The history of Erhu is more than one thousand years. It began in the Tang dynasty, and it originated from an ethnic minority in the northern part of China. But it was called “Xi Qin” at that time. According to the records of Shi Yuan Wen Xi Qin Zuo, the early “Xi Qin” was just a plucked instrument, and then it became a stringed instrument gradually. According to the records of Yue Shu, its tube was made of rosewood and the leather was made from snake skin. It was Chinese premiere predecessor of class instrument, and then it was introduced to Japan in 946 AD. When it came to the Song dynasty, it was called “Ji Qin”. With the rapid development of the commodity economy, people began to pursue spiritual needs while satisfying their own production needs. The advent of music culture demanded the rapid development of “Ji Qin”. According to the records of Shi Lin Guang Ji and Meng Xi Bi Tan, the bow of “Ji Qin” was made of horse tail system, and players also had a high performing level. In the Yuan dynasty, Erhu was called “Hu Qin”. The making procedure was deeply studied and the principles were further elaborated. With the continuous consummate of process, the technology of artists were improved enormously. Therefore, the understanding of Erhu itself was also more profound. In the Ming and Qing dynasties, cultural exchanges between ethnic groups became more and more frequent. As a result, “Hu Qin” had been widely known as the main instrument of folk opera accompaniment and instrument ensemble. Many folk artists also evolved into different kinds of “Hu Qin”, according to different functions, and each shape of “Hu Qin” had their own timbre. Obviously, it enriched people’s daily cultural life greatly. In the long period of feudalism, Hu Qin was a crude instrument in the eyes of the rulers. Therefore, Hu Qin could not be taken seriously, and it could not be performed alone. Even some of Hu Qin artists were reduced to busking, which also limited the development of Hu Qin. However, when it came to modern times, it was renamed Erhu and entered the thriving period. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 366 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

The Development of Erhu At the beginning of the 20th century, Tian Hua Liu, who was an excellent folk musician, really changed Erhu’s private flow and founded the modern Erhu school. Therefore, playing the Erhu started to be a kind of performing art. In order to improve his skills of Erhu, he made efforts to study western composing theory to enrich himself. At the same time, he borrowed from the playing technique of western musical instruments to carry on the innovation of Erhu playing skills scientifically, so the expressive of Erhu was obviously improved. He also set up professional Erhu and made Erhu became a teaching course of higher music education. He wrote the earliest Erhu works and a set of exercises which the melody was fluent and the structure was rigorous. His main representative works were Liang Xiao, Kong Shan Niao Yu, Xian Ju Yin, and so on. Through his creation and innovation, he made erhu became solo specialized instruments and had a profound impact on the development of erhu music art. During the same period, there was another talented folk musician, Yan Jun Hua, who not only played Erhu, but also played other instruments, such as Pipa, three strings, flute, drums, and so on. His representative works Er Quan Ying Yue have been famous all over the world, and all the people called him blind A Bing affectionately. In the aspects of Erhu performance and creation, his contribution was particularly outstanding. Generally the original folk Erhu was just played on the original position, while he extended the higher positions and more flexible exchanges. He also gave a full play to the beautiful tone of an inner string and invited plucked skills on the empty string. The more memorable breakthrough was that he tried to adjust the tuning lower when he played his works. These were all great inventions at that time. After the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the performance of Erhu art was developed further rapidly. The creation of Erhu repertoire was increasing while the playing techniques were further enriched. For example, different string methods of the new techniques were increasingly used in the works. In addition, the professional players gave lectures to explain the advanced techniques systematically and created some productive exercises. Certainly, through some professional competitions of Erhu, many excellent players and great works were discovered. Therefore, these refilled fresh blood to Erhu art, and it seemed to be more popular to play Erhu. The main representative players were Hui Fen Min, Guo Tong Wang, Huai Hai Huang, and so on. The main representative works were Yu Bei Xu Shi Qu, San Men Xia Chang Xiang Qu, Jiang He Shui, and so on. In the 1970s, Erhu art was on the rapid rise again. Many TV stations began broadcasting of Erhu programs, which was greatly promoted and loved by people, so February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 367 Mahasarakham University

Erhu was widely spread throughout the country. For instance, Chang Fu Liu played the works Cao Yuan Xin Mu Min and Yao Xing Chen played the works Zhan Ma Ben Teng. In the 1980s, Erhu entered the era of concerto style. These large works had more extensive themes and made a great breakthrough in playing skills. Some important works were Chang Cheng Sui Xiang, Hong Mei Sui Xiang Qu, etc. Since the late 80s, the creation of Erhu playing was developed more quickly. Although there were works such as Di Yi Er Hu Kuang Xiang Qu and Di Yi Er Hu Xie Zou Qu, the performers still pursued some new music styles. Therefore, the transplantation of foreign music became very popular. Particularly, violin music formed a kind of trend such as the works Yang Guang Zhao Yao Zhe Ta Shi Ku Er Gan and Liu Lang Zhe Zhi Ge. From then on, there were many symphony and orchestra concerts of Erhu programs on the stage. These all won a high evaluation around the world. After the 21st century, more outstanding performers and works emerged. Erhu performance achieved unprecedented status; composers created more unadjusted works which contained rapid movement of the bow and quick change of the string. Many Erhu players pursued the performance of “the syncretic state of sound and emotion.” Only by the high integration of voice and emotion can they achieve the realm of high level performance. The main representative players were Fei Song, Hong Mei Yu, Huang Sun, Shao Qing Gao and so on. The main representative works included Xue Shan Hun Su, Xuan Dong, Meng Feng, etc. In the future development of Erhu, it is hoped that the players will not only play the traditional works to show the old style of performing, but also learn the new works with highly difficult techniques and improve their playing skills. We also hope that all the players could have chances to strengthen the communication with foreign music to obtain more and more advanced thoughts.

References: Beimao, L. (1957). A Collection of Erhu compositions. Beijing: Music publisher. Powell, J. (1987). Score: Gending Erhu. Balungan, 3:15-20. Stock, J. (1991). Context and creativity: The two-stringed fiddle Erhu in contemporary China. Queen’s Univ. of Belfast. Unpub. Ph.D. diss. Stock, J. (1993). A Historical Account of the Chinese Two-Stringed Fiddle Erhu. The Galpin Society Journal, 46, 83-113. Wenxi, Fang. (1938). Huqin research. Beijing: Wen Lanyi Printing Bureau. Zhenduo, Chen. (1951). Erhu performance method. Shanghai: Wanli Bookshop printers. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 368 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Development of Learning Resources in the Community through Sculptural Reliefs : A Case Study of Community History of Phra Yuen, Khantharat Sub-district, Kantharawichai District, Maha Sarakham Province

Santisuk Langnam1

1Lecturer, Faculty of Fine and Applied Arts Mahasarakham University, Thailand

Abstract Historical importance of the community is an indication that this community is home to one of the most important historical sites in the East. Especially, in Maha Sarakham, a province in Northeastern Thailand, Mahayana Buddhism which is an evidence of the prosperity of Dvaravati culture is presented. On this land, the community of Phra Yuen is known to be historically important. The values and benefits of what the ancestors created as inheritance has passed on to the present generation. So the researcher took three distinctive features as follows: to build sculptural reliefs from pagoda. The main characteristic of the pagoda is a clay pottery. Also, the sculptures with fiberglass materials show the beauty value in the arts and of the sculptures. Sculptures are suitable medium of learning to the youth and local people. Moreover, the works on the wall inside the Buddhist temple in Maha Sarakham can enhance local culture and tourism. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 369 Mahasarakham University

Introduction Background and Significance of the Study Phra Yuen community is a community with a long history. The city has long been inhabited by local people. The Museum at Mahasarakham University is known to have features from Dvaravati period. The general appearance of temples in the East has antiquities showing that they belong to the Dvaravati period. Also, there is a 1,300 year-old clay sculpture, fine craftsmanship and refinement, making it appear beautiful with high artistic and philosophical values. There is also a pagoda which is presumed contemporary from the historical importance of the community. This is an indication that this community is the site of an ancient city that is important in the history of the East. These historical findings contribute to the knowledge, arts and culture of the community. Also, creating a sculpture relief to guide the people in the community is to realize the historical significance. The researcher studied the history of Phra Yuen community to create a sculpture that reflects the history of the local community to youth. This will enhance the local culture and tourism.

Objectives 1. To study the history of the community in Kantharawichai District, Maha Sarakham Province 2. To create sculptures that depict stories about the history of the community in Kantharawichai District, Maha Sarakham province 3. To display beautiful sculptures to the public 4. To enhance the local culture, tourism and community development

Scope of Research 1. Content Scope Sculpture depicts the history of the community with evidence that appears in the community .It is the work that shows the knowledge of the subject. 2. Area of study Local communities in Maha Sarakham province. 3. Scope of Sculpture Sculpture wall painting, which is casted with fiberglass reinforced steel frame, 150 cm high, 700 cm long, and 15 cm thick, tells the history of the community. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 370 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Research Framework 1. The researcher wanted to create a relief sculpture that depicts the history of the community with evidence that appears in the community. 2. Sculpture is a work that shows knowledge of the subject. 3. The researcher wants to develop learning resources for the community and disseminate the identity of the community by using the knowledge. The visual arts is the best way to create a sculpture.

How to conduct creative research Step 1 : Operating range 1. A meeting with Community leaders and administrators of the Khon Kaen administration organization. 2. Discuss the creation of community history (Illustration 1 - 3)

Step 2 : Operating range 1. Field study with the coordinator and the leader in Kantharat Area 2. Study the historical traces (Figure 3 - 7) 3. Join community leaders to do research

Step 3 : Operating range 1. Make sketches that will depict the community history. Sketches were modified by discussing with the community (Figure 12 - 13)

Step 4 : Operating range 1. Exchange ideas with people in the community (Figure 14 - 17)

Step 5 : Operating range. 1. Molding process using clay. This process must be prepared in advance, such as plaster clay, coconut fiber, etc. (Illustration 18-25).

Step 6 : Operating range 1. Make plaster and durable prints using a sturdy wooden handle attached to the plaster mold. 2. Coconut fiber is divided into three parts for easy printing and casting (Illustration 26 - 27). 3. When the mold is set, wait for 1 hour before removing it (Figure 28 - 31). February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 371 Mahasarakham University

Step 7 : Operating range 1. Different stages of fiberglass casting: 1.1 Prepare equipment. 1.2 Unsaturated Polyester Resin 1.3 Cobalt Naphathenate 1.4 Hardener 1.5 Talcum 1.6 Fiberglass 1.7 Thinner 1.8 Styrene Monomer 1.9 Other equipment such as paint brush, plastic bucket, water bowl etc. 2 . Casting (Illustration 32 - 33) 3 . Composition and coloring (Illustration 34 - 37)

Step 8: Operating range 1. Install Portfolio (Illustration 38 - 40) 2. Deliverables (Illustration 41 - 46)

Conclusions 1. Sculptures Historical events show emotions through the gestures of people with realistic lifestyles. In the picture, the composition is balanced by applying the principle of artistic composition. Different shapes and sizes are used in sculptures help the audience to see clearly. 2. Content Expression Sculpture tells a story about the history of the community. It helps in finding out about the traces. Also, it lets people know important events in history and the way of life of the community from the past till now. Moreover, sculptures help to recognize the value of cultural heritage and development. 3. Aesthetic Values Aesthetics tells about the nature of art, beauty with the creation and appreciation of beauty. This sculpture will be the starting point for creating a beautiful, sustainable community of cultures and civilizations. 4. The role of this sculpture to the community. This sculpture is made of durable fiberglass material. Long life It will be INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 372 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

inherited to many generations. So if people in the community see the value of this sculpture.

Discussion After completing the seven stages, the sculpture is 700 meters long, 150 meters thick, 15 cm thick, made of fiberglass material. Materials are durable, resistant to weather. This sculpture can stay up to 100 years and is installed on the wall of a Buddhist temple named Wat Phra Yuen. Also, this is a psychological measurement of the people in the community and the people of the area. Researchers have recognized the importance of such areas. Based on the above reasons, the history of this sculptural community can spark the way for community development in other dimensions in the future. Because of the long life the young generation can learn and develop the communities. As learned from the days of the Buddhist civilization, Dvaravati, or even European navigators records the things that have been found by drawing and printing by hand. The value of such things is not worth it. It depends on the capacity or the progressive thinking of the philosophies of each civilization. It is proof that human values are different. Researchers are aware of the benefits and value of human art and spirit. Even though some things are intangible, value may be hidden inside. It is the spirit that has taught the admonition a crucible of goodness to the people of the past to the present.

Suggestion The community of Kantharawichai District, Maha Sarakham province is a historical landmark. Due to western influence, people in the community may forget the importance of history and slowly forget it. Physical and mental progress should be developed simultaneously. Thai people are most sensitive to beliefs. Even the world around you will develop far and wide, it cannot quench the spirit of the Thai people. Sculptures depict the history of this community. It is just the beginning. It is hoped that it can inspire the community to think and use the opportunity to benefit the community.

Illustration of Step : 1 Operation Figure 1 - 2 : Community Leaders and Executives in a meeting to discuss the history of the community. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 373 Mahasarakham University

(1) (2)

Figure 3 - 7 : Field study with the research leader to study the historical traces.

(3) (4)

(5) (6)

(7) INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 374 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Figures 8 - 11 : Historical traces

(8) (9)

(10) (11)

Illustration of Step 2 : Operation Illustration 12 : Sketch showing the history of the community February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 375 Mahasarakham University

Figure 13: Sketch adapted to fit the contents

Illustration of Step 3 : Operation Illustration 14 - 17 : Public hearing to exchange ideas with people in the community

(14) (15)

(16) (17)

Illustration of Step 4 :Operation Illustration 18-25 :The process of molding with clay .Equipment used in this step (clay, plaster, coconut fiber, and cross molding )must be prepared beforehand.

(18) Equipment used in mold making (19) Setting up the mold INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 376 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

(20) Preparing Clay (21)

(22) Sketch or draft (23)

(24) Completed sculpture relief (25)

Illustration of Phase 5: Operation Illustration 31-26: The molding process 1. Make plaster and durable prints using a sturdy wooden handle attached to the plaster mold. Coconut fiber is divided into 3 parts for easy printing and casting. 2. When the mold is set, wait for 1 hour before removing it.

(26) Setting up using plaster (27) February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 377 Mahasarakham University

(28) Print (29)

(30) (31)

Illustration of Step 6 Illustration 32-37: The various stages of fiberglass casting.

(32) (33)

(34) (35) INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 378 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

(36) (37)

Illustration of Step 7 Illustration 40-38: Installation Procedure

(38) (39)

(40)

Illustration 42-41: Presentation Ceremony

(41) (42) February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 379 Mahasarakham University

(43-46): Sculpture when installed

(43) (44)

(45) (46) INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 380 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Japanese Studies in 21st Century

Ryuen Hiramatsu1

1Lecturer, University of East Asia Yamaguchi, Japan

Abstract The field of Japanese studies is mature and well established in some countries and regions of the world, reflecting their level of political and economic interest in and relations with Japan. In others, the field is growing and developing, and in still others it is just getting started. In the globalized world of today, it is not enough for Japanese studies to confine itself to Japan’s territorial borders or to investigation of the structure and characteristics of Japan’s culture alone. It requires a broader comparative perspective that takes into account Japan in a global or regional (Asian) context through research on historical change in Japanese culture and interaction with other cultures. Researchers need to endeavor to foster ever-deeper and more genuine understanding of Japan by carrying out research exchange and assistance programs tailored to the needs of the field in each country and region. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 381 Mahasarakham University

Introduction The most pressing issue humankind faces in the twenty-first century is the need to ensure the sustainability of human life on Earth and to achieve harmony among the peoples of the world. In an increasingly globalized world, Japanese studies has been steadily expanding its reach. Investigation of the structure and characteristics of Japan’s culture is no longer confined to Japan’s territorial extent, but is acquiring a broader comparative perspective that takes into account Japan in a global or regional (Asian) context. Japanese studies also actively investigates the process of historical change in Japanese culture and interaction with other cultures. That kind of research, carried out in multifaceted perspective through international collaboration and cooperation, is becoming more and more important. Japanese studies overseas is in various stages from one place to another. Reflecting their level of political and economic interest in and relations with Japan, some countries and regions have developed Japanese studies programs that are already well established and mature. While programs in other places are in the growth stage, Japanese studies in still other places is just getting started. Affirming the value of critical perspectives and collaboration transcending the boundaries of the conventional disciplines, encouraging interdisciplinary and integrated approaches to research, and working to identify original themes and open up new fields of research.

History of Japanese Studies Japanese studies is a division of area studies or East Asian studies involved in social sciences and humanities research on Japan. It incorporates fields such as the study of Japanese language, culture, history, literature, art, music, and science. Its roots may be traced back to the Dutch at Dejima, Nagasaki in the Edo period (from 17th century to 19th century). The foundation of the Asiatic Society of Japan at Yokohama in 1872 by men such as Ernest Satow and Frederick Victor Dickins was an important event in the development of Japanese studies as an academic discipline. At that time, Japanese studies is a part of Oriental studies which is the academic field of study that embraces Near Eastern and Far Eastern societies and cultures, languages, peoples, history and archaeology. The study was influenced both by imperialist attitudes and interests, and also the sometimes naive fascination of the exotic East for Mediterranean and European writers and thinkers, captured in images by artists, that is embodied in a repeatedly-surfacing theme in the history of ideas in the West, called “Orientalism”. In the last century, scholars from the region itself have participated on equal terms in the discipline. The term Orientalism has come to acquire negative connotations in some quarters and is interpreted to refer to the study INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 382 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

of the East by Westerners shaped by the attitudes of the era of European imperialism in the 18th and 19th centuries. When used in this sense, it often implies prejudiced, outsider-caricatured interpretations of Eastern cultures and peoples. This viewpoint was most famously articulated and propagated by Edward Said in Orientalism (1978), a critical history of this scholarly tradition. Oriental Studies has now been replaced by Asian Studies localized to specific regions, such as Middle Eastern or Near Eastern Studies, South Asian studies, and East Asian Studies.

Future for Japanese Studies As long as Japan exists, Japanese studies will endure. As regards methodology, one has the choice between the area studies approach and the disciplinary approach. I argues that the area studies approach is correct, and that East Asia should be the area within which to conduct the research on Japan. If area studies are the correct approach, one cannot expect Japanese researchers to provide the raw data, preferably in English, be used to verify or falsify soi-disant universalistic theories; one will have to conceptualize and implement one’s own research, which has implications for the choice of area of specialization, competences, teaching curricula at universities, and international cooperation. I would like to propose the way of methodology of Japanese studies. The keywords are internationality and interdisciplinary.

Conceptual Scheme for Research in Japanese Studies—Research Spheres & Research Foci For Japanese Studies, we need to decide to use research spheres and research foci as frameworks, for research activities was based on the principle of developing a grasp of Japanese culture in its entirety. Starting from that perspective, research spheres were first established, and then research foci were designated as subcategories within them. Research foci designate a number of directions for research within the framework of each research sphere. The research spheres and research foci are arranged as follows. - First Research Sphere: Cultural Dynamics - Research focusing on chronological change. 1. Contemporary: Study of changes in contemporary culture from the Meiji period on. 2. Prehistoric: Study of changes in prehistoric cultures. - Second Research Sphere: The Structures of Culture - Research focusing on the aspects of culture that remain relatively stable over time February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 383 Mahasarakham University

1. Nature: Study of cultural structures related to nature (environment, humankind, etc.) 2. Man: Study of cultural structures related to individuals (psychology, behavior, etc.) - Third Research Sphere: Comparison of Cultures - Research comparing Japanese culture and other cultures 1. Daily Life: Research comparing everyday life around the world (clothing, food, shelter, etc.) 3. Institutions: Research comparing social systems around the world (institutions, polities, systems, etc.) 4. Thought: Research comparing thought around the world (religion, art, etc.) - Fourth Research Sphere: Cultural Relations - Research focusing on relationships and exchange between Japanese culture and other cultures 1. Ancient Sphere of Contact: Study of cultural relationships and exchanges with countries dating back to antiquity (China, Korea, etc.) 5. Early Modern Sphere of Contact: Study of cultural relationships and exchanges with countries dating back to the sixteenth-century (primarily Western countries) 6. Modern Sphere of Contact: Study of new cultural relationships and exchanges with countries other than those mentioned above (Oceania, South America, etc.) - Fifth Research Sphere: Cultural Information - Research on the state of Japanese studies in Japan and abroad 1. Japanese Studies Abroad I: Research on the well-developed field of Japanese studies in the countries of Europe and North America 7. Japanese Studies Abroad II: Research on Japanese studies in countries other than those mentioned above 8. Japanese Studies in Japan: Research on Japanese studies in Japan

Team Research The results of research in related but separate fields need to be solidly integrated. At the same time, there is a need for a forum where researchers can transcend the framework of their specialized fields and expand their knowledge by working together. I believe that such a team research forum will contribute greatly to a deeper understanding of Japanese culture. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 384 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Similarly, I regard exchange with researchers from overseas who come from intellectual traditions different from those of Japan to be an important element of team research. Perspectives that are rooted in a different culture provide a new outlook on research as well as different research findings. As entering an era of globalization, the field of Japanese studies will become more able to respond to the needs of the times if it incorporates international perspectives.

Conclusion In the 21st century, Japanese studies is not only for Japanese people but also for everyone all over the world. Then, there are three basic conditions necessary to the study: being able to understand the Japanese language, knowing the general knowledge of Japan, and having empathy among Japanese people. If you study another country or area, you also need to have these three conditions. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 385 Mahasarakham University

Transnational Vietnamese and the Politics of Borderline

Nuengruethai Chantharakhami1

1Lecturer, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Mahasarakham University, Thailand

Abstract This paper attempts to debate about the discourse of transnational Vietnamese and the politics of borderlines during 1930-1945. During that time, the concept about the boundaries were blurred among Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam of French Indochina power, which resulted in ’s movement across the border of Siam, leading to right disputes over borders. However Siamese government ignored over the border line to the phenomenon of Vietnamese influx into the country. This caused the French colonial to proclaim against Vietnamese migrants, who were later labelled as “the transnational Vietnamese”. The findings of this research are to pursue that the concept of geo-body of Indochina has strong influence over Vietnamese people during the French coloniza- tion and to escape from the power of the French. While Siam appeared to welcome the Vietnamese migrants to enter the country. And another factor that caused Vietnamese people to mobilize along Laos and Siam boundaries was that the immigrant law was not active yet.

Keywords: transnational Vietnamese, trans-border, politics of borderlines

This research was supported by the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Mahasarakham University, Thailand. 2017 grant and Research Unit of Philosophy. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 386 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Introduction Previous studies of Vietnamese people in Thailand have shown us through a series of knowledge learning series that Vietnamese people in the Northeast of Thailand were immigrants from the French invasion in 1946. Those studies generally begin their introduction of Vietnamese people in Thailand with such descriptions, making us feel the lack of understanding of how these Vietnamese people left their home country. This is thus the issue we would like to clarify. Vietnamese people in Thailand, or “the new Thais”, are the group of people academicians are interested in. One of the issues was the immigrants who affected national security. It led to the first knowledge learning series that introduced communism into Vietnamese immigrants in 1946. The reconciliation of Thai- Vietnamese friendship brought up the direction of policy towards the Vietnamese and changed the direction of study to ethnic identity, culture, social movement and interaction of Vietnamese people in the Northeast. At present, these Vietnamese people are a group of people with outstanding movement, affective social roles, and economic influence in their community. The policies on the development of economic cooperation among Mekong countries have especially benefitted the area along the Mekong River to become vital for driving economic system of the cooperation among Lao PDR, Vietnam and Thailand. This makes the roles of Vietnamese people who crowdedly live in the crucial area as they are the relationship connector between Thailand and Vietnam in many levels and dimensions. Though this group of Vietnamese immigrants had gained interest and had been described in other dimensions by academicians, the heritage of knowledge from earlier researchers had framed the concept of Vietnamese immigrant studies, especially those who migrated after the year 1946. Vietnamese studies had defined Vietnamese “The others” who migrated from other lands without explanation. Previous series of knowledge learning in the Northeast defined them as people who came over Mekong River to escape the attack from the French. There have been no previous studies that explained the cause that made them This article is aimed at presenting the becoming transnational Vietnamese during the French colonization in relation to France’s Indo-China Management policies, especially demographic and borderline management during 1893 – 1920, by using transnational concept in understanding the becoming transnational Vietnamese during the above-mentioned period.

France and its supremacy within Indo-China border To France, Indo-China referred to one of French governing unit in Southeast February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 387 Mahasarakham University

Asia after combining Vietnam, Lao PDR, and Cambodia into one single unit under French management. The national geo-body of France’s Indo-China was redefined by “lining” an explicit political body, blurring previous unofficial borderlines among Vietnam, Lao PDR, and Cambodia. The effort to establish Indo-China had been formed when France had conducted tension polices to Vietnam in 1856, until the defeat of South Vietnam in 1862, while having political intervention policies with Cambodia. Though earlier in the 18th century France had sent missionaries to disseminate Christianity in Cambodia and Vietnam without political agendas, in 1856 France sent diplomatic legation to draft concord treaty to Cambodia, only it failed because Cambodia still sought consultation from the Kingdom of Siam. In 1863, a draft of treaty agreement between France and Cambodia was established to purchase teak wood and freedom for the French mine surveyors and Roman Catholic Christianity to be disseminated across the country in exchange of protection from France. This treaty was named “Treaty Between Two Khmer Kings and French General”. The treaty enabled Cambodia to have French protection while Vietnam was completely colonized by France. When King Narodom Prohmbarirak succeeded the throne, he embraced political power from both France and the Kingdom of Siam. Though this was not acceptable for France that Cambodia would take shelter from two countries, it was the first time that Cambodia embraced the power of European countries (Chandler, 2009: 140-142). Cambodia was eventually colonized by France when Thailand agreed to sign “Battambong Border Treaty” in 1867 to testify Cambodia as French Colony. France’s Indo-China started to take shape when France drew clear borderlines over the colonized countries. Lao PDR was taken into colony after Vietnam was announced colonized solely by France. Due to the Treaty of Hue, signed by King Tu Duc in 1884, when Lao PDR occasionally sent tribute to Vietnam, France then manipulated their full power over Vietnam in the name of colonizer. They sent Auguste Pavie, who played a crucial part in spreading political power over Lao PDR, to survey the country systematically. France then forced Thailand to give over all other parts of Lao PDR to them by having their boat besieged Thai Gulf, leading to an agreement between France and Thailand in 1899. This then made Luang Prabang their protectorate while the Central region and Southern region were their colony. Until 1899, Lao PDR then became French colony solely (Grant Evens, 2006: 46-50). To make a national geo-body of Indo-China more visible, France started to “draw” a map of French Indo-Chaina. Drawing borderlines between France’s Indo- China and Thailand had made the land more explicit, especially in 1893, the reign of King Rama the Fifth, when Lao PDR had been separated from Thailand from the French-Thai Treaty. It resulted the land that was once governed by Thailand transmit INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 388 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

into the colonization of France. This incident was called the “Franco-Siamese War” (Stuart-Fox, 1997: 32-51). The provision of this agreement stated the core points of border lining between the Kingdom of Siam and France. This agreement was considered the first agreement that set borderline guidelines between Thailand and Lao PDR before they were rewritten many times. After becoming France’s Indo-China, citizens of Vietnam, Lao PDR, and Cambodia became “France’s people”. It was therefore applicable for France to relocate people as their manpower to better benefit their colonization. The colonial economic policies enabled people to travel across borders without considering borderlines. This was because in fact there was initially no borderline during that era. The region was formerly divided by “political power”, referring to political borders from the government center to the boundaries where they could use their power (Thongchai Winijjakul, 2013: 105-108). When France took Vietnam, Lao PDR, and Cambodia into colonization, its supremacy became its absolute power over the three countries. The political border became clear when France set the borderlines with its sovereignty, as shown on the map of East Indo-China, Pavie edition 1902 (Indo- Chine orient.le 1902. Dressee par A. Pavie, Paris, by Jean-Marie Auguste Pavie, from Mission Pavie.Indo-Chine.Atlas.Notices et cartes par Auguste Pavie, first published in France in 1903, which was during the time France took over the left side of Mekong River. The map showed geography of the region during the period of negotiation, transfer, and transmission of the land from the Kingdom of Siam to France in the year 1902, 1904, and 1907 (Chanwit Kasetsiri, 2012: 229), revealing national geo- body of France’s Indo-China and its sovereignty perimeter, especially French colony governance policies that were related to demographic management.

French colony governance and Vietnamese migration After becoming colonized by France in 1883, the governance policies affected Vietnamese people in terms of politic and social aspects. Especially the colonial economic policies during 1860 – 1861, the Indo-China monopoly expenditure and profit management strategies had affected the resource management, along with demographic management of “France’s people” (Tuck, 1995: 16). Therefore, the land management and evacuation then took place to benefit most to the colonial. The Vietnamese people had moved to live and work in Lao PDR from late 18th Century to early 19th Century, before the colonization of France. They scattered from the central to the southern part of Lao PDR, around big cities, for instance, Luang Prabang, Vientiane, Thakhek, Savannakhet, and along the brink of Mekong River. During the colonization, more Vietnamese people migrated into Lao PDR to February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 389 Mahasarakham University

live crowdedly in Vientiane, Sawannakhet, Khammouane, and Champasak. Those who moved into Vientiane were from Nam Dinh, Ha nam, Thai Binh, and Son Tay. Those in Khammouane and Sawannakhet were from Nghe An, Ha Tinh, and Quang Binh. And those who moved to Champasak and the Southern part were from Quang Binh, Quang Tri, Hue, and other provinces in the south of Vietnam (Nguyen Van Vinh, 2010: 24). Under the France’s Indo-China economic policies, the population was considered as “France’s people”, who were the main source of manpower in the Indo- China economic system, especially the Vietnamese who were the most valuable labor as a resource to benefit the colony. There were two groups of Vietnamese immigrants who moved to Lao PDR: the government officials who worked for France, who played a significant role in the economy of colony, and the labors in mine, road and bridge construction. The first group moved from their home country by the order of colony management policies from France, whereas the latter group moved from their homeland for their survival. They worked as vendors and labors who served Laotian or wealthy Vietnamese. In 1930, the economy in Lao PDR had a crisis, affecting a very low tax income from Lao PDR. The colony then sent more Vietnamese people into Lao PDR to increase more income. There were 40,000 Vietnamese who lived in Lao PDR in 1943. 85% of the population at Thakhek and 62% at Pakse were Vietnamese, and 53% of the population at Vientiane were Vietnamese (Stuart-Fox, 1997: 88). Therefore, as “France’s people,” it was normal for Vietnamese people to live and work in Lao PDR. Vietnamese who moved to Lao PDR by the order of French policies were those who worked as Indo-China government officials. A large number of Vietnamese who worked as officials for the French colony were sent to work in Lao PDR. Family members of these officials worked as merchants or farmers. Some had sawmills, grinders, and pharmacy’s, others were contractors. These people were also the main source of manpower to the region’s security (Nguyen Van Vinh, 2010: 24-26). In 1937, more than half of the population in big cities in Lao PDR were Vietnamese. They were senior operation control management officials of Indo- China Federation, including senior positions in the army (Nguyen Van Vinh, 2010: 24-26; Stuart-Fox, 1997: 77). As a case in point, Mr. Wan and family, who were Thai of Vietnamese descents living in Sawangdaendin District, migrated from Lao PDR during the French invasion in 1946. He is currently an automobile dealer with multiple branches in the Northeast of Thailand. He said he was born in Pakse, and has spent his childhood in Lao PDR as his father worked as road roller for the French government at Thakhek, Lao PDR. At that time his family was considered wealthy. His father was then transferred to Paksan, Bolikhamsai province, because of a dispute, INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 390 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

and later to Vientiane. When France took over the left side of Mekong River, his father brought the family to Thailand by boat. He was only 4-5 years old when he moved to Thailand. After reaching Nongkhai, they caught a bus to Udonthani province. At that time, Udonthani was much safer and better for work. With a certain group of Vietnamese immigrants moving in prior to their relocation, Udonthani province had become the hub of Vietnamese immigrants, along with the communist movements in Thailand. It is recommended to consider available occupation and farming when thinking of relocation (Wan alias, 2016: interview). Other than the French government officials, there was also a group of Vietnamese labors who migrated by the order of French policies. As they preferred manpower to machines, the French required a large number of Vietnamese labors in mine industry. There were more Vietnamese than Laotian in mines, who worked as officers and labors. Two important tin mines in Lao PDR were Phon Thieu Mine on the Patan Plateau, and Bo Neng Mine. Both were usually called Boneng-Phontieu Tin Mine, in Khammouane Province, Lao PDR. While there were more than 2,000 Vietnamese miners, there could be up to 6,000 miners in each mining season. Many of them were Vietnamese (Stuart-Fox, 1997: 80-85). Childhood stories from Mr. Wan reflected the relocation of Vietnamese people by the reason of colony economic policies, which was different from those who migrated for their survival. Mrs. Tran (alias), 93 years old, was a Thai of Vietnamese descent from Nakonphanom province, revealed a life of Vietnamese labor that came to Lao PDR for survival. They did not work for the colonized government, but they were affected by the colonizing policies. She said it was not difficult for Vietnamese people to move to Lao PDR at that time as Lao PDR and Vietnam were both colonized by France. As “France’s people” it was normal to move around for a living in colonized land. Her parents were employees who were originally from An Luu village, Trieu Son sub-district, Trieu Phong district, Quang Tri province, Vietnam. Her father was then hired as a truck driver to work in Da Nang. He had worked there for 4 years, and then became a border guardian for a better pay. He died of malaria after having got a new job for only three months. The family was so poor that they could not afford the funeral, so their co-workers buried him at the Lao border. After her father passed away, Mrs. Tran came to Lao PDR with her mother and her step-father when she was young. They went to work as housemaids for Vietnamese mine officers. In Lao PDR, Vietnamese immigrants were supportive to one another. They lived together in Vietnamese community, preferring hiring each other to hiring other nationals, and had supportive relationship. The community was close to tin and lead mines where a number of French governors and Vietnamese February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 391 Mahasarakham University

officials were also living closed by. The community was considered wealthy with school, and sport stadium for French and Vietnamese officials. Her mother was a cook who had to send food to hospital three times per day. Mrs. Tran worked as a babysitter for Vietnamese officials (Tran alias, 2017: interview). The life of Mrs. Tran was only an example of those who moved from their home country into Lao PDR during that period. The Vietnamese immigrants usually lived together in a community, and communicated in Vietnamese. Any village that was crowded would also have a temple, such as Chua Bo De Temple at Thakhek, Khammouane province, and Chua Dieu De Temple at Sawannakhet province. In any given traditional festival they would gather and celebrate the festival with joy. Those who were well paid would send their money home to buy land or build houses, or donate to build shrine or construct road in their hometown. Most Vietnamese offspring in Lao PDR had only 6 grade education because education was not accessible. There were very few schools in Lao PDR, and all of them were only in Vientiane. Each year only less than 100 students were accepted. After graduation, those who wished to pursue their studies had to go to Hanoi, Hue, Saigon, or Phnom Penh. Only wealthy families could afford to send their children to higher education (Nguyen Van Vinh, 2010: 26). It could be said that the French realm management policies and manpower management policies caused the migration from Vietnam to Lao PDR and other areas in the France’s Indo-China, especially the left bank of Mekong River that connects to Thailand where a large number of Vietnamese transnationals moved into Thailand in 1946.

The collapsing area between the two powers over the right bank of Mekong River and the transnationality of Vietnamese people With extraterritorial rights from France, Vietnamese people as “France’s people” could freely travel to 25 kilometer radius from the right bank of Mekong River, though it was not likely to calculate the migrating number (Goscha, 1999: 22). Their migration to the Kingdom of Siam was beyond their extraterritorial rights, however. One of the reasons that support their transnationality was the policy of Thailand. Many Vietnamese studies mentioned the migration of Vietnamese patriotic against the French in that period of time. It is also undeniable to say that other Vietnamese who were not involved in any patriotism also took advantage of this migration to escape from the power of French colony. Nonetheless, this issue has never been found in any recent studies. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 392 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

The collapsing area of political power between France and Thailand in the 25 kilometer radius from the right bank of Mekong River was due to the agreement Thailand made to France in 1893. The treaty agreement allowed not only the France’s Indo-China to cover 143,000 square kilometer in Lao PDR, with Mekong River as natural border between France’s Indo-China and the Kingdom of Siam, but it also allowed the governing power to reach over the Mekong River into the area from Chiang Saen to the south of Champasak called Mulpamok. This area became extraterritorial jurisdiction area that France could manipulate their power over “France’s people” and any businesses on the 25 kilometer radius area from the right bank of Mekong River freely (Suwit Theerasasawat, 2009: 32-36). As the area was military-free, many French operations had caused a number of conflicts in the area (Wutthichai Munsin, 2011: 212-216). The inability to manage any business in the area by the Kingdom of Siam had brought difficulty to deal with import tax and revenue (Phaitoon Meekuson, 1974: 3). France had conducted opium business in the area without concerning local laws. French officials overpowered local officials from the Kingdom of Siam. France claimed that Thai people had to have permission from France to cross over the Mekong River. To cross over Mekong River or to fish in the river was considered invasion, whereas “France’s people” could cross over with exception. Theoretically people from both banks of the Mekong River could cross to the other side with valid passports, but France claimed that people from Thailand used to cross freely. They claimed that to avoid conflict, the Kingdom of Siam had to allow their people to cross without any permission (Suwit Theerassasawat, 2009: 32-36). It was therefore considered very beneficial for Vietnamese people to cross over to Thailand with their extraterritorial rights, including those who had previously moved to reside on the other side of the river, though still called as “France’s people”. Vietnamese people were then allowed to work without paying tax within 25 kilometer radius, with protection from France. The registration and protection of France’s people enabled the Vietnamese people not to be abided by Thai laws, along with the privileges in running any business and not corresponding to Thai court. Those who moved into the Thailand before 1893 would live without the status of “France’s people”, but if they wished, France agreed to help making up documents (Pussadee Chantawimon, 1998: 210-212). In 1885 it was found that Vietnamese immigrants lived together as villagers in Nakonphanom, Sakonnakon, Nongkhai province, and that these people were Roman Catholics (Pussadee Chantawimon, 2998: 256). With protection from France, Vietnamese people did not comply with Thai laws. One example was Amdaeng Gundiam who sold herself as slave to Thai master but later escaped to the French Counselor. When the master claimed, she was protected by the February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 393 Mahasarakham University

French Counselor. Another example was of Luang Panich who had 30 Vietnamese slaves, with three shackled. France claimed that he performed an unfair manner to France’s people and requested him to set free all his Vietnamese slaves and to pay fine for shackled slaves (Suwit Theerasasawat, 1980: 342-343). However, in the late 19th Century, policies of the Kingdom of Siam also enabled the Vietnamese to move into the country as well. In 1899 the Kingdom of Siam had announced that immigrant could migrate to live in the northeast under the condition that they had to live peacefully and comply with Thai laws. They were allowed to rent land and property, but they could not purchase or sell without the governor’s approval. This policy had increased the number of immigrants from the right bank of the Mekong River (Pussadee Chantawimon, 1998: 271). Scattering villages of Vietnamese people were found along the right bank of the Mekong River, such as in Sakonnakon and Nakonphanom province (Aymonier, 1996: 125-156). In addition, it was found that Vietnamese people live in Mukdahan, Thatphanom, Nakonphanom, and Nongkhai until the transnationality control policies were enacted in 1920. The immigration regulations of the Kingdom of Siam were still open to people from the left bank of the Mekong River, however. They could come to work in the Thailand by paying four Baht tax per year. The same to the Vietnamese people, they could go to work on the right bank of the Mekong River by paying four Baht tax per year (Goscha, 1999: 22; Nguyen, 2010: 19-22). It could be concluded that the 25 kilometer radius on the right bank of the Mekong River had become French extraterritorial jurisdiction that collapsed with governing laws of Thailand. The area had become the place of conflict over the place and people. The Vietnamese people as “France’s people” were used as bait to gain power over the area of the right bank of the Mekong River. Though having conflicts between the Kingdom of Siam and France, the immigrants were the one in favor to gain most benefits. The extraterritorial rights enabled them to cross over to the right bank with protection from France, whereas the same power allowed them to live within 25 kilometer radius without complying with Thai laws. They could also travel freely to live with existing Vietnamese communities.

Conclusion When Vietnam, Lao PDR, and Cambodia were joined as one political unit called “France’s Indo-China”, borderlines within the region were made less explicit and Vietnamese people as “France’s people” were relocated by colony policies. While the borderlines were blurred, the national geo-body of Indo-China was created by France, lining onto the border of the Kingdom of Siam, leading to conflicts over the INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 394 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

extraterritorial rights. Though the Kingdom of Siam had drawn explicit borderlines to prevent France from invading, the Kingdom could not practice the power to restrict the migration of Vietnamese people into the country. The Franco-Siamese War Treaty in 1893 enabled the 25 kilometer radius area over the right bank of the Mekong River to become extraterritorial jurisdiction that collapsed between France and the Kingdom of Siam. The treaty allowed the Vietnamese people as “France’s people”, along with those who lived on the right bank of the Mekong River to have rights to continue to live in Thailand. These groups of people later became the Vietnamese National Salvation Movement who appeared in other Vietnamese studies as mentioned earlier.

References: Chandler, D. (2009). A History of Cambodia. Avalon Publishing. Etienne, A. (1996). Travel Logs in Laos Vol. 1 year 1895. Chiang Mai: Neighboring Country Knowledge Promotion Publication Project Institute of Social Research, Chiang Mai University. Goscha, C. E. (1999). Thailand and the Southeast Asian Networks of the Vietnamese Revolution, 1885-1954. Curzon Press. Evans, G (translated by Dussadee Haymond). (2006). A Short History of Laos: The Land in Between. Silk Worm Books. Nguyen, V. V. (2010). Viet Kieu o Lao, Thai Lan voi cac phong trao cuu quoc the ky 20 Paitoon Meekuson. (1974). Government Reform in the Northeast of Thailand from 1893 – 1910. Mahasarakham: Educational Supervision Section, Department of Teacher Training. Pussadee Chantawimon. (1998). The Vietnamese in Thailand. Bangkok: Thammasat University. Stuart-Fox, M. (1997). A History of Laos. Cambridge University Press. Suwit Theerasasawat. (1980). France-Thailand Relations from 1893 – 1907: the Loss of the Right Bank of Mekong River. (Warunyupa Sanitwong Na Ayutthaya & Wutthichai Munsin, Eds.). Bangkok: Saeng Rung Printing. Suwit Theerasasawat. (2009). Imperialism over the Mekong River. Bangkok: Ngandee. Thongchai Winijjakul. (2013). Siam mapped: A History of the Geo-Body of a Nation. Bangkok: Kobfai Publishing & Read Journal. Tuck, P. J. N. (1995). The French Wolf and the Siamese Lamb: The French Threat to Siamese Independence, 1858-1907. White Lotus. Wutthichai Munsin. (2011). History of Thai-French conflict in the reign of King Rama V related to the Phrachunlachomklao Fort in Bangkok. Bangkok: Children’s Club. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 395 Mahasarakham University

Livelihoods Trajectories under Contract Farming: A Case Study of Chi River Basin’s Fish Cage Farmers

Promsuda Srinetr1, Chainarong Sretthachau2, Somchai Pattaratananan3

1Graduate student, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Mahasarkham University, Thailand 2, 3Lecturers, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Mahasarkham University, Thailand

Abstract This article aims to analyze two major issues; 1) the condition in which caused the fishermen in Chi River basin to engage and withdraw from contract fish cage farming and 2) livelihoods trajectories of Chi River Basin’s fish cage farmers under contract farming system, using a concept of livelihoods trajectory and social capital. The fieldwork was conducted using participant observation, key informant interview, and group discussion in Baan Din Dam, Muang District, Mahasarakham Province in 2017. The findings are as following. Firstly, the reserachers found that the main reason which led farmers into contract farming is promised supports given by the company to persuade farmers into contract, such as new techniques, loan, fish food, fish medicines, and a specific fish price set at the beginning. Even though fish farmers have Chi River as a natural capital that can be publicly accessed, farming under contract still so costly that they give up contract farming. Contract farming also comes with various risks such as possibilities for fish to catch diseases, fish that could get too small than that agreed in the condition of the company’s loan, and uncertain fish prices, as the company might nolonger buy fishes from farmers due to fish’s conditions. Secondly, it was found that after withdrawal from contract farming, some farmers were able to start their own fish cage business while others turned to other kinds of farming. In both cases, farmers were able to use their existing social capital to create an alternate market for their products. Lastly, the researchers found that ethnographical approach, along with a concept of livelihoods trajectories and social capital, have enhanced researchers understanding of how fish farmers in Chi river basin can transform their livelihood under a changing circumstance. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 396 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Introduction Contract farming system is a form of agriculture based on mutual agreement between the company and farmers, under the condition given by the company such as production management, knowledge support, and production volume (Jirawan Kitchaicharoen & Pornsiri Suebpongsung, 2014). Contract farming has been playing an important role in fish cage farming of Chi River basin for some times. Since its beginning, fish farmers in the villages along Chi River basin have been caught into interests of contract farming system. The company hired sales companies to persuade farmers into contract, pointing out a strong potential for higher returns in a shorter time. The sales company will introduce knowledge and new techniques of fish farming via field trips in sample areas, then promises farmers with supports like fish foods, fish species, fish drugs, and fish vitamins in forms of both giveaway cash and loans, along with market for their products. Twenty years afterwards, however, fish cage farming went into a crisis of fish over-production, low purchasing rate, and increased production costs. Many farmers withdrew from contract farming and turned into other kinds of farming. Some farmers were lucky enough to start fish cage business of their own (Chawalit Toppamom, 2015). This event led to an interesting question for researchers: what are the conditions that caused farmers to enter and withdraw from contract farming, and how Chi River basin fish cage farmers have to change their livelihood strategies?

Objectives 1. To study the conditions that made farmers decide to enter and withdraw from fish cage contract farming. 2. To study livelihood strategies of Chi river basin fish cage farmers.

Literature review Previous research on the issue can be distinguished into three directions. Firstly, there is a study on advantages of contract farming and farmers’ opinion towards contract farming in the case of morning glory farmers in Sukhothai province by Thanwa Yapanhan (2009). Based on this study, farmers were pleasant with a contract for morning glory seeds, as products are guaranteed with specific prices and a secured market by the company (Thanwa Yapanhan, 2009). Another related research is a study on a policy of twin cities, in a case of contract farming signed between Ubon Ratchathani Province of Thailand and Champasak Province of Lao PDR during year 2008 – 2009 by Kanokwan Manorom (2010). The study suggests that February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 397 Mahasarakham University

contract farming under the Agricultural Products Market Agreement signed by both provinces, Champasak and Ubon Ratchathani, should encourage more participation of Lao farmers in decision-making process on how the contract should be made. It also suggests that both sides should comply to conditions in the contract, with concerns over friendly relationship between the two countries based on trust, flexibility, and negotiation to solve conflicts. The study also points out that the agreement should put more budget into supporting Laos’s less fortunate farmers and ethnic minorities, such as improvements on roads to communities for better transportation, training programs in agriculture, and amendment of the existing agreement to meet more with the international standard and definition of contract farming (Kanokwan Manorom, 2010). The second direction focuses on criticism of unfair contract farming, such as a research on Contract Farming of Villagers (2011) that studied the case of fish cage farming in Ban Kok, Maha Sarakham province. The study indicates that fish cage farming under the company’s condition is unfair to farmers. It points out that the company pushes farmers into unfair condition by forcing farmers to get the company’s loan to invest in farming, under a condition that deposit must be firstly paid as an insurance for their products (Contract Farming of Villagers, 2011 Page 76-77). Another research that also studied unfair contract farming and also suggests how it could become fairer, is a study on fish cage farming in Ban Nam Choi, Lerngtai sub-district, Kosum Phisai District of Maha Sarakham Province. The study shows that the company’s conditions in the contact regarding a production process are unfair to farmers. In this case, farmers are forced to depend on the company for every production means from fish breeds, fish foods, to fish medicines, resulting in inability of farmers to control their standard in production means and have to take all risks of fish cage farming alone (Niyomsin Ploykunha, 2014). The third direction puts focus mostly on how fish cage farmers under contract farming can negotiate on better terms. A good example is a research study on contract farming, power relations, and tactics of negotiation of chicken farmers under contract farming system in the case of Lopburi Province by Chutcharin Chaidee (2014). The study shows that when chicken farmers were caught into unfair conditions, they strategically negotiated with the company; while negotiating, the farmers also addressed the society of problems they are facing, using literature and folk songs, then it became a talk in a media. The study shows that while farmers finally met an agreement with the company and the government under the condition that their products must meet with the standard, they did not take all the conditions seriously, but instead used their own experiences in chicken farming to avoid some conditions INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 398 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

while making products meet with the standard, and at the same time, they also do sideline farming as part of chicken farming (Chutcharin Chaidee, 2014). The three directions of related research, however, do not point out how social capital are used in their cases. This study thus will argue that social capital is a crucial factor for farmers’s production under contract farming system where they can also use it as means to alternative income both in agriculture and other occupations for sustainable livelihood.

Theoretical Frameworks 1. Livelihoods Strategies by Karl Polanyi (1946) applies a theory of livelihoods strategies to study a relationship between economic and societal factors. Polanyi argues that farmers’ livelihoods are changing all the time, through their environment and social surroundings that can be transformed and used on a daily basis. He also suggests that men’s behaviors are very much influenced by social relations, politics, culture, and religious beliefs that live around individuals, resulting in his actions to become more leaning towards common interests rather than his own (Pinkaew Laungaramsri, 2011). 2. Social Capital by Pierre Bourdieu (1984) is a conception on how a society is a space where every dimension of relations are inter-connected. He suggests that all kinds of capitals can be transformed to others kind of capital i.e. economic capital can be transformed into a social capital under certain circumstances. Thus capitals can change their forms and and become expanded by applying certain strategies on their activities. Therefore, he argues, social capital can become assets that help individuals to struggle under vary relationships in their society (Pierre Bourdieu, reference in Anan Ganjanapan, 2016).

Research Framework This research was conducted under research frameworks of livelihoods strategies and social capital. The research was aimed to analyze two issues. Firstly, the study examined conditions that push farmers to enter and withdraw from contractual fish cage farming. Baan Dum Village was used as a case study on how fish cage farming of Chi River basin was developed under contract framing system, and also what problems do they faced that pushed them out from a contract. Secondly, the study explains how farmers’ livelihood and condition have changed after withdraw from fish cage contract farming i.e. their thoughts on how production should be made and how social capital is taken into their consideration to negotiate and create alternatives to reduce risks. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 399 Mahasarakham University

Research methodology The researchers applies documentary researches, participant observation, key informant interview, and group discussion to analyze data gained from a case in Ban Din Dum, Kerng Sub-district, Muang District of Maha Sarakham Province. Due to its location along Chi River, Ban Din Dum is a proper location for fish cage farming and thus became the first village in Maha Sarakham province that entered fish cage contract farming in Chi river basin.

Research outcomes 1. Backgound of the village Villagers who used to live in Ban Huakhua, Taland Sub-district of Maha Sarakham province migrated to this area and founded Ban Din Dum in 1901. The location was selected due to its location on the riverbank of Chi River that was abundant with resources, with terrains proper for agricultural activities i.e. freshwater sources, highland, and loose soil. Most of the villagers made a living on agriculture such as farmland (rice paddy), plantation, and fishery. When crops were harvested, the villagers would brought them to sell in a market center. Their living were much depended on natural resources for both livelihood and agricultural occupations. In 2000, development began to dominate much of Ban Din Dum village, families began to transform from extended family to single family. This transformation has caused the village to be separated into two zonings (mhoo), village 1 [mhoo-nueng] and village 11 [mhoo-sib-ed]. Occupations became more various and modernized while some villagers have became day-to-day laborers, technicians, building contractors, and government officials.

2. Contract farming introduced by the company In 1998, contract farming made its first arrival in Ban Din Dum. The agricultural company hired “sales company” to get in touch with a village chief whom invited villagers to an educating session on fish cage farming. Sales persuaded villagers that fish cage farming could make more money for their family without having to invest their own assets. The company, villagers were told, would provide means of production to all contractors, and all they had to do is to catch fish. After the session ended, six villagers were caught into interests of this project, and later taken to a field trip on how to fish cage farming works in a sample farm nearby in Maha Sarakham Province, introducing them on marketing, sale techniques, and even how to open a restaurant. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 400 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

After learning how fish cage farming works, the six villagers took it into their village. They organized themselves into collective, sharing costs for fish cage farming, ordered farming equipments from sales company such as fish foods, fish medicines, and fish vitamins. Sales company, who was also a consultant on fish cage farming, estimated expenses and equipments costs for the villagers and provided them with equipments for seventy-five days use. Sales company always came to inspect fish quality, quantity, and sizes. Sales company then came to the contractors to tell the farmers about the price of their fish (40 baht per one kilo) and then called on buyers from outside to catch fish that met with their standard. The farmers got the cash immediately after all needed fish were caught. After the first contractors succeeded in fish cage farming, other farmers were inspired and began to be interested in this project as well. More villagers decided to enter into contract for fish cage farming with the sales company, now twelve more people, the second generation contractors, have joined.

3. Golden era of fish cage production This research separated fish cage contractors into two generation. The first generation, six farmers, collected money for fish cage farming in 1998. Fish cage was then made by bamboo. Sales company provided farming equipments to its contractors, helped estimate expenses on total expected quantity of fishes, and introduced new technology to the contractors. It also inspected fish quality every week for seventy- five days. If fish weighed between four to seven grams, the salesman would inform the contractors that the fish size is appropriate to sell, and then estimated a price to be paid for contracted fish (40 baht per one kilo). Then sales company would look for buyers to catch fish for the contractors who would get a cash immediately. In sum, each farmers gained up to 15,000 bath in profit within 75 days. The farmers were so pleased with a contractual fish cage farming. Their success in contractual fish cage farming inspired other farmers to enter the project, and became the second generation contractors. The second generation contractors consisted of twelve farmers, causing the number of fish cages to increase to thirty-six. The second generation contractors entered into contract system via the first generation contractors who went on to notify the sales company. The sales company then estimated needed farming equipments and costs for the contractors, suggesting them how their fish cage should be operated i.e. if a farmer had four fish cages, they could have about 800-1,000 fish breed in each cage. The sales company then delivered equipments to the contractors for which the contractors paid by cash in the first round. However, once fish were nearly ready to February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 401 Mahasarakham University

be caught, contractors would have to use credits to buy needed equipments. The first generation contractors were the one who trained the second generation instead of the company salesman. It showed that the company provided consultant on fish cage farming only in the first period, and then they would rarely come just to inspect fish quality. However, selling of fish still went on according to the same condition; if fish weighed four to seven grams, sales company would inform contractors that fish’s sizes are appropriate to sell and would estimate a price to be paid for contracted fish farmers. Each farmer still immediately got cash from buyers once the fish were sold. In conclusion, in the golden age of fish cage farming, the contractors successfully gained profit within 75 days. The success of contractual fish cage farming inspired other farmers to enter a contract farming. However, fish cage farming was no longer done in a collective fashion, but rather become more individual business of each family and among relatives. In 2000, Chi River was full of fish cages as most of the villagers now entered into a contractual fish cage farming, making more income for the villagers.

4. Factors influencing farmers’ decision The study discovered that farmers who entered fish cage made their decisions based on two factors; their assets available for investment and conditions of the contract. Firstly, farmers went through their capability in various factors. Assets availability mostly came from savings or loans from financial institution (Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives). Farmers also went through other factors of capability such as their available location, skill and techniques provided by the sales company, and manpower: fish cage farming needed fewer people as it required only two times of labor in a day. The second factor was conditions given by a contract, e.g., whether means of production and supports would be provided by the sales company, including skill and knowledges for fish cage farming, and market. As fish cage farming under the contract took only seventy-five days per round, many farmers were persuaded to enter into a contract with hope for the investment to make a fortune for their family.

5. The failure of contract farming In 2002, fish cage farming came to a transitional period. Buyers no longer came to catch fish as usual and fish became overly produced, resulting in the oversupply of fish. The lowest price hit to twenty-five baths per one kilo. Moreover, costs have significantly increased for no reason, causing the relationship between the sales company and the contractors became sourer. Market failure was followed by INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 402 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

more problems which farmers have to solve by themselves alone. Farmers had to decide to sell fish at twenty-five baths per one kilo, as they did not want to risk for fish’s death and higher expenses that could lead to more debts. Ministry of Agriculture and concerning authorities never solved any of their problems, and therefore, most of the farmers decided to withdraw from contractual fish cage farming.

6. Livelihoods trajectories of independent fish cage farming and farmers who abandoned fish cage farming (1) Livelihoods trajectories of independent fish cage farmers In 2002, the failure of fish cage contract farming forced many farmers to abandon fish cage farming due to financial problems. However, four farmers while withdrawing from a contract, decided to transform what was left from it into their own business. Farmers who continued their own fish cage changed their strategy, decreasing production cost, nursing fishes by themselves, and changing a brand of fish foods to the cheeper one with the same quality. They also went into a collective farming where they could order fish foods in a larger quantity for a lower price. A lowered production costs made the farmers being able to specify a price at fifty baths per one kilo, ten baht lower than a market price. The farmers also did more sideline agricultural activities such as pig farming, agricultural equipment shop, and food vending which provided them with more income. Farmers also used their social capital for negotiation, such as organizing themselves as a collective group, providing themselves with more capability to order fish foods in a larger quantity, and nursing fish for themselves and for selling to other farmers. Their strategy helped them to decrease their production costs significantly. A relationship between farmers and buyers also provided farmers with a capability to negotiate for a fair price. (2) Livelihoods trajectories of farmers who gave up fish cage farming For farmers who withdrew from contract farming, most of them turned into the traditional way of agricultural activities such as rice farming, plantation, and ranching. They grew crops that were mostly used for household consumption that could be used for both feeding their own family and making income, such as banana, chili, tomato, basil (Ocimum basilicum L.), hairy basil (Ocimum americanum L.), and hot basil (Ocimum tenuiflorum L.). Farmers also saught alternate incomes from several jobs such as general contracting, painting, and day-to-day laboring. Each farmer also used their own social capital to sustain their livelihood; specific knowledge and techniques in agriculture, including social connection made possible new occupations such as vendors who bought and sold agricultural products to and from both inside and outside the community. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 403 Mahasarakham University

Conclusion The study on livelihoods trajectories and contract farming: the case study of Chi river basin fish cage farmers can be concluded into two points. Firstly, farmers made their decision to enter contract farming under two conditions; individual’s own capability (fund, land, skill, manpower), and conditions given in a contract (availability of means of production, markets, techniques). These two conditions, while making farmers entere a contract, also played a role in their withdrawals as well after crises of lowered prices, higher production cost, and a failed market. Secondly, a study of livelihoods trajectories in the case of Chi River basin fish cage farmers indicates that many farmers have turned what is left from their contract into their own business and tried to make more income from other kinds of farmings. They used their social capital to design their own business, creating their own market from personal and professional relationships and the collective market. By using Livelihood Strategies theory (Karl Polanyi), the researchers are also able to explain these two factors that influenced farmers’ decisions and how they adjusted themselves to problems that came with contract farming. The researcher conclude this matter into two points. Firstly, the farmers went throughly into consideration before withdrawing themselves from contract farming. They could adapt what was available for them to be used in improving their livelihood, especially the social capital. Farmer’s social capital played an important role in a creation of their own independent fish cage farming and maintain it. Secondly, the farmers could adjust themselves to a failure of contract farming, by using their traditional skill and knowledges to seek for more income. The farmers also used their social capital to increase their possibility to distribute goods in a market. The researchers recommend non-governmental organization (NGO) and concerning government authorities to cooperate and closely follow to see further changes in the community, supporting the community with knowledge, applying proper policies, and allocating budget properly to farmers who still continue their contractual fish cage farming with the company. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 404 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

References: Chawalit T. (2015. October). Meeting minutes of fish cage farming in Ban Din Dum. Meeting fish cage farmers in Baan Din Dum, Maha Sarakham. Chutcharin Ch. (2014). Tactics of Negotiation of Broiler Farmers under Contract Farming System: A Case Study of Taitalad Lopburi Province. Master of Arts Research for Local Development Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Mahasarakrm University. Jirawan, K and Pornsiri, S. (2014). Guide to contract farming: What farmers should know And be careful. Plans to Build Public Policy (TBA.) and Public Policy Institute Chiang Mai University (PPSI). Kanokwan, M. (2010). “A Study of Urban Development Partners in the Economy: A Case Study of Cooperative Agricultural Cooperation between Ubon Ratchathani Province and Champasak province of Lao year 2008 – 2009” Bangkok: Thailand Research Fund. Niyomsin Pa. (2014). Research on injustice in the agricultural system, commitment and seeking a model of fair-goat fish culture. Case study of Nam Jui Village, Loeng Tai Sub-district, Kosum Phisai. Maha sarakham province. Bangkok: Thailand Research Fund. Pinkaew L. (2014). Livelihoods. 1sted. Chiang Mai: Pongsawat Publishing. Thai Ban researcher group of contract farming. (2011). Academic Network for Strengthening Farmers in the Covenant System and the Strengthening Program for Farmers in the Covenant System. Labor’s Quality Life Development plan. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 405 Mahasarakham University

Livelihood Rehabilitation of Affected Communities: The Case of Rasisalai Dam

Dararat Kantawong1, Somchai Phatharathananunth2, Chainarong Sretthachau3

1Graduate student, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Mahasarkham University, Thailand 2, 3Lecturers, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Mahasarkham University, Thailand

Abstract This paper analyses the livelihood rehabilitation of affected communities around the Rasisalai dam in Sisaket, Roi-et and Surin provinces. The dam is one of fourteen dams of the Kong-Chi-Moon project. The construction of the dam caused a flood that affected 7,700 households. After years of struggle, villagers managed to win concession from the government. The government agreed to assign fund for livelihood rehabilitation to affected communities for 10 years. From 2013 onwards, villagers have tried to rehabilitate their livelihoods by concentrating on four principles. Firstly, rehabilitation must carry out through group effort because the effect created by the dam cannot be solved by an individual; it needs collective action. In addition, collective effort is also vital for maintaining villagers’ bargaining power. Without bargaining power, it is possible that the government would withdraw their support. Secondly, villagers have to change from chemical farming to organic one in order to reduce cost, cultivating area and more importantly, to reduce the harm of pesticide on farmers’ health. Thirdly, villagers have to create an alternative market for their products. This task will carry out through the existing networks of NGOs and communities. However, it is necessary for villagers to use social media to promote their products. Fourthly, to make the above tasks materialized, communities need a learning center to popularize and practice organic farming among their members. All of these principles would become a new model for setting up new livelihood of villagers. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 406 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Introduction Kong-Chi-Moon freshwater project is the largest developmental project in the Northeastern region [Isaan] of Thailand. The project is aimed to solve water shortage in agriculture and consumption which is the major problem in the region. Due to the lack of raindrop in Isaan, the government sees it necessary to have a large irrigation project as an alternative. The construction is planned to last 42 years, divided into 3 phrases; the 1st phrase will take 9 years in 1990-2000, the 2nd phrase will take 16 years in 2001-2017, which includes developing irrigational area and canals to alter water tides, and most importantly the Pamong dam construction on Mekong River. The 3rd phrase (25 years of the whole project) will take 17 years in 2017-2033 (Kong-Chi- Moon project: Department of Energy Development and Promotion, 2538). Looking back to the origins of the whole project, it was all about politics of the region. The political situation back then was sensitive to the government’s stability, as Isaan was seen as a major threat to a national security; movements emerged from various issues like livelihood, economic crises, rice and sugarcane prices, resulting in a growing farmer’s movement and even more intense conflicts on natural resources. Consequently, developing Isaan was seen as the most crucial strategy to ease such situation. Developmental projects by the state thus came to the region in different forms, including Kong-Chi-Moon project in which back then was just a suspended project, later brought back to reconsideration after the Prime Minister Office’s order 66/1980 or the amnesty for the back then communist guerrillas. Thus in this sense the project was clearly political with hidden agenda concealed under the mask of irrigation to solve water shortage in agriculture. (Water Management Lessons in Isaan: case Kong-Chi-Moon, 2544). Apart from dam construction, the era also saw many developmental projects by the Thai state such as “turning the war-zone into market-zone” [plean-sanam-rob-pen-sanam-gan-kah] under Chartchai Chunnahvan authority. Dam construction was a part of “green Isaan” [Isaan-keaw] project, in which Rasisalai dam was one among the 14 dams meant to be constructed under Kong-Chi-Moon project. The dam construction started in 1992 in Baan Pakhuay, Rasisalai district, firstly informed to the community that it would be just a mere weir for agricultural purpose; to reduce overflow of water in monsoon season. Most of the community acknowledged the project to be as such, until scholar and developers went into the community to inform them of the other side of the story, that they then became realized of the impact of the project. In 1993 when the dam held too much water, resulting in flood that damaged community’s agricultural production, communities after communities began to protest the project. The flood caused by the dam damaged over 9,000 rai (3,557 acre) of agricultural land and households of over 7,700 (Sanan February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 407 Mahasarakham University

Choosakul). The major problem of the construction without Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) conducted resulted in impacts not only in agricultural land, but also in loss of opportunity over community resources. The movement over sharing of local resources by communities then erupted, demanding both compensation and expanded access to Tam forest land and Moon River by the communities. Firstly, the movement was organized by those who were affected by the project. With rages, they demanded responsibilities from concerning authorities. Later, the movement developed to include issues of access to land usages, natural resources, environment, ecosystem of Moon River for sustainability use of resources by the community and other problems. Apart from the movement, the communities also worked on developmental projects of their own. Network of communities affected by the dam all over the country was created, led to protests on the streets and negotiation with the government. When political atmosphere became more open, the Assembly of the Poor [samatcha-kon-jon] was established to include all those who were affected by the state’s developmental projects all over the country. Rasisalai communities decided to get involved and further joined the 99-days protest in front of the government house and more protest and marches to come. In 2009, a large protest occurred on Rasisalai dam ridge to push for solutions over impacts caused by both Rasisalai and Huana dams, especially for the EIA to be fully-conducted. The protesters’ demands consist of 5 points: 1) land compensation 2) social impact assessment 3) distribution of overlapping territorial claims area as evidenced in aerial photographs 4) compensation over opportunity costs lost from inability to access Boong and Tam forests. During this protest, the communities have developed into a network that will lead to strength and sustainability for further generations. Tam Association [samakom-kon-tam] was officially founded, led to more networks of people affected by dams that came up with various solutions, follow- up of governmental solutions, access to governmental information, and irrigation proposals that work along the community’s eco system and livelihood (Environmental and Social Impact Report Royal Irrigation Department, 2552).

Objectives This research was conducted with following objectives: 1. To study Livelihood Strategies from the case of Rasisalai dam 2. To study economic reconstruction from the losses caused by Rasisalai dam, under cooperation between network of communities and the Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs) and other concerning stakeholders.

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 408 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Literature review on Sustainable Livelihoods This research has reviewed three major sources by previous researchers: 1. Sustainably livelihood in the countryside on communities’ basis: researches in this type focus on improvement of livelihoods using local natural resources, altogether with conservation and environmental protection, along with stressing participation in development based on communities’ needs, so that the communities will be able to transform their livelihood to suit the current state of the countryside. Economic growth has not only brought modernity into local communities, but also included communities into the market system as well. This caused communities to be caught in shock, as increased consumption also brought in financial burdens exceeding agricultural production. This led them to be more dependent on chemical substances to increase productivity. However, this also brought to unfair trade and damages to nature. Arwae Masae proposes a solution based on communities’ needs, combining solutions from public and private sectors with a newer paradigm that includes communities’ participation and organization in developmental strategy for better livelihoods (Arwae Masae, 2558). 2. A study on various forms of capital transformation for sustainable livelihood: researches in this type focus on mixed-agriculture for sustainability by agriculturalist under Ubonrat Network in a context of globalization. A study used mainly the idea framework of Patinya Pongrasri who studied and applied his thoughts in household level for livelihood. It focused on livelihood techniques of farmers in highlands of Potalae, Bangrachan district of Singhburi. The study showed that men had various alternatives to be used in order to escape from poverty and risks, including adaptation to survive. Farmers in highlands applied 5 kinds of capital into their livelihood, created more alternatives to suit their base capital and rotate their products on changing weather, making their properties and livelihood become more flexible. However, if the structure of the whole project was incomplete, access to capital properties would become difficult and finally lead to a lack of resources. Apart from Potalae’s study, there was also a study by Keeratiporn Jutaviriya who discovered that some agriculturalists chose to transform various types of capital to be used in their livelihood for sustainability amidst outside changes that influenced the community. They mostly had to assimilate themselves to newer innovations, including exchanges of knowledge and expanding their networks, trying out ideas on mixed-agriculture based on a natural way for a balance of their livelihood (Patinya Pongrasri, 2559). 3. Individual/household/community/network level directions studied by Mana Nakam: the study shows how Maeklong river basin plantation farmers applied canal techniques to support their livelihood and rehabilitate their inability to access February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 409 Mahasarakham University

social services. The plantation farmers used both physical capitals and natural capitals as their livelihood infrastructure, such as financial capital, resource capital, human resource capital i.e. skill and knowledge, and social/network capital. These capitals helped the plantation farmers sustain their livelihood and create jobs for the community. The study shows how the plantation farmers learn to make the most out of their soil, applying canal system to manage water resources, and grow fruits that can be easily sold in Bangkok markets. The study also shows how creating jobs in the community can help reduce migration of the locals away from the community, creating skill and experienced workers for the community itself (Mana Nakam, 2559). All three types of literature, however, didn’t show strategies that concern a use of transforming public capitals and how to replace capitals that are used, by a reconstruction of community’s economy, society, culture, and politics. These studies still didn’t show how communities really understand their livelihood adjustment and how negotiations in various forms with the government who is behind many developmental projects also play an important role. Like in the case of those affected from Rasisalai dam that reflects a real social phenomenon and livelihood in a community scale, this could be a guideline to help those in needs and to create a sustainable development.

Concepts 4.1 Social movement concepts Social movements made their first appearance around 1840s, as a specific social phenomenon in a rise of the modern nation-states (McAdam, McCarthyand Zald, 1988). Social movements differ in how they operate from a small scale movement in local communities to a large scale movement in a society. Social movements could emerge from various factors, mostly when the government is weak while people are strong and become organized, capable of demanding the government to meet their needs. According to Crosslay, social movements as a conception which is hard to be defined; they could share similarity while at some point, even in the same kind of movements, they could vary and differ from one another. Crosslay nevertheless attempt his best to define social movements as: 1) a challenger movement that challenges power structure and its protectors 2) a movement with a collective action of individuals, groups, or organization, to challenge power 3) social movements operate from outside political institution to achieve their goal (Somchai Phatharathananunth, 2016). This paper will use the concept of social movements to explain the struggle of effected communities around the Rasisalai Dam that paved the way for the livelihood rehabilitation project. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 410 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

4.2 Sustainable livelihood concepts There are many studies both in Thai and in foreign origins that show how economic development since the past created impacts on local communities and natural resources necessary for a livelihood of the communities. In the mid 1980s there were many western scholars who were interested in livelihoods concepts, leading to studies on development by Robert Chamber and Gordon Conway that studied problems and complexity of poverty and how people in the countryside had adjusted themselves. The study shows how the poor in the countrysides uses resources as provided to defend and adjust themselves to risks and uncertainty as their main focus. Later in 1990 Chamber and Conway studied further on a concept of Sustainable Livelihoods, which opened up a discussion on men-based development. Chamber and Conway identify livelihoods as capability, assets, and activities necessary for living. They argue that livelihoods can be sustained only when men are capable of handling their present environment, rehabilitating themselves from stresses, and being able to increase their capability and assets without destroying their base resources (Pinkaew Laungaramsri, 2554). According to Chamber and Conway, the idea of livelihoods, in order to be successful, will need various types of assets that are not limited only to private properties, but also accessible to anyone.

Framework 1. This paper uses the concept of social movements to explain a struggle of affected communities around Rasisalai dam that paved way for livelihood rehabilitation project. 2. This paper also uses the concept of sustainable livelihood to examine livelihood rehabilitation of affected communities. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 411 Mahasarakham University

Figure 1 Sustainable Livelihood Framework

KEY Sustainable Livelihood H = Human capital Framework S = Social capital N = Natural capital P = Physical capital F = Financial capital

Sources: Department for International Development (DFID), Sustainable Livelihoods Guidance Sheets, 2002 (Pinkaew Laungaramsri, 2011)

Research methodology Area of study Researchers will focus this study around the area of Rasisalai where the dam was built, in Pak Huay village, Huatoong sub-district, Rasisalai district of Srisaket province. However, as there are three provinces affected by project, consisting of Srisaket, Roi-et, and Surin, this research will also be conducted in other four areas consisting of Nongkae sub-district and Dan sub-district in Rasisalai district of Srisaket, Yangkam sub-district in Ponsai district of Roi-et province, and Donradd sub-district in Rattanaburi district of Srisaket province. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 412 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Data collecting method 1) The data of this paper are based on documentary research and field research. 2) Documentary research provides historical background, the context of Rasisalai dam, and the struggle of the communities. 3) For the field research, this study will focus on roles played by the villagers in livelihood rehabilitation. The researchers will use focus group discussion to explore various dimensions of villagers’ activities. In addition, the researchers will also use participant observation for some activities such as the operation of green market.

Study outcomes After a large developmental project, the study sees how the affected people were organized around variety of groups with different goals. A construction of the dam transformed a livelihood of people living around the Moon river valley; jobs that used to sustain the communities have decreased and some even disappeared, such as cattle-breeding that was affected by a flood on lands filled with abundant weeds for cattle to be fed on (Research Institute Chulalongkorn, 2557). Individuals, households, and communities are affected by the project; families have lost their lands and have to migrate to find jobs outside their communities i.e. to become a taxi driver. Communities also had environmental impacts, for example, public spaces like lots of acres of Boong and Tam forests that were primary sources of living, abundant with resources, were taken into the project. These effects gave rises to people’s movement by the name of the Assembly of the Poor, campaigning on community rights at both individual and community levels, demanding directly to both the public and the state. Pressures were put on the government to conduct social impact assessment on the project through many protests in 1997-2009. Finally in 2013, the government passed a budget to operate a plan as proposed by Chulalongkorn University Social Research Institute that will sustainably relieve impacts from Huana weir. The plan suggests that after the dam construction, the community must be rehabilitated in both its livelihood and natural resources affected by Rasisalai dam, along with changes in society, economy, and politics both from outside and within the community. All the solutions must be in accordance with the environmental impact assessment conducted under proper EIA procedures with participation of the community. Communities that were organized as a movement demanding for rights transformed into a network with a focus on developmental works. Communities adjust themselves under a circumstance that most of the land and natural resources were lost and society, along with the environment, has changed by making a living on extra jobs apart from the main occupation in a February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 413 Mahasarakham University

household scale. Rehabilitation needs to focus on up-to-date facts of the communities in order to see how they can survive and develop sustainably. A network of those affected was organized by the name of Kon Tam Association, aiming to operate rehabilitation of communities’ livelihood and natural resources, along with studies on the outcomes of the rehabilitation. The community’s organization is making its own history and of the society by leading it to a better quality of life, under supports by the governmental budget. This paper studies and points out that, firstly, Rasisalai dam was completely constructed and operated, leading to impacts on a traditional way of communities’ agriculture and resources. The most crucial question regarding the dam is how can communities and dam coexist under rehabilitation of livelihood, resources, and environment? Deep study shows that the communities were never pleased with the dam in its current state and also never wish to migrate. As coexistence is unavoidable, the communities will need a livelihood rehabilitation to relieve impacts created by state’s developmental project. People’s organization was founded and later joined by other organizations, creating a network of the Assembly of the Poor. In a rehabilitation phrase, the organization is transformed into Kon Tam Association, a crucial social movement with a direction that focuses mainly on network development. Secondly, Kon Tam Association has created the idea of development and livelihood of members in the network that were affected by the project. The idea has its core in rehabilitation of both a livelihood, natural resources, and communities’ sustainability and to push forward studies on societal and environmental impacts that will lead to solutions on problems and social justice, along with a conservation of Tam forest area that is crucial to communities on both sides of the Moon River. Association of communities in both dams reflects their identity and societal status, as a network of communities that will determine their own future. Kon Tam Association has laid a foundational ground to further self-rehabilitation of natural resources in Tam Forest of Moon River. Thirdly, local communities were strengthened in job creation, social welfare, and other plans that the state could not provide by the communities’ capability. Fourthly, Communities’ Economic Study Center has become a major source of economic innovation that helps its members in rehabilitating their livelihood from losses in means of living in Tam forest area. Members’ livelihood was studied in order to create bargaining power over the state. It educates members on how to negotiate, resulting in more access to land nearby Rasisalai dam. In 2010, the center was constructed with supports from the Water Delivery and Lower Moon River Maintenance Authority, Srisaket Office of Agriculture and Cooperatives, which marked the first time for the communities to take livelihood innovation seriously. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 414 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Adjustment of Moon River communities did not happen simultaneously, but was escalated from experiences overtime by both individuals and networks after the dam was constructed. At the individual scale, people in the communities began to leave behind rice farming due to flood and turned into industrial workers, unskilled labors, taxi drivers etc. At the network level, it began to push for self-rehabilitation by the communities where it was participated by 2,503 members who were affected by Rasisalai dam. They later became Rasisalai Assembly of the Poor. 250 members were later voluntarily selected to form the communities’ network by the name of Kon Tam Association where each community sent its members to represent, design, and conduct their activities. The 15 representatives had their main duties to 1) encourage and support members to conserve and rehabilitate natural resources and the Moon River ecosystem to become abundant and sustainable 2) to help strengthen the communities’ livelihood and develop communities organization’s capability to be accepted by the society 3) to restore local cultures 4) to cooperate with the governmental sector and other social organizations in order to conserve and rehabilitate local natural resources. Kon Tam Association’s works are both developmental works and social and environmental movement, as can be seen in the annual campaign where its members will march from the river sources in Paeng Ma mountain to the end of the river in Kong Jeam district. (Campaign for Nature, 2542) Their activities are always subjected to constant changes, like nowadays the members will campaign by bicycling around Rasisalai dam and Huana dam along the route of villages affected by both dams, to visit and discuss with the communities about impacts existing, to evaluate and seek for directions that will help relieve problems. The association also works with local authorities, schools, and youths in creating awareness on environmental issues via bicycling campaign that began since the year 2013 until nowadays. On communities’ economic condition, this study analyses changing social condition that took place both within the communities and outside. Consumption by people living in both the cities and the communities has transformed dramatically. Safety consumption was reduced due to demands for more products that led to mass-production. The communities became more exceedingly dependent on outside economy. In this matter, Kon Tam Association has worked together with the Water Delivery and Lower Moon River Maintenance Authority, the 8th Department of Irrigation, the Ministry of Agriculture which assigned a task to the Faculty of Liberal Arts, Ubon Ratchatani University, along with other authorities in Rasisalai district, to create a Rasisalai Green Market on the 4th of March 2014. The market was participated by 25 members. Later it became a place for vendors who are all affected by the construction of Huana-Rasisalai dam and have lost all their lands to February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 415 Mahasarakham University

sell their goods. These vendors are members who have adjusted themselves to the circumstances, finally found an alternative for their family’s livelihood through the help of the network. The market’s main idea is different from other ordinary markets because it doesn’t only concern just over income issue, but also bases its concerns over the communities’ economy. The market is aimed to be a place where agricultural producers will meet with consumers, creating access to safety foods by Moon river communities that are non-chemical, seasonal, and organic, delivered directly from the countryside to the cities. Communities’ livelihood was rehabilitated to be dependent on base assets. Exchanges of knowledge and good relationships were created between producers and consumers though existing communication networks. From a smaller point, the idea was later expanded to cover more members who are ready to trade. Production is inspected by quality control system that goes through every process since plantations to guarantee safe products for consumers, making sure that products are clean, shipped in standard packages, and sold in a good condition. Inspections were conducted by specialists who tested the foods strictly according to safety standard (Green Market Report, 2549). The market was operated and successful that it encouraged members not to think only in terms of income, but also led to improvements in their plantations, developed from just safety foods to organic foods both in conception and production to guarantee safety for both producers and buyers. In the second year of operation, the 25 members expanded by the 1:1 scale, increased both the number of sellers and wealth redistribution within the communities. The communities have been able to be self-reliant and to reduce their production costs. Members significantly gained more income and more interests in safety, nature-friendly food with a potential to become pure organic, that will support both the communities and others. Currently members are developing their processed products, looking for alternative markets, and creating online market network i.e. the Facebook page Rasisalai Green Market and the page Kon Tam Chilli Paste. For people without or with limited land, they are mostly dependent on natural assets of Tam forest left untouched by the flood. The market also provides them a place to sell processed forest products as well. Some households changed from farming to local fishing. However, they have to fish in quite a large scale that needs more investment in tools such as boats, nets, trawl, and bar hooks. In sum, Rasisalai Green Market has created a set of rules that was accepted among members. With only 25 founding members, the market shows how brave and challenging the communities are in the eyes of both people within the communities and the authorities, as organic agriculture could take up to 3 years to bear outcome. It could take up to 10 years to be completely successful and self-reliant. Determination of INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 416 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

the market’s members is the most crucial factor in its success; it will need a long-term escalation of understanding, as they have to fight against the old habits of chemical usages, their family members, and even their own communities. More importantly, as the market network began from a network of movement against impacts from the dam that later developed into an economic developmental network, it is unavoidable to be seen by both the locals and the authorities as a mob without credibility. The whole business thus was a struggle of ideas that began from a small group of people who finally successfully created a concrete example to be followed later by other members. Rampan Jantasorn aka Na Si’s family in Nong Haew village of Daan sub- district, Rasisalai district of Srisaket province, is a good example of thus struggle. When the rehabilitation project began, she was taken to see how organic agriculture works in reducing production costs without needs for chemical fertilizer. She learned about how biological fertilizer can as well control pests, how to improve farm to be varied in crops, and how to harvest her own seeds to reduce costs. These techniques were later applied by Na Si in her family’s own farm. In the beginning, she was seen by people in her own community as “crazy”; they believed that farming without chemical fertilizer and pest controller will lead to less products. Three years later, however, her family has significantly increased their income to approximately 5,000- 7,000 baht a week. Na Si grows various types of crops in her plantation that could be sold at around 1,000-1,500 baht per week, the rest of her family’s income comes from resources in Tam forest and Moon River such as fish, bamboo shoots, clams, small shrimps, to be processed and increased in values. Apart from an increasing income, her family also became closer as there is no need for migration to find more income. Na Si’s husband, a village chief, will help looking after her plantation whenever Na Si needs to attend organization’s tasks such as meetings. Her daughter will help her harvest the vegetables and packaging to be sold in the market. Every single family members have their own roles, and the family has become closer than ever.

Conclusion Movements of those affected by Rasisalai dam to rehabilitation process has changed the communities’ livelihood, provided livelihood adjustment to suit changing circumstances that came after the construction of the dam. The communities became more reliant on natural assets, dramatically changed their ways of making a living. Under a concept of sustainable livelihood, researchers have studied how various types of changing public capitals played their crucial roles in the rehabilitation process and how these capitals were compensated through the rehabilitation of economic, social, cultural, and political lives of the communities. Adjustments of a February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 417 Mahasarakham University

production mode from chemical agriculture that aims for mass-production to meet demands from market economy to organic agriculture in limited lands provided, have increased values in their products, determining their own products’ prices through the alternative Green Market that, at the same time, increased the communities’ awareness in health and environmental issues. The communities also went through many types of negotiations with the government who conducted Rasisalai dam project that affected the communities. The case this research reflects a clearer picture of the real social phenomenon and activities that took place at a community level. Hopefully, this study will be a guideline towards more supports to the affected communities and help create more sustainable development in the future.

References: Choosakul, S. (2001). Rasisalai dam: price to pay for news. Bangkok: Printing House. Department of Environmental Quality Promotion Ministry of Science and Technology. (2001). Forest boong tam.1st ed. Bangkok: Rungsinkarnpim Folk organization network Forest conservation Forest boong tam Moon river 3 province. (2005). Rasisalai: Knowledge Laungaramsri, P. (2011). Livelihood. Chiang Mai: Academic Development Fund, Faculty of Social Sciences, Chiang Mai University. Masae, A. (2015). Enhancing Sustainable Rural Livelihoods through Community Based Development. Journal of Social Development, 17(1), 90-106. Nakam, M. (2016). Livelihoods of Fruit Orchard Farmers within the Mae Klong Ecosystem. Doctoral dissertaion, Mahasarakham University. Phatharathananunth, S. (2016). Theory of Social Movement and Political Protests. Nonthaburi: Inthanin Press. Pongrasri, P. (2016). The livelihood strategies that farmers in the Don Area adopted for survival. The Way of Human Society, 4(2), 328-349. Tammoon project rights and life forest Boong Tammoon river. Chiang Mai: Wanida Press. Tapjumpol, N., Pientobtang, P. and Preechasinlapakun, S. The Movement of the Rural People’s Movement against the Repression of the State. (Post-incident 14 October 2516- present). INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 418 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Negotiation Tactics of Khmer Migrant Laborers

Arpasara Chantanit1, Chainarong Sretthachau2, Somchai Phatharathananunth3

1Graduate student, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Mahasarkham University, Thailand 2, 3Lecturers, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Mahasarkham University, Thailand

Abstract This article aimed to analyze two major issues: 1) the state policy and its practice on Khmer migrant labors in Surin Market 2) livelihoods, socio-economic and cultural adjustments of Khmer migrant labor on a daily basis. The data was collected through documentary research, participant observation, and key informant interview at Surin Market in 2017. The finding were as follow. Firstly, the Thai State has flexible policies and several methods to control migrant labors along the Thai-Cambodian border. Those do not conform with the international standard. However, Thai government is also facing pressures from international communities to put more control on migrant labors. This has resulted in an enactment of a new law to prevent illegal practices against migrant labors. Secondly, most of the migrant labors in Surin Market are Cambodian and Muslim Khmer or Khmer Cham living along the cross-border. These groups of people have developed several tactics towards their ethnicities and religions to negotiate with Thai State and its officials. The migrants also set a special channel to keep in touch with their homeland. They send money back and occasionally go back home to join their traditional ceremonies. Some even married local Thai-Khmer people. Some Khmer Cham migrants are even able to save enough money to open their own shops. They always attend a mosque located in Kasang District. Some of them became Imams. In summary, the study through the ethnographic approach revealed the Thai State’s policies and practices and also livelihoods of Khmer migrant labors in their daily-routine life.

February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 419 Mahasarakham University

Introduction Surin is a province in Thailand bordering on Oddar Meanchey, a province in Cambodia. Surin’s economy has currently been improved on a very rapid fashion. Markets along the border are also developed, such as Chong Jom Market and Chong Sa-Ngam Markets. Meanwhile, the Surin’s downtown, itself, is also developed faster. Consequently, these factors are encouraging more migrant labors, mostly from Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and some minorities (from the highland), crossing the border to get jobs. There are approximately around 6,500 migrant labors in Surin, both legally and illegally. According to the statistical data from a Department of Employment, Surin (2017), over 6,500 migrant labors submitting documents for work permit request since October 2017. Those are the Cambodian, the Laotian, and the Burmese divided into two main groups: the legal migrant labors with the existing MOU and those with the MOU of a new 2016 migrant labors act, under employer’s declaration in Thailand. The labors with MOU have contracts issued passports and run a process of work permits by their employers through the recruitment office in Cambodia. In additions, there are labors with their national verified pink cards who are already granted with work permits, verified for their nationality from the country of origin. There is also a group --Section 64 or seasonal workers of labors with documents for work permit requests. Only workers with Cambodian nationality can submit the document to request for work permits. However, Oddar Meanchey becomes the only one province bordering on the Thai-Cambodia frontier, which can request for a work permit for the seasonal workers. All of these workers work in sugar cane plantation, rice paddies, and other unskilled jobs in fresh markets. Most of the migrant workers in Surin are the Khmer. However, there are only 2,304 Khmer migrant labors working in Surin as shown in the the statistical data from Department of Employment, less than the existing recorded number. These migrant labors are significant for Surin’s economy because they are mostly employed as 3D workers (Dirty, Do risk, Dangerous) on the daily basis. This factual information becomes the main reason to explore how the situations of these labors are.

Objectives of the study This study aimed to explain the two issues involving Khmer migrant labors in Surin as follows: 2.1 To explore policies and practices of the Thai State towards Khmer migrant labors who migrate to work in a fresh market nearby Local Administration Office of Surin, Nai Muang Sub-district, Muang Surin District, Surin Province. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 420 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

2.2 To study livelihood, economic, social, and cultural adaptations of Khmer migrant labors who migrate to work in a fresh market nearby Local Administration Office of Surin, Nai Muang Sub-district, Muang Surin District, Surin Province, in order to identify their tactics used to negotiate with their employers and governmental officials.

Literature review According to the previous studies, the migrant labors in Thailand and greater Mekong Sub-region are divided into two dimensions of the migrant labors: the cross- cultural and the cross-communal societies.

The study on cross-cultural dimension of the migrant labors According to Thongyou and Ayuwat (2005), the Laotian migrant workers in Thailand had social connection both in Thailand and Laos. So, this helped them send their income back home and keep in touch with their family members. This indicated lives of the Laotian migrant labors and policies of the Thai State towards the migrant labors. However, this study still didn’t obviously reveal how Laotian migrant labors adapted themselves to the circumstance.

The study on cross-communal societies of the migrant labors In 2009, a study of the folklores of Thai–Isaan migrants in Singapore by Kiriarsa explained experiences of oversea workers who had encountered difficulties during their work and living. Thai workers, in Singapore, struggled on their own in every single day. They were taken advantages by their employers and also deceived to do additional jobs out of the agreement. Nevertheless, each one had different ways to negotiate with their employers. In views of both academic and cultural accounts, the incomes that Thai workers earned were sent back home (remittance) to contribute community services called “Labor robe offering ceremony”. On the other hand, that Buddhism ceremony became a means to connect all migrant labors’ inner minds, either male or female, and bond their economic, social, and cultural attributes in their locality. In Sopapol’s (2016) study, the Burmese migrant workers created their own community via their hometown traditions and applied for the new settlement, Khon Kaen District. This indicated that the origin of the migrants’ livelihood could be established in a new settlement towards the bonds of various dimensions of society, culture, and economy. For example, Burmese monks were invited to do sermon and blessing in different occasions such as Buddhist Holy days, wedding ceremony, or selling Myanmar imported goods in Khon Kaen due to the traditional belief. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 421 Mahasarakham University

Concept and theory To understand the Khmer migrant labors, a theory of negotiation was applied to explain the subjects’ daily-routine life and their resistances. In lines with the notion of Bourdieu De Certeau, the outline theory of practice was applied as a “signify practice” in the essence of daily-routine life. In other words, the explanation of the study was compared to a line-drawing for autistic children to follow either in direct or indirect way of their own logic (Sretthachau, 2009). With Bourdieu’s influence, James Scott (1976) developed the concept of daily-routine life resistance as a weapon of weaklings hidden as a means of resistance in their daily-lives. Meanwhile Saroja Dorairajoo (2002) identified resistance and negotiation as the same accounts, called ‘tactics of resistance and negotiation (Tactics of negotiation), which were the combination concept of Scott and De Certeau. Dorairajoo also identified ‘livelihood’ like the Nayu identity from the southern part of Thailand, which was the migrant workers in Malaysia.

Conceptual framework The policy and practice of the Thai State towards the migrant labors appeared “flexible”. This could be seen by the extended policy to both illegally hire and work migrant labors during the GMS period. The policy was later developed in Surin border, especially along the Chong Jom border. However, the policy of the Thai State was highly strict from time to time. The migrant labors, subsequently, were greater controlled in various patterns. The complexity of the state policy affected the migrant labors in Surin, which divided them into various groups, including the different practices in each of them. The state sometimes harshly laid down measures to the migrants labors, such as arresting, prosecuting, and deporting them to their home country. Nonetheless, the policy turned to be flexible between the employers and the migrant labors for finishing their jobs. So, the context and origin the policy were explicated towards the practices of government officials. The concept of negotiation tactics was applied to describe the Khmer migrant labors’ livelihoods in the fresh market, Surin, as well as a condition of crossing the border to work in Thailand. This included the tactics of negotiation and persuasion to deal with among the government officials, employers, and other people. The negotiation among similar ethnic and religion needs to be applied through the social networking, religious believing and Thai societal gathering. Meanwhile the bond has still remained during the return of one’s hometown at time, like joining a wedding ceremony. The bond also means a marriage with the Thai. The connection INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 422 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

with some of the Thais is needed to completely negotiate for remitting money or international financial transaction.

Research methodology 1. Documentary research The documentary research was examined through literature reviews in relation to migrant labors, laws of migrant labors; those were, Working of Alien Act 2008, Social Security Act 2015 (Issue 4), Immigration Act 1979, and Anti- Human Trafficking Act 2007. 2. Participant observation Participatory observations were used to collect data on the Khmer migrant labors’ livelihood, which were joining activities of the groups in religious ceremonies and accompanying them to sell goods at the fresh market nearby the Local Administration Office of Surin. 3. Key informant interview The data were also collected by interviewing the Khmer migrant labors, the head of the community, senior people, the Islamic headman, employers, vendors, and other workers who related to the Khmar migrant labors, to examine their livelihoods and tactics of negotiation.

Research outcomes 1. Policy and practices of the Thai State towards the migrant workers In 1988, after the end of the cold war, there were more migrant labors coming to Thailand. Many countries in Mekong region had set plans to develop the greater Mekong Sub-region along the attaching borders. The majority of the migrant labors were the Burmese. There were afterwards more Laotian and Khmer migrant labors coming across the border to work in Thailand. During that time, the migrant labors were illegal. However, throughout the changeable circumstances, the policy of the Thai State has continually subjected to modified since then, which can be divided into 3 phases as follows. The first period of time from 1992 to 2003, the government under Prime Minister Anand Panyarachun, in 1992, started to set a greater extent policy toward the migrant labors who had crossed the borders and worked, illegally. Those who got caught had to notify their employers in order to get bailed out by 5,000 Baht fined for each migrant. This policy was applied to the Burmese migrant labors who migrated to the country after March 9th, 1976 only. This bailing system was successful. In the 25th of June 1996, Prime Minister Banharn Silpa-archa had reached a conclusion to February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 423 Mahasarakham University

relieve for illegally hiring the Burmese, the Laotians, and the Khmer migrant labors by allowing them to temporarily work and live in Thailand for 2 years. This policy was deemed to be more successful, comparing to the policy in 1992. The second period of time from 2004 to 2008 was identified by the better systematic registration of the migrant labors. Since 2004, there were two phases of the policy. Phase 1 was the time extension for the migrant labors in three nationalities, who were allowed to temporarily stay in Thailand for more than a year. Phase 2 is a modification of the migrant labors for becoming in legal status. In other words, the migrant labors had to be verified their nationalities and status to be issued their border passes by the government of Myanmar, Laos, and Cambodia. The three governments also had to validate the immigration documents and provide the practice guidelines for their people to be able to access one-day-trip jobs. Subsequently, Working of Alien Act 2007 was enacted in order to put more control on the migrant labors. The third period of time from 2014 to 2018 was the policy of extending legal migran labors. The National Council for Peace and Order under the government of General Prayut Chan-o-cha establishes a registration center (One Stop Service) for migrant labors in order to organize the workers and provide temporary work permit documents for the Burmese, the Laotians, and the Khmer migrant labors. This aims to solve problems and relieve difficulties of employers who need to hire the migrant labors. Moreover, the government needs to put more control and eliminate illegal workers as well as the workers with unfair conditions from June 31st, 2014. During this time, the migrant labors need to biannually renew their documents twice. The office of One Stop Service provide a renewal of the pink card being expired on June 31st, 2018 with a pair card for the work permit renewal, and a request for a work permit during the nationality verification. Thus, this solution is derived from an action of the Working of Alien Act 2017 as well as the severe punishment regulation.

2. Practices to control the migrant labors: establishing more checkpoints, more arresting, and meeting employers 2.1 Establishing more checkpoints The checkpoints around the borders are usually taken charge by soldiers and immigration police. If the migrant labors do not show their border passes to the immigration police, they can be arrested and deported back to their home country. Chong Jom Border becomes the waiting area for many arrested Khmer migrant labors. However, both of the immigration police and soldiers usually suggest the labors go back to their country and process their passports or border passes. So they can legally migrate to Thailand. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 424 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

2.2 Arresting 2.2.1 Illegal migration To come to Thailand, the migrant labors must have a passport or a border pass to identify their nationalities and to request for a work permit. Nevertheless, it is found that the migrant labors have sometimes been working in Thailand without a passport or a border pass. They, subsequently, are forced to hide themselves for working. Unfortunately, some of them are arrested, imprisoned, or deported to their home country. Immigration police frequently inspect labors with legal permission at workplaces. If the labors don’t show their work permits, the Department of Employment of the province take charge in the prosecution. Each inspection is cooperated by various authorities according to the different roles of one another. 2.2.2 Working in an unauthorized business The work permit usually declares a name of employer and a type of business. In addition, a migrant labor can work for only one employer at a time. Any of them who breaks the regulation by working with an unauthorized business must be fined and his/ her work permit is possibly invalid. According to the data collection, it found that the short-term contract migrant labors received low wage so they needed to get a job with a different employer as an additional regular working paid. However, the migran labors prefered working overloaded by two-shift wage with only one employer. 2.2.3 Having no work permit If the Department of Employment of a specific province finds the migrant labors without a work permit, the employers of those workers have to be fined over 400,000 Baht or imprisoned. In the meantime, those workers will be deported back to their home country. Previously, there were many employers and migrant labors arrested for violating this law. However, the modification of Working of Alien Act 2017 has temporarily put the punishment on due. Therefore, they are not fined and have to correct their work permits according to the law. 3. Meeting employers The action of meeting employers is taken place through the resolution for the migrant labors in Myanmar, Laotian, and Cambodian nationality issued by the Cabinet to their work permits during the “extended” period. The Department of Employment of Surin annually establish a meeting for employers with migrant labors to review all regulations. So, the resolution of the Cabinet issued on the 26th of January 2018 declares that the migrant labors with pink cards with the expiration on the 31th March 2018 and those with pair cards --also being verified their nationalities must apply a request for renewal or approval work permits. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 425 Mahasarakham University

4. Livelihood and life adaptation in economy, society, and culture of Khmer migrant labors There were two groups of the migrant labors in the interview data collection: the Khmer Cham and Khmer Puth in Surin who came from Oddar Meanchey, Banteay Meanchey, Siem Reap, and Pursat. The data revealed that both of the two groups had crossed the border with supports from their relatives, employers, the group of migrant networking, and the non-networking group. 4.1 Crossing the border by their relatives The migrant labors were assisted by their relatives through the telephone contact between employers and the relatives for hiring workers. The talking detailed about the permission of the border passes and work permits preparation after arriving Thailand. That included the type of pink card with the expiration on the 31th of March 2018. The migrant labors held both of the two documents and handed to the employers for the registration process. So, those approval documents could guarantee to accept of hiring from the employers with confidence. 4.2 Crossing the border by the employers Some migrant labors had negotiated the employers by themselves because they were recommended by other employers who had already hired their own migrant labors. Both of these two employers had common needs so the migrant workers could directly talk to their employers without any agent fee. 4.3 Crossing the border by migrant networking group The groups of migrant networking in the village sometimes invited, suggested, and contacted the employers finding jobs in Surin for the migrants. During Songkran Festival, the migrants from the network went back to their hometown in Cambodia and told other villagers about the jobs needed in the fresh market of Surin’s Local Administration Office. 4.4 Crossing the border with the group of non-migrant networking Some Khmer migrant labors with the border pass came to work in Surin by themselves. They had normally heard from other villagers that they could get jobs among the Khmer migrant labors in the market, in Surin. So, they decided to go hunt for fortunes by themselves. They were willing to take risks of getting a job for either with lucky or unlucky chances. Some might work in a vegetable stall once with three times of bad luck; however, they had taken those disappointments as their experience. The migrants who had crossed the border could be distinguished into three groups: those with the border pass, those who work in Bangkok and other provinces then back to Surin, and those who with the passport. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 426 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

The migrants with the border pass holding were the group of section 64 migrants or called as the “seasonal migrant workers”. They made a request for a work permit of 3-month renewal from the Department of Employment in Surin. The border pass has to be authorized by the immigration police every single month in three months by the Cambodian immigration police. The migrants who worked in Bangkok and other provinces were mostly labors in the construction sites or the industrial factories in the Bangkok Metropolitan Area. After finishing the jobs in Bangkok, they moved back to Surin because it attached the Cambodia border. Then, they could return home easily. The migrants with passport holding with the 14-day expiration could legally cross the border but illegally work in Thailand. They had to travel back to Chong Jom border for their passport renewal in every 14 days. They could repeat this process with unlimited time due to an agreement between Cambodia and Thailand in each border scheme. Negotiating with employers The negotiations between some Khmer migrant labors and their employers in Surin were the topics of accommodation, daily basis payment, 2-month in advance payment (after one year hiring), and working shift arrangement to increase their income with additional employers. Negotiating when getting arrested The negotiation for a release by proving not to cross the border to work had taken place in some labors with the border pass holding, in Surin. They set a plan to went back to Cambodia through Chong Jom border but were inspected by the immigration police station in Kap Choeng district. Then, they needed to negotiate a permission of border crossing with the police at this area. The economic adaptation divided into 2 groups The group of the Khmer Puth labors from Oddar meanchey and Banteay Meanchey usually remits money from their wage at the end of each month to one of the Khmer who has a bank account. When transferring the money to the bank in Prasat and Cambodia, it is appeared and checked by the owner of the bank account. Then, the migrant workers contact their relatives to get the money from the bank account owner. The group of business owners are mostly the Khmer Cham migrants who became the shop owners. Their shops sell various goods such as raincoats, socks, flashlights, radios, caps etc. It is apparent that all of these shop owners sell the same goods in the same areas. They needed Thai people helping them to register their business as their employers. Though, the real owners are the Khmer Cham. In case those tricky method was caught and the Thai employers were arrested by the February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 427 Mahasarakham University

government officials, the real owner --the Khmer Cham confront them to protect their fake owners. These Thai people usually have good relationships with the Khmer Cham as their former employees. Social adjustment 1. The marriage was mostly occurred between the brides --the Khmer Puth migrants and the bridegroom --the Thai by reason of Thai nationality for their children. Thus, those Khmer Puth migrant wives could stay longer in Thailand, including a couple life and work in Surin. 2. The marriage was also a condition to settle the migrants’ economy in Thailand, towards a status of employees for staying longer. Besides getting married with one of the Thai, the Khmer workers also created a social networking group in Surin. This could expand to groups of relatives networking, employer networking, and migrant networking. Cultural adaptation can be divided into two groups The marriage tactic assimilated the Khmer Puth --the migrant wives into Thai cultures. They had joined Thai ceremonies or any Surin traditional activities; for example, San Don Ta ceremony --the most important ceremony of Surin people to worship their ancestors. Some Khmer workers might ask for a permission from the employers to attend the ceremony at their home country, Cambodia. If they did not go back, they would joint it with their employers. Both the Thai in Surin and The Khmer have common tradition of San Don Ta so it became comfortable to adjust each of them through this common culture. The Khmer Cham wives also worked in the fresh market and assimilated themselves into Thai cultures and traditions to avoid an inspection from the immigration police. For example, they didn’t wear Taqiyah in male or hijab in female, or be strict to do Salah as their regular practices. In other words, the Khmer Cham labors usually do the Salah at a mosque in Krasang district of Buriram for half an hour a day at 11 o’clock.

Conclusion In conclusion, this study revealed the policy of the Thai State during the first period as the “extended policy” --the illegal migrant labors. Then, the Thai State had amended its laws to push these migrant labor for legal working. However, most of the migrant labors had still been illegal. Therefore, the state had to control them from crossing the border in Surin by setting up checkpoints, arresting, and meeting the employers. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 428 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

In views of negotiation tactics, this study showed the livelihood of the migrant labors from Cambodia: the Khmer Cham and the Khmer Puth. Both of the two migrant groups applied many life-tactics of negotiation seen in crossing the border towards the social networking groups and their relatives. In terms of economy, some migrant labors have successfully adjusted themselves as becoming business owners. However, with some limitations, they needed to apply more tactics with the government officials. Besides, marrying one of the Thai was also applied as the crucial cultural negotiation. Finally, the concept of negotiation tactics in this study was a means to study the livelihoods of the migrant labors along the borderline, to be more comprehensible of these groups of people.

References: Amara Soonthorndhada, (2015) : Migrant Workers in Greater Mekong Sub-Region, Population and Social Diversity in Thailand 2015. Institute for population and social research Mahidol University: 151-154. Banyat Salee. (2009). Adaptation of Khmer Ethnic Group in Borderland of Thai- Cambodia and Signification for Administration in Thai Borderland Case Study : Border Crossing Point Chom, Surin Province. Bangkok: Program on National Policy and Transnational Relations, the Thailand Research Fund. Chainarong Sretthachau. (2009). Space,Power and Livelihoods of People at Combodian-Lao Borderlands in the Context of Mekong Regionalization. Ph. D. Thesis Mahasarakham: Mahasarakham University. de Certeau, Michel. (1984). The Practice of Everyday Life. Translated by Steven Rendall. Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press. Dorairajoo, Saroja davi. (2002). No Fish in the sea: Thai-Malay Tactics of Negotiation in a Time of Scarcity. Doctor’s Thesis. Boston: Harvard University. Kritaya Archavanitkul. (2012). Classification of migrant workers from Burma, Cambodia and Laos. Population and Development. 33(1): 6-7; October- November. Maniemai Thomgyou and Dusadee Ayuwat. (2005). Social Network of Lao Transnational Migrant Workers in Thailand. Journal of Mekong Societies. 1(2): 55 – 83; May – August. Pattana Kitiarsa. (2009). “The Transnational Folklore of Thai - Isan Migrants in Singapore, Journal of Mekong Societies. 5(1) : 46 – 73 ; January-April. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 429 Mahasarakham University

Scott, James C. (1976). The Moral Economy of the Peasant: Robellion and Subsistence in Southeast Asia. New Haven and London : Yale University Press. Wilasine Sopapol. (2016). The Translocal Community: Translocality and Identity Formation of Myanmar Migrant Workers in Khon Kaen. Khon Kaen: Center for Research on Plurality in the Mekong Region, Khon Kaen University. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 430 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

The Route Planning to Track Aged Patients with Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs) in Chiang Yuen District, Maha Sarakham Province

Preeyaporn Pansuwan1, Jaturong Som-ard2, Savittri Ratanopad Suwanlee3 Thanyarat Chaiyakarm4, Worawit Jitsukka5

1, 2, 3, 4, 5Department of Geography Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Mahasarakham University, Thailand

Abstract This study aimed to examine locations with density, categories, and a shortcut of a tracking plan for aged patients with Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs), in Chiang Yuen district, Maha Sarakham province. The statistical data collection of the locations was used by the Global Positioning System (GPS) with 8,325 elderly at the aged of over 60, in 2017. The density of the elderly was analyzed by Kernel Density. The aged bedbound patients were categorized by the Activities of Daily Living (ADL) index. The route planning to track aged patients with NCDs was analyzed by the Geographical Information System --GIS. All of the data were analyzed their Network Analysis by Closet Facility towards the factors: distance, driving speed, time, and patient visiting spots. The finding revealed that there were 8,325 locations of the elderly. The majority of the density was at the percentage of 21, 18, and 14 in the sub-district areas of Chiang Yueng, Kouthong, and Sueytuw, respectively. The category of the aged patients was mostly found as the sociable group at the percentage of 96. The analysis of route planning for the aged patients with NCDs showed 40 routes, divided into various clinics. There were 8 routes for Chiang Yueng Hospital and 5 routes for the Health Promoting Hospital in Ban-Khampeay sub-district, Ban- Phon. Consequently, the route map of this study became beneficial for planning to instantly visit the elderly.

Keywords: tracing planning, network analysis, Geographical Information System: GIS February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 431 Mahasarakham University

Introduction According to WHO (2015), there were 36 million people dying from Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs) due to the habits or behavior during their livelihoods. Without instant and accurate care, it can cause complication in body system, deformation, and early death (Mayuri Homsanid, 2014). This also affect patients’ livelihoods and economic situation in families’ curing expenses. Thus, Thailand has set a plan of national health development with the eleventh national economic and social development plan (2012 - 2016) to prevent and control 5 chronic NCDs: diabetes mellitus, hypertension, heart disease, stroke, and cancer (Ministry of Public Health, 2017). According to the statistical record, the prevalence of diabetes mellitus and hypertension was increasing in the patients at the age of over 18 from the percentage of 6.9 in 2009 and that of 8.9 in 2014 (Office of International Health Policy, 2016). Concerning the data of assessment screening in the elderly, Maha Sarakham province (2017), there were 134,467 of the elderly in total. 22,574 of them became patients with NCDs: with diabetes mellitus at the amount of 17,025 and with hypertension at the amount of 17,850. Specifically, the population in Chiang Yuen district totally showed at the number of 47,362; 9,494 of them were the elderly at the percentage of 20. The causes of the NCDs derived from lack of knowledge to self-care of their health and that of medical treatment from the medical staff. An application of Geographical Information System (GIS) can implement the development in public health as well as decision-making plans to solve medical problems. GIS helps to analyze the area density with Kernel Density method to measure the distribution spots towards the principle of quantitative analysis in geography, (Maurizio, Paul, & Phil, 2007), as shown in Dasymetric mapping to set health plans for the public (Malinee Roongthai, 2015). In addition, GIS becomes the best tool to analyze routes, search for nearest public utility. The factors of network analysis --to seek for route track to the NCDs patients consist of time, distance, and car speed (Supetch Jirkajonkul, 2013). Subsequently, this study found a significance of a plan to track the patients with NCDs with the GIS as a tool to manage the data of the patients relevant to areas, locations, and density, including as the tool of network analysis to search for a shortcut, to set a tracking plan for bedbound patients. GIS is also implemented for medical staff to set tracking system or monitoring patients’ symptoms, promptly and effectively. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 432 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Objective To analyze shortcuts in tracking plans for the aged patients with Non- Communicable Diseases (NCDs)

Methodology 1. Scope of the areas The area study was at Chiang Yuen district, Maha Sarakham province approximately 289 kilometer square, divided into 8 sub-districts, 116 villages. 2. Population Population was patients with ACDs at the age of over 60, who were diagnosed as diabetes mellitus and hypertension. All of those had registered to be patients at the hospital and the health promoting hospitals of the sub-district, Chiang Yuen district, Maha Sarakham province. 3. Research tools 3.1 Global Positioning System (GPS) used to collect the coordinates of the patients with NCDs and the medical care clinic 3.2 A structured interview form, towards the criteria of ADL index from Ministry of Public Health, divided into 2 parts: Part 1: Patients’ general data Part 2: The Activities of Daily Living (ADL) index for the elderly 3.3 Geographic Information System (GIS) used to examine tracking route the aged bedbound patients’ with NCDs 4. Data collection 4.1 The data of the elderly derived from Maha Sarakham Provincial Public Health Office in 2017. The survey of the coordinates with GPS collected the data from 8,325 of the elderly, 12 medical clinics. 4.2 The data from the interview were divided into 3 levels of the elderly according to the Barthel ADL Index; those were (Ministry of Public Health, 2014), Level 1: The sociable elderly were the ones with abilities of helping oneself, others, or community. Level 2: The homebound elderly were the ones with ability of self- help. Level 3: The bedbound elderly were the ones with inability of self- help or disability. 4.3 All data of the elderly with their coordinates towards the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) and their categories were input into the GIS to analyze the density and set plans of the tracking route for the elderly with ACDs. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 433 Mahasarakham University

5. Data analysis 5.1 The Kernel Density was used to analyze the density of the elderly in Chiang Yuen district, Maha Sarakham province (Tharakorn Jaruruetaikan, 2015), divided into 4 degrees: the most, mostly, and less. 5.2 The network analysis was used to set plans of the tracking routes for the aged bedbound patients with ACDs with a condition of a shortcut tool toward the closet facility within one day. The factors of analysis were as follows. 5.2.1 Distance means the travelling routes between the medical clinics and the locations of the patients with ACDs. 5.2.2 Time means the travelling time from the medical clinics to the dwelling of the patients with ACDs. 5.2.3 Car speed means speeding during an ambulance travelling at 60-90 kilometers per hour, toward legal requirement. 5.2.4 Patient visiting spot means the patients’ dwelling, which the public health staff is accessible to examine the patients within 30 minutes.

Findings Regarding the locations, density, statistical data of the patients at the age of over 60, in Chiang Yuen district, Maha Sarakham province from Maha Sarakham Provincial Public Health Office, in 2017, the findings revealed that there were 8,325 of the elderly. The location data of those were collected by GPS, which were plotted the sample spots of the locations in the areas of 400 kilometer squares, to identify the degrees of the locations, as shown in figure 1 and the Kernel Density analysis in figure 2.

Figure 1: The location map of the elderly in Chiang Yuen district, Maha Sarakham province INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 434 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

According to figure 1, there were totally 370 spots of the elderly locations. The majority of the elderly were in Chiang Yuen, Koothong, Seuthaw, and Don-ngen sub-districts with the numbers of spot at 83, 74, 63, and 47, respectively. All of these areas, subsequently, provided the center of different services with the accessible infrastructure and public assistance, including the cut-through transporting routes.

Figure 2: The density map of the elderly in Chiang Yuen district, Maha Sarakham province Figure 2 showed the main concentration around the center of big downtown communities because they provided both public and private service offices. There were main transportation route intersections. The majority of those was in Chiang Yeun, Koothong, and Seuthaw sub-districts. The density of the elderly was the percentage of 54.72, 54.06, and 53.08 kilometer squares.

Figure 3: The map of the aged patients with ACDs in Chiang Yuen district, Maha Sarakham province February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 435 Mahasarakham University

Figure 3 showed the categories of the aged patients with ACDs. The majority of the patients was the sociable elderly with the amount of 2,501 at the percentage of 95.97. 65 patients were the homebody elderly at the percentage of 2.49 and 40 of those as the bedbound patients at the percentage of 1.54. The analysis of the tracking route plans for the aged patients with ACDs showed that there were 8 bedbound patients in the responsibility of Chiang Yuen Hospital. There were 8 routes of the planning. It took 30 minutes to examine each patients. The average distance was approximately 12 kilometers with four and a half hours for travelling.

Figure 4: The routes of tracking planning of the aged patients with ACDs at bedbound level, Chiang Yuen Hospital

Discussion The increasing rate of the aged patients with ACDs is a significant global problem. This can be found in many countries either with high or low incomes. The application of Geospatial technology (GIS and GPS) becomes the effective tool for public health. This tool can run the databases of locations, places, data mapping routes and analyze them with the GIS towards the factors of distance, car speed, and time (Boonsuep Sosoom, 2008; Supeth Jirajonkul, 2013). The interviewing data are also the guideline to visit the bedbound patients, family care, and community participation toward the Barthel ADL Index (Roongtiwa Pimsakka, 2015; Padmaka S.J., 2015). This study can help staff from the medical clinics to facilitate and reduce time while visiting each patient. The analysis of this study was conducted during the normal situation, without any specific or accidental crisis intervening the route to the patients. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 436 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Suggestion There should be a complete development to manage the data system of the registered elderly namelists, annually. Then, the planning for curing, tracking, and setting budgets for the elderly can be covered.

Further study It is anticipating that the findings of this study can afterwards be furthered through the development of a planning for tracking the aged patients with ACDs. They can also be the model for a public health service clinic, including a touchstone of another disease diagnosis in the elderly with the high risk of death.

References: Kaeowikran, P. and Chirakhachonkun, S. (2014). Application of Geographic Information Systems for Service Area Analysis of Emergency Medical Service Centersin Loei Province. Khamphira, P. (2015). Study of the pattern and duration of road accidents: A case study of Phitsanulok Municipality. (Bachelor of Sciences Thesis). Nare- suan University, Thailand. Phuthaengphet, K. (2015). Risk Areas of Motor Vehicle Theft in Muang Phitsanulok. (Bachelor of Sciences Thesis). Naresuan University, Thailand. Roongthai, M. (2015). Dasymetric Mapping for Public Health Planning: A Case Study of Diabetes, Hypertension and Both Diseases Patlents in Bankrang, Amphoe Mueang, Phitsanulok. (Bachelor of Sciences Thesis). Naresuan University, Thailand. Sapsinphan, P. and Liangsutasakon, P. (2009). Applying geographic information system to monitoring hypertension patients. King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok. Yiampisan, M. and Sivanit, M. (2007). Using the Kernel Density Estimation Surface for Criminal Pattern: A Case Study in Phranakhon District, Bangkok. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 437 Mahasarakham University

A Tourism Management towards Religion and Buddhist Meditation in Khon Kean and Mahasarakham Provinces

Chalong Phanchan1

1Lecturer, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Mahasarakham University, Thailand

Abstract The objective of this research was to study the concept of Buddhist meditation, capabilities, activities and traveling route towards religion and Buddhist meditation in Khon Kean and Mahasarakham provinces. As qualitative research, the purposive sampling was used for data collection. The interview schedule, focus group and participant observation were used as the research methods. There were 14 tourist attractions towards religion and three Buddhist meditation places selected as the fieldwork study. There were 4 findings in the important and famous concepts of Buddhist meditation practice: 1) Yub-Phong, 2) Buddho, 3) Movement and 4) Goenka. There were 9 groups of synthesis from the 14 religious tourist attractions: 1) Dhamma puzzle painting and local wisdom sculptures, 2) museums, 3) relics and pagodas, 4) sacred Buddha images, 5) wooden Buddha images, 6) Buddhism learning, 7) Sim E-san (Buddha halls), 8) ancient pagodas (Ku) and 9) revered Buddhist monks. Regarding the capabilities to manage traveling route towards religion and Buddhist meditation, there were committees both from the monks and the laymen in managing. There were 3 tourism routes within the communities and 2 routes connecting between both provinces. The famous activities were Buddhist meditation practice, giving merit, relic worship and the sacred Buddha images.

Keywords: Tourism, Management, Buddhist Meditation, Religion INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 438 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Introduction The northeast (E-san) region of Thailand is distinct and diverse in beliefs, cultural arts, customs, and lifestyles. In the reflection of Suchit Wongthet, the E-san region is as substantial as the arterial river –the Mekong, which becomes the hub of the region (Suchit Wongthet: 2003. 12). Regarding the aspect of civilization, there are 2 main basins of that: Sakonnakhorn and Khorat (Srisakara Vallibhodotama 2003. 3).In terms of Thawat’s archeological reflection, E-san is the source of cultural collection from the pre-historic to historical periods, divided into various eras (Thawat Punnothok. 2008. 1). According to Thawat’s study (2008. 3-4) of the E-san stone inscription in the Thai-Lao period during the domination of Lan-Chan Kingdom, it found that Buddhism in E-san was profoundly glorious in the Sakhonnakhorn basin. Therefore, Buddhism had become distinct in the northeast region among its civilization, legends, and customs. At present, the mainstream of the country development tends to enhance the learning of local cultures or Thai ways in accordance with the development plan for national tourism (2012-2016). This indicates a high trend of tourism, especially the popularity of alternative tourism such as health tourism, and spiritual tourism, etc. In view of tourism, E-san has become the selling point of tourism known as “E-san: sources of civilization-learned”. As regards the central area of the northeast, there are 4 provinces; those are, Roi- Et, Khon Kean, Maha Sarakham, and Kalasin in which locate many cultural heritage and are so-called ‘Roi-Kean-San-Sin’. Monasteries and meditation retreatment nowadays, typically, are tourist attraction which many tourists either from the local, visitors, or foreigners are interested in learning Buddhism, paying homage to the Buddha images as well as doing the Dharma retreat. Hence, this research intends to indicate the discernment of Dharma practice and tourist attractions in religion, capabilities of the communities and organizations in relation to the management of tourism in religion and Buddhist meditation. These include activities and traveling routes in the areas focusing on beneficial outputs for their regions.

Objectives 1. To study the concepts of Buddhist meditation in the areas of Khon Kean and Maha Sarakham provinces 2. To study the capability, activities and traveling routes towards religion and Buddhist meditation in the communities taking part in connection between Khon Kaen and Maha Sarakham Provinces.

Research Methodology The scopes of the study were as follows: 1) The contents comprised the discernments on the practical conception of “Yub-Phong” (falling-rising), “Bhud- February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 439 Mahasarakham University

dho” (breathing-in and breathing-out), “Movement”, and “Goenka”; 2) The locations were 14 tourist attractions in relation to religion. Seven of them were in Khon Kean province –Wat Po, Phramahathatkaennakhon, Wat Thungsetthee, Wat Pa Dhamma- utthayan, Wat Pa Bannonglup, Buddhamonthon E-san, and Pra That Khamkaen.The other seven were in Maha Sarakham province –Phra Buddha Mingmueng, Phra Buddha Mongkhonmueng, Sim E-san and Wooden Buddha image of Watyaipochaiyaram, Luang Pu Phang Sirisuddho of Wat Noiduang-sitthi-burapharam, Luang Pu Singha Sobhano of Wat Kunchon-wanaram, Luang Pu Ton Punnawanno of Wat Dongkheng- yawasitthi and Phra That Nadoon, including its surroundings –Kusantarat, Ku Noi, Museum of Ku santarat, Nakhon-Champasri Museum, and Sim E-san of Ban Pophan, Ban Nahat and Ban Kotha. There were 3 tourist attractions for the Buddhist meditation; those were Wat Po, Khon kean, Wat Khunphromdamri and Phra That Nadoon. As the qualitative research method, the purposive sampling group consisted of 20 abbots and the monastery’s members, 10 subjects of each private and public sector, 30 community members, and 30 tourists. The interview schedules, focus group, and participant observation were used as the research methods.

Concepts and Theories The researcher has chosen the concepts and theories for the study and discussion of the findings as follows. 1. A concept of cultural capital “Capital” means the previous or original fund for growing benefit, for example, knowledge or fund as the capital; money or other properties for profitable business (Endorses. 1999. 534). It includes possessions, wealth, houses, or other forms such as the capital of society, humanity, economy, etc. The cultural capital is a type of resources with value and wisdom. Throsby (2001. 46) defined the cultural capital as an asset that embodies, stores, and provides cultural values beyond its economic value. Then, there are two kinds of cultural capital:1) tangible asset such as ancient remains, antiques, monasteries, etc., 2) intangible asset in forms of intellectual property such as ideas, beliefs, and values. “Capital” in Bourdieu’ view means the inheritance that can be transformed either in tangibility or intangibility and divided into 4 aspects: a) Economic capital –income, possession, money, etc. that can be quantitatively calculated into specific amounts and forms, b) Social capital –“social network” either group or fellow workers, etc., c) Symbolic capital –status, fame, honor, etc. that make profit for the capital owners themselves, d) Cultural capital –knowledge, expertise, education, etc. Bourdieu (1986. 241-243) divided the cultural capital into 3 stages; those were, Embodied state comprising the forms of permanent physical and INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 440 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

mental expressions such as the capacity or the well-rounded to say or judge works of arts, etc., Objectified state in the forms of objects possessed by an individual such as books, CDs, written work, tools, art work, etc., and Institutionalized state –the capital of academic credentials such as certificates, letters of recommendation, etc. (Storey,1999). Therefore, the cultural capital becomes worthy and admirable for the ways of life in a society. However, it is also the extremely abstract and dynamic concept that can be changed and imparted across societies, groups of people, and places, throughout the time.

2. A concept of cultural tourism management Tourism management means a purposive action in accordance with appropriate principles or concepts towards the existent conditions and various social and circumstantial limitations. There should be good directions, measures and action plans; otherwise, the tourism management without direction can become failure (Niphaphorn Nu-aksorn, 2005.17). Ramphaiphan Kaewsuriya (2004.3-4) attributed the principle of sustainable tourism management towards the tourism development as follows: 2.1 Using resource sustainable means the tourism developers must be responsible for the managing how to use of the original resources both in natural and cultural heritage sufficiently. 2.2 Reducing over-consumption and waste means the tourism developers must be responsible for cooperating with other related sectors to manage the natural resources efficiently. 2.3 Maintaining diversity means the tourism developers must plan to increase tourism loyalty through preservation and promotion of the growth of diversity in the original tourist attractions by developing the value and service standards. 2.4 Integrating tourism into planning means the tourism developers not only work through the action plan, also do cooperative plans of development with other related organizations. 2.5 Supporting local economy means the tourism developers must coordinate the local administration and other related governmental sectors to promote their local tourism activities. They must find out the unique of its local resources and publicize to promote the tourism market. 2.6 Involving local communities means the tourism developers should work with the local towards the participation approach, the co-host operations. It includes the coordinative network between organizations and the local to uplift the quality of local tourism management. 2.7 Consulting stakeholders and the public means the tourism developers February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 441 Mahasarakham University

must coordinate the multilateral organizations which are the local community, the local administration, the tourism entrepreneur groups, the educational institutions, the religious institutions, and the local governmental sectors. 2.8 Training staff means giving knowledge, being trained, providing staff for visiting-trained, consistently; then, they would be equipped with knowledge, conception, and practice in tourism development. 2.9 Marketing tourism responsibly means the tourism developers must work with related sectors to provide information about tourism such as tourist manuals, marketing manuals, brochures, handbooks, videos, CD Rom, etc. 2.10 Undertaking research in tourism business means the tourism developers and the entrepreneurs must frequently evaluate, examine effects of the industry, and do research study either by asking tourists directly or doing marketing research in tourism. Then, the findings can improve services and management efficiently.

3. A concept of participatory action research This research is identified as learning and exploring experiential knowledge through research participation of the subject study. So it is the inventive research for positive social change towards primary prominent features. The research is conducted by principles of participation, reflection, empowerment, and emancipation in the subject groups. Those are exchanging ideas with people, providing community’s need assessment, contributing situational analysis at present to find out the weaknesses or problems and solution or developments. All of them connect the continuing spiral of planning. Subsequently, any operation leads to acting-implementing plans, systematically observing, reflecting, and re-planning, recycling into a circle once again. Suphang Chanthawanit (1988. 67) defines participatory action research as a cooperation of research procedure which involves the people and target groups in the research setting, examines fieldwork problems with researchers or educators.

4. A concept of Buddhist meditation There are two kinds of Buddhist meditation: 1) Samatha-kammatthana and 2) Vipassana-kammatthana. P.A. Payutto defines ‘Samatha’(tranquility) as the method and practice of concentrating the mind in deep meditation through a state of serene contemplation and ‘Vipassana’ (intuition) as the insight or introspective method and practice through the insight discernment called ‘Jhanas’ (absorptions). The word ‘Kammatthana’ (meditation) means the mental exercise or the act of meditation divided into 40 practices of the 7 groups such as the group of 10 Anussati (constant mindfulness) –1) Buddhanussati (recollection of the Buddha), 2) Dhammanussati INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 442 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

(recollection of the Dhamma), 3) Sanghanussati (recollection of the Sangha), 4) Silanussati (recollection of morality), 5) Caganussati (recollection of liberality), 6) Devatanussati (recollection of deities), 7) Maranassati (mindfulness of death), 8) Kayagata-sati (mindfulness occupied with the body), 9) Anapanasati (mindfulness on breathing and 10) Upasamanussati (recollection of peace) etc. (P.A. Payutto. 2003. 850-853). The word ‘Vipassana’ means the intuitive vision or insight development which is the discernment practice to the insight of its existent nature. The growing comprehensive discernment is called ‘absorption’, being as the true salvation.

Research findings The findings revealed as follows. 1. Regarding the concepts of Buddhist meditation in Khon Kean and Maha Sarakham provinces, there are four kinds of the practice: 1) “Yub-Phong” (falling- rising), 2) “Bhud-dho” (“Bhud” as breathing-in and “Dho” as breathing-out), 3) “Movement”, and 4) “Goenka”. There are mainly 4 setting practicing in “Yub- Phong”. Two of them are monasteries in each province –Wat Po, Khon Kean (figure 1) and Wat Khunphromdamri, Maha Sarakham. The rest of the two are meditation centers in Khon Kean, Suanweluwan (figure 2) and Luang Pu Po. There is only one monastery practicing in ‘Bhud-Bho– Wat Pa Saeng-Arun, Khon Kaen. The practice in ‘Movement’ is apparent at Wat Mokkhawararam, Khon Kean. The ‘Goenka’ practice is conducted at Dhammasuwanna, Nong-rua, Khon Kean.

Figure 1: (left) Buddhist meditation practice, Wat Po Figure 2: (right) Suanweluwan meditation center

2. In line with the tourist attractions in relation to religion for both provinces –Khon Kean and Maha Sarakham, there are 14 places divided into 9 groups: 1) Dhamma puzzle paintings and local wisdom sculptures in 3 monasteries –Wat Po, Wat February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 443 Mahasarakham University

Thungsetthee and Wat Pa Dhamma-uttayan.2) Museums, Wat Po: Khon Kaen, Ku Santarat museum, Ban E-san museum and Nakhon-Champasri museum in Nadoon, Maha Sarakham. 3) Relics (Phra That or Stupa) and pagoda (Phrachedi):Phra That Kaennakhon, Wat Nongwaeng (figure 3), Phramaha-Rattana-ChediSritrailokathatu, at Thung Setthee (figure 4) and Phra That Khamkaen in Khon Kean, and Phra That Nadoon, Maha Sarakham.4) sacred Buddha images “Than Chai”, Wat Po, Phra, Buddha-neelawanno-srilokasap-udom, Wat ThungSetthee, Phrasrisakaya- thasaphalanana in Buddhamonthon E-san, Jade Buddha image, Wat Pa Dhamma- utthayan, Phra Buddha Mingmueng, Wat Suwannawat, Phra Buddha Mongkhonmueng, Wat Buddhamongkhon and Golden Buddha image, Wat Pa Wangnamyen.5) Wooden Buddha images: there are 20, 33, and 2 of them in Wat Po, Wat Yaipochaiyaram and Wat Posri, respectively.6) Buddhism learning in Buddha-utthayan -Wat Po, Dhamma- utthayan-Wat Pa Dhamma-utthayan, Saratthawanothayan- Wat Pa Nonglup, Moral Preaching Centre of Wat Khunphromdamri and the 4 Holy Places of Buddhism surrounding Phra That Nadoon.7) Sim E-san (Buddha halls) are found in Wat Po, Wat Suwannawat, Wat Yaipochai, Wat Posri, Wat Potharom and Wat Hongsaram.8) Ancient pagodas (Ku) locate in Maha Sarakham –Phrang Ku Buamat, Borabu District, Ku Santarat and Ku Noi, Nadoon District, and Ku Ban Daeng, Wapipathum District.9) Revered Buddhist monks are Phrakrupothisarakhun –Wat Po, Phra Kittisak Kittisaro –Wat Pa Nonglup, Luang Pu Phang Sirisuddho--Wat Noiduang-siddhi-burapharam, Luang Pu Ton Punyawanno –Wat Dongkheng-yawasiddhi, and Luang Pu Singha Sobhano –Wat Kunchon-Wanaram.

Figure 3: (left) Phramaha That Kaennakhon, Wat Nongwaeng Figure 4: (right) Phramaha-Rattana-Chedi Sritrailokathatu, Wat Thung Setthee

3. In line with the capability of tourism management in relation to religion and the Buddhist meditation in Khon Kean and Maha Sarakham provinces, the INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 444 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

findings reveal in each province as follows: 1) the case study of Wat Po Nonthan in Khon Kean shows the systematic management through its obvious vision, philosophy, engagement, mission, objective, and policy. Those can be seen by the consideration of the management capacity through 6 missions: administration, education, approach strategy both passive and active propagation, public services, education welfares, and public welfare (Prakrubhavanabhodhikun. 2015, interview). Those include the available communication via Dhamma books, CD-Rom, radio station, website, and Facebook (Rangsan, Dhammaraso. 2015, interview). Besides there are meditation monk expertise (Vipassanachan) in both secular and religious teaching. So there are programs of meditation, goodness and ethic retreat throughout the year calendar, which are accessible to the public (Veman, Khamperapanyo. 2015, interview). Also, the voluntary association is settled in the monastery. Then, Wat Po’s capacity of management is administered by the committee both from the monks and the laymen. 2) The case study of Wat Khunphromdamri in Maha Sarakham shows remarkable capacity of Buddhist meditation and goodness at “Community Moral Preaching Centre” divided into 2 groups –the young and the general public (Prakrusarakitprayut. 2015, interview). The program activities are managed by the committee of the monastery such as the goodness training program. 3) The case study of Phra That Nadoon in Maha Sarakham shows its notable tourist attractions in relation to religion in 3 zones of the local administration (Khomphong, Hangotha. 2015, interview); those are, a) Ku Santarat attractions towards Ku Santarat, Ku Noi and Ku Santarat museum etc.; b) Phra That Sub-district attractions including Sim E-san from Wat Posri, Wat Potharom and Wat Hongsaram etc.; and c) Nadoon municipality includes Phra That Nadoon, Nakhonchampasri museum, E-san house museum, and Walairukkhawet botanical garden. The Nadoon areas become more attractive in religious than the Buddhist meditation practice.

4. The traveling routes and religious tourism and the Buddhist meditation in Khon Kean show both in the community and the connecting route between provinces, which are: 1) The 2 main routes in the communities, Khon Kean: a) the Buddhist meditation tourist attraction –Wat Po (“Yub-Phong” practice), Wat Pa Saeng-arun (“Bhud-dho” practice), Wat Mokkhawanaram (“Movement” practice), SuanWeluwan mediation centre (“Yub-Phong” practice) and DhammaSuwanna meditation centre (“Goenka” practice) and b) the route of religious tourist attractions with activities of prayer, making merit, paying homage to the stupa, sacred Buddha images, Buddhism learning at Phra-That Kaennakhon, Wat Nongwaeng, PhramahaRattanachedisritailokathat, February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 445 Mahasarakham University

Wat ThungSetthee, PhraSrisakkaya-thasaphalanan in Buddhamonthon E-san, the Four Holy Places of Buddhism, marble Tipitaka, Wat Pa Nonglup, and Wat Pa Dhamma- utthayan. All of these tourism routes can be planned as a day-overnight trip after the meditation practice with approximately 40-50 kilometers at distance long. 2) The traveling routes for religious tourism and the Buddhist meditation in Maha Sarakham include at Wat Khunphromdamri, Thasongkhon sub- district, Maha Sarakham. There are primary tourist attractions in this route; those are Sim E-san and the wooden Buddha image, Wat Yai Pochaiyaram, revered Buddhist monks, Wat Noiduangsitthi-burapharam, Wat Dongkhengyawasitthi and Wat Kunchonwanaram. This area also has cultural tourist attractions such as a cloth weaving community –Ban Nongkhuenchang, a village of mulberry plantation for silkworm and silk products –Ban Hinlat, vocational groups such as local dessert makers (Kha Nom Thian Kaew), organic agricultural products, etc. (Son, Bualad. 2015, interview) with the 30-40 kilometers at distance long. 3) The traveling routes and religious tourism and the Buddhist meditation in Phra That sub-district, Ku Santarat sub-district and Nadoon municipality are the inside community tourism covering 2 sub-districts and a municipality. There are three religious tourist attractions: Ku Santarat, Ku Noi, Ku Santarat museum, E-san house museum, Nakhonchampasri museum, Sim E-san of Ban Kotha, Ban Pophan and Ban Nahat. The tourist attraction in the Buddhist meditation is merely marked during the worship festival of Phra That Nadoon Pagoda (figure 5). So the area of Phra That Nadoon notably shows the religious tourism rather than the Buddhist meditation tourism. There are, also, various traveling routes in this area, which are cultures, organic agricultural products, vocational and handicraft groups, the same as in Thasongkhon. It takes approximately 30-40 kilometers distance long for a homestay of a one-day-overnight trip or four-day-three-overnight trip 4) The connecting routes between Khon Kean and Maha Sarakham provinces, route no. 1 is the trip in Khon Kean, starting from Mueng District, Khon Kean, connecting to Kosumphisai District, and Mueng District, Maha Sarakham; passing Thakhonyan Sub-district, Wapipathum District, and Nadoon District. Besides the tourism religious and the Buddhist meditation, this route also has other activities such as handicraft groups of matt weavers at Ban Phaeng, cloth weavers at Nongkhuenchan, silk weaver village, and groups of local dessert maker produce (Kha Nom Thian Kaew). It is approximately 200-220 kilometers at distance long. 5) The connecting routes between Khon Kean and Maha Sarakham provinces, route no. 2 the trip in Khon Kean, starting from Mueng District, Khon Kean, passing Nam Phong District, Chiang Yeun District, Kantharawichai District, Mueng INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 446 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

District, Maha Sarakham, Wapipathum District and ending at Nadoon District. The main activities in this trip are worshipping Phra That Khamkaen (figure 6), visiting the silk handicraft products at Ban Phon, groups of local dessert makers (Kha Nom Thian Kaew), sightseeing Ku Ban Daeng, Ku Noi, Ku Santarat and finally Phra That Nadoon. It is approximately 200-240 at distance long.

Figure 5: (left) Phra That Nadoon; figure 6: (right) Phra That Khamkhen

Discussion The findings of this research can be considered as follows. 1. There are four primary discernments of tourism in the Buddhist meditation practices in Khon Kean and Maha Sarakham provinces; those are, “Yub-Phong”, “Bhud-dho”, “Movement”, and “Goenka”. According to Throsby’s (2001) analysis of cultural capital, those discernments become the asset that embodies, stores, and provides cultural values beyond its economic values. So this cultural capital is the intangible asset, which is the intellectual property. However there is no additional explanation about the ‘intellectual property’ in Throsby’s concept of cultural capital. Concerning the meaning of ‘copyrights’ in the terms of intellectual property in current condition, this study considers the discernment of the Buddhist meditation as an intellectual property belonging to anyone. This becomes contradictory to Throsby’s concept due to the discernment in this study is the “public copyrights” instead of “individual or one organization’s copyrights”. In the meantime, an analysis of the concept of Dharma practice finds that all four kinds of the practice are synthesized through the principle of tranquility meditation (Samatha Kammatthana). The practice of “Yub-Phong” and “Goenka” are parts of Anussati10 (recollection); Item no. 9 “Anapanasati” –mindfulness on breathing. The practice of “Bhud-dho” is considered in item no. 1“Buddhanussati” –recollection of the Buddha. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 447 Mahasarakham University

It is notable that the practice of ‘movement’ (also known as dynamic meditation, (Anek, Techavaro. 2014, interview,)) is different from the above one; however, it is an interesting procedure to follow. Thaweewat Puntharikawat (2013), a religious academic, considered the dynamic meditation beyond the tradition and scripture focusing on mindfulness (Sati) and the existent worldview. By reason of the distinctive forms of scripture and tradition through thought, the way of dynamic meditation directly points to the awakening beyond the thinking. So this way of practice is so different from the scripture and tradition and disagrees with Buddhism in Thai traditional context which emphasize the Tripitaka and convention. Still, this study synthesizes the dynamic meditation with the tranquility meditation of “Anussati 10” through the context of mindful practicing when sitting and standing. It is merely an alternative preliminary action to examine the major and minor deportments, out of the current traditional way–Breathing. Such deportments guide the mind to discern or see better than the way of breathing. Nonetheless, the aim of dynamic meditation focuses on practicing on deliberate mindfulness as a primary foundation of the insight progress. 2. There are nine groups of the discernment in religious tourist attractions in Khon Kean and Maha Sarakham, which are the tangible cultural capital. According to Bourdieu, any community or organization involving religious places, as mentioned, is able to turn this capital into economic capital through religious tourist attractions as some of them are capable to become religious tourism; for instance, groups of Sim- E-san (Buddha hall), religious museums, Dhamma puzzle paintings and local wisdom sculptures, wooden Buddha images, revered Buddhist monks, etc. Chai- anan Samutwanit (1997) called this capital as “inventory capital” in accordance with Grisworld’s view (2008. 87.); that means the cultural capital can store and invest, even be transformed into the economic capital. Regarding the researcher’s viewpoint, communities or the local organization involve those resourceful places, though, they lack awareness in the economic values because they consider only the spiritual values. The findings in this study, subsequently, indicate the valuable awareness of religious resources and discernments from organizations, institutions, and communities. Then, the communities increasingly take part in the management, especially in their own locations as well as connect their tourist attractions to other communities or provinces nearby. Both Khon Kean and Maha Sarakham provinces have similar aspects of cultural landscapes and situate in the Central-E-san noted as “Roi-Kean-San-Sin” group. UNESCO obviously indicates that cultural landscapes are cultural property representing diverse connection between man and nature as the evolution of a human society. Although the resources of INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 448 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

religious tourism and cultural landscapes in Khon Kean and Maha Sarakham provinces weren’t identified as the world heritage, some conditions of that can be found in their local resources; those are, purposively man-made designed and created; they evolved from socio-economic change, governance, religion, and beliefs; and connected local cultures i.e. religion, belief. Feiden and Jokilehto (2006) emphasized that the whole areas of history should not only consider the relation of architecture but also do man’s value linked to social and economic contexts. Then, the research findings indicate that both two provinces have enough resources to arrange the religious tourism and the Buddhist meditation. So they can develop their religious resources including places, objects, or people to produce the tourism souvenirs; for example, pagoda pictures, sacred Buddha images, Buddha amulets of sacred Buddha, etc. Those become worthy and valuable for the communities and tourists. 3. Both of Khon Kean and Maha Sarakham provinces are capable to manage their religious tourism and the Buddhist meditation as board of executive committee at the monasteries. However, the analysis of cultural tourism shows that one of them, Wat Po, gains the managing system in accordance with the principles as indicated in Ramphaiphan Kaewsuriya’s proposal (2004). Those principles are appropriate resource preservation and usage, community participations and outsider institutions, staff training, information spot, as well as organized assessment, examination and research. It is notable that there are two tourist attractions showing incomplete parts along with Ramphaiphan’s proposal, which are Wat Khunphromdamri and Phra That Nadoon. However, the findings suggest that the communities establish to view their weaknesses so the network of tourism in religion and cultures is established with support by the private and public sectors, entrepreneurs, community’s leaders, and various vocational groups. Each part is clearly assigned his/ her roles and duties. According to Suphang Chanthawanit’s idea of participatory research (1988), it can cooperate various sectors including public and private sectors, communities, researchers, and monasteries and change the society. 4. There are traveling routes for religious activities and the Buddhist meditation between the two connected provinces. Tourists who have their traveling plan for the Buddhist meditation can go further to religious tourism for a one-day-trip within Khon Kean to do various activities: making merit and paying homage in different monasteries (Buddha images “Than Chai” –Wat Po, Buddha-neelawanno-srilokasap-udom –Wat ThungSetthee, PhraSrisakaya-thasaphalayana–Buddhamonthon E-san, Jade Buddha image –Wat Pa Dhamma-utthayan, etc.), visiting pagodas (Phra That Kaennakhon – February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 449 Mahasarakham University

Wat Nongwaeng, Phramaha-Rattana-ChediSritrailokathatu –WatThungSetthee, etc.); learning Buddhism (Wat Pa Nonglup, Wat Pa Dhamma-utthayan, etc.). The outcomes of this study contribute information to the local community and any relevant organizations that become valuable for their community’s resources. Then, the communities find out and effectively solve any problems altogether. Moreover, the committee of tourism network in religion and cultures is set up to develop and further their knowledge of tourism profitably and beneficially.

Suggestions The suggestions of the study can be shown as follows. 1. Policy 1) The public sector must consider the discernment of the Buddhist meditation “the national heritage” and plan to support it as “the world heritage of folk wisdom” 2) The public sector sets an official “Day of National Buddhist Meditation” in cooperation with relevant sectors such as Ministry of Culture, Office of National Buddhism, Ministry of Education, Tourism Authority of Thailand, etc., to provide national and regional activities to develop people’s physical and mental well- being.

2. Locations The group of the four provinces –“Roi-Kaen-San-Sin” is adequately capable to develop their own local resources in religion and the Buddhist meditation as “Hub Location of Meditation Practice in the Northeast of Thailand”. So all sectors need to be in cooperation to the public sector (municipality, local administration, provincial tourist authority, etc.), private sector (tourism companies), communities (monasteries, households, vocational groups in the community), and educational institutions in the regions to manage tourism in religion and the Buddhist meditation in order to develop cultural tourism further.

References: Bourdieu, Pierre. (1986). The forms of capital. In Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education, ed. John C. Richardson, 241-258. New York: Greenwood press. Chanthawanit, Suphang. (1988). Data analysis in qualitative research. (In Thai) Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University press. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 450 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Endorses. (1999). Royal institute dictionary. (In Thai) Bangkok: Nameebook LTD. Feilden, Sir B. and Jokilehto, J. (2006). Management Guidelines for the World Cultural Heritage Sites, Rome ICCROM. Geary, David. (2008). Destination Enlightenment: Branding Buddhism and Spiritual tourism in Bodhhaya, Bihar, Anthropoloby today 24, no 3. Griswold, A.F.. (2008). Religion and the culture of print in modern America. Edited by Charles L. Cohen and Paul S. boyer. USA: UW press. Kaewsuriya, Raphaiphan. (2004). Principles of sustainable tourism. (In Thai) Retrieved March 20, 2015, from http://lib.dtc.ac.th/article/tourism/0007. pdf. Norman, Alex. (2011). Spiritual Tourism: Travel and Religious Practice in Western Society. Chennai, India: Pvt. Press. Nu-aksorn, Niphaporn. (2005). Reviews of Thai tourists who travel to Phuket, Thailand. (In Thai) Bangkok: Srinakharinwirot University. Payutta, P.A.. (2003). Buddhadhamma. Bangkok: Mahachulalongkorn University press. Punnothok, Thawat. (2008). Buddhism in E-san region and Lan-chang. (In Thai) The handouts of “Buddhism on Khong river basin” for academic symposium of religion and philosophy at Sonpalace hotel, muang district, Loei province. July 9-12, 2008. Puntharikawat, Thaweewat. (2013). Theravada Buddhism on Khong river basin. Document for seminar on religion and philosophy. (In Thai) Maha Sarakham University: May 15, 2013. Samutwanit, Chai-anan. (1997). Cultural capital. Bangkok: (In Thai) sukhum and son company Ltd. Storey, John. (2006). Cultural theory and popular culture: a reader. University of Georgia press. Throsby, David. (2001). Economics and culture. Cambridge. Cambridge University press. Vallibhotama, Srisakara. (2003). A northeastern site of civilization: new archeological evidence to change the face of Thai history. (In Thai) Bangkok: Mathichon press. Wongthet, Suchit. (2003). A preface offering: A northeastern site of civilization: new archeological evidence to change the face of Thai history. (In Thai) Bangkok: Mathichon press. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 451 Mahasarakham University

Interview Bualad, Son. (2015, January 19; May 20; July 8-9). Interview. Chief Executive of Thasangkon sub-district. Maha Sarakham province. Dhammaraso, Rangsan. (2015, May 22). Interview. Vice abbot of Wat Po, Khon Kean province. Hangotha, Khomphong. (2015, January 28). Interview. Chief Executive of Phra That sub-district. Nadoon district, Maha sarakham province. Kammasutto, Samran. (2015, July 8). Interview. Buddhist meditation teacher. Wat Po, Khon Kean province. Khamperapanyo, Veman. (2015, June 26; July 8). Interview. Abbot secretary, Wat Po, Khon Kean province. Prakrubhavanabhodikun, (2015, May 15; July 8). Interview. Abbot of Wat Po, Khon Kean province. Prakrusarakitprayut. (2015, January 19; May 15; July 9, 11). Interview. Abbot of Wat Techavaro, Anek. (2014, December 10). Interview. Abbot of Wat Khon Kean province.

Acknowledgement This research study was completely supported by National Research Council of Thailand (NRCT) and Thailand Research Fund (TRF), 2014 in the research plan on “A Project of Tourism Management towards Culture in Central E-san: a case of Northeast of Thailand, Khon Kean and Maha Sarakham Provinces. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 452 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Constructing a Legend in Isan Communities: Local History and Collective Memories

Apiradee Jansaeng1

1Lecturer, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Mahasarakham University, Thailand

Abstract This research focuses on the relationship between local history and collective memories that need to understand the complexity of social relations, which are various components and concepts. Due to the structure of the local communities arisen from linkage in various dimensions, the ideas to understand a phenomenon of local history are required to connect with various disciplines. This research also looks at the roles of collective memories that affect the construction of a local history in the context of a provincial monument narratives. This study has used historical approach and research methodologies with an observation, interviews, and descriptive analysis. The results from this research indicate that the relationship between society and culture in Chaiyaphum and Nakhon Ratchasima provinces has shared collective memory and local history about Chao Pho Phraya Lae, a political and spiritual leader. This research proved that a set of community knowledge through the myth told by local elders, who were connected with common story but not the political zoning ruled by the province and government which started from the reign of King Rama V onwards. Border line or frontier was a sacred ritual that was continued in the collective memories that have shared in the past. In addition, this set of knowledge can be described as the construction of collective memories and the identity of the community, but the collective memories associated with the separation and selection of the creation of a new historical occur. Likewise, the replacements of belief about Chao Pho Phraya Lae to Ya Mo myths with more respect and powerful than ever before by the construction of ritual sacrifice to the greater integration. Therefore, the phenomenon of “fading the past” has served and is in response of the divided and ruled policy of the Siamese government during that time.

Keywords: Constructing, Legend, Isan community, Local History, Collective Memories February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 453 Mahasarakham University

Introduction On the concept of constructing a legend (Myth-legend), it was created to satisfy the imagination and spirit of individuals and community groups in each period. Most legends are the creation of a story or narrative of the sacred images and narratives, including of clan leaders to influence communities (community leader), warrior/heroes to protect the earth, or stories about the supernatural. It is also including of god, ghost, angel, or tree nymphs, which are involved in the beings of the community. The data comes from the myth is a story that will make social and cultural understanding of the people in the past. It is including of ability to understand the collective culture of ethnic groups that have similar social and culture. A legendary hero in Chaiyaphum and Nakhon Ratchasima Province of Thailand has been influenced by similar ideas that have been created with supernatural or miraculous in battle or combat. The Legend of shooting with a gun that can’t kill the serpent. The serpent was a special person who can’t be shot and the gun cannot kill him. There must be the efforts of the subfamily in Laos to kill the hero with a spear in the stabbing of an anal plug up. Therefore, the system of thoughts, believes, and history to convey the life of the community are associated with the creation of collective memories shared through the telling of the legend by using the symbols to link from the past to future generations and to create its own identity (Self-construct), and a sense of pride and unity in the community for the sake of unity. In this study, the use of an images and beliefs about the legendary creator of Pho Phraya Lae Chaiyaphum is a visual representation of a group of community leaders with prestige and influence to the community, plus getting the promotion form central government. When those important people died, their stories of a handful of states are acting as the legendary hero of the areas that future generations get to know. The courage is a martyr to the nation and fighting against an opponent to protect and to maintain that city.

Concepts and Related Literature The concept of collective memories of the community will be transferred out to meet the intent of relevant parties, whether inside government organizations or communities. The major objective of creation of collective memories is trying to create a unique community, join forces to create a healing unity for the social peace. This can be seen from the format of the annual ceremony of sacrifice and the story through the people in each period. From Ben Anderson’s work1 about the creation of imagined community, he wrote a critique on the public concept of creating

1 Ben Anderson, Imagined community, the reflection of origin and growth of nationalism. Foundation of Textbook on Social Sciences and Humanities: Bangkok, 2009. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 454 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

a community that the state can control and manage according to their wills. If you compare it to create collective memories in the Thai state, we will see a phenomenon similar to Ben Anderson’s story in the history of heroes, heroines in Thai history that made Thai people “remember and forget” the story of the past2. The concept of monument was used to create the legendary city or community with characteristics of public appearance or spiritual bond that is the center of the community. But the history on monument building was pre-determined by state plan and policies of national unity. This is the representatives of the monument or sanctuary has to be associated with the central state in nature, as the successor of state policy. Nithi Eawsriwong gave meaning to the monument as “Memorial monument” invites the public to share the past, the local history. The purpose of building a monument is the establishment and usage of collective histories for the benefit of the state. It was built as concrete, tangible and clearly visible. You can easily access, or pay homage to the arousal of. Thus, the location of the monument is located in public areas at the heart or center of the city. The monument is the development of the Thai state and can be used to describe the social class of the governor3. The form of a monument Pho Phraya Lae has imitated the concept of the statue of King Rama III which was the concept of the establishment of a committee for monument building in the period 1932, in order to build a monument around the country. The highlight feature of this memorial statue is its location near the growing city in those days. The open space is a square with high statue base for people to look up to the statue. The statue is in great position with a dignified look to represent of the supremacy power4. The objective on building of Pho Phraya Lae monument is to create a conscious purpose on living together with harmony and in the unity of the community. A Pho Phraya Lae monument has been presented as the representation of love and sacrifice for country and community. So the idea of creating communal history or social history is a history that focuses on people’s lives and communities and factor in the life of the society. To understand the social history of any community, factors and the actor to local community and people come from both external and internal factors. Attempts by the state ideology of nationalism that came up in various have created local legend in response to these policies in an era.

2 Ibid. pp. 368-369 3 Nithi Eawsriwong . Thailand, a Thai national, textbooks and monuments on the culture, state and the cultural consciousness. Arts and Culture: Bangkok, 2004. pp. 83-92 4 Ibid. p. 87 February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 455 Mahasarakham University

Myths and Legends series Chao Pho Phraya Lae to the legendary city of Chaiyaphum has been renewed and built up in two types of building; first type from a set of knowledge creating of the state, and the second type from local people or communities, the majority of data is the first material. It is presentation of the loyalty of Siam during the third reign of Siam until he get that nickname “Loyal Chumphon” with the following information.

Phraya Lae is a native of Laos who served in the court of Anu Vientiane. After that, he migrate his family to settle at Ban Hongnamkhun, Sung Noen, Nakhon Ratchasima, on the 1817. He has migrated later to new homes at Non Nam Aom, or Chilong, Muang District, Chaiyaphum Province. With persistence, perseverance, and the leadership of the serpent, he has been recognized as the chief to gather the people who settled in 12 nearby villages to collect tribute. It is a tribute to the subfamily of Vientiane. He was rewarded by his passion for the subfamily as Khun loyal Chumphon. Later, at home, there was the draught problem at Chilong. They were moved at year of 1822 to Baan Luang or presently called as “Ban Nong Lhord” and “Ban Nhong Pla Thao”, Muang District, Chaiyaphum Province. It is a direct tribute to Thailand and presented to His Majesty King Rama III. Lator, he was nominated and got a rank of nobility as “loyal to Chumphon (Lae)”.

Later in the year 1826, Vientiane the subfamily, the dominion of the Rattanakosin troops to attack Nakhon Ratchasima. Lady Mo had gathered the army from nearby territotires to fight on the battle to defeat the subfamily. The Lao military has taken part in Chaiyaphum Province and seduce the Phraya Phakdi Chumphon (Lae) he was a friend as well. But the loyal to Chumphon (Lae) did not betray the Chakri dynasty. He were arrested and killed at the big tamarind tree beside the Nong Pla Thao which is the Chao Phraya, the location of the current shrine of Phraya Phakdi Chumphon (Lae). With loyalty of the Phaya Phakdi Chumphon, people of Chaiyaphum has united the court to serve as a respectful homage and worship the souls at Nong Pla Thao. Lator, the people of Chaiyaphum, including of official public and traders, have united to gather money to build a monument to remember the goodness of the loyal to Chumphon (Lae). He is notable as elegant as a cherished sacred town of Chaiyaphum, at the intersection of the road near City Hall Gallery and provides an annual celebration, since the opening of the monument on January 12, 1967 onwards5.

5 www.rd.go.th/chaiyaphum/84.0.html INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 456 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

This set of local history makes people who feel the story of the heroic struggle against an enemy or opponent that he is a legendary symbol of the subfamily opponent. Which corresponds to Nithi Aewsriwong’s concept on creating the myth of the nation will have to make an enemy or opponent. This is to the separation of these two parties and their allies. It is evident from the words highlighted in the story, the word “surrender” and “loyalty6”. On the second type of data, it is a telling about the legend from the villagers. For this type of myth, the study was analyzed from a sample of young researchers on local history Northeast Group 2 projects of title “the belief of Ban Nong Khun to Ya Mo and Pho Phraya Lae from past to present” Kham Thale So Wittaya School, The Education Service Area Office 5, Nakhon Ratchasima province. It was mentioned that the legendary Pho Phraya Lae and relationships with local history in an interesting new perspective. The relationship between the Pho Phraya Lae and Thao Suranaree from the legendary tale as follows;

MR. Lae is the mentor of Anu of Vientiane. Laos has been a leader to settle at Ban Nhong Khun for about two years to bring some people migrated to the city later in Chaiyaphum and surrendered to the Ya Mo, Madame Secretary of Nakhon Ratchasima. As a result, said the Empress is associated with Ya Mo. The villagers from Ban Nhong Khun beliefs about the relationships in the past and turbidity of the Pho Phraya Lae. He already has demonstrated loyalty to Ya Mo and the heroism involved in the battle field achievement. Both were discussed at the court of the miracles Pia, now is the beginning of Ya Mo miracle at Indian almond tree at Ban Nong Khun”7.

Therefore, to create a set of community knowledge through the myth told by local elders, in a series of research projects and young researchers, has reflects the relationship of society and culture in the province of Chaiyaphum and Nakhon Ratchasima. People in the two areas have both the origins of this shared history and common ancestry Pho Phraya Lae. If the zoning ruled the province and the government started to be used during the reign of King Rama 5, people are divided by district and it cannot be defined by geography and culture. Border line or frontier was a sacred ritual. We continue in the memories shared in the past. It cannot be separated. However, this set of knowledge can describes the creation of collective memories and the identity

6 Nithi Eawsriwong . Thailand, a Thai national, textbooks and monuments on the culture, state and the cultural consciousness. Arts and Culture: Bangkok, 2004. pp. 40. 7 Final Report of Project “Believes of Nhong Khun community to Ya Mo and Pho Phraya Lae from Past to Present. Kham Thalesowittaya School. Funding Research. 2010. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 457 Mahasarakham University

of the community. But the collective memories associated with the separation and selection of the creation of a new historical occurs. For example, the replacements of belief about the Pho Phraya Lae to Ya Mo with more respect and power than ever before. By creating a legend of myth and ritual sacrifice for the greater integration, the phenomenon of “fading past” has occurred in response to divided and ruled policy of the government. On the contents of the myths about 2 Godfathers, it is interesting on the difference of the position to focus or remember. For the reason of this cause, researchers analyze how the faith of the two main causes of this difference is the power of the local organization and the power of local community. An identity beyond that of others (Superiority) such as image of a representative government, the capital city of the Northeast Region during that time was Nakhon Ratchasima province. It is a reflection of discourse that uses the word surrender or loyal to Ya Mo. Ya Mo is the sacred area of Nakhon Ratchasima together, so that Phraya Lae has been made in relation to the Korat as the loyalty to the city of Korat.

The meaning of collective memories associated with the action in local rituals. Ritual is a reflection of the power of faith in the memories of the past. These rituals were created or hosted by a faith act or participation in the story, such as in a sacrificial ritual Pho Phraya Lae is held two times per year. The first set of rituals was held by local community and the second was organized by the state. The annual event was held Pho Phraya Lae consecutive years since the construction and opening the monument of Phraya loyal Chumphon (Lae) in 1967. Mr. Chuay Namthanakorn, the governor of Chaiyaphum Province in those days, has held the initiative to celebrate the monument. Thereafter, the gallery is an annual event held annually during the period of January 12 to 20 for 9 days 9 nights at the circus Phraya loyal Chumphon (Lae) and at City Hall Gallery. The importance parts of the local rituals consist of ceremony to worship the sacred souls of the loyal Chumphon (Lae) and was known affectionately called. “Pho Phraya Lae”. There also has the attendant ceremony as godfather elephants and the procession of the parade of a heritage culture of great charm. In addition, there is the Red Cross Fair in Chaiyaphum. So it is also the annual Red Cross Fair of Chaiyaphum Province. The rituals performed by government agency, most of the activity are an expression of exalted heroism and loyalty to national institutions and the king. For the preparation and celebration, it is the government agency to manage everything from the ceremony, the attendance, and the work exhibitions of various government agencies. It is the report or the work of each unit of local government representatives INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 458 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

to the central or the provincial governor. This concept reflects to the centralization of public administration. It is the integration of a monumental image as a representative of loyalty to national institutions. The ore was said to local leaders. The legendary story of the heroes is created and continuously implementation (continuity) of devotion. As we know from other similar stories such as Ya Mo bravery in repelling the subfamily, Naresuan expel Myanmar, Thao Thepkrasattri and Thao Srisoonthorn fighting against Myanmar.

Rituals practiced by the villagers act as the leader is the festival parade “Baisi” or “the sixth month religious ceremony” On Baisi Festival parade of sixth month religious in the year 2010, there is 53 parade procession of Baisi religious ceremony with over fifty thousand people attend the continuing tradition of offering rice to “Pho Phraya Lae”, the first ruler of Chaiyaphum province.Format of the Baisi parade of Chaiyaphum Province, all processions have been presented in the form of procession that conveys the loyalty of the Chaiyaphum people to Pho Phraya Lae. The procession was decorated beautifully with to present the authentic way of people’s life in Chaiyaphum province. Baisi from each community has different features and points of interest from the first base section to the top section of Baisi. The final section is a prominent feature, especially from Hintang community to get Baisi stacked beautifully decorated with ancient style Baisi for each section. Each section elaborately decorates with Baisi to preserve traditional knowledge. For each of individual layer, it consists of thousands of tiny scales, petals and petal at a banana leaf on every floor of their persistence and perseverance of the technician and the cooperation of the people and communities. On the Baisi rice offering ceremony, there has traditional dance with the reed mouth organ of Northeastern Region, and Isan style singing of “Mho Lum” It reflects the existence of the cultural identity of traditional ethnic Lao’s cultural heritage. The how to bring life and power to local history, rituals has made the local communities has power to negotiate with the state at a certain level. Announcement of its unity and resistance has made local area in the history of their own. It cause economic value added of promoting cultural tourism. For example, the annual festival of Pho Phraya Lae and Baisi the sixth month religion ceremony that have been promoted by both public and private sectors at a later time. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 459 Mahasarakham University

Picture 3, 4: Baisi parade in the Sixth month religious ceremony Source : Website www.rd.go.th/chaiyaphum/84.0.html

Picture 5, 6: Sacrifice performing in the sixth month religious ceremony Source : Website www.rd.go.th/chaiyaphum/84.0.html

Research Analysis The recognition of the legendary Pho Phraya Lae from thirteen villages in the province of Nakhon Ratchasima and Chaiyaphum, derives from a set of young researchers on local history project at Kham Thale School. It results on understanding of community history about the culture and beliefs of Laos immigrants from Vientiane in the period of the second and third reign of Thailand to the area of Nakhon Ratchasima and Chaiyaphum. The area has a collective history for over 200 years. The community has benn told the people, the sacred area, and legends from generation to generation. Circumstances that people have remembered or forget the past are common causes of social continuity and discontinuity. Cracks of the shared memories of community residents with actual changes in the social community left no power to society to solve the problem in their community. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 460 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY (RLCS 2018)

Factor in the local area that make people try to revive their past collective memories to bonds of the past to tie them together and returned local library of intellectual properties of their ancestor back to be the shared property of people in the community. This is for availability of adjustment to eliminate the problems that their communities are facing with8. Although the state is trying to create a model of government to centralize power and unity or loyalty to the central government, but one thing that the central government has overlooked is the memory of the communities. The community parents take care of each other in the past and demonstrate about the relationship of the people in the same cultural area.

Conclusion The transferring process of memories into a social struggle while the authority has created an official history (Authority) in the knowledge of the life history, the methods of the state to make people appreciate the history by the way of the education system, conveying of information, mass communication, rituals, myths and monuments. At present time, the legendary hero and the local heroine has goes through the presentation from public policies with principles of centralized state authority (Centralization). Bringing of this concept has led to efforts to create unity to the nation. But the centralization of local spirit is not only defined in the minds of the local government area or simply on the building a monument to the hero worship. Collective memories about the history and local heritage through the telling can empower communities to realize the sharing of a common past in many communities over the definition of the word “village, district or province.” On trying to make history and collective memories of the people in Nakhon Ratchasima and Chaiyaphum Province from a project of young local researchers, has enable us to understand the relationship of these two regions which are separated by the geographic conditions. But in geography and cultural aspect, these communities still have collective legend. So the myth or the creation of collective memories is creation of commandments (Charter)9to people n next generation or communities to practice and believe in what is being built together to become a characteristic of local history birth from sharing a collective memory of the state and locals as mentioned above.

8 Uttajakra Satyanurak. How do we love when we still do not understand each other. Oh My God: Bagkokok. 2010. 9 Pathom Hongsuwan. Once upon a Once upon a culture’s mythology. Chulalongkorn University Publishing House: Bangkok.2007. February 23, 2018 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 461 Mahasarakham University

From Yongyuth Chu Wan’s work (2008), it has been stated that studying local history should aim to build knowledge with all aspects. The local people should get involved in the process of creating collective memories that we need to review, improve, learn, and transfer within community. This process will result in strong local history to live all the time. This will result in a valuable self-knowledge with realization of local history of new quality. This is the abstract form of the deepest foundations of society that contribute to the local sustainable development10.

References: Nithi Eawsriwong. (2004). Thailand, a Thai national, textbooks and monuments on the culture, state and the cultural consciousness. Bangkok: Arts and Culture. Ben Anderson. (2009). Imagined community, the reflection of origin and growth of nationalism. Bangkok: Foundation of Textbook on Social Sciences and Humanities. Pathom Hongsuwan. (2007). Once upon a culture’s mythology. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Publishing House. Yongyuth Chu Wan. (2008). Local history in Thailand on the background, status, the idea, study method and role in today’s society. Bangkok: Thailand Research Fund Office. Uttajakra Satyanurak. (2010). How do we love when we still do not understand each other? Bangkok: Oh My God. The completed research project. (2010). Believes of Nong Khun villagers to Ya Mo and Pho Phraya Lae from the past into the present. Kham Thale So School. Nakhonratchasima Office of Education Services Area Zone 5. Thailand Research Fund Office.

Electronic source Website www.rd.go.th/chaiyaphum/84.0.html

10 Youngyuth Chu-Wan. Local history in Thailand with background, status, ideas, study method, and roles in current society. Fund Research: Bangkok, 2008. P. 372