Tibetan and Chinese Glossary1

Home , Khata, Sanjiangyuan, Wylie transliteration

Amdo (T: a mdo) Name of a historical region of eastern Tibet api (T: a ph’i) Fresh cheese made from dara bcud (T: bcud) From Buddhist philosophy, content or form of life bdud (T: bdud) Demons btsan (T: btsan) Furies, violent spirits ‘bu (T) See yartsa gunbu chiwa (T: lci wa) Dried yak dung used for fuel chongcao (C) See dongchong xiacao chorten (T: mchod rten) Tibetan stupa, reliquary chos sgar (T: mchod sgar) Religious encampment chuba (T: phyu pa) Long Tibetan robe chura (T: phyur ra) Dried cheese made from dara cun (C) Administrative village cunshuji (C) Village-level party secretary cunzhang (C) Village-level leader dara (T: da ra) Milk from which the cream/butter has been removed dewa (T: sde ba) Village digpa (T: sdig pa) Sin dmu (T: dmu) Malevolent spirit causing dropsy Do Kham (T: mdo khams) Eastern Tibet comprising two historical regions dongchong xiacao (C) Caterpillar fungus domad (T: mdo smad) Another name for Amdo dotod (T: mdo stod) Another name for Kham drelwa (T: ‘brel ba) Relationship, link, connection dri (T: ‘bri) Female yak drib (T: sgrib) Pollution drog, also sog (T: srog) Essence of life drogmo (T: ‘brog mo) Female nomadic pastoralist

1 T: Tibetan, C: Chinese, Wylie transliteration is provided in parentheses.

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 179 G. G. Tan, Pastures of Change, Studies in Human Ecology and Adaptation 10, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76553-2 180 Tibetan and Chinese Glossary drogpa (T: ‘brog pa) Tibetan nomadic pastoralist, male nomadic pastoralist droma (T: gro ma, gyo ma) Edible tuber of Potentilla anserina drub zang (T: ‘gros gzang) A casual lover dud si thun cham (T: bdud rtsi thun mchams) Name of a star connected with Tibetan medicine dzo (T: mdzo) Hybrid cow-yak animal dzomo (T: mdzo mo) Female hybrid cow-yak animal fengyu (C) Complete grazing prohibition gar (T: sgar) Encampment gasar (T: dga’ sa, also dga’ po) Lover, husband gepa (T: skud pa) Yarn or rope made from tsi glog klad (T: glog klad) Computer go re (T: go re) Braids of fried wheat dough gonpa (T: dgon pa) Monastery gowa (T: go wa) Village chief gtsang rigs (T: gtsang rigs) Limpid, permeable guanxi (C) Networks, social relations gur (T: gur) Summer white tent gza’ (T: gza’) Rahu, a god with nine heads hei shihui (C) Black society, underworld huang (C) Barren, wasteland jigten pa’i lha (T: ‘jig rten pa’i lha) Worldly deities jin (C) Chinese unit of measurement; approximately 600 g jin mu (C) Grazing prohibition for several years jod pon (T: gyod dpon) Mediator jowa (T: gyod pa) Representative in negotiations kang da jid (T: kang da byid) Powerful animal medicine, Batrachuperus pinchonii katsa (T: kha tsha) Animal illness; foot-and-mouth disease khata (T: kha btags) Ceremonial scarf, usually white Kham (T; khams) Name of a historical region of eastern Tibet khenpo (T: mkhan po) Head lama kora (T: skor ra) Circumambulation kulu (T: khu lu) Soft down from the undercoat of yaks la (T: bla) Soul latse (T: la rdzas, lha btsugs) Sacred cairns with prayer flags lha (T: lha) God, deity lha pon (T: lha dpon) God-official lha yag (T: lha g.yag) God-yak; a yak that has been liberated and offered to a deity lon pon (T: lon dpon) Ministers lu (T: klu) Water deity, water spirit lu rig dan (T: klu rig ldan) Name of a star connected with Tibetan medicine lun mu (C) Grazing rotations magpa (T: mag pa) Called-in son-in-law mamo (T: ma mo) Female wrathful dakinis mani prayer stones (T: ma ni rdo) Stones on which the chant ‘o mane padme hum’ have been carved Tibetan and Chinese Glossary 181 mi rab den (T: mi rabs bdun) Seven generations minzu (C) Nationality, ethnicity mirtagpa (T: mi rtag pa) Impermanence misha (T: mi sha) Blood feud; enemy mu (C) Unit of measurement used in China, 1/15th of a hectare nag sgar (T: nag sgar) Black encampments, a term for tent monasteries nag tsang (T: nag tshang) Type of black tent namshe (T: rnam pas shes pas) Consciousness nang (T: nang) Inside nei (T: nas) Roasted barley flour nolog (T: ngo log) Rebel nor (T: nor) Wealth, synonym for yaks nyingma (T: rnying ma) Old teachings; a sect of Tibetan Buddhism phyir (T: phyir) Outside, outer Ponchen (T: dpon chen) Big leader qi (C) Energy ra (T: sbra) Type of black tent rashor (T: sbra shing) Long wooden tent pole; in Kham, this is used to open the top flap of the black tent rgyal po (T: rgyal po) Mischievous spirit risher (vernacular, also T: ri skor) Patrol around the mountain rinpoche (T: rin po che) Precious one rongpa (T. rong pa) Farmer, agriculturalist rongmadrog (T. rong ma ‘brog) Semi-pastoralist rukor (T: rus skor) Encampment samadrog (T. sa ma ‘brog) Semi-pastoralist sang (T: bsang, bsangs) Smoke-purification ritual san peitao jianshe (C) Three that form a set constructions sbra dgon (T: sbra dgon) Tent monasteries shedra (T: bshad grwa) Buddhist teaching college shengtai yimin (C) Ecological resettlement policy shugpa (T: shug pa) Juniper shrub si da tusi (C) Four big kingdoms, in reference to Dege, Lithang, Bathang, and Chakla si peitao jianshe (C) Four that form a set constructions sozhe (vernacular) Name for a 4-year-old yak sngo sman (T: sngo sman) Herbaceous medicine snod (T: snod) From Buddhist philosophy, container or vessel for sentience srinpo (T: srin po) Cannibal demon tagma (T: stag ma) Rhodendron tendrel (T: rten ‘brel) Dependent origination, interdependence, omen terma (T: gter ma) Treasure terton (T: gter ston) Treasure revealer tianran (C) Formed by the sky, pure and natural tri (vernacular) Wooden yarn-spinning contraption 182 Tibetan and Chinese Glossary trim (T: khrims) Decree trug (T: phrug) Densely woven panels of the black tent tsa da jid (T: rtswa da byid) Grass-animal medicine tsampa (T: rtsam pa) Tibetan roasted barley, mixed with tea and butter tshowa (T: tsho ba) Group of encampments, camp group tsi (T: rtsid) Yak hair, cut from coarse hair from the belly, tails, and sides tsipa (T: rtsid pa) Yarn made from coarse yak hair tshe (T: tshe) Duration of life tshe thar (T: tshe thar) Act of “liberating life” tuigeng huanlin (C) “Retiring fields, restoring forests” campaign tuimu huancao (C) “Retiring livestock, restoring pasture” campaign tusi (C) “King,” official Chinese title bestowed by the Qing emperor we’u (T: be’u) A 1-year-old yak calf xiang zhengfu (C) Township government xiaowei (C) Indistinct smell xibu dakaifa (C) “Western Development Strategy” campaign xiu mu (C) Halt to grazing for several months Xizang (C) Tibet yartsa gunbu (T: dbyar rtswa dgun ‘bu) Caterpillar fungus; Ophiocordyceps sinensis yaruh (vernacular) Name for a 2-year-old yak yasum (vernacular) Name for a 3-year-old yak you mumin dinju (C) Nomad Settlement project yullha (T: yul lha) Homeland deity Zhara (T: bzhag bra) Name of a mountain; also a territorial deity or master and a soul mountain zhibdag (T: zhing bdag/gzhi bdag) Territorial deity, territorial master zhorshi (T: zho shig) Full-fat semi-soft cheese ziwa (T: gzi ba) Judge zog (T: zog) Cow-yak animal Bibliography

Agrawal, A. (2005). Environmentality: Technologies of government and the making of subjects. Durham: Duke University Press. Anand, D. (2009). Geopolitical exotica: Tibet in western imagination. New Delhi: Routledge. Appadurai, A. (Ed.). (1988). The social life of things: Commodities in cultural perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Appadurai, A. (2004). The capacity to aspire: Culture and the terms of recognition. In V. Rao & M. Walton (Eds.), Culture and public action (pp. 59–84). Stanford: Stanford University Press. Asad, T. (1978). Equality in nomadic social systems? Notes towards the dissolution of an anthropological category. Critique of Anthropology, 3(11), 57–65. Asian Development Bank. (2014). Strengthening carbon financing for grassland management in the People’s Republic of China: Incentive mechanisms and implications. Manila: Asian Development Bank. Aulino, F., Goheem, M., & Tambiah, S. (Eds.). (2013). Radical egalitarianism: Local realities, global relations. New York: Fordham University Press. Aziz, B. (1978). Tibetan frontier families. Reflections on three generations from D’ingri. New Delhi: Vikas. Barth, F. (1961). Nomads of South Persia: The Basseri tribe of the Khamseh Confederacy. Long Grove: Waveland Press. Bates, D. (1980). Yoruk settlement. In P. C. Salzman (Ed.), When nomads settle: Processes of sedentarization as adaptation and response (pp. 124–139). New York: Praeger Publishers. Bates, D. G., & Lees, S. H. (1977). The role of exchange in productive specialization. American Ethnologist, 79(9), 824–841. Bateson, G. (1958). Naven: A survey of the problems suggested by a composite picture of the culture of a New Guinea tribe drawn from three points of view. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Bateson, G. (1991 [1976]). Orders of change. In G. Bateson (Ed.), A sacred unity: Further steps to an ecology of mind (pp. 283–289). New York: Harper Collins. Bauer, K. (2005). Development and the enclosure movement in pastoral Tibet since the 1980s. Nomadic Peoples, 9(1&2), 53–81. Bauer, K., & Gyal, H. (2015). Introduction. Nomadic Peoples, 19(2), 157–163. Bauer, K., & Nyima, Y. (2011). Laws and regulations impacting the enclosure movement on the Tibetan Plateau of China. Himalaya, 30(1), 23–37. Bellezza, J. (2011). The liturgies and oracular utterances of spirit-mediums of Upper Tibet—An introduction to their bSangs rituals. Revue d’Études Tibétaines, 20, 5–31. Bierschenk, T., Chauveau, J.-P., & Olivier de Sardan, J.-P. (2002). Local development brokers in Africa: The rise of a new social category. Working Papers Nr. 13, Institut fur Ethnologie und Afrikastudien. Johannes Gutenberg-Universitat.

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 183 G. G. Tan, Pastures of Change, Studies in Human Ecology and Adaptation 10, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76553-2 184 Bibliography

Bishop, P. (1989). The myth of Shangri-La: Tibet, travel writing and the Western creation of sacred landscape. London: Athlone. Boesi, A. (2003). The dbyar rtswa dgun ‘bu (Cordyceps sinensis Berk.): An important trade item for the Tibetan population of the Lithang County, Sichuan Province, China. The Tibet Journal, 28(3), 29–42. Boesi, A., & Cardi, F. (2009). Cordyceps Sinensis Medicinal Fungus: Traditional use among Tibetan people, harvesting techniques and modern uses. The Journal of the American Botanical Council, 83, 52–61. Booz, P. (2011). Tea, trade and transport in the Sino-Tibetan borderlands. DPhil thesis, Oxford University. Bradburd, D. (1990). Ambiguous relations: Kin, class and conflict among Komachi pastoralists. Washington and London: Smithsonian Institution Press. Bradburd, D. (1996). Toward an understanding of the economics of pastoralism: The balance of exchange between pastoralists and non-pastoralists in Western Iran, 1815–1975. Human Ecology, 24(1), 1–38. Brunois, F. (2007). Le jardin du casoar, la forêt des Kasua: epistémologie des savoir-être et savoir- faire écologiques, Papouasie-Nouvelle-Guinée. Paris: Maison des sciences de l’homme. Cai, L. (1989). Yak of Sichuan. Chengdu: Sichuan Nationality Publishing House. Casey, E. (1996). How to get from space to place in a fairly short stretch of time: A phenomenological prolegomena. In S. Feld & K. Basso (Eds.), Senses of place (pp. 14–51). Santa Fe: School of American Research Press. Cerny, A. (2008). In search of greener pastures: Sustainable development for Kazak pastoralists in Xinjiang, China. Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Washington. Chambers, R. (1994). Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA): Analysis of experience. World Development, 22(9), 1253–1268. Chang, C., & Koster, H. A. (Eds.). (1994). Pastoralists at the periphery: Herders in a capitalist world. Tucson and London: University of Arizona Press. Chatty, D. (Ed.). (2006). Nomadic societies in the Middle East and North Africa: Entering the 21st century. Leiden: Brill. Chen, S. (1996). Inner Asian grassland degradation and plant transformation. In C. Humphrey & D. Sneath (Eds.), Culture and environment in Inner Asia. Volume I: The pastoral economy and the environment (pp. 111–123). Cambridge: The White Horse Press. Chinese State of the Environment Report. (2009). Retrieved October 2, 2017, from http://english. mep.gov.cn/standards_reports/soe/soe2009/201104/t20110411_208902.htm Clastres, P. (1977). Society against the state. New York: Blackwell Publishers. Cleaver, F. (1999). Paradoxes of participation: Questioning participatory approaches to development. Journal of International Development, 11(4), 597–612. Cornwall, A. (2000). Beneficiary, consumer, citizen: Perspectives on participation for poverty reduction. Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA) Studies, No. 2. Crewe, E., & Harrison, E. (1998). Whose development: An ethnography of aid. New York: Zed Books. David-Néel, A. (1985 [1929]). Mystiques et magiciens du Tibet. Paris: Plon. Deleuze, G., & Guattari, F. (1987). A thousand plateaus: Capitalism and schizophrenia. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Descola, P. (1994). In the society of nature: A native ecology in Amazonia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Descola, P. (2005). Par-delà nature et culture. Paris: Editions Gallimard. Descola, P., & Pálsson, G. (Eds.). (1996). Nature and society: Anthropological perspectives. London: Routledge. Doorne, S., Ateljevic, I., & Bai, Z. (2003). Representing identities through tourism: Encounters of ethnic minorities in Dali, Yunnan Province, People’s Republic of China. International Journal of Tourism Research, 5(1), 1–11. Bibliography 185

Dotson, B. (2007). Divination and law in the Tibetan Empire. In M. Kapstein & B. Dotson (Eds.), Contributions to the cultural history of early Tibet (pp. 1–78). Leiden: Brill. Du, F. (2006). Grain for green and poverty alleviation: The policy and practice of ecological migration in China. Horizons, 9(2), 45–48. Du, F. (2012). Ecological resettlement of Tibetan herders in Sanjiangyuan: A case study in Madoi County, Qinghai. Nomadic Peoples, 16(1), 116–133. Durmowicz, A. G., Hofmeister, S., Kadyraliev, T. K., Aldashev, A. A., & Stenmark, K. R. (1993). Functional and structural adaptation of the yak pulmonary circulation to residence at high altitude. Journal of Applied Physiology, 74(5), 2276–2285. Dwyer, M. J., & Istomin, K. V. (2008). Theories of nomadic movement: A new theoretical approach for understanding the movement decisions of Nenets and Komi reindeer herders. Human Ecology, 36(4), 521–533. Dwyer, P. D., & Minnegal, M. (2010). Theorizing social change. The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 16(3), 626–645. Dyson-Hudson, N. (1972). The study of nomads. In W. Irons & N. Dyson-Hudson (Eds.), Perspectives on nomadism (pp. 2–29). Leiden: Brill. Dyson-Hudson, R., & Dyson-Hudson, N. (1980). Nomadic pastoralism. Annual Review of Anthropology, 9(1), 15–61. Ekvall, R. (1961). The nomadic pattern of living among the Tibetans as preparation for war. American Anthropologist, 63(6), 1250–1263. Ekvall, R. (1964a). Peace and war among Tibetan Nomads. American Anthropologist, 6695, 1119–1148. Ekvall, R. (1964b). Law and the individual among the Tibetan nomads. American Anthropologist, 66(5), 1110–1115. Ekvall, R. (1968). Fields on the hoof: Nexus of Tibetan nomadic pastoralism. Prospect Heights: Waveland Press, Inc. Escobar, A. (1995). Encountering development: The making and the unmaking of the Third World. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Esteva, G. (1993). Development. In W. Sachs (Ed.), The development dictionary: A guide to knowledge as power (pp. 6–25). London: Zed Books. Evans-Pritchard, E. E. (1940). The Nuer: A description of the modes of livelihood and political institutions of a Nilotic people. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Faier, L. (2011). Fungi, trees, people, nematodes, beetles and weather: Ecologies of vulnerability and ecologies of negotiation in matsutake commodity exchange. Environment and Planning A, 43(5), 1079–1097. Ferguson, J. (1994). The anti-politics machine: ‘Development’, depoliticization and bureaucratic power in Lesotho. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Foggin, J. M. (2008). Depopulating the Tibetan grasslands: National policies and perspectives for the future of Tibetan herders in Qinghai Province, China. Mountain Research and Development, 28(1), 26–31. Foggin, J. M., & Phillips, J. (2013). Horizontal policy analysis: A tool to promote sustainable livelihoods development; with implications for ecological resettlement and other major development programs in the Tibetan Plateau region. In Å. Kolås & Zhaluo (Eds.), Pastoralism in contemporary China: Policy and practice (pp. 3–310). Beijing: Social Science Academic Press. Foucault, M. (1980). Power/knowledge: Selected interviews and other writings, 1972–1977. New York: Pantheon. Fratkin, E. (1997). Pastoralism: Governance and development issues. Annual Review of Anthropology, 26(1), 235–261. Freire, P. (1972). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Penguin. Gaerrang. (2012). Alternative development on the Tibetan plateau: The case of the slaughter renunciation movement. Ph.D dissertation, University of Colorado-Boulder. Gaerrang. (2015a). Development as entangled knot: The case of the slaughter renunciation movement in Tibet, China. The Journal of Asian Studies, 74(4), 927–951. 186 Bibliography

Gaerrang. (2015b). Housing projects in the nomadic areas of China’s Eastern Tibetan Plateau: Representation, market logic and governmentality. Nomadic Peoples, 19(2), 261–280. Gaerrang. (2016). Tibetan identity and Tibetan Buddhism in trans-regional connection: The contemporary vegetarian movement in pastoral areas of Tibet (China). Études Mongoles et Sibériennes, Centrasiatiques et Tibétaines (EMSCAT) 47: Nomads’ Religious Lives. https:// doi.org/10.4000/emscat.2755. Galaty, J. (1980). The Maasai group-ranch: Politics and development in an African pastoral society. In P. C. Salzman (Ed.), When nomads settle: Processes of sedentarization as adaptation and response (pp. 157–172). New York: Praeger Publishers. Galaty, J. (1981). Introduction. In J. Galaty & P. C. Salzman (Eds.), Change and development in nomadic and pastoral societies (pp. 4–26). Leiden: Brill. Galaty, J., & Johnson, D. (Eds.). (1990). The world of pastoralism: Herding systems in comparative perspective. New York: Guilford Press. Galvin, K. A. (2009). Transitions: Pastoralists living with change. Annual Review of Anthropology, 38, 185–198. Gang, Y. (2004). Echoes from the Himalayas: The quest of Ma Lihua, a Chinese intellectual in Tibet. Journal of Contemporary China, 13(38), 69–88. Gardner, A. (2003). Review article—“Khams pa histories: Visions of people, place and authority”. Tibet Journal, 28(3), 61–96. Gardner, A. (2006). The twenty-five great sites of Khams: Religious geography, revelation, and non- sectarianism in nineteenth-century eastern Tibet. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan. Gardner, K., & Lewis, D. (1996). Anthropology, development and the post-modern challenge. London: Pluto Press. Gelek, L. (2002a). The Washul Serthar: A nomadic community of eastern Tibet. Chinese Sociology and Anthropology, 35(1), 3–20. Gelek, L. (2002b). The herders of eastern Tibet: Notes from an anthropological field study. Chinese Sociology and Anthropology, 35(1), 21–81. Gladney, D. C. (1994). Representing nationality in China: Reconfiguring majority/minority identities. Journal of Asian Studies, 53(1), 92–123. Gladney, D. C. (1998). Ethnic identity in China: The making of a Muslim minority nationality. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace College Publishers. Gluckman, M. (1968). The utility of the equilibrium model in the study of social change. American Anthropologist, 70(2), 219–237. Gluckman, M. (1970). The peace in the feud. In M. Gluckman (Ed.), Custom and conflict in Africa (pp. 1–26). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. Goldstein, M. C. (1971). Serfdom and mobility: An examination of the institution of ‘human lease’ in traditional Tibetan society. Journal of Asian Studies, 30(3), 521–534. Goldstein, M. C. (2012). Change and continuity in a nomadic pastoralism community in the Tibet Autonomous Region 1959–2009. In H. Kreutzmann (Ed.), Pastoral practices in high Asia: Advances in Asian human-environmental research (pp. 257–272). Dordrecht: Springer Science and Business Media B.V. Goldstein, M. C., & Beall, C. (1989). The impact of China’s reform policy on nomads of western Tibet. Asian Survey, 29(6), 619–641. Goldstein, M. C., & Beall, C. (1990). Nomads of Western Tibet: The survival of a way of life. Berkeley: University of California Press. Goldstein, M. C., & Kapstein, M. T. (Eds.). (1998). Buddhism in contemporary Tibet: Religious revival and cultural identity. Berkeley: University of California Press. Green, M. (2000). Participatory development and the appropriation of agency in Southern Tanzania. Critique of Anthropology, 20(1), 67–89. Gruschke, A. (2008). Nomads without pastures? Globalization, regionalization and livelihood security of nomads and former nomads in northern Kham. Journal of the International Association of Tibetan Studies, 4, 1–40. Bibliography 187

Gujit, I., & Shah, M. K. (Eds.). (1998). The myth of community: Gender issues in participatory development. London: ITDG Publishing. Gunder Frank, A. (1969). Capitalism and under-development in Latin America: Historical studies of Chile and Brazil. New York: Monthly Review Press. Gunderson, L. (2000). Ecological resilience—In theory and application. Annual Review of Ecological Systems, 31(1), 425–439. Gunderson, L. H., Allen, C. R., & Holling, C. S. (Eds.). (2010). Foundations of ecological resilience. Washington: Island Press. Gyal, H. (2015). The politics of standardising and subordinating subjects: The nomadic settlement project in Tibetan areas of Amdo. Nomadic Peoples, 19(2), 241–260. Harrell, S. (Ed.). (1996). Cultural encounters on China’s ethnic frontiers. Seattle: University of Washington Press. Harris, T. (2013). Geographical diversions: Tibetan trade, global transactions. Atlanta: University of Georgia Press. Hjort, A. (1981). A critique of “ecological” models of pastoral land use. Ethnos: Journal of Anthropology, 46(3&4), 171–189. Ho, P. (2003). The Wasteland Auction Policy in Northwest China: Solving environmental degradation and rural poverty? The Journal of Peasant Studies, 30(3&4), 121–159. Holling, C. S. (1973). Resilience and stability of ecological systems. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 4(1), 1–23. Holling, C. S. (1996). Engineering resilience versus ecological resilience. In P. C. Schulze (Ed.), Engineering within ecological constraints (pp. 31–44). Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Hong, J. (2005). Grassland management and views of nature in China since 1949: Regional policies and local changes in Uxin Ju, Inner Mongolia. GeoForum, 36(5), 641–653. Hu, Z. (2010). The travails of the ninth dragon god: The struggle for water, worship and the politics of getting by in a north China village. Human Ecology, 39(1), 81–91. Huber, T. (1999). Cult of pure crystal mountain: Popular pilgrimage and visionary landscape in Southeast Tibet. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Huber, T. (2005). Antelope hunting in northern Tibet: Cultural adaptations to animal behaviour. Wildlife and plants in traditional and modern Tibet: Conceptions, exploitation and conservation. Memorie della Società Italiana di Scienze Naturali e del Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Milano, Italy, 33(1), 5–17. Humchen (Lce nag tshang Hum chen). (2007). A brief introduction to Ngag dbang dar rgyas and the origin of Rnying ma order in Henan county (Sogpo), the Mongolian region of Amdo. In H. Diemberger & U. E. Bulag (Eds.), The Mongolia-Tibet interface: Opening new research terrains in Inner Asia (pp. 239–255). Leiden: Brill. Humphrey, C., & Sneath, D. (Eds.). (1996). Culture and environment in Inner Asia. Volume I: The pastoral economy and the environment. Cambridge: The White Horse Press. Humphrey, C., & Sneath, D. (1999). The end of nomadism? Society, state and the environment in Inner Asia. Durham: Duke University Press. Ingold, T. (1980). Hunters, pastoralists and ranchers: Reindeer economies and their transformations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ingold, T. (1986). Territoriality and tenure: The appropriation of space in hunting and gathering societies. In T. Ingold (Ed.), The appropriation of nature: Essays on human ecology and social relations (pp. 130–164). Manchester: Manchester University Press. Irons, W. (1974). Nomadism as a political adaptation: The case of the Yomut Turkmen. American Ethnologist, 1(4), 635–658. Istomin, K. V., & Dwyer, M. J. (2010). Dynamic mutual adaptation: Human-animal interaction in reindeer herding pastoralism. Human Ecology, 38(5), 613–623. Jacoby, S. (2014). Love and liberation: Autobiographical writings of the Tibetan Buddhist visionary Sera Khandro. New York: Columbia University Press. 188 Bibliography

Jones, S. (2005). Transhumance re-examined. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 11(2), 357–359. Jones, D. (2013). The miraculous caterpillar fungus: The Chinese demand for an unusual herbal medicine. MA thesis, University of Washington-Seattle. Kabachnik, P. (2012). Nomads and mobile places: Disentangling place, space and mobility. Identities: Global Studies in Culture and Power, 19(2), 210–228. Kapferer, B. (2011 [1988]). Legends of people, myths of state: Violence, intolerance and political culture in Sri Lanka and Australia. London: Berghahn Books. Karmay, S. G. (2003). Note sur l’origine des huit catégories d’esprits. Revue d’Études Tibétaines, 2, 67–80. Khan, A. (1996). Who are the Mongols? State, ethnicity and the politics of representation in the People’s Republic of China. In M. Brown (Ed.), Negotiating ethnicities in China and Taiwan (pp. 125–159). Berkeley: University of California Press. Khazanov, A. M. (1984). Nomads and the outside world. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lai, H. H. (2002). China’s Western development program: Its rationale, implementation and prospects. Modern China, 28(4), 432–466. Lama, K. T. (2007). Crowded mountains, empty towns: Commodification and contestation in Cordyceps harvesting in Eastern Tibet. M.A. thesis. University of Colorado. Latour, B. (2000). When things strike back: A possible contribution of ‘science studies’ to the social sciences. British Journal of Sociology, 51(1), 107–123. Lattimore, O. (1962 [1951]). Inner Asian frontiers of China. Boston: Beacon Press. Levine, N. E. (1989). The dynamics of polyandry: Kinship, domesticity and population on the Tibetan border. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Levine, N. E. (2015). Transforming inequality: Eastern Tibetan pastoralists from 1955 to the pres- ent. Nomadic Peoples, 19(2), 164–188. Li, T. M. (2007). The will to improve: Governmentality, development and the practice of politics. Durham: Duke University Press. Li, Y., et al. (2011). A survey of the geographic distribution of Ophiocordyceps sinensis. The Journal of Microbiology, 49(6), 913–919. Li, Y., et al. (2014). A review of China’s rangeland management policies. IIED Country Report. London: IIED. Liang, Y. (2011). Making gold. commodification and consumption of the medicinal fungus chongcao in Guangdong and Hong Kong. Hong Kong Anthropologist, 5, 1–17. Liu, L., Zhang, Y., Bai, W., Yan, J., Ding, M., Shen, Z., Li, S., & Zheng, D. (2006). Characteristics of grassland degradation and driving forces in the source region of the Yellow River from 1985 to 2000. Journal of Geographical Sciences, 16(2), 131–142. Long, R., et al. (2009). Case study 7: Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau rangelands. In V. R. Squires, X. Lu, Q. Lu, T. Wang, & Y. Yang (Eds.), Rangeland degradation and recovery in China’s pastoral lands. Oxfordshire: CAB International. Lopez, D. S., Jr. (1999). Prisoners of Shangri-La, Tibetan Buddhism and the West. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. Ludden, D. (1992). India’s development regime. In N. B. Dirks (Ed.), Colonialism and culture (pp. 247–287). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Makley, C. (2013). The politics of presence: Voice, deity possession, and dilemmas of development among Tibetans of the People’s Republic of China. Comparative Studies in Society and History, 55(3), 665–700. Malinowski, B. (1945). The dynamics of culture change: An inquiry into race relations in Africa. New Haven: Yale University Press. Manderscheid, A. (2000). The black tent in its easternmost distribution: The case of the Tibetan Plateau. Mountain Research and Development, 21(2), 154–160. Marx, K., & Engels, F. (1952 [1848]). The communist manifesto. Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica. McGranahan, C. (2010). Arrested histories: Tibet, the CIA and memories of a forgotten war. Durham: Duke University Press. Bibliography 189

Meyer, M., Aldenderfer, M., Wang, Z., Hoffmann, D. L., Dahl, J. A., Degering, D., Haas, W. A., & Schlutz, F. (2017). Permanent human occupation of the central Tibetan Plateau in the early Holocene. Science, 355(6320), 64–67. Miller, D. J. (2000). Tough times for Tibetan nomads in western China: Snowstorms, settling down, fences and the demise of traditional nomadic pastoralism. Nomadic Peoples, 4(1), 83–109. Miller, D. J. (2005). The Tibetan steppe. In J. M. Suttie, S. G. Reynolds, & C. Batello (Eds.), Grasslands of the world. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization. Minnegal, M., & Dwyer, P. D. (1999). Rereading relationships: Changing constructions of identity among Kubo of Papua New Guinea. Ethnology, 38(1), 59–80. Minnegal, M., & Dwyer, P. D. (2017). Navigating the future: An ethnography of change in Papua New Guinea. Canberra: ANU Press. Moore, L. G. (2001). Human genetic adaptation to high altitude. High Altitude Medicine & Biology, 2(2), 257–279. Moore, L. G., Armaza, V. F., Villena, M., & Vargas, E. (2002). Comparative aspects of high-altitude adaptation in human populations. Oxygen Sensing, 475(2), 45–62. Mosse, D. (2004). Is good policy unimplementable? Reflections on the ethnography of aid policy and practice. Development and Change, 35(4), 639–674. Mosse, D. (2005). Cultivating development: An ethnography of aid policy and practice. London: Pluto Press. National Bureau of Statistics China. (2008). Retrieved September 25, 2017, from http://www.stats. gov.cn/english/Statisticaldata/AnnualData/ Norbu Rinpoche, N. (1997 [1959]). journey among the Tibetan nomads: An account of a remote civilization. Dharamsala: Library of Tibetan Works and Archives. Oakes, T. S. (1992). Cultural geography and Chinese ethnic tourism. Journal of Cultural Geography, 12(2), 3–17. Okely, J. (1983). The traveller-gypsies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Olivier de Sardan, J.-P. (2005). Anthropology and development: Understanding contemporary social change. London: Zed Books. Orlove, B. (1977). Alpacas, sheep and men: Wool export economy and regional society in Southern Peru. New York: Academic. Pálsson, G. (1996). Human-environmental relations: Orientalism, paternalism and communal- ism. In P. Descola & G. Pálsson (Eds.), Nature and society: Anthropological perspectives (pp. 63–81). London: Routledge. Parsons, T. (1966). Societies: Evolutionary and comparative perspectives. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Pedersen, M. (2001). Totemism, animism and North Asian indigenous ontologies. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 7(3), 411–427. Pirie, F. (2005a). Segmentation within the state: The reconfiguration of Tibetan tribes in China’s Reform Period. Nomadic Peoples, 9(1), 83–102. Pirie, F. (2005b). Feuding, mediation and the negotiation of authority among the nomads of eastern Tibet. Max Planck Institute for Social Anthropology Working Papers, 72. Pirie, F. (2009). Kings, monks, bureaucrats and the police: Tibetan responses to law and authority. In K. Benda-Beckmann et al. (Eds.), The power of law in the transnational world (pp. 236– 253). London: Berghahn. Pirie, F. (2013). The limits of the state: Coercion and consent in Chinese Tibet. The Journal of Asian Studies, 72(1), 69–89. Pirie, F. (2017). Buddhist law in early Tibet: The emergence of an ideology. Retrieved November 7, 2017, from https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:95fa943e-108b-4f78-a1a4-659d2d464b06 Powers, J., & Templeman, D. (2012). Historical dictionary of Tibet. Langham: Scarecrow Press. Ptackova, J. (2015). Hor—A sedentarization success for Tibetan pastoralists in Qinghai? Nomadic Peoples, 19(2), 221–240. Qiu, Q., et al. (2011). The yak genome and adaptation to life at high altitude. Nature Genetics, 44(8), 946–951. 190 Bibliography

Ramble, C. (2008). The navel of the demoness: Tibetan Buddhism and civil religion in Highland Nepal. New York: Oxford University Press. Rigby, P. (1988). Pastoralism, egalitarianism and the state: The Eastern African case. Critique of Anthropology, 7(3), 17–32. Rockhill, W. W. (1894). Diary of a journey through Mongolia and Tibet in 1891 and 1892. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. Rohlf, G. (1999). Agricultural resettlement to the Sino-Tibetan frontier, 1950 – 1962. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Iowa. Rostow, W. W. (1964). The stages of economic growth: A non-communist manifesto. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sahlins, M. D. (1961). The segmentary lineage: An organization of predatory expansion. American Anthropologist, 63(2), 322–345. Sahlins, M. D. (1972). Stone age economics. Chicago: Aldine Atherton Inc. Sahlins, M. D. (1981). Historical metaphors and mythical realities: Structure in the early history of the Sandwich Islands kingdoms. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Sahlins, M. D. (1985). Islands of history. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Salzman, P. C. (1972). Multi-resource nomadism in Iranian Baluchistan. Journal of Asian and African Studies, 7(1–2), 60–68. Salzman, P. C. (Ed.). (1980). When nomads settle: Processes of sedentarization as adaptation and response. New York: Praeger Publishers. Salzman, P. C. (1994). Baluchi nomads in the market. In C. Chang & H. A. Koster (Eds.), Pastoralists at the periphery: Herders in a capitalist world (pp. 165–174). Tucson and London: University of Arizona Press. Salzman, P. C. (2004). Pastoralists: Equality, hierarchy and the state. Boulder: Westview Press. Samuel, G. (2012). Introducing Tibetan Buddhism. Abingdon: Routledge. Schaller, G., & Liu, W. (1996). Distribution, status and conservation of wild yak, Bos grunniens. Biological Conservation, 76(1), 1–8. Schein, L. (2000). Minority rules: The Miao and the feminine in China’s cultural politics. Durham: Duke University Press. Schell, O. (2000). Virtual Tibet: Searching for Shangri-La from the Himalayas to Hollywood. New York: Metropolitan Books/Henry Holt & Company. Schneider, N. (2016). The monastery in a Tibetan pastoralist context: A case study from Kham Minyag. Études Mongoles et Sibériennes, Centrasiatiques et Tibétaines (EMSCAT), 47. https:// doi.org/10.4000/emscat.2798. Scott, J. C. (1998). Seeing like a state: How certain schemes to improve the human condition have failed. New Haven: Yale University Press. Scott, J. C. (2009). The art of not being governed: An anarchist history of upland Southeast Asia. New Haven: Yale University Press. Shapiro, J. (2001). Mao’s war against nature: Politics and the environment in revolutionary China. New York: Cambridge University Press. Shepherd, R. (2006). UNESCO and the politics of cultural heritage in Tibet. Journal of Contemporary Asia, 36(2), 243–257. Sillitoe, P., Bicker, A., & Pottier, J. (Eds.). (2002). Participating in development: Approaches to indigenous knowledge. London: Routledge. Smith, A. S., & Foggin, J. M. (1999). The Plateau Pika (Ochotona curzoniae) is a keystone species for diversity on the Tibetan Plateau. Animal Conservation, 2(4), 235–240. Smith, W., Jr. (1994). The Nationalities Policy of the Chinese Communist Party and the social- ist transformation of Tibet. In R. Barnett & S. Akiner (Eds.), Resistance and reform in Tibet (pp. 51–75). London: Hurst. Sodnamkyid, & Sulek, E. (2017). ‘Everything costs money’: Livelihood and economics in the ‘New Resettled Village’ of Sogrima, Golok Prefecture (Qinghai Province). Nomadic Peoples, 21(1), 136–151. Bibliography 191

Sperling, E. (1976). The Chinese venture in K’am, 1904–1911, and the role of Chao Erh-Feng. The Tibet Journal, 1(2), 10–36. Stépanoff, C. (2017). The rise of reindeer pastoralism in Northern Eurasia: Human and animal motivations entangled. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 23(2), 376–397. Stépanoff, C., Marchina, C., Fossier, C., & Bureau, N. (2017). Animal autonomy and intermittent coexistences: North Asian modes of herding. Current Anthropology, 58(1), 57–81. Stewart, M. O. (2009). Exploring the rush for ‘Himalayan Gold’: Tibetan Yartsa Gunbu harvesting in Northwest Yunnan and considerations for management. In B. Dotson, K. N. Gurung, G. Halkias, & T. Myatt (Eds.), Contemporary visions in Tibetan studies: Proceedings of the First International Seminar of Young Tibetologists. Chicago: Serindia Publications. Sulek, E. R. (2009). In the land of checkpoints: Yartsa Gunbu business in Golok 2007, a pre- liminary report from the field. In B. Dotson, K. N. Gurung, G. Halkias, & T. Myatt (Eds.), Contemporary visions in Tibetan studies: Proceedings of the First International Seminar of Young Tibetologists. Chicago: Serindia Publications. Sulek, E. R. (2016). Caterpillar fungus and the economy of sinning: On entangled relations between religious and economic in a Tibetan Pastoral Region of Golog, Qinghai, China. Études Mongoles et Sibériennes, Centrasiatiques et Tibétaines (EMSCAT), 47. https://doi. org/10.4000/emscat.2769. Tan, G. G. (2013a). An ethnography of life and change among Tibetan nomads of Minyag Dora Karmo, Ganzi Prefecture, China. Études Mongoles et Sibériennes, Centrasiatiques et Tibétaines (EMSCAT), 43–44. https://doi.org/10.4000/emscat.2111. Tan, G. G. (2013b). Transforming history and myth: On the mutuality and separation of shared narratives in Eastern Tibet. The Australian Journal of Anthropology, 24(2), 193–212. Tan, G. G. (2016a). In the circle of white stones: Moving with nomads of eastern Tibet. Seattle: University of Washington Press. Tan, G. G. (2016b). ‘Life’ and ‘freeing life’ (tshe thar) among Pastoralists of Kham: Intersecting religion and environment. Études Mongoles et Sibériennes, Centrasiatiques et Tibétaines (EMSCAT), 47. https://doi.org/10.4000/emscat.2793. Tapper, R. (1997). Frontier nomads of Iran: A political and social history of the Shahsevan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Teichman, E. (1922). Travels of a consular officer in Eastern Tibet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Thar, T. (2003). Bonpo temples in sTong che. In S. G. Karmay & Y. Nagano (Eds.), A Survey of Bonpo monasteries and temples in Tibet and the Himalaya. Osaka: National Museum of Ethnology. Thar, T. (2008). Bonpo tantrics in Kokonor Area. Revue d’Études Tibétaines, 15, 533–552. Thargyal, R. (2007). Nomads of Eastern Tibet: Social organization and economy of a pastoral estate in the kingdom of Dege. Leiden: Brill. Tian, Q. (2004). China develops its west: Motivations, strategy and prospects. Journal of Contemporary China, 13(41), 611–636. Tsing, A. L. (2005). Friction: An ethnography of global connection. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Tsing, A. L. (2013). Sorting out commodities: How capitalist value is made through gifts. Hau: Journal of Ethnographic Theory, 3(1), 21–43. Tsomu, Y. (2016). Guozhang trading houses and Tibetan middlemen in Dartsedo, the Shanghai of Tibet. Crosscurrents: East Asian History and Culture Review, 5(2), 291–349. USAID. (2018). What We Do. Retrieved April 6, 2018, from https://www.usaid.gov/what-we-do Vitebsky, P. (2006). Reindeer people: Living with animals and spirits in Siberia. London: Harper Collins. Viveiros de Castro, E. (1992). From the enemy’s point of view: Humanity and divinity in an Amazonian society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Viveiros de Castro, E. (2004). Exchanging perspectives: The transformation of objects into subjects in Amerindian ontologies. Common Knowledge, 10(3), 463–484. 192 Bibliography

Wang, X., & Yao, Y. (2011). Host insect species of Ophiocordyceps sinensis: A review. ZooKeys, 127, 43–59. Wiener, G., Han, J., & Long, R. (2003). The yak (2nd ed.). Bangkok: FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific. Willerslev, R. (2007). Soul hunters: Hunting, animism and personhood among the Siberian Yukaghirs. Berkeley: University of California Press. Williams, D. M. (1996). The barbed walls of China: A contemporary grassland drama. The Journal of Asian Studies, 55(3), 665–691. Williams, D. M. (2000). Representations of nature on the Mongolian Steppe: An investigation of scientific knowledge construction.American Anthropologist, 102(3), 503–519. Williams, D. M. (2002). Beyond great walls: Environment, identity and development on the Chinese grasslands of Inner Mongolia. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Winkler, D. (2004). Yartsa Gunbu—Cordyceps sinensis: Economy, ecology and ethno-mycology of a fungus endemic to the Tibetan Plateau. In A. Boesi & F. Cardi (Eds.), Wildlife and plants in traditional and modern Tibet: Conceptions, exploitation and conservation (pp. 69–85). Milan: Memorie della Societa Italiana di Scienze Naturali e del Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Milano 34(1–2). Winkler, D. (2009). Caterpillar fungus (Ophiocordyceps sinensis) production and sustainability on the Tibetan Plateau and in the Himalayas. Asian Medicine, 5(2), 291–316. Winkler, D. (2010). Caterpillar fungus (Ophiocordyceps sinensis) production and sustainability on the Tibetan Plateau and in the Himalayas. Chinese Journal of Grasslands, 32(Suppl.), 96–108. Wu, N. (1998). Indigenous knowledge of yak breeding and cross-breeding among nomads in Western Sichuan, China. Indigenous Knowledge and Development Monitor, 6(1), 7–9. Wu, J. (2016). The distributions of Chinese yak breeds in response to climate change over the past 50 years. Animal Science Journal, 87, 947–958. Xu, H. (2009). Resilience of Tibetan pastoral system in modernisation. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Nottingham, UK. Xu, J., Ma, E., Tashi, D., Fu, Y., Lu, Z., & Melnick, D. (2006). Integrating sacred knowledge for conservation: Cultures and landscapes in Southwest China. Ecology and Society, 10(2), 7. Yan, T., & Wang, Y. (2004). Environmental migration and sustainable development in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River. Population and Environment, 25(6), 613–636. Yan, Z., Wu, N., Dorji, Y., & Ru, J. (2005). A review of rangeland privatization and its implications in the Tibetan Plateau, China. Nomadic Peoples, 9(1&2), 31–51. Yeh, E. T. (2003). Tibetan range wars: Spatial politics and authority on the grasslands of Amdo. Development and Change, 34(3), 499–523. Yeh, E. T. (2005). Green governmentality and pastoralism in Western China: ‘Converting Pastures to Grasslands’. Nomadic Peoples, 9(1&2), 9–29. Yeh, E. T. (2009a). Greening Western China: A critical view. Geoforum, 40(5), 884–894. Yeh, E. T. (2009b). From wasteland to wetland? Nature and nation in China’s Tibet. Environmental History, 14(1), 103–137. Yeh, E. T. (2013). Taming Tibet: Landscape transformation and the gift of Chinese development. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Yeh, E. T., & Gaerrang. (2011). Tibetan pastoralism in neoliberalizing China: Continuity and change in Gouli. Area, 43(2), 165–172. Yeh, E. T., & Lama, K. (2013). Following the caterpillar fungus: Nature, commodity chains and the place of Tibet in China’s uneven geographies. Social and Cultural Geography, 14(3), 318–340. Yundannima. (2012). From ‘Retire Livestock, Restore Rangeland’ to the compensation for ecological services: State interventions into rangeland ecosystems and pastoralism in Tibet. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Colorado-Boulder. Zhu, J., Halpern, G., & Jones, K. (1998a). The scientific rediscovery of a precious ancient Chinese regimen: Cordyceps sinensis Part I. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 4(3), 289–303. Zhu, J., Halpern, G., & Jones, K. (1998b). The scientific rediscovery of a precious ancient Chinese regimen: Cordyceps sinensis Part II. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 4(4), 429–457. Bibliography 193

Chinese Language Sources

Chinese Government Document. (2011). Construction of the National Nomadic Settlement Project, Twelfth Five-year Plan (quanguo youmumin dingju gongcheng jianshe, shi er wu guihua). Jingji ribao. (2011). Shengtai youxian, muqu jianshe zai yang bian, xin nong cun Zhou Kan. 2011 – 8 – 29, 13. Kangding xian tuimu huancao gongzuo chengji xianzhu. (2011). Retrieved October 20, 2011, from http://www.gzz.gov.cn/DocInfo.aspx?docid=8565 Liu, L. (2004). Deng xiaoping ke ji sixiang yu xin shiqi zhongguo gongchandang keji zhengce. Zhongguo ke ji lun tan, 4, 9–13. Renmin baogao. (2011a). Guo wu yuan guanyi cujin muqu you hao you kuai fazhan de ruogan yijian, Zong He. 2011-8-10, 20. ‘China to strengthen grassland ecology protection’. Retrieved October 10, 2011, from http://english.gov.cn/2011-08/09/content_1922615.htm Renmin baogao. (2011b). Guo wu yuan guanyi cujin muqu you hao you kuai fazhan de ruogan yijian, Zong He. 2011-8-10, 20. ‘China steps up subsidy for Tibetan grassland conservancy’. Retrieved October 10, 2011, from http://english.gov.cn/2011-08/15/content_1925744.htm Renmin baogao. (2011c). Guo wu yuan guanyi cujin muqu you hao you kuai fazhan de ruogan yijian, Zong He. 2011-8-10, 20. ‘China to give financial assistance to herders to protect grasslands’. Retrieved October 10, 2011, from http://english.gov.cn/2010-10/13/content_1720839.htm Sichuan ribao. (2011). Caodi shang de caijun xin siwei, Liang Xianrui. 2011 – 6 – 18, 4.

Tibetan Language Sources

Dorje, G. (1998). khrungs ped dri med shel gyi me long (The immaculate crystal mirror of source and identification). Beijing: Nationalities Press. Dungkar, L. T. (2002). dung dkar cig mdzod chen mo. Beijing: China Tibetology Publishing House. Index

A Boarding school, 119, 127, 128, 136, Adaptations, see Change 138–141 Amdo, 1, 10, 21, 41, 84, 104, 109, 110, 123, Gelug sect of, 102 126–128, 131 Nyingma sect of, 37, 129 Amne Machen, 41 Bureaucracy Animal dictated by international development, 71 autonomy, 7 behavior, 30 dogs, 26 C domesticated, 5, 8, 25, 26 Capitalist system, 162–163 dri, 26, 27, 30, 128, 129 Captain Cook, 167 dzomo, 180 Caterpillar fungus horses, 26, 31, 130 as commodity, 153, 155, 162, 163, husbandry, 3, 4, 6, 10, 24, 31, 43, 48, 63, 167, 168 65, 86, 109, 111, 150, 170, 174 disputes and, 163 liberation rituals, 130 gathering, 31, 150, 169 nor, 30, 105 as gift, 161, 162 sheep, 3, 10, 26, 124 historical exchange, 148–153 wild, 25 prices, 143, 149, 151, 152, 154, 155, 157, yaks, 3, 10, 14, 25, 26, 88, 105, 107, 128, 161, 162 130, 146 in Tibetan medicine, 111 zog, 26 (see also Yaks and dri) (see also trade volume, 154 Yaks and dri) as traditional Chinese medicine, 143, 162 Aristocracy transactions, 155 hereditary, 99 Change kingdoms, 100 adaptations, 13, 15, 16, 53, 113, 119, 120, nobles, 104 171, 172 pastoral estates, 100, 104 change for a better future, 16, 77 concept, 14, 15, 172 conceptual framework, 14 B cultural, 167, 168 Barns, 1, 30, 47, 50, 59, 121, 122, 126 as ideology, 49 Bateson, G., 11–13, 53, 117, 120, 168, 171 kinds of, 11–15, 17, 53, 66, 117, 119, Black yak-hair tent, 29 120, 127, 130, 131, 137, 138, 140, See also Ra and nag tsang 171, 172

Change (cont.) Development, 51 observed, 13, 118, 130, 171 as change for a better future, 15–16, 71 orders of, 11–13, 15, 53, 119, 169, 171 as community development, 73, 75, 77, 91 patterns, 168, 170, 172 cycles, 27, 89 as phenomenological experience, 1 history of American, 71 planned, 81, 87, 91, 92, 119 international, 14–16, 27, 43, 67, 71, 119, processes, 13, 14, 66, 112, 117, 168, 171 172 products, 13–15, 49, 50, 58, 59, 64, 66, 67, as modernization, 54, 72, 73, 75, 91 72, 75, 87, 90, 93, 113, 118–121, organization (see Star Foundation) 124, 126, 143, 171, 172 as participation, 73 as relationships, 12–14, 117, 120, 127, practitioners, 71, 75, 80, 83–85, 87, 89, 91 130, 131, 168, 170–172 products, 66, 67, 72, 86 transformations, 13, 15, 53, 66, 90, 113, proposal review, 85 117–120, 137, 138, 167, 172 and underdevelopment, 75, 82, 87, 90–92 as unhinged from substance, 12 USAID, 72, 73, 87, 90 Chinese government, 47–50, 58, 61, 64, 65, Do Kham, see Tibetan historical regions 76, 121–124 Domestic Mode of Production (DMP), 35 campaigns Dongchong xiacao, see Caterpillar fungus shengtai yimin, 48, 61, 64, 65 Drelwa, see Relationships tuimu huancao, 48–50, 61, 64, 65 Drogpa, see Nomadic pastoralists xibu dakaifa, 76 Dwyer, P.D., 7, 12, 13, 66, 117–119, 138 household responsibility system, 57, 121, Dynamic mutual adaptation, 7 140 Dynamism, 14, 16, 17, 117 nine-year compulsory education, 47 Dynasties Nomad Settlement project, 48, 49, 64, Ming, 1, 21, 101, 103, 109 124–127 Qing, 1, 21, 22, 103, 109, 131 policies Dzachukha, 26, 27, 38, 101, 106 san peitao, or three that form the set, 47, 49, 58 sipeitao or four that form the set, 47, E 49, 121–124 Eastern Tibet, see Do Kham Co-managed grasslands, 15 Ecological resilience, 53, 173, 174 Commodity, 3, 14, 38, 65, 84, 118, 125, 129, Education, 173 139, 141, 143, 144, 153, 155, 158, primary, 139 (see also Boarding school) 161–163, 167, 168 Egalitarian, 16, 98, 99, 104–106, 108, 135 as value, 3, 129, 144, 153, 162, 163, 167 Ekvall, R., 24, 26, 34–36, 41, 51, 55, 97, 101, (see also Caterpillar fungus and 103, 104, 106–109, 112, 132 yak) Emic perspective, 14, 24 Communes, 47, 57 Enclosure Complexity, 14, 17, 24, 52, 117, 119, 120, movement, 2, 59, 132 129, 170, 171, 174 policies, 128 Consciousness, 39, 40, 118, 146 products, 15, 121 Conservation, 50, 60, 77, 83, 86, 169, 173, 175 Equilibrium, 52, 53, 60, 168, 173, 174 See also Nature reserves Etic perspective, 14, 24 Construction Exchange products, 39, 64, 121, 122, 127 historic, 97, 112 work (see Multi-resource strategy) items, 112 Cooperatives, 47, 56, 57, 84 predatory, 8, 112 trade route, 112 trade terms, 112 D Dartsedo, 23, 62, 63, 101, 103, 111, 112, 138, 153 F Density, 6, 7, 12, 60, 130 Fences, see Enclosure Index 197

Feuds K blood, 104, 108, 140 Kham as fission, 6, 106, 108 language, 120 mediation, 108 region, 1, 10, 17, 21, 22, 24, 25, 56, 97, 98, movement, 6, 16, 33, 98, 100–103, 119, 121, 131, 134 106–111, 134 Kingdoms Fission, see Feuds bathang, 102 Food Chakla, 101–103, 110, 112 butter, 10, 30, 56, 118 Dege, 21, 39, 100–103, 109, 112 cheese, 10, 30, 56 Lithang, 102 tea, 107, 112, 118, 149 si da tusi, 102 tsampa, 10 Kinship yoghurt, 30, 56, 118 arrangements, 106, 110, 134 zhorshi, 32 and conjugal practices, 106, 134 and household organization, 37, 99, 106, 107, 134 G Magpa, 134 Gansu Province, 9, 10, 21, 23, 25, 48–49 matrilineality, 110 Ganzi Prefecture, 129, 138 matrilocality, 33 Gesar, king of Ling, 77, 91 patrilineality, 33 Grassland policies, see Chinese government patrilocality, 33 policies polyandry, 34, 105, 106, 133, 134 Grazing polygyny, 106 allocation, 3, 57, 132 restriction, 48, 61, 128 rotation, 47, 48, 60, 123, 132, 134 L Green governmentality, 49, 51, 60–64, 127 Land as barren or huang, 1, 55 as landscape, 27, 41, 58, 61, 122–124 H loss, 60, 62, 110, 128, 131, 140, 175 Houses, 1, 2, 6, 14, 15, 27, 30, 37, 39, 47, 49, ownership, 5, 47, 57, 105, 124 50, 58, 59, 63, 64, 66, 100, 101, as paths and sites, 123 112, 120–122, 124, 126–128, 134, tenure, 53, 60, 122 136–138, 150, 155, 159, 171 use-rights, 59, 121, 124, 152, 163 Hui traders, 134, 155–158 as zero-, one-, or two-dimensionalities, 122 Lhagang, 33, 41, 101, 109–111, 138 Logical Framework, 80 I See also LogFrame Impermanence, 170 See also Mirtagpa Incarnate lamas, see Tsultrim Lodro, Khenpo M Sodargye Mabufang, 101, 103, 107 Indicators, see Development products Magpa, see Kinship Inequality, 16, 58, 74, 75, 90, 98, 99, 104–106, Market-logic, 140, 144, 163 113, 120, 132, 140, 141, 164 Material Inner Mongolia, 1, 9, 50, 55, 61, 64, 124, 173 exchanges, 1, 4, 7, 97, 112 Intensity, 2, 3, 6, 7, 12, 29, 117, 130, 150, 174 observed change, 13, 118 Interactions, see Relationships products, 1, 13–15, 43, 49, 50, 66, 67, 75, Irreversibility, 135, 137, 168 90, 93, 98, 118, 120–122, 171, 172 Mediation jodpon, 108 J jowa, 133 Jobbing, see Multi-resource strategy leopard-skin chief, 108 ziwa, 133 198 Index

Medicine Nuer, 3, 35, 98, 99, 104, 108 Tibetan, 42, 111, 143, 146–149, 152, 153, Nyanchen Thangla, 41, 110–111 158, 163 Nyarong demon, 102, 109, 111 traditional Chinese, 143, 148, 158, 160, See also Gonpo namgyal 162 Migrant labor, see Multi-resource strategy Mind/heart (sems), 4, 10, 56, 143, 146, 147 O Minnegal, M., 12, 13, 66, 117, 119, 138 Orientalism, 52, 54 Minyag area, as part of Chakla kingdom, 101, 109, 112 P Gungkar, 41 Papua New Guinean, 13 Monasteries Pastoral estates, 100, 101, 104, 105 black-tent, 37 Pastoralism gonpa, 37 ideal-type, 4, 6, 82, 170 Nyingma, 37, 38 mode of production, 4, 6, 8, 15, 16, 24, sects of Tibetan Buddhism, 37, 131 109, 113, 121, 140 tent, 35, 37, 38 specialization, 6–8, 97, 170 Movement, 1, 2, 4–7, 9, 10, 12, 15, 16, 27, 31, way of life, 2, 6, 10, 24, 48, 51, 93, 113, 33, 36–38, 42, 51, 59, 60, 83, 84, 118, 122, 140 89, 93, 98, 103, 106–111, 113, 120, Pastoralists 122, 129, 132, 134, 147, 163, 164, Baluchi, 24, 39 169, 170, 174 Golog, 37, 41, 101, 103, 107, 132, 134, Multi-resource strategy, 57, 126, 127, 133 135 Mutual-aid groups, 47, 56 Washul Serthar, 103 Western Iranian, 8, 112, 113 yomut turkmen, 6, 24 N Pastures Nam she, see Consciousness degradation of, 48, 53, 60, 139 Namkhai Norbu Rinpoche, 30, 38 fenced, 58, 59, 66, 123, 132, 134 Nature reorganization of, 57 as human-environment relations, 52, 54, summer, 36, 89, 122, 123, 128, 134 174 winter, 6, 58, 59, 66, 89, 121, 123, 128, as orientalism, 52, 54 132, 134, 136, 137 as paternalism, 52, 174 People-animals-land, 6, 7, 9, 12 and society, 51, 52, 54, 82, 174 Plus ça change, plus c’est la même chose, 168, Nature reserves, 173 170 Nomadic Policies, see Chinese government policies households, 2, 8, 33–39, 47, 100, 117, 150 Pollution, 130, 135, 160, 163 labor, 15, 32, 89, 140, 170 See also drib law, 36 Processes of change, see Change mediation, 108 Products of change, see Change military skill, 1, 6, 16, 24, 51, 101–103, 109 movement, 1, 2, 4–7, 9, 10, 12, 15, 16, 31, Q 33, 36–38, 51, 59, 60, 83, 84, 89, Qinghai Province, 9, 21, 23, 25, 48, 62, 86, 88, 93, 98, 103, 106–111, 113, 120, 101, 126, 127, 135, 138, 149, 152, 122, 129, 134, 147, 163, 164, 169, 153, 155, 173 170, 174 pastoralism, 2, 24, 48, 97, 117, 144 pastoralists, 1, 24, 47, 76, 97, 117, 143, R 167 Raids Nonhuman others, 15, 16, 39–43, 109, 127 as fusion, 106–108 Index 199

Ranching, 3–6, 174 legibility, 50–53 Relationships societies against the, 52 cultural categories, 14, 168 Structure as drelwa, 25, 43, 118, 130, 144 of the conjuncture, 168 existence of, 119, 120, 137, 169, 171 related to change, 168 kind of, 12, 13, 42, 117–119, 125, 132, as system, 6, 12, 14, 16, 118, 138, 135, 137, 143, 167–169 168, 169 with animals, 3, 15, 16, 119, 126, 129, 171 Summer horse festivals, 31 with other pastoralists, 24 with territorial deities and masters, 140 Republican period, 22, 101, 102 T Resilience, see Ecological resilience Targets, see Development products Revenge killings, see Feuds Tendrel, 11, 25, 42, 43, 131, 169 Reversibility, 12, 161 Territorial deities, 14, 15, 41, 42, 52, 109, Ritual practices, see Animal liberation rituals; 110, 119, 123, 126, 135, 140, Smoke-purification rituals 163, 171 See also Territorial masters Thargyal, R., 33, 39, 97, 100, 101, 103, 105, S 108, 109, 111, 112, 133 Sacred geography, 3, 48, 110, 111 Tibet See also Territorial deities, worldly deities as contested, 9, 144 Sahlins, M.D., 14, 35, 43, 107, 118, 167–170 idea and image, 16, 160 Sanjiangyuan, 48, 62, 86, 173 Tibet Autonomous Region Sedentarization, 8, 12, 113, 120–127 (TAR), 9, 10, 21, 25, 27, 48, 65, Segmentary 144, 149 lineage, 6, 35, 106 Tibetan opposition, 99, 106, 107 agriculturalists, 1, 8, 10, 17, 39, 170 system, 6, 35, 98, 106–108, 123 cosmology, 25, 39, 40, 43, 118, 125, 145, Semi-pastoralists, 106 147, 167, 169 rong ma drog, 4, 10 cultural categories, 169 sa ma drog (see Transhumance) culture, 16, 50, 81, 91, 92, 118 Serfs, 99, 100 historical regions, 9 (see also Amdo, See also Serfdom Kham) Settlement kings, 21, 97 models of, 48 kingdoms, 21, 39, 101, 102, 106, 110 Sichuan Province, 9, 21, 23, 25, 48, 59, 77, 88, language, 78, 81, 87, 92, 138 126, 138, 139, 149, 173 middlemen, 150, 153, 155–160 Sin, 130, 135, 163 nomadic pastoralists, 1, 24, 47, 76, 97, See also digpa 117, 143, 167 Smoke-purification ritual, 42, 135 plateau, 1–17, 21, 23, 25, 38, 47, 48, 53, See also Sang 55, 56, 71, 73, 86, 90–93, 97, 101, Space 103, 110, 119, 128, 144, 149, 160, as homogeneous units, 88 174, 175 as phenomenological, 1 semi-pastoralists (see Transhumance) tabula rasa, 88, 174 Time Specialization, see Pastoralism development cycles, 89 Star Foundation, 76–81, 83, 86–90 as seasonal, 89 State Towns, see Dartsedo, Lhagang, Rangaka Chinese, 1, 2, 7, 9, 14, 15, 26, 33, 38, 43, Trade, see Exchange 47, 49–56, 58–60, 64–67, 71, 76, Transformations, see Change 82, 86, 90, 91, 93, 105, 119, 120, Transhumance, 6, 10, 98 122, 126, 127, 132, 133, 169, 172 Transmission, 168 governmentality, 49, 50, 64 Triads, 7, 9, 143, 158, 159, 168 200 Index

Tribes, 8, 100, 103, 104, 109 xibu dakaifa, see Chinese government and subtribes, 33 campaigns of Tibetan pastoralists Xikang province, 22, 102 Dzachukha, Golog, Washul Serthar, 8, Xinjiang, 1, 9, 50, 55, 65 100, 103, 104, 109 Xizang, 9, 92 Tshe thar, 129 Tsing, A.L., 71, 144, 162, 163, 167 Tuimu huancao, see Chinese government Y campaigns Yak and dri breeds, 3, 25 as commodity, 3, 129, 163 V deaths, 107, 128 Value, 3, 4, 14, 42, 43, 61, 73, 90, 106, 112, disease, 26, 130 117, 118, 125, 129, 130, 141, 143, domesticated, 25 144, 146, 148, 149, 152, 153, dung (chiwa), 29–31, 34, 62, 122 162–164, 167–169, 172 hair products, 10, 27, 29, 31, 32, 37 Variables, 12–14, 43, 60, 66, 112, 117–119, liberation, 3 126, 127, 132, 133, 135, 137, 138, milk products, 26, 30, 56 140, 167–169, 171–173 slaughter, 31, 128–130, 169 Vegetarianism types, 25 anti-slaughter movement, 164 wild, 25 ethics, 129 Yartsa gunbu, see Caterpillar fungus practices of, 129 Yunnan Province, 9, 10, 21, 23, 25, 48, 144, teachings, 129, 164 149 Yuthog Yontan Gonpo, 147, 149

W Worldly deities, see Territorial deities Z Zhara Latse, 110, 111 Zilphukhog, 33, 100, 101, 103, 105, 109, 112 X