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The Gothic World
Glennis Byron, Dale Townshend
Gothic and the New American Republic, 1770–1800
Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9780203490013.ch3 Jeffrey Andrew Weinstock Published online on: 04 Oct 2013
How to cite :- Jeffrey Andrew Weinstock. 04 Oct 2013, Gothic and the New American Republic, 1770–1800 from: The Gothic World Routledge Accessed on: 23 Sep 2021 https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9780203490013.ch3
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The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The publisher shall not be liable for an loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 23:25 23 Sep 2021; For: 9780203490013, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203490013.ch3 Tale Brown ofhisfourGothicnovels, GOTHICANDTHENEWAMERICAN or thefollowing(Tompkins 1985: it wasnotclearatanygiven momentthatitwouldevenstillexistatallthenextyear writing, theUnitedStateswas agiganticexperimentand,asJaneTompkins asserts, history (Kerber1970:viii).Inthe 1790s, whenBrowncompleted the bulkofhis Linda Kerberasserts,was oneofthemostintellectuallytraumaticinAmerican framework ofRevolutionaryandpost-Revolutionary America–aperiodthat,as Brockden Brown’s contributionstoitmustnecessarilybesituatedwithinthebroader AnyconsiderationoftheoriginsAmericanGothic traditionandCharles T North America’s firstGothicnovels. consideration ofBrown’s appropriationofGothicformsandnativematerialsin novels intoAmerica,willthenbenotedbrieflybefore offeringamoredetailed The literarytemplatesavailabletoBrown,including theimportationofGothic Federalists andJeffersonianRepublicanswithitsattendant conspiracyparanoia. Puritanism, thepervasivenessofdisease,andoverheatedpoliticalcontestbetween and theassociatedconfrontationwithracialOther, thelegacyofNewEngland “raw materials”fortheGothicofferedbyloomingpresenceofwilderness colonial andearlyAmericanrepublicperiods,withattentionpaidinparticulartothe chapter accordinglywillfirstsurveythegothicizedconditionsofdailylifeduring tion ofaconfluenceculturalforcesinlightavailableliterarytemplates.This American Gothic,therefore,mustbeconsideredasBrown’s artistictransmogrifica- Radcliffe, MatthewLewis,FriedrichvonSchillerandothers.Thebirthofthe American settingtheconventionsofEuropeanGothicnovelassociatedwithAnn Walker of theYear 1793 teenth century, withthepublicationbyPhiladelphianativeCharlesBrockden heAmericanGothicliterarytraditionarguablybeginsatthecuspofnine- ( 1798); ( 1799). Ineachoftheseworks,Brownadaptedtohispost-Revolutionary Ormond; Or, TheSecretWitness REPUBLIC, 1770– ( 1799 and1800); Jeffrey Andrew Weinstock CHAPTER THREE RAW MATERIALS Wieland; Or, TheTransformation. AnAmerican 47). Brown’s Gothicfictionsclearlyreflectthe 27 Edgar Huntly;Or, MemoirsofaSleep- ( 1799); Arthur Mervyn;Or, Memoirs 1800
Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 23:25 23 Sep 2021; For: 9780203490013, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203490013.ch3 in theirintroductionto landscape itself,andDavidMogen,ScottP. Sanders,andJoanneB.Karpinski assert elements establishedarchetypesoftheAmericanliteraryGothic. form throughBrown’s pen,andthesubsequentrepetitionelaborationofthese Gothic elementsofeverydayeighteenth- century lifefoundexpressioninliterary well asboththepromiseandperilsofnewsystemsgovernancethought. upon theexternalforcesthatconstrainanddictatecourseofhumanevents,as upheavals ofhiseraandthecircumstancesdailylifeasheinsistentlymeditates territories” (Mather1998: forest. CottonMatherfamouslyfigurestheAmericanwildnessas“devil’s the “savageandbrutishmen”(Bradford1953: and William Bradford,thestruggleforsurvivalisacontestwithnatureand the writingsofearliestAmericancolonizers,includingJohnSmith,Winthrop violence –andasuncannycontactzoneswithracializedexoticizedOthers.In Gothic traditionthewildernessandfrontierasspacesofdanger, savagery, and eties relatedtothelandscape,installingwithinhauntedheartofAmerican or injuredwerelegitimateconcerns. unsettled wildernessareasstillfrequentedbypredatoryanimalsinwhichgettinglost Philadelphia, forexample,onecouldspeedilyleavebehindurbanlifeandenter quickly degeneratedintounlitdirtpaths.Walking northorwestoutsideof such asBrown’s Philadelphiawererapidlyexpanding,roadsoutsideoftowncenters miles fromhomeduetoterribleornon- existent roads,and,althoughurbanareas fact oflife.Thiswasaworldinwhichmostpeopleseldomventuredmorethanfew itants ofNorthAmericaduringtheeighteenthcentury, thewildernesswassimplya landscape oftheNewWorld” (Mogen,SandersandKarpinski the mentallandscapeofEuropeanconsciousnessandphysicalpsychical the “Americanexperience”was“thebattlebetweencivilizationandnature, Rowlandson Rowlandson’s popular repeatedly emphasizedinNativeAmericancaptivitynarrativessuchasMary reinforcing thecorrelationmadebetweenNativeAmericansanddevil de Crèvecoeur’s in theNewWorld. OfinteresttoBrownalsowouldhavebeenJ.HectorStJohn or literaldemonicentityobstructingandactivelythreatening immigrantagendas American narrativesisrepresentedasatypeofsupernatural agent,asafigurative evangelicals (issuingforthfrom themid-Atlanticseaboard)attemptedtoilluminate Europe –conservativeOld Light Calvinists(basedinNewEngland)and reformulations orrejections oftraditionalorganizedreligionbeingimportedfrom nous inhabitantsresiding there –aswellagainstEnlightenment- animals. “ferocious, gloomy, andunsociable”(1904: 59). Byvirtueoflivinginornearthewoods,even“civilized” menarerendered carnivorous animalsofasuperiorrank,livingonthe flesh ofwildanimals”(1904: woods” (deCrèvecoeur1904: Aninescapablefeatureoftheeighteenth- century Americanexperiencewasthe Americanliterature,fromitsverybeginnings,takesupandmagnifiestheseanxi- Asabulwarkagainstthedark woodsandthe“heathenish”dark- skinned indige- ( 1682) publishedelevenyearsbefore.Indeed,theIndianinmany early An AmericanFarmer —Jeffrey AndrewWeinstock— A NarrativeoftheCaptivityandRestorationMrs Mary Frontier Gothic 421) in 58) asaplacewheremen“appeartobenobetterthan The Wonders oftheInvisibleWorld thatthemostfundamentalconflictshaping ( 28 1782), aworkthatdepictsthe“great 67), andalltooeasilytransforminto 25), theIndians,whoinhabit 1993: 15). Forinhab- influenced ( 1693), Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 23:25 23 Sep 2021; For: 9780203490013, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203490013.ch3 and whichBrownmadecentralbothto East coastandsouthernAmericancitiesintotheearlypartoftwentiethcentury, tropical andsub- tropical regions:yellowfever, adiseasethatroutinelyravaged World fromtheOld,however, wasaparticularspeciesofpestilencecommonto was bynomeansuniquetotheNewWorld. WhatdiddistinguishtheNew God canwithdrawhissupportatanymoment. ceivable” (Edwards2007).Youth andgoodhealtharenoguarantorsoflongevity, as and meansofpersonsgoingsuddenlyouttheworldareinnumerableincon- sizes in data andbynumerouselegiesforlostchildren.Edwards,infact,repeatedlyempha- colonial andearlyrepublicperiods,astestifiedtobothbytheavailableethnographic century wasinthemid-30s(Haines2008)andinfantmortalitycommon nineteenth century. TheaveragelifeexpectancyinNorthAmericatheeighteenth facticity ofdeathduringthecolonialperiod,afactorthatpersistedwellinto extraterrestrial “ElderGods.” existence ofthehumanracedependsuponwhimsmonstrouslypowerful to presagepost- humanist Lovecraftian“cosmichorror,” inwhichthecontinued spider orsomeother“loathsomeinsectoverthefire”(Edwards2007),seemsdirectly death, anddanglessinnersovertheflamesofperditionmuchasonewouldholda tion ofanomnipotentandwrathfulGodwhoholdsultimatepoweroverlife minister MichaelWigglesworth’s 1662 ness of“unsaved”or“naturalmen”againsthiswrath.TheapocalypticismPuritan pronounced Gothicelementthatstressedtheinscrutabilityofdeityandhelpless- 1741 sermon, then notablytakenuplaterbyPuritanminsterJonathanEdwardsinhisdramatic tion ofsinnersandhorrificimagesdamnation,setsthetoneforthistradition,one rhetoric oftheeighteenth- the worldwithwordofGod.Puritanreligiousdiscourseandevangelical 1793 (theyearinwhichboth lurid passagesdescribingadecimatedcity. AsIwilldetailinmoredepthbelow, Godwinian meditations,whether humanbeingsingeneralpossessedthecapacityfor the UnitedStatesshouldally itselfwithGreatBritainorFrance,and,inkeeping around issuesofhowmuch powerthefederalgovernmentshouldpossess,whether tension andextremefactionalism inthe1790s.Vigorous politicaldebatespivoted policy andindustrialproduction, resultinginaUnitedStatesfraughtwithpolitical with internaldebatesoverslaveryandIndianpolicy dramaticshiftsinfinancial democrats William GodwinandMaryWollstonecraft andtheirfollowers,combined importation ofradicaldoctrinesathome,mostspecifically thoseofBritishradical ideology. Revolutionsabroadinthesecondhalfofeighteenthcenturyand more Americansweresweptupinpanicsoverthefigurative pestilenceofradical 1982: 188). tenth ofthecity’s populationof45,000(Nash2002: six- bad plagueyear. InPhiladelphia,some2,500peoplediedoverthecourseofa — Ofcourse,thatthe“arrowsofdeathflyunseenatnoon- day” (Edwards2007) Muchoftheforcesuchreligiousdiscoursederivedfromcommonplace WhileliteraldiseaseperiodicallyravagedEastcoastNorth Americancities,many week period,andover5,000diedbeforetheplaguesubsided:morethana Gothic and the new American Republic — chapter 3:GothicandthenewAmericanRepublic Sinners intheHandsofanAngryGod Sinners intheHandsofanAngryGod century GreatAwakening, however, oftencontaineda Ormond and The DayofDoom 29 Arthur Mervyn Ormond thatthe“unseen,unthought- . Indeed,Edwards’s representa- andto , withitsfiercedenuncia- areset)wasanespecially 127; seealsoWeigley Arthur Mervyn of ways in Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 23:25 23 Sep 2021; For: 9780203490013, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203490013.ch3 clearly informsbothBrown’s tation ofconspiratorialrhetoricwastheIlluminatipanic1798–99,aneventthat their opponentsofsubterfugeanddeviousdealing.Perhapsthemostvisiblemanifes- Resolutions, conspiracytheorieswererife.BothFederalistsandRepublicansaccused nated in1798withtheAlienandSeditionActsVirginia andKentucky that furtherfactionalizedtheUnitedStatesalmosttopointofcivilwar. 1790s byaseriesofeventslinkingthedomesticandinternationalspheres, possess, whichindeedshapedtheAmericanConstitution,wassharpenedin self- the linesofRichardson’s authors asSamuelRichardson, HenryFieldingandLaurenceSterne.Innovelsalong to Brownasamodelwas thesentimentalromanceassociatedwithsuchBritish of purpose.”AsRusselB.Nyeexplains,themostpopular varietyoffictionavailable century categoriesofliterature:sentimentalromances, Gothic romancesand“novels drew upon,blendedandinnovatedmostheavilyupon threepopulareighteenth- reflecting hiswide- ranging intellectualtastes and investigations,Brownarguably eighteenth century. that issomebackgroundontheliterarytemplatesavailable toBrowninthelate Before turningtoBrown,however, onelastpieceofthepuzzlemustbesupplied,and (which arguablystartedwithBrown)isessentiallyaGothic one(Fiedler support LeslieFiedler’s famouspronouncementthattheAmericanliterarytradition from whichtochooseinfashioninghisliteraryexperiments, andindeedhelpto a newlyformednation–suppliedBrownwithanoverabundanceofdarkthemes conspiracy paranoia,andgeneralanxietiesrelatedtothepotentialdisintegrationof religious rhetoric,thecommonplaceconfrontationwithpestilenceandmortality, ness, theencounterwithexoticizedanddemonizedOther, grimlyapocalyptic part oftheeighteenthcentury–loomingpresencefrontierandwilder- near panicsituation”(Levine1989:23). rations ofFrench,Illuminati,Federalist- aristocratic, andevenIrishconspiracywasa in the1790sforpoliticalrefugeesofallstripes,“theendresultrepeateddecla- in Levine1989: Richard Buelobserves,“IlluminatibecameahouseholdwordinAmerica”(quoted nations ofEuropeandintheUnitedStates”(Kafer2004: government andreligion,thatnowoperatedthroughitscovertagentsinallthe tine machinationsofthissecretsociety“dedicatedtothegeneraldestruction purported totracealltherevolutionaryupheavalsofcurrentageclandes- secret meetingsoftheFreeMasons,Illuminati,andReadingSocieties conspiracy againstalltheReligionsandGovernmentsofEurope,carriedonin pour serviràl’histoireduJacobinisme European bookswrittenindependentlyofeachother, AbbédeBarruel’s Illuminati- (1803–5; seeBrown1977),eachofwhichfeaturesindividualswhoaremembers readers offinesensibility. Theinfluence ofthesentimentalnovelisreadilyapparent vice asinnocenceisattacked inscenesstagedtoevokeemotionalresponsesfrom Notsurprisingly, duringthisfeverishperiodofpoliticaljockeying, whichculmi- WhiletracesareapparentinBrown’s workofmanydifferentliteraryforms, MyargumenthereisthatthesegothicizedelementsofAmericanlifeinthelatter governance. Theideologicaldebateoverthepowerthatgovernmentshould like secretsocieties.Toward theendofeighteenthcentury, two 22), andinBrown’s homecityofPhiladelphia,amajordestination —Jeffrey AndrewWeinstock— Pamela, orvirtuerewarded Ormond ( andhis 30 1797–98) andJohnRobison’s Memoirs ofCarwintheBiloquist ( 1740), virtueispittedagainst 142). Bymid-1798,as 1992: Proofs ofa Mémoires ( 1797), 142). Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 23:25 23 Sep 2021; For: 9780203490013, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203490013.ch3 throughout Brown’s bodyofwork,butmostespeciallyin as animportantinnovatorwithin foursubcategoriesoftheGothic:psychological, publishing thefirstAmerican Gothicnovelwith InmystudyofCharlesBrockden Brown(Weinstock 2012),Iassertthat,beyond porary issues,aswellaninstrumentofsocialprotestandchange(Nye believed thatthenovelcouldbeusedasamediumthroughwhichtodebatecontem- and after, thesewereproductionsbysociallyconsciouswritersinEnglandwho French Delusion ( 1795) –onhisfiction(Warfel1974: 11). published inperiodicalform,1787–89)andCajetanTschink’s including FriedrichvonSchiller’s unfinished Brown’s familiaritywith,andthepossibleinfluenceof,German“terrornovels”– even astheywerewidelydistributedandeagerlyconsumed.Warfel hasnoted tales ofmurder, tortureandrapewereoftencriticizedfortheirperceivedimmorality, to filteracrosstheAtlanticin themes andtropesisalsotheinfluxofsensationalistGermanromancesthatbegan lurid subjects.ConnectedtoBrown’s appropriationandmanipulationofGothic murder, insanity, confinement,sleepwalking,pestilence,attemptedrapeandother sources whichBrown,whoparticularlyesteemedRadcliffe,adaptedintohistalesof ghosts, damptombs,mysteriouschests,[and]unearthlyshrieks”(Nye1982: in the1790s“overflowedwithstoriescrammedhauntedcastles,secretpassages, as epitomizedintheworksofAnnRadcliffeandMatthewLewis.Popularmagazines undoubtedly drewinspiration,wastheliterarycrazeof1790s,Gothicnovel, epistolary works, female charactersallseemderivedfromthistradition,aswellinhistwofinal the firstAmericanGothicnovels. the availableliterarytemplates,stretchingandreshaping themasneeded,toproduce American experienceanddiscourseasinspiration raw material,Brownoverlaid “Gothic castlesandchimeras”(Brown2006a: that theAmericanIndianandwildernesswill substituteinhisnovelfor explicit inhis“To thePublic”noteatstartof pioneering anewliteraryformincountryseeking todefineitselfismademost form andstyleofhisEuropeanmodels”(Nye1982 : an “Americannovel,builtaroundnativescenery, nativeincidents,blendedintothe from thesevarioustraditionsintosomethingnew, somethingintrinsicallyAmerican: heavily influencedbyRousseau. Voltaire andLaRochefoucauld(Nye1982: Montesquieu, Helvétius,d’Holbach,Diderot,d’Alembert,Fenelon,LaBruyère, (1794). BrownatvarioustimesinhisjournalsandlettersmentionsFrenchauthors Foremost amongthenovelsofpurposewasWilliam Godwin’s — LessluridbutequallyengagingwerewritingsbytheEnlightenment- ThesecondmajorliteraryformclearlyinfluencingBrown,andfromwhichhe ThenovelsthatBrownproducedwereconsciousattemptstocombineelements CHARLESBROCKDENBROWNANDTHE INVENTION Gothic and the new American Republic — chapter 3:GothicandthenewAmericanRepublic philosophes Jane Talbot (1801)and andBritish“novelistsofpurpose.”Popularduringthe1790s OF THEAMERICAN GOTHIC 1790s. LiketheirBritishGothiccounterparts,these 31 Clara Howard (1801). 317–18), anditisclearthatBrownwas Der Geisterseher(TheGhost-Seer; Wieland 4). Taking Gothicelementsofthe Edgar Huntly , Brownmustberecognized 321). Hisawarenessof Ormond The Victim ofMagical , whereheproposes Caleb Williams , inwhichhis 1982: influenced 314), 316). Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 23:25 23 Sep 2021; For: 9780203490013, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203490013.ch3 that theman,identifiedlater asClitheroEdny, isasleep.This,inanutshell,the in thewoodsbyscene of Waldegrave’s murder. Stranger still,Edgarconcludes Edgar happensacrossanunexpected sight:amandigginginthemiddleofnight and actionevidence inference,however, areevidentalmostimmediately as to trackdownthekillerofhis friendWaldegrave. Disconnectionsbetweenintention EdgarHuntly human impulsesaredevelopedmostfullyinBrown’s fourthnovel, Jonathan Edwards,andexemplifiedinthetextbyWieland, Sr. rationalist critiqueofthekindreligiouszealotry embodied byfiguressuchas truth andtobecertainofanythingatall.Intheprocess, thenovelalsooffersa tain, Brownin tionality ofhumancognition.AsbothLooby(1996)andHagenbüchle 1988) main- thematize theprecariousnessofconclusionsdrawnfrom sensorydataandtheirra- While thenoveldoesnotconclusivelyanswerthisquestion, thetextdoesinsistently commanded byGodtosacrificeIsaac,Theodoretruly didhearthevoiceofGod. his headcompellinghimtokillwereown;or, likeAbrahamintheBible, actions wereprecipitatedbyhumanintervention;Wieland ismadandthevoicesin his, thusallowingforthreeexplanations:CarwinmaybelyingandTheodore’s tains thatthevoicecommandingTheodoretorenderuphisfamilyGodwasnot the Wielands andClara’s suitor, HenryPleyel.Carwin,however, steadfastlymain- stranger namedCarwin,a“biloquist”orventriloquistwhoconfessestomisleading voices. Mostofthestrangehappeningscanbeattributedtomachinationsa bloody business. murders hiswifeandfourchildrenunsuccessfullypursuesClaratocomplete Theodore’s beliefthathehasbeencommandedbyGodtosacrificehisfamily: prophecies, offeringwarningsandplottingtokillClara.Theseeventsculminatein human combustion.Anumberofyearslater, mysteriousvoicesareheardmaking baffling events.First,Wieland, Sr. bizarrelydiesfromwhatseemstobespontaneous Theodore, andaclosecircleoffamilyfriendswhoareatthecenterseries recounts thehorribleeventsthatbefallnarratorClaraWieland, herbrother voices andmurderedhiswifethreechildreninupstateNewYork, last, while evidentinallofBrown’s novels,ismostobviousinhisfirst, than theexternalworld,thatisahauntedspace.ThispsychologicalGothicdrama, unsettling powerofthehumanunconscious.InBrown’s fiction,itisthemind,rather emphasizes theuncertaintyofassumptionsbasedonsensoryimpressionsand Sigmund Freud,Brownpresentstothereaderamodelofhumancognitionthat to drawaccurateinferencesbasedonsensoryperception.Well beforePoeand rationality andLockeansensationalistpsychologythatpresumesthemindtobeable what standsoutmostclearlyaboutBrown’s novelsistheircritiqueofEnlightenment irrationality ofthehumanmind(see,forexample,Bloom2007andFisher2002), shifted thefocusoffearawayfromexternalthreatsandemphasizedinstead Gothic, althoughEdgarAllanPoeisgenerallyregardedastheGothicauthorwho the frontier, theurban,andfemale.Inbrief,startingwithpsychological Thesethemesoftheprecariousnesshumanassumptions andtheirrationalityof Thecentralquestionattheheartof DerivinginspirationfromthecaseofJamesYates, amanwhoin1781heard Edgar Huntly . isostensiblyamurdermystery, astheeponymousprotagonistattempts Wieland —Jeffrey AndrewWeinstock— essentiallycallsintoquestionthehumanabilitytoaccess Wieland 32 iswhattomakeofthemysterious Wieland Edgar Huntly . , andhis Wieland Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 23:25 23 Sep 2021; For: 9780203490013, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203490013.ch3 keeping withthisexpressedintention,muchof Indian hostility, andtheperilsofwesternwilderness”(Brown2006a: devices whichhefeelsaremoreappropriatetotheAmericansituation:“incidentsof place oftheestablishedconventionsEuropeanGothic,hewillsubstitute of adventures,growingouttheconditionourcountry”(Brown2006a: Huntly indicates thisintention,asnotedabove,inanotetothepublicprefacing component ofhisGothicwriting,thuspioneeringtheAmericanfrontierGothic.He selves, healsoquiteconsciouslymadeuseoftheAmericanwildernessasanessential Gothic isthatthepsycheessentiallyahauntedspace. mental humancondition.TherealizationattheheartofBrown’s psychological individual cannotbecertainofanything,andinwhichtohauntedisthefunda- Spencer developed laterinthenineteenthcentury(see,for example, Mighall1999and city. Although theurbanGothicsubgenreisusuallyconsideredbycriticstohave set inPhiladelphiaduringthedeadly1793yellowfeveroutbreakthatravaged for herselfandherimpoverished fatherinthemidstofplague,surrounded by and thedead,acityofghouls thatpreyuponthedowntrodden. Gothic in as alabyrinthinespaceconcealing viceanddeceit.TheessenceofBrown’s urban Freud, whatBrownpresentsin ment inthepit:Edgar, mirroringClithero,isalsoasleepwalker. Well beforePoeand who removedWaldegrave’s letters,andthatEdgarisresponsibleforhisowninter- truth thatthereaderdiscoversatendisEdgarhimselfthiefinnight that hemusthavebeenknockedoverthehead,kidnappedanddepositedthere.The Edgar isbaffled,butconcludeswhenhefindsIndiansinpossessionofhismusket want themorhowanyonecouldfindisamystery. Asfor endingupinthepit, a pit.Theletters,hepresumes,musthavebeenstolen,althoughwhyanyonewould Edgar byWaldegrave disappears.Mostdramatically, Edgarwakesupinthedark Not onlyhasWaldegrave beenmurdered,butalsoapacketofhislettersentrustedto and anxietiesmoveindividualsinwaysofwhichwearenotaware. or evenmostlyincontrolofthemselves.Unconsciousimpulsesandrepresseddesires ness ofurbanexistence,mostnotablyin constructing hisAmericanGothic,Brownalsoexploited thefundamentaluncanni- (Seelye 1988:184). Brown, asSeelyeobserves,establishedthebordersof adistinctlyAmericanfiction wilderness forconstructinganintrinsicallyAmerican Gothic romance.Insodoing, arguably wasthefirstAmericanauthortorealize potentialoftheAmerican his shortstory“Somnambulism”(1805)andtoalesserextent seemingly risesfromthedead,andjumpsacliffintoriver. In Along theway, hekillsandeatsapanther, rescuesacaptivewomanfromIndians, nist’s sojournsthroughthewildandrudewildernessofNorwalk,Pennsylvania. fundamental premiseinformingallof — WhileBrownconsistentlypaintsapictureofhumanbeingsasstrangerstothem- Ormond Asthenovelprogresses,strangerandthingscontinuetohappenEdgar. Inadditiontomakinguseoftherawmaterial Americanwildernessfor Gothic and the new American Republic — chapter 3:GothicandthenewAmericanRepublic , inwhichheexplainsthatitisthepurposeofhisworkto“exhibitaseries 1992), Browninthesetwonovelsclearlyconstructshisurban environment Ormond tellsthestoryofvirtuous ConstantiaDudley, whoattemptstocare and Arthur Mervyn Edgar Huntly istoturnPhiladelphiainto a cityofthedying Edgar Huntly Ormond 33 isapictureofworldinwhichthe Edgar Huntly and : humanbeingsarenotalways Arthur Mervyn involveshisprotago- Wieland , histwonovels Edgar Huntly , , Brown 3–4). In Edgar 3). In Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 23:25 23 Sep 2021; For: 9780203490013, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203490013.ch3 literary trends,Brownin contagions infectall”(Grabo1980: whose conditionsgeneratetheactionsofmostothercharacters,and environment that,asGraboasserts,“itselftakesonnearlytheaspectofacharacter is echoedandmagnifiedbythepsychologicaldistortionsconfusionofurban repeatedly calledintoquestionand,asin including thosemadebythereaderabouteponymousprotagonisthimself,are accuracy ofassumptionsmadeabouteverythingandeveryonein the reliabilityofperceptionsthematizedin by plagueandrifewithcorruption.In and thedesireforpower. In theend,though,heisrevealedtobeanegomaniacalcriminal,governedbylust The facethatheshowstotheworldisonegovernedsolelybydispassionatereason. his sisterMartinetteandCraig,presentshimselfastheoppositeofwhathereallyis. eponymous antagonist–andsecretsocietymemberofthenovel.Ormond,like of disguiseandobfuscationisrevealedtobenoneotherthanOrmondhimself,the Ursula Monrose,presentsanequallyfalsefronttotheworld.Andtruemaster gain, MartinettedeBeauvais,across- dressing freedomfightermasqueradingas fortune. Althoughactuatedbytheloveoflibertyratherthandesireforpersonal and businesswhereheproceedstoembezzlefundsruintheDudleyname himself asfrank,modestandforthright,iswelcomedintoMrDudleyhome insistently foregroundedin heartlessness anddeception.Indeed,therelatedthemesofdisguiseforgeryare of theRightsWoman time: seeminglyinkeeping with Wollstonecraft’s recommendations in identity. Shehasreceivedanunconventional educationforayoungwomanofthe Gothic heroine,however, Clarahasherownhouse,thoughtsand virtue, andsubsequently, herlife,areindanger. Farfrom beingaconventional natural phenomena,BrownrepeatedlyplacesClarain situationsinwhich,first,her (Christophersen notes, isaheroineclearlyindebtedtoRadcliffe andtheGothictradition and women’s rights, oppression. ThesearethemesthatBrownexplicitlyconsidered inhisdialogueon implicit violenceusedagainstwomentocoercetheirsubmission andcritiquesfemale atizes women’s disempowerment,themodethathighlightsforcesofexplicitand mental indevelopingoneothersubgenreoftheGothic:femaleGothicthatdram- appearances aresuspect. seem straightcurveandleadinunexpecteddirections,allassumptionsbasedon tudes onedoesnotknow:apartmentsandhousesconcealvicecrime,streetsthat mental strangenessofurbanexistenceinwhichonelivescloseproximitytomulti- admirable Enlightenmentclarity, Clarainvestigatesunusualcircumstancestothe her brotherandparticipates intheintellectuallifeofhersmallcommunity. With in 1815). Hesubsequentlydramatizedtheminhisfiction,most notablyin In Wieland Inadditiontothepsychological,frontierandurbanGothics,Brownwasinstru- Ormond . Arthur Mervyn isaGothictaleofvictimizationandmurder, andClara,asChristophersen Alcuin 1993: —Jeffrey AndrewWeinstock— , BrownagainpresentsanimageofaPhiladelphiadevastated (partsIandII, 127). Inthemidstofastoryrepletewithseeminglysuper- (1792),Claraappearstohavebeen educatedtogetherwith Ormond Ormond and . ThevillainousThomasCraiginitiallypresents 450). Well aheadoflaternineteenth- Arthur Mervyn 1798; completetextposthumouslypublished 34 Arthur Mervyn Ormond Ormond , thisepistemologicaluncertainty becomesallencompassing.The createsapictureofthefunda- , however, thequestionof Arthur Mervyn , A Vindication Wieland century Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 23:25 23 Sep 2021; For: 9780203490013, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203490013.ch3 are exposed. the formsofviolenceand victimizationtowhichwomeninpatriarchalculture and AngelaCarter, Brown inhisfemaleGothicnarrativesvividlydemonstrates Gilman, EdithWhartonand suchcontemporaryauthorsasMargaretAtwood compels irrationaland“perverse” behavior. AndwellbeforeCharlottePerkins Brown powerfullyrepresentsthemindasinherently hauntedastheunconscious Setting thestageforEdgarAllanPoe’s fictionand,later, SigmundFreud’s psychology, as itselfasortoflabyrinthinewildnesspopulatedby insidiousconfidencemen. George Lippardandeventwentieth- century filmnoir, Brownestablishesthecity frontier asaliminalzonefraughtwithdanger. LookingforwardtoCharlesDickens, Irving, JamesFenimoreCooperandAmbroseBierce, hedepictstheAmerican sensory dataandforeseetheoutcomeoftheiractions. InadvanceofWashington questions theextenttowhichhumanbeingscandraw accurateinferencesfrom Brown presentsthedarkundersidetoEnlightenment optimismasherepeatedly to chartitspathforwardonthecuspofnineteenth century. Inhisnovels, own insightsandexperiencesinanewly- established countryanxiouslyattempting of theexistingGothicnoveltraditionandrescriptedthembettertoreflecthis his dialogueonwomen’s rights, Ormond, ArthurMervyn Gothic: thepsychological,frontier, theurbanandfemale.In also beconsideredacentralfigureinthedevelopmentoffoursubgenres disempower hersex. who consciouslyconsidersthewaysinwhichbothlawandcustomconspireto his protagonistConstantiain protector isatarget.Brown’s originalspinonthefemaleGothicplotistomake by defaultsharesthefortunesofboth–andinwhichawomanwithoutmale which awomangoesfromlivinginherfather’s householdtoherhusband’s –and women tobelesscompetentandweakerthanmen.Constantia’s isaworldin self- from Radcliffeandothers.TheproblemforConstantiaisthatithardtobea on women’s rightsinitiatedin finds itsfullestexpressionin sentimental romanceplots. women, theviolenceunderlyingandenergizingbothconventionalGothic he bringstotheforethroughhisactionsisthreatofsexualviolenceagainst watered- system theircombinationrepresents.Carwin’s rolehereisclearest:heasortof her brotherWieland, but rathertheall- encompassing andsmotheringpatriarchal novel ultimatelyrevealsisthatClara’s realproblemisnotCarwinorPleyel,even female autonomyandpotentialinClara’s rigidlypatriarchalculture.WhatBrown’s tigation orrationalcogitationcanpenetrateundotheirrationalrestrictionson ural explanations. best ofherability, andinclinestowardrejectinggroundlessconjecture orsupernat- and — CharlesBrockdenBrown,NorthAmerica’s firstGothicnovelist,shouldthus Brown’s Wollstonecraftian feminism,clearlyondisplayin ThedilemmathatClarafaces,however, isthatnoamountoflevel- headed inves- aware independentwomaninaworldthatpreysonweaknessandpresumes Jane Talbot Gothic and the new American Republic — chapter 3:GothicandthenewAmericanRepublic down GothicvillainwhosportswithClarabecausesheisvulnerable.What , andhisotherwritings,Brownconsciouslyappropriatedelements , and Ormond Ormond Edgar Huntly Alcuin Alcuin , atextwhichfusestheexplicitmeditation anatypicalandself- aware Gothicheroine 35 , hissentimentalnovels, withthefemaleGothicplotderived , aswelltoalesserextentin Wieland Clara Howard , arguably Wieland, Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 23:25 23 Sep 2021; For: 9780203490013, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203490013.ch3 —— —— Brown —— —— —— Grabo Edwards Fisher Fiedler , L. ( —— Kafer Bradford Bloom , C. (ed.)( Christophersen Crèvecoeur Kerber Haines Hagenbüchle Levine Looby Mather S.J. Krause and S.W.OH : Kent StateUniversityPress Reid . . Kent, OH : Kent StateUniversityPress . Transformation. AnAmericanTale eds EdgarHuntly;Or, MemoirsofaSleep-Walker, withRelatedTexts York : Knopf . 1800, eds Hackett , and S. Shapiro , Indianapolis : Hackett . Companion toEdgarAllanPoe , Cambridge : Cambridge UniversityPress , 24, 2012). HTTP: demography> (accessedAugust24,2012 ). Gothic , Philadelphia : University ofPhiladelphiaPress . ed. American Gothic , Athens : University ofGeorgiaPress . 1798 Literature , Epistemology: TheExampleofCharlesBrockden Brown ,” Press , Related Works ofCharlesBrockdenBrown Mervyn; OrMemoirsoftheYear 1793,FirstandSecondParts,theNovels America , Ithaca, NY : Cornell UniversityPress . Hawthorne, andMelville , Cambridge : Cambridge UniversityPress . United States , Chicago : University ofChicagoPress . 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L.K. C.
, Barnard and S. Shapiro , Indianapolis : Hackett . C.B. , 447 – Whaples 2004 ( J. W. W.
,” in 2nd edn, New York : Palgrave Macmillan . 1803 – 36 ,” Krause 3 . Kent, OH : Kent StateUniversity S.J. 1 , K.J. , , 1782, New York : Fox, Duffield P. P. 3rd 1650 and 1693, in Krause Barnard 1960 , New York : Anchor . Hayes edn, New York : , in , ed. 1741. Online.Available S.W. EH.NetEncyclopedia , and , (ed.) 1799, eds and P. P. S.E. Wieland; OrThe Reid Lauter (accessedAugust EarlyAmerican S.W. TheCambridge S. Morison , (eds) Shapiro Indianapolis : , Reid et al. Houghton P. P. 1815, eds 72 – Barnard Arthur , 1799– , 1799, (eds) Kent, (eds) 91 . New . Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 23:25 23 Sep 2021; For: 9780203490013, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203490013.ch3 Weinstock , J.A. ( Weigley Warfel Clemit Rosenthal Tompkins Mighall Grabo Davidson Barnard Wollstonecraft , M. ( Mogen Seelye Spencer Ringe Nash Nye — Hall . (Aselectionofessaysbyvarious sources onaspectsofBrown’s writing.) Octagon . 1790–1860 , Oxford : Oxford UniversityPress . novels.) of Tennessee Press . (AselectionofcriticalessaysonBrown,notlimitedtotheGothic Brown: Culture,Politics,andSexualityintheEarlyRepublic Gothic texts.) ment oftheAmericanGothicincludesconsideration importationofEuropean Fiction Victorian DegeneracyCrisis ,” the AmericannovelthatofferssomeconsiderationofBrown.) NewYork : Oxford UniversityPress . (Animportantanalysisofthedevelopment Godwinian philosophyonBrownandothers.) Nightmares , Oxford : Oxford UniversityPress . Brown, MaryShelley vol. (ed.) University Press , not animportantaspectofhisart.) UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress . (ArguesthatBrown’s relianceoncoincidenceis The SecretWitness S.P. Press , Frontier inAmericanLiterature Philadelphia : University ofPennsylvaniaPress . , , R.B. , Gothic and the new American Republic — chapter 3:GothicandthenewAmericanRepublic , , , , G.B. D.A. , Sanders 2 , Kent, OH : Kent StateUniversityPress , J. , , , H.R. N.S. P. P. , D. ColumbiaLiteraryHistoryoftheUnitedStates R.F. ( K. 1 – P. P. , ( R. , Lexington, KY : University ofKentuckyPress . (Thissurveyofthedevelop- ( , , 1988 C.N. 1993 , , 1982 B. ( ( 27 . J. ( ( ( Kamrath Sanders (ed.)( ( 1982 ( 2002 1992 (ed.)( 1999 1981 1974 , and 1985 ) “ Charles BrockdenBrownandEarlyAmericanFiction ,” in ( ) ) “ Historical Essay ,” in 2012 ) 1986 TheGodwinianNovel:RationalFictionsofGodwin,Brockden ) ) ) “ Purity andDanger: ) ) 1982 ) AmericanGothic:ImaginationandReasoninNineteenth-Century 168 – FirstCity:PhiladelphiaandtheForgingofHistoricalMemory , ) 1981 1792 ) , TheCoincidentalArtofCharlesBrockdenBrown CharlesBrockdenBrown:AmericanGothicNovelist AGeographyofVictorian GothicFiction:MappingHistory’s J.B. , SensationalDesigns:TheCulturalWork ofAmericanFiction S.P. . ) M.L. Charles BrockdenBrown , Cardiff : University ofW The NovelsandRelatedWorks ofCharlesBrockdenBrown , RevolutionandtheWord: TheRiseoftheNovelinAmerica , , ) 86 . ) Oxford Karpinski and Philadelphia:A300-Year History CriticalEssaysonCharlesBrockdenBrown A Vindication oftheRightsWoman , London. , and FURTHER READING Karpinski : Clarendon Press . (Ananalysisofthesignificance ELH , Shapiro (eds) , Rutherford, NJ : Fairleigh DickinsonUniversity 59 : S.J. , , 37 FrontierGothic:Terror andWonder atthe Dracula J.B. S. 197 – Krause (eds)( ( 1993 225 . 295 – , theUrbanGothic,andLate and 2004 ) “ 341 . Introduction S.W. ) RevisingCharlesBrockden , New York : W.W. Norton , New Y Reid , Knoxville (eds) ,” in ork , , Chapel Hill Boston Ormond;Or , New York : : ales Press D. University Columbia E. Mogen , Elliott : G.K. . . : :