DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 356 108 RC 019 019

AUTHOR Oppelt, Norman T. TITLE The Tribally Controlled Indian Colleges: The Beginnings of Self Determination in American Indian Education. REPORT NO ISBN-0-912586-67-2 PUB DATE 90 NOTE 159p. AVAILABLE FROM Navajo Community College Press, Navajo Community College, Tsaile, AZ 86556 ($20), PUB TYPE Books (010) Information Analyses (070) Reports Descriptive (141)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC07 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *American Indian Education; American Indian History; *Community Colleges; *Educational History; *Educational Opportunities; Federal Indian Relationship; Higher Education; *Institutional Characteristics; Profiles; Self Determination; *Tribally Controlled Education

ABSTRACT This book examines tribally controlled Indian colleges established since the early 1960s and provides perspectives on their educational philosophy, history, and present status. Chapter 1 is an overview of four centuries of abortive efforts by churches and the federal government to provide higher education for American Indians, including profiles of specific missionary schools, factors in the failure of missionary education, the unusual success of Choctaw Academy, features of Carlisle Indian School and other federally funded off-reservation boarding schools, and the effeAs on Indian higher education of the General Allotment Act of 1887 and termination policies of the 1950s. Chapter 2 discusses the birth of tribally controlled community colleges amidst the social activism of the 1960s, and presents profiles of 19 such institutions. Chapter 3 summarizes and analyzes information on the tribally controlled colleges: student characteristics, enrollments, faculty, administrators, physical facilities, student services, college objectives, external influences, funding, and accreditation. Chapter 4 outlines other higher education opportunities for Americ;tn Indians and Alaska Natives: federally controlled two-year colleges, special programs for the preparation of Indian professionals, colleges or universities with high Native American enrollments and degrees earned, and Indian Studies programs. Chapter 5 summarizes the history and current status of Indian higher education. This book contains approximately 300 references and an index.(SV)

*********************************************************************** Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made * from the original document. *********************************************************************** r

cr 4, re- z.'

-4

U S DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION .111* nI E ducat on.. Research and IrnprOvmen1 EDUCATIONAL RE SOURCES INFORMATION -EWE R ,ERICI u",e,t has Peen reproducedes ecerveo I 0^ the person ororgrexeppn / ,rnitnalrj m.no, (N5r,(2e% nave Peen moue10 ,reproe produr I r -4 Pps Paco Po,nts 0 r,e.. Or op.n.Ons slated",represent officri ,!''- i i% r"ent do .01 "eresser.ry e.cl-i4,t'' ,.7,A -ART 005 I nn Or pOnCy _,..., --e, $ c477. 9; ;..)''' '

PERM.SS -0 REPQCDUCE HIS .4A7ER BEE` :,RANTED BY

TC THE TONAL RESOURCES INFORMA- C`J CENTER ,ERICI The Tribally Controlled Indian Colleges The Tribally Controlled Indian Colleges: The Beginnings of Self Determination In American Indian Education

Norman T. Oppelt

Navajo Community College Press Tsai le, Arizona 1990 Copyright u by Norman Ti Oppelt.

All rights reserved. No part of this hook may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic- or mechanical, including photocopying, record- ing or by any information storage or retrieval system, with- out permission in writing from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote brief passages in a review.

Published by Navajo Community College Press Navajo Community College kill le, Arizona 86556

International Standard Book Number 0-912586-67-2

Library of Congress Number 89-43568

ti TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgments

Preface

List of Tables

Chapter 1 Historic Antecedents of ContemporaryIndian Higher Education 1 The Missionary Period The Federal Period: A Century of Continued Neglectof Higher Education for Indians

Chapter 2 American Indian Higher Education inthe 1960s: Profiles of the 19 Tribally Controlled Colleges 31

Chapter 3 Summary and Analysis of the TriballyControlled Colleges in 1982 76

Chapter 4 Other Higher Education Opportunities for American Indians in the 1980s 94 Federally Controlled Two-year Colleges; University Programs for the Preparation of Indian Professionals Indians in State Institutions of Higher Education Independent Institutions Founded During the 1970sfor the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives Private Institutions Which Continue to Enroll LargeNumbers of American Indians; Indian Studies Program in Institutionsof Higher Education Indian Higher Education Enrollments and DegreesEarned

Chapter 5 American Indian Higher Education inthe 1980s: A Summary, Analysis, and Look intothe Future 116

List of References 125 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Over the ten years of research and writing many included in this study have graciously given me the persons have contributed to this hook. It is impossi- information needed on my visits to their schools ble to list them all, but a few deserve special recog- and telephone calls to them. The members of the nition for their assistance. Dr. Margaret C. Szasz of Dino Indian Club at the University of Northern Col- Albuquerque has aided and encouraged me over the orado provided me valuable insight into the prob- years and deserves my grateful appreciation. Others lems of the Indian student in a white dominated who have given of their time and knowledge are: institution. John Emhoolah Jr., Denver; Howard Adams, Davis, Ms. Anna Walters of the Navajo Community Col- California; Bob Roessel, Window Rock, Arizona; lege Press is thanked for seeing the value of this John Tippeconic, Tempe, Arizona; Joe Martin, Tuba hook and her sensitive editing of the manuscript. City, Arizona; Tom Duncan, Winters, California; This hook is dedicated to my wife, Pat, who ac- Jack Barden, Ft. Yates, North Dakota; and Lowell companied me on my travels to the tribal colleges Amiotte, Spearfish, South Dakota. Gerald Brown throughout the western United States. She is the and Gordon Dempsey, formerly of Navajo Commu- only one who understands and appreciates my com- nity College, introduced me to the first tribally con- mitment to improving higher education of American trolled college in 1975. Indians. Without her love and support this hook Many administrators and faculty of the colleges would not have been written. PREFACE

11111111111111M111=4.101,

Since the Europeans first arrived in North America, tribes and their members than in the two hundred they have made efforts io provide schooling for Years since the first Indian graduated from Harvard some of the people they mistakenly called "Indi- University. No longer must all tribal people who ans." With very few exceptions the schools and pro- seek a higher education attend a white dominated grams for Indians have been planned and controlled institution where they may be treated as a foreigner by non-Indians. Therefore tnev are most accurately in their own land. Most Americans, including maw,. termed education for Indians rather than Indian ed- Indians, are unaware of the existence and signifi- ucation. The early missionaries designed education cance of the tribally controlled colleges. This book is for Indians to convert and civilize the native peo- thestory of the development ofthese unique ples, and the later schools operated by the federal schools and what they have accomplished in the government were planned to pacify and assimilate higher education of American Indians. the Indians into the dominant culture. Most of these The term "Indian" is unacceptable to, and is even efforts met with failure because they were planned seen as derogatory by some descendents of the orig- by whites to meet their goals and not to meet the inal Americans. Some prefer to be called Native needs of the Indians. A few early colleges were Americans, a term that became particularly popular founded to provide higher education for selected In- among some Indian activists in the 1960s. The term dians, but the curriculum was useless to more tradi- Native American can he misleading because it is in- tional Indians and they were so resistant to cultural terpreted by some people as meaning anyone horn change that these schools were doomed to failure. in North America, regardless of the origin of their Chapter 1 is an overview of the abortive church and ancestors.Inspite of its geographic inaccuracy, federal government efforts to provide higher educa- some descendents of the first Americans still prefer tion for American Indians. the commonly used Indian, Because there is no one In the late1960s and 1970s American Indians term preferred by all First Americans, the writer has were, for the first time in their long contact with chosen to use the word "Indian" when referring to whites, able to have a significant voice in the plan- descendents of the original inhabitans of America. ning and control of some of their institutions of Many prefer to be referred by their tribal name and higher education. The establishment of the new are so designated in this book. tribally controlled colleges located on, or near, west- Many of these persons have been raised, and may ern reservations began an exciting era in Indian continue to live, in a family or extended kingroup higher education. More has been accomplished in where traditional tribal beliefs and ways are prac- the two decades since the founding of the first tribal ticed and passed from one generation to the next. college to meet the higher education needs of the The ability to speak the tribal language is the most x Preface important single characteristic of tribal groups. Most communicating with the supernatural forces which tribal people have been raised on an Indian reserva- controlled their lives including the weather, plants, tion or in an isolated Indian community. There are and animals that provided food and shelter. This is Indians living off reservations in the dominant soci- somewhat analogous to a major purpose for the ety, where it is difficult to retain their tribal culture. founding of early colonial colleges to pr pare liter- Some contact with a critical mass of the tribal group ate clergy to serve the colonists. In addit:,':, to reli- is necessary to retain tribal ways. gious leaders, a few other members of the tribe or There were 1,420,000 persons classifiedinthe band needed special skills and knowledge in areas 1980 United States Census as Indians. This figure of craftsmanship. Lacking written communication, includes Indians who have been assimilated into all all of these skills and knowledge were passed on occupations and socioeconomic levels of American orally and learned by observation and imitation. As life. Many do not know the tribal affiliation of their is emphasized in this hook, the traditional classical forefathers and have little knowledge of tribal ways. higher education of the early colonists had little The long term efforts of the churches and the value to Indians who could not read or write and United States government in assimilation and con- were not assimilated into the European culture. version have been successful with these persons or Little has been written about the history of educa- their ancestors. tionfor Indians and almost nothing concerning The assimilated Indians are not the focus of this their higher education. The major reason for the book because their educational needs are not signif- lack of information on Indian higher education is icantly different from their non-Indian contemporar- that, until recently, so few Indians attended college ies. They may have special educational needs, but or were employed in higher education that there these are primarily the result of environmental fac- was little to report or discuss. This book is the first tors other than their lndianess. More traditional In- presentation of an overview of Indian higher educa- dians usually have cultural differences in language, tion with a focus on the tribally controlled colleges. beliefs, and behaviors that make progress in white The best of the few overviews of the history of In- controlled colleges slow and difficult. They are the dian education is a doctoral dissertation by Martha ones who need and want schools planned and con- E. Layman written at the University of Minnesota in trolled by themselves. Considering that these groups 1942, which covers the period 1542 to 1942. Another are members of different tribes with diverse lan- useful source is Harold W. Morris' dissertation com- guages, values, religious beliefs, and behaviors, it pleted at Oregon State University in 1954. Other un- may seem invalid to refer to them in toto. However, published dissertations and theses covering shorter there are pan-Indian similarities which influence time periods or specific topics are cited throughout their attitudes toward and achievement in higher the text. The best general published source on re- education. Unless otherwise indicated, the unmet cent Indian educatioin is Margaret C. Szasz' 1974 higher education needs and the Indians who trib- book entitled Education and the American Indian: The ally controlled colleges are designed to serve are Road to ;,elf Determination, 1928-1973. The writer is primarily those who maintain strong cultural ties to indebted to Dr. Szasz for her advice and assistance. particular tribes. These Indians are trying to survive Another useful book is Evelyn C. Adams' book, and succeed as bicultural persons and need the spe- American Indian Education, published in 1946. A re- cial programs, services, and environment of the port of the National Study of American Indian Edu- tribally controlled colleges. cation was published in 1972. This report, entitled Higher education for American Indians in pre- To Live on This Earth: American Indian Education, pro- contact times was provided by tribal societies for vides an overview of the status and problems of In- those persons needing special skills beyond the ba- dian education in the late 1960s and 1970s. All of sic necessities for survival. Most evident were the these sources focus on the elementary and second- medicine men or shamans who needed to know the ary education of Indians giving little attention to often complicated and long chants, symbols, and their higher education. paraphernalia for religious ceremonies. These spe- The main primary written sources of the history cial persons usually served long apprenticeships un- of higher education for Indians utilized in this study der an older religious leader. Their training was were histories of colleges founded for Indians, re- necessary because the survival of the tribe was seen ports of missionaries dedicated to Indian education, as dependent upon the holy persons placating or documents of the Bureau of Indian Affairs and other

C- O Preface xi federal agencies involved in Indian education, histo- fore, in the fall of 1982, he traveled to 12 tribal col- ries of Indian tribes, reports of regional and na- leges in the Northern Plains, interviewing presi- tional studies of Indian education, magazine and dents, deans, faculty, and a few students at each newspaper articles, and papers and speeches pre- school. These interviews were used to provide most sented at educational conferences. of the information on the tribal colleges. The writer In addition to the above sources, the recent his- also drew on his experiences as a consultant to Na- tory of Indian higher education, and the tribal col- vajo Community College in 1975. In 1983, telephone leges in particular, was obtained from the docu- interviews were conducted with administrators of ments of the tribalcolleges and reports of the three of the tribal colleges not visited. American Indian Higher Education Consortium. In the fall of 1988 there were 17 tribally controlled The written materials included enrollment reports, colleges in the United States. These schools, char- self studies, catalogs and bulletins, class schedules, tered by Indian tribes between 1968 and 1979, repre- brochures, and personal communications from ad- sent the beginning of self determination in Ameri- ministrators. can Indian higher education. This hook has beer. The writer found that the available written mate- written to inform Indians and non-Indians about the rials were inadequate to fully understand the recent history, present status, strengths and weaknesses, development of tribally controlled colleges. There- and possible future of these unique institutions. List of Tables

ON111.1110111001010111

Table 1 Early Federal Indian Off-Reservation Boarding Schools 19

Table 2 Navajo Community College Enrollment 1969-1981 36

Table 3 Tribally Controlled Colleges in the United States 77

Table 4 Tribally Controlled Community College Assistance Act Appropriations 88

Table 5 Public Institutions of Higher Education with More Than 500 Indian Students, Fall 1982 102

Table 6 Independent Institutions of Higher Education with the Largest Enrollments of American Indians, Fall 1982 108

Table 7 Enrollments of American Indians in United States Higher Education, 1968-1980 113

Table 8 Degrees Conferred on American Indians and Alaska Natives, 1975-76 and 1978-79 114

Table 9 Federal and Private Indian Colleges in the United States, 1982 119 Chapter 1

111=111111811.11101.1. 111111110

Historic Antecedentsof Contemporary Indian Higher Education

Missionary Period "apostletotheIndians."Eliot,agiaduateof Cambridge University and minister of theFirst Church in Roxbury, Massachusetts, devoted mostof of the From the time Europeans first set foot onthe North his life to bringing Puritanism to the Indians American continent they became concerned about Massachusetts Bay Colony. Much of the financial in En- saving the souls of the indigenous people they mis- support for his mission came from Puritans takenly called "Indians." In order to convert them gland. Many colonists were not as enthusiastic to Christianity it was deemed necessary toteach at about Eliot's efforts as were those Puritans across least some of them to read and write. An objective the Atlantic. closely related to Christianization was to teach the Eliot spent three years studying the Massachu- Indians European modes of dress and behavior so setts Indian language in order to beable to bring His first at- they would look and act like "civilized" people. the word of God to the local Indians. Dorchester ThefirstschoolforAmericanIndians was tempt to preach to the Indians in 1646, at founded in 1568 in Havana, Cuba, for the schooling Mill was a failure, but later that year he preached to of Indians brought fromFlorida.This Catholic a group of Indians atNonantum with more success school was operated by the Jesuits, the religious or- (Jennings, 1976). Eliot's means for conversion ofthe der that operated most of the Indian schools inthe Indians was the formation of villages of "praying Spanish colonies (Bearking, 1969). Otherearly In- Indians." The Indians in these villages were ex- dian schools founded by missionaries ofseveral pected not only to accept Christianity but tolive in Protestant denominations had similar objectivesfor all ways as civilized Englishmen. Eliotconcentrated had conversion and civilization of the nativepeople. his effort on those native people whose culture and Few writers on the history of Americanhigher ed- been weakened by dependence on the colonists ucation give adequate emphasis to theinfluence of avoided the stronger, independent groups(Salis- America's bury, 1974). Between 1649 and 1675 Eliotfounded missionary zeal on the establishment of In- earliest colleges. This section presents abrief over- fourteen villages with a total population of 1,100 for Indians dians. These numbers and Eliot's exaggerationsof view of early efforts to provide schooling than was and the significance of this objective onthe estab- his accomplishments imply more success lishment of some of the first and mostprestigious actually attained. As shown by later events, muchof institutions of higher education in NorthAmerica. the Christianization and civilization claimedby Eliot The best known missionary to the Indians inthe for his praying Indians was only superficialcommit- seventeenth century was JohnEliot, known as ments to gain support from the English.

1 2 Historic Antecedents of Contemporary Indian High Education

One of Eliot's major accomplishments was transla- Schooling of Indians was one of the early objectives tion of the Bible into the Natick dialect of the Mas- of the founders of Harvard as indicated by the char- sachusetts language.he Bible was printed on the ter of 1650 which read, in part, "for the education of press at the Indian College of Harvard. This Bible English and Indian youth of this country in knowl- and several religious tracts by Eliot were the first edge" (Layman, 1942, pp. 71-72). Early efforts to publications in an American Indian language. This obtain fundingfor Indian missionary work at monumental task had less effect on conversion of Harvard were unsuccessful, but eventually some the local Indians than he had hoped because so few monies were allocated by the English Society for this of them learned to read, but it was of help to him in purpose. communicating the Gospel to them. The second building on the Harvard campus in Continued expansion of English colonists into the Boston was known as the Indian College.It was lands of the New England tribes, in 1675, led to the completed in 1654 with accommodations for thirty conflict known as King Philip's War. Most of the In- students. Unfortunately, only three to five Indian dians in the area, includin3 some of those in Eliot's students attended the Indian College during its ex- villages, joined in the attack on the colonists. Those istence. Two of the early graduates died of diseases "praying Indians" who remainedneutral were not long after graduation and another was killed by rounded up and held prisoner on desolate Deer Is- other Indians. Few of the early graduates attained land in Boston Hat-bor. A few of the men of this the objective of the college which was to have them group were eventually allowed to serve as scouts for retun to their tribes as preachers of the Gospel (Sal- the English militia, making a major contribution to isbury, 1974). the English victory. During the war, most English- The most noted early Indian student at Harvard men did not distinguish between hostiles and pray- was John Sassamon, a student of Reverend Eliot's, ing Indians as their underlying fear and mistrust of who attended Harvard in 1653 prior to the comple- all Indians surfaced. Unfortunately, the English de- tion of the Indian College. Sassamon, a Massachu- feat of the Indians resulted in the loss of freedom of setts Indian, assisted Eliot in the translation of the not only the hostiles but also the neutral and Bible and preached at several of the Indian villages. friendly members of the local tribes. Those Indians He was killed in 1675 by the Indian chief King who survived the war were sold into slavery or con- Philip who believed he had divulged war plans to fined to several of the villages where they were al- the English. This was one of the incidents which most totally dependent upon the colonists. Eliot had precipitated King Philip's War and the destruction misrepresented the hostile intentions of most of the of Eliot's villages of "praying Indians" (Morison, colonists which made his "praying Indians" poorly 1936). prepared to deal with the unChristian behavior of Very few Indians attended Harvard College dur- the land-hungry colonists. The lands of the Indians, ing the later part of the seventeenth century. The both hostile and friends, were rapidly settled by the only recorded graduate during this period was English (Salisbury, 1974). Caleb Cheeshahteaumuck who was awarded a Bach- Thus, Eliot's efforts to Christianize and civilize elor of Arts degree in 1665. He died of tuberculosis the local Indians must be judged a failure. He was the winter after his graduation (Davis, 1890). one of the first of a long line of missionaries who, The Indian College building was used primarily although well-meaning, failed in their efforts to as a residence for white students. One room housed convert and school the Indians. In fact he set an the press used by John Eliot to print his Indian Bi- ineffective precedent for forced acculturation and ble. After 1677, the building fell into disrepair and control of Indians by confining them to white con- the printing room was the only part in regular use. trolled communities later called reservations. For al- The Indian College building was razed in 1698, and most 200 years,Eliot's. philosophy of missionary the bricks were used in the construction of other work with the Indians was the pattern for conver- buildings on the Harvard campus. Thus, the first sion and civilization of the native peoples of North attempt to provide higher education for American America. Indians at America's first college was a failure. Concurrent with the missionary wc-k of Eliot and Daniel Gookin, a contemporary missionary, summa- other seventeenth century missionaries was the es- rized the Harvard Indian College by stating: "In tablishment, in 1636, of Harvard College, the first truth the design was prudent, noble, and good; but institutionofhigher learninginthecolonies. it proved ineffectual to the ends proposed" (Salis- Historic Antecedents of Contemporary Indian High Education 3 bury, 1974, p. 47). Reverend John Eliot died in 1690. vested in a Yorkshire, England, manor known as- He is remembered as one of the first of many Brafferton, the proceeds from which were to be used churchmen to attempt to bring the word of God and for Indian education. These monies were divided the benefits of civilization to the Indian. among William and Mary College, Harvard Col- In colonial Virginia, as in New England, there lege, and the Society for the Propagation of the Gos- was interest in schooling for thelocal Indians. pel in New England. The Indian College at William These efforts, like those to the north, were moti- and Mary was founded in 1700; and, initially, the vated by the desire to Christianize and civilize the Indian students resided with local families. In 1711, Indians. Robert Gray (cited in Robinson, 1952) wrote eleven Indian students enrolled at the college, and in 1609: by 1712 the enrollment increased to twenty (Robin- son, 1952). Income from the Boyle endowment had Itis not the nature of men, but the education of men grown sufficiently by 1723 to finance the construc- which make them barbarous and uncivil.... Therefore, tion of Brafferton Hall, a building for the Indian change the education of men, and you will see their na- College. Brafferton, a brick building, had a total of ture will be rectified and corrected. (p. 153) twelve rooms. It has been restored and now houses Interest developed among the Virginians, in 1616, in some of the administrative offices at the College of the establishment of a college for the local Indians. William and Mary. It is the oldest building in the In the same year, the visit of several Indians, includ- country constructed for Indian education (Layman, ing the celebrated Pocahantas, to England created 1942). interest in Indians and their education. Successful Eight of the 75 students enrolled at William and collections were taken up in English churches for Mary in 1754 were Indians (Robinson, 1952). The ef- the support of education and conversion of Indians fectiveness of Indian education at William and Mary in the colonies. Later additional large contributions is difficult to evaluate. According to the reports of were made in England for this purpose. The Lon- the college, some early Indian students made good don Company in 1618 set aside 10,000 acres near progress in their studies, but the broad objective of Henrico, Virginia, for an Indian college. The funds Christianizing and civilizing the Indian boys was previously collected were held as an endowment to not attained. The attempts at Indian education did develop this land. Tenant farmers arrived in 1619 serve to increase friendly relations between them from England to farm the college land. George and the white colonists which was significant in Thorpe was appointed deputy of the college in 1620. later years. He worked diligently fo increase the proceeds, and The Indian enrollment at William and Mary de- his humane treatment of the local Indians earned clined until the onset of the Revolutionary War their respect and friendship (Robinson, 1952). when cessation of funds from England forced clo- The planning for the Indian college at Henrico sure of the Indian College. In 1776 the last three In- came to an abrupt end when the Indians attacked dianstudentsreceivedfundsfromtheBoyle the Virginia colonists in 1622. Of a total population endowment, and in 1783 these funds were diverted of 1,240 settlers, 349 were killed including George to Negro education (Layman, 1942). Thorpe. There were some later efforts to continue In the mid-sixteenth century a Congregational plans for an Indian college; but, understandably, minister, Reverend Eleazar Wheelock, founded an they met with little support from the remaining col- Indian school in New England that was to meet onists (Robinson, 1952). For the next half century lit- with more success than the efforts of previous mis- tle progress was made in developing education for sionaries. Wheelock had been teaching several In- Indians in Virginia. dian and white boys in his home. His view of William and Mary College at Williamsburg, Vir- mankind and Indian education was strongly influ- ginia, was founded in 1693. Among its purposes enced by the religious zeal of the Great Awakening were to educate the colonists' sons, to educate and of 1732 to 1742. His teaching reflected the more convert Indians, and to train ministers. The major practical and worldly views of the more progressive donation made to Indian education was a provision ministers of his day. Earlier efforts by missionaries in the will of Englishman Robert Boyle who died in had been hampered by the naive, narrow Puritani- 1691. Boyle, the father of modern chemistry, devised cal views of Eliot and his contemporary ministers. Bov le's Law known to all chemistry students. He In 1754 the first students arrived at what was bequeathed 5,400 English pounds which were in- to become Moor's Charity School for Indians in 4 Historic Antecedents of Contemporary Indian High Education

Lebanon, Connecticut. Thefirst two pupilsat Moor's Charity School the year 1743 and 1770 Wheelock's school were the Algonquin boys, John (Kelly, 1929). These students were from seven north- Pumshire and Jacob Woo ley, who were 14 and eastern tribes, and Szasz (1980) notes that members 11 years of age, respectively. The school was named of the Pequot Tribe also attended the school. In for Colonel Joshua More who donated land and 1769, Reverend Wheelock moved his school to Han- a house to Wheelock's school. During the first 14 over, New Hampshire, where the governor had of- years of itsexistence, the enrollment of Moor's fered support for the school. Wheelock believed Charity School ranged from 60 to 75 boys, most of there were more Indians with potential for conver- whom were Indians. A unique aspect of Moor's sion in the Hanover area. Two of his students, Charity School was the admission of women begin- Daniel and Abraham Simons, accompanied Whee- ning in 1761. In the eight years following 1761, 16 lock in his move to New Hampshire. Daniel was girls were admitted to the school (Szasz, 1980). later ordained and served as a teacher and preacher Wheelock's prize pupil was Samson Occum, a in Stockbridge. In later years he served as a mis- Mohegan Indian who learned quickly and was or- sionary to a small group of Delaware Indians living dained as a Presbyterian minister in 1759. Occum and in New Jersey (Szasz, 1980). Reverend Nathaneil Whitaker traveled to the British As were previous efforts in Indian education, Isles in 1765-1766 to seek donations for Wheelock's Moor's School was funded primarily by monies con- school. Occum's educational attainments and per- tributed by English and Scotch church members for sonality so impressed the British that they donated the conversion of Indians. The largest single source 11,000 English pounds to the education and conver- of funding was the contributions obtained by Sam- sion of the Indians at Moor's Charity School. Sam- son Occum and Reverend Whitaker during their vis- son Occum became one of the most noted Indians itation to Britain. The school received a grant in 1787 of his time and the outstanding example of a civi- consisting of one-half of the township of Wheelock, lized, Christian Indian. He devoted most of his life Vermont, which provided $600 annually for Moor's to preaching to other Indians. In spite of his devo- School (Richardson, 1930). During the later years of tion to Christianity and his high level of education, the eighteenth century and early years of the nine- he was never accepted by the white colonists as an teenth century, Wheelock had increasing difficulty equal. The racism and prejudice prevented even this in obtaining funds from the Scotch Society which outstanding person, who did everything he could to conf-..:.;ied the monies collected in Britain for Indian be like them, from being socially accepted. In his education. Apparently the directors were distrustful later years he broke with Wheelock because he felt of Wheelock's management and, therefore, were re- the latter's commitment to Indian education had de- luctant to release funds to him. Partially as a result clined and he was only interested in education of of this situation, the school went further into debt, white colonists (Szasz, 1988). Occum returned to his and in 1829 Moor's Charity School was closed so people and continued to preach the Gospel, but the that the remaining funds could be used to pay the assimilation Wheelock had hoped towas unsuc- accumulated debts. In 1837 the school was reopened cessful, even with this most Christian and civilized and continued in operation for thirteen years until of Indians. Occum died in 1792 at the age of 69 it was permanently closed in 1850. After that year, years (Blodgett, 1935). Indians were aided in attendance at Kimball Union Joseph Brant, another of Reverend Wheelock's Academy and other schools in the area. Until 1893 noted Indian students, became an officer in the Brit- one tofiveIndians attended these preparatory ish army and an outstanding chief of the Mohawk schools with assistance from funds managed by the Tribe (King, 1963). After the Revolutionary V ar, Scotch Society (Richardson, 1930). Brant worked as a missionary and, in 1787, trans- Szasz (1980) states that three factors contributed to lated the Prayer Book into the Mohawk language. the failure of education imposed upon the Indians He attended Moor's School from 1761 to 1763; his by Wheelock and the early Puritan missionaries. two sons, Joseph II and Jacob, were enrolled at his These were the great resistance of Indian culture, alma mater in 1800. Joseph Brant moved to Canada the conflicting values of white and Indian cultures, where the southern Ontario town of Brantford is and the prevalent racial prejudice. named for him. In 1769, Reverend Wheelock founded Dartmouth A list compiled by Reverend Wheelock contains College and became its first president. He also con- the names of 66 Indian students who attended tinued to administer Moor's Charity School as an Historic Antecedents of Contemporary IndianHigh Education 5 academy for college preparation. Dartmouth was of Indians at Dartmouth College (Kickingbird and the first college founded primarily for the education Kickingbird, 1979). This appropriation was raised to of American Indians. The first charter of the college $5,000 in 1780, indicating increased support for In- stated that the college was founded for: dian education among the founding fathers. As with the churchmen, the major objective of the fed- The education and instruction of youth of the Indian eral officials was the conversion and civilization of tribes in this Land in reading, writing and all partsof the local Indians. Learning which will appear necessary and expedient for In later years the numl 'r of Indians graduating civilizing the Christianized Children of Pagans, as well as from Dartmouth was very small; records show only in all Liberal Arts and Sciences; and also of Englishyouth three Indian graduates in the eighteenth century and any others. (Layman, 1942, pp. 87-88) and eight in the nineteenth century. The Indian In spite of Dartmouth's stated purpose, it was never School remained an inoperative part of Dartmouth a predominantly Indianschool. White students until 1915 (Morris, 1954). soon outnumbered Indians in thestudent body, and Dartmouth had the potential of becoming an in- it is estimated that in the 24 years prior to 1793 stitution that provided for the educational needsof fewer than one hundred Indians attended Dart- a significant number of AmericanIndians, but in- mouth. A list of Indians who attended Dartmouth stead it developed into a prestigious private college College and/or Moor's School between 1800 and 1892 primarily for white males. This pattern was re- includes 55 names, but it is not clearly stated that peated at several other early institutions as other they all attended these schools; some may have en- sections of this chapter indicate. As is discussed in rolled in other schools or academies in the area (Ri- Chapter 4, efforts were made in the latter part of the chardson, 1930). The Indians on this list represent a twentieth century to attract Indians to Dartmouth total of thirteen Indian tribes with the largest num- and provide for their educational needs. ber coming from the St. Francis Tribe. In addition to One interesting artifact of Reverend Wheelock's other local tribes a few from the Choctaw and Cher- intentions in the founding of Dartmouth College is okee of the southeast and the Sioux and Blackfeetof the following drinking song written by Richard the Northern Plains were also in attendance (Rich- Hovey and still sung by Dartmouth revelers: ardson, 1930). In the one hundred years from 1865 to 1965, only 28 Indians were enrolled atDart- C), Eleazar Wheelock was a very pious man, mouth, 9 of whom graduated (Henry, 1972). Thus, He went into the wilderness to teach the Indian, this college planned for the education of Indians With a gradus ad parnassum, a Bible, and a drum, contributed little to the civilization or conversion of And five hundred gallons of New England rum. the Native American people. (McCallum, 1939) The first Indian graduate of Dartmouth College was Daniel Simons, a Naragansett,who completed Although Wheelock's efforts to convert and edu- his bachelor's degree in 1777, eight years after he ac- cate Indians at Moor's School andDartmouth can- companied Wheelock inhis move toHanover. not be considered a success, he accomplished more Records show that two other Indians graduated than his predecessors. He selected young Indians from Dartmouth in the eighteenth century Oneof who were removed from the influences of their fam- these, L. V. Sabatannen, a Huron, was the firstCa- ilies and homes to attend school which proved more nadian Indian to graduate from college. Hegradu- effective than trying to convert and civilize entire ated in 1782 (Price, 1978). Another of thefew early villages as Eliot did. He did convince some whites Indian graduates was John Masta of the St. Francis that Indians could attain a higher level of education Tribe, who received an M.D. degree in 1850. He was than they had thought possible. A number of his probably the first Indian physician and practiced students made significant contributions to their peo- medicine in Barton, Vermont, until his death in 1861 ple and served as mentors to younger Indians. (Richardson, 1930). Some of Wheelock's success was related to the more In addition to the support from the Congrega- secure position of whites in postRevolutionary War tional Church for Dartmouth College, there was times as compared to the precarious conditionsof some token assistance forIndian education from the early colonists who were surrounded by Indians the fledgling federal government. TheContinental they did not understand or trust. In the later years Congress of 1775 appropriated $500 for education of his career, Reverend Wheelock lost some ofhis 6 Historic Antecedents of Contemporary Indian High Education

commitment to Indian education but still believed it A few Indians attended colleges in the United was a worthwhile cause. Wheelock died in Hanover, States during the early federal years with assistance New Hampshire, at the age of 68. from the federal government. In 1819, the United In the latter part of the eighteenth and early nine- States government made a general appropriation for teenth century, the growing need for an educated Indian education and civilization. This appropria- populace a democracy promoted the establish- tion in the amount of $10,000 was the first federal ment of a new type of educational institution. Prior aid of any significance to Indian education (Officer to this time the only form of secondary education in Waddell & Watson, 1971). The major form of fed- available was the Latin school which provideda eral support to Indian education prior to the Civil classical education. This type of education empha- War was the support of missionary schools. The sized Greek, Latin, and the classics and was not ap- government cooperated with the churches for the propriate for most young white persons who did establishment of missionary schools in various local- not intend to enter college or the ministry, and was ities for the education and conversion of the local even less suitable for the colonial Indian youth. The Indians. In 1823, there were 21 such schools; and by new schools, known as academies, primarily en- 1834, the number of church schools had increased to rolled males who wanted to enter such professions 60 with approximately 2,000 Indian children en- as teaching, medicine, or politics. The few schools rolled. These were elementary schools with some for young women at this time were knownas semi- secondary courses (Officer cited in Waddell & Wat- naries and emphasized womanly arts rather than son, 1971). These lower level schools established a preparation for a profession. During the early fed- pattern for church administered Indian education eral years several academies were founded for the which continued for many years and was evident education of Indians (Berkhofer, 1965). with smaller numbers of Indians at the secondary One of the earliest Indian academies was founded and post secondary levels. The federal government's in 1794 for the education of the Oneida Indians of support for church administered schools was not New York. This school was founded by Reverend sufficient to fully support these institutions so the Samuel Kirkland, Eleazar Wheelock's first white churches, and eventually some of the Indian tribes, student. Kirkland attended Moor's School from contributed to their funding. 1760-1762 and married Wheelock's niece, Jerusha Beginning in 1820, portions of federal Indian an- Bingham, in 1769 (Szasz, 1980). Kirkland,a mis- nuities were appropriated specifically for Indian ed- sionary to the Oneidas, received 4,000 acres of land ucation. Ten years later the federal annuities for near Ft. Schuyler, New York, for his service to the Indian education totaled $21,000 (Satz,1941).In American revolutionaries (Richards, 1974). Oneida spite of the increased federal support for Indian ed- Academy was established as a result of the first ucation in the eighteenth century, for the first sev- treaty between the United States and the American enty years of that century most of the funds for Indians which included provisions for education of tribal schools continued to come from tribal monies the Tuscarora, Oneida, and Stockbridge Indians (7 and contributions from churches and private indi- Stat. 47-48). This treaty is also noted for including viduals (Harmon, 1941). the first U.S. Congressional appropriation for voca- Another early academy founded for the education tional education. It was the first of many treaties be- and conversion of Indians and other "heathen'. tween the United States and Indian tribes which youth was the Foreign Missionary School at Corn- provided for Indian education in exchange for valu- wall, Connecticut. It was established by the Ameri- able Indian lands. Unfortunately, few of these edu- canBoardofForeignMissionsinMay1817 cational commitments were kept. Initially, Oneida (Foreman, 1929). The goal of the Mission School at Academy was an elementary school with a few sec- Cornwall was: ondary courses. In the first year here were four In- dians enrolled; and in 1799, only one of the fifty The education in our country, of Heathen ychs, in such students at Oneida Academy was an Indian (Lay- a manner, as with the subsequent professional instruc- man, 1942). The school first offered college level tion, will qualify them to become useful Missionaries, Physicians, Surgeons, School-Masters, or interpreters; and work in 1812 when it became known as Hamilton to communicate to the Heathen nations such knowledge College. It soon became an entirely white institu- as agriculture and the arts as may prove the means of pro- tion and exists today as a well known liberal arts moting Christianity and civilization.(Berkhofer,1965, college. p. 29) Historic Antecedents of Contemporary IndianHigh Education 7

Young persons from throughout the world were that in 1830 President Andrew Jackson, under pres- sent from missions to Cornwall foreducation in sure from several sides, signed theIndian Removal hopes they would return to spread the Gospel to Act. This act provided for the purchase by thefed- their people. In its first year, one Indian was en- eral government of Indian lands east of the Missis- rolled at Cornwall, in 1818 seven Indians attended, sippi River and removal of these tribes to other and by 1820, the number of Indians had increased to lands provided for them in Indian Territory (in what fourteen. The Indian students were from tribes of is now the eastern portion of the state ofOkla- the northeast and the Cherokee and Choctaw of the homa). When some Indians refused to voluntarily southern states. Other students enrolled at Corn- sign treaties selling their homelands, they werede- wall during the early years were from China,India, ceived or harassed into signing. Those who contin- Hawaii, and a few white American students (Fore- ued to resist were attacked by local settlerswho man, 1929). moved onto Indian lands. Eventually they were The school at Cornwall closed in 1827 after only forced by military threats to sell their lands and ten years of operation. The exact reasonsfor this move west. The Cherokee wasthe last tribe to leave closure are not known, but two factors influenced their homes and, as with other tribes, they were this decision. First, several Indian menattending split into factions; those who agreed to leaveand CornwallMissionSchoolmarriedlocalwhite those who stayed to become the Eastern Band. Al- women, much to the displeasureof the women's though the removal was supported primarilyby families. The bad feelings promoted toward Indians land hungry whites, others promoted it for what ap- by these unions also disturbed the Indianfamilies of peared to be humanitarian reasons. These"friends the young men. Secondly, the high incidenceof of the Indians," as they were called, believed thatif contraction of European communicable diseasesby these tribes remained in the southeast theywould the Indian students at Cornwall made Indiansreluc- be exterminated by the flood of white settlersand tant to send their sons to Cornwall.This was a would be better off to move and have their own problem for all Indian schools until the Indians land in Indian Territory. What was not foreseen, or built up an immunity to some of these diseases. Al- perhaps was ignored, was the fact that whitesettle- though the number of Indians attending Cornwall ment would soon reach Oklahoma, andthe situa- during the ten years of its existence was small,the tion would be repeated. As a result of theinfamous leadership and other accomplishments of these men General Allotment Act of 1887, nearly all theIndian Indian to among their people made theschool's influence sig- lands in Indian Territory would pass from nificant among some tribes (Foreman, 1929).At white ownership. The drastic effects of thisAct on Cornwall, as at other early Indian academies,the tribal cultures and Indian education isdiscussed in main emphasis was on religious training. a later section of thischapter. In the first decades of the nineteenth centurythe The removal of the Five Civilized Tribes was a pressures from the expansionof white settlement black page in the history of our country. There was increasingly conflicted with the populous tribes in terrible suffering and a high death rate duringthe the southeastern United States. Several ofthe large long march to the west. Among the Cherokeesit is tribes in this region were settled in villages andhad known as the "trail of tears." Unfortunately,this become successful farmers prior to the incursionof event set a precedent for later attempts tosolve the the Europeans. As early as 1805 the Choctawchiefs "Indian problem" by moving entire tribesfrom established and supervised a school for theirchil- their homelands to reservations on landunwanted dren which was financed by their annuityfunds. by the whites. Some of the members of these tribes had prosper- Prior to removal, several of the CivilizedTribes schol- ous plantations workedpartially by Negro slaves. had established effective school systems. The The progress and stability of these Indians con- arly accomplishment of one individualis particu- tributed to the hostility of the whites whowanted larly notable. In 1822, Sequoyah (GeorgeGuess), a to live and farm in this region. Fiveof the largest Cherokee who could not read or write English, com- Cherokee tribes in this regionCherokee, Choctaw,Seminole, pleted formation of a syllabary for the Creek, and Chickasawbecame known as theFive language. This remarkable feat took himtwelve high value placed on Civilized Tribes. years and is indicative of the The conflicts between the white settlers and mem- learning by some members of these tribes.Elias bers of these tribes became so frequent andintense Boudinot, a Cherokee, who attended the Missionary 8 Historic Antecedents of Contemporary Indian High Education

School at Cornwall, assisted Sequoyah in this mon- farm as the school site. The Baptist General Con- umental task. The Cherokees soon had books and a vention also agreed to his proposal and to raise newspaper published in their language, and they funds for the school's operation. Choctaw Academy became the most literate group of people in Indian opened November 1,1825, with an enrollment of Territory, including the whites in the area.Se- 21 Choctaw students.Itis evident that Richard quoyah called the books "talking leaves" and real- Johnson's influence in the federal government and ized their importance for the development of his the Baptist Church was responsible for the rapid de- people (Porter, 1955). cisionto locate Choctaw Academy at his Great One of the most remarkable institutions in the Crossings farm. Although Choctaw Academy was early history of American Indian higher education supported and to some degree administered by the was founded in 1825. This school, known as Choc- Baptist Church,it was not a typical missionary taw Academy, was located at Great Crossings near school. Its program and operation were quite differ- Georgetown, Kentucky. It was initially financed by ent from other missionary schools, and there was the Choctaw Tribe from an annual appropriation of much more involvement of the Choctaw leaders in $6,000 provided by the Treaty of Washington. In the its administration. Treaty of Washington, signed in 1825, the second ar- Reverend Thomas Henderson was the first and, ticle provided that: by far, the most influential chief administrator of Choctaw Academy. Layman (1942) concludes con- The United States do hereby agree to pay the said Choc- cerning Henderson's role at the school: taw Nation the sum of $6,000 annually forever; it being agreed that said sum. . . shall be annually applied for the Its history had been replete with mercenary designs, po- term of 20 years under the direction of the President of litical bickering, tribal distrust and dissatisfaction. The the United States to the support of schools in the said na- one saving feature of the whole institution seems to have tion, and extending it to the benefits of instruction in the been Thomas Henderson's devotion to the interests of the mechanic and ordinary arts of life. (Fox, 1943, p. 53) Indian boy. That the academy produced some of the lead- ers among the Indian tribes appears to have been largely For twenty years Choctaw Academy was the most a result of his influence and teachings. (p. 348) significant educational institution for Indians in the United States (Layman, 1942). Choctaw Academy was formally under the control Soon after the treaty was signed, William Ward, of the War Department, as were all Indian affairs at the Choctaw agent, wrote to Reverend Jacob Creath, that time. Army personnel periodically inspected a Baptist minister, and Colonel Richard Johnson of the school, but Reverend Henderson was the actual Kentucky, informing them that the Choctaw chiefs administrator and formulated and implemented wanted to use the $6,000, plus additional funds most of the policies. This arrangement was probably from land sales for education of their youth by a the result of Colonel Johnson's previously men- missionary society. Colonel Johnson quickly replied tioned influence in the federal government. Support that he had been teaching some Indians at his Scott for Choctaw Academy from the federal government County, Kentucky, farm and would be willing to rose and fell with Johnson's political fortunes. Most broaden the curriculum and increase enrollment to of the funds for operation of this institution came accommodate the Choctaws. Johnson was a politi- from tribal monies paid by the Choctaw and other cally influential man and a close friend of powerful tribes with students enrolled. The funding in the government and Baptist leaders. He commanded a early years was quite adequate which was unusual cavalry unit in the War of 1812 where he partici- for any Indian school (Fox, 1943). pated in the Battle of the Thames in which Tecurn- A serious cholera epidemic struck Choctaw Acad- seh, the great Shawnee leader, was killed. This emy in1833. A report on the epidemic recom- made Johnson somewhat of a hero after the war. He mended improvements in the sanitary and health held several local and state political offices, and conditions at the academy. This resulted in changes eventually served as Vice President of the United which were needed to protect the students' health States (1937-1941) under President Martin Van Bu- (Foreman, 1931). ren (Fox, 1943). The initial curriculum at Choctaw Academy was The Department of War quickly accepted Colonel composed of the following courses: English gram- Johnson's proposal for a school at his Kentucky mar, geography, writing, arithmetic, practical sur- farm, and the Choctaw Tribe approved Johnson's veying,astronomy,naturalphilosophy,history, Historic Antecedents of Contemporary IndianHigh Education 9 moral philosophy, and vocal music. It was originally centered on the development of local community agreed that there would be no manual training schools; and (d) loss of support for the school by the courses at the Academy; but in 1833, atthe urging local residents of Great Crossings. ofI. N. Bourassa, a Potawatomi instructor, some Fox (1943) points out the influences of this unique were added. The areas ofmanual training intro- school as follows: duced were gardening, wagonmaking, blacksmith- ing, shoemaking, and tailoring (Fox, 1943). These However, it is known that many of the students afterward and courses soon became very popularwith the Indian became outstanding leaders in their respective tribes, it is more than a guess that many of their qualitiesof lead- students. ership were developed by their training experiences at the Choctaw Academy was progressive for its time. In Choctaw Academy. The school served a useful function addition to the emphasis placed on academic and also in providing adult members of the tribes experience religious development of the students, it had a vari- in maintaining an educational institution. (p. 151) ety of extra-curricular activities. Theseconsisted of annual public examinations, exhibition of students' In 1836, the enrollment at Choctaw Academy was work, student government, music activities, and approximately 152 students. Sixty-five of these were speech presentations. Henderson alsoinstituted Choctaws and the remainder were from the other two-week summer camps at a nearby health resort Civilized Tribes and several midwestern tribes. Two for students. Although little is known about his life, years later the enrollmentremained at 152 with 130 Reverend Henderson was deeply committed and students in academic courses and 22 in shops. Al- successful in providing for the educational needs of though Choctaw Academy's academic programs his students (Fox, 1943). were not comparable to today'shigher education, In 1839, 33 students at Choctaw Academy signed they were the most advanced programs available to a report critical of the schooland its chief adminis- all but a few Indians in the period 1825 to 1845. trator. After this, most tribes were unwilling tosend Choctaw Academy was a unique school. It was their young men to the school (Foreman, 1932). In the first and one of the most successful schools to 1840, Reverend Henderson resigned as principal; be administered jointly by an Indian tribe, achurch, and, thereafter, the school declined in effectiveness and the federal government. It had a relatively large and enrollment. Peter Pitchlynn, a Choctaw leader ai:d stable enrollment of Indians and wasinitially who had attended Choctaw Academy, succeeded well financed and administered. It was also unique Henderson as principal from 1841 to 1842 (Satz, in being far removed from the homes of most ofthe 1975). Indian students. Overall, Choctaw Academy was In the early 1840s the Choctaw Tribe began to the most significant and successful higher levelIn- withdraw support for Choctaw Academy. They were dian school to be founded in the first half ofthe still interested in supporting higher education for nineteenth century. Its early demise was a resultof their young people, but Choctaw Academy was no changes in the conditions of the major Indian tribes longer meeting their needs. In 1842, the Choctaw and the development of new federal government Council voted to support students at Ohio Univer- policies in Indian education. As of 1849, nearlythe sity, Jefferson College, and Asbury Universitybut entire support for Indian schools came fromthe In- explicitly excluded Choctaw Academy (Fox, 1943). dian tribes (Forbes, 1970). Part of this was due to dissatisfaction withthe ad- After removal, all of the Five Civilized Tribes be- ministration of the school. After 1842, the removalof gan to reestablish tribal school systemsin their new the Choctaws and the other CivilizedTribes from iands. The Cherokees in 1843, provided fundsfor their original homes was nearly complete, and they eleven district schools in their nation. Soon ten were more concerned withestablishing schools in Cherokee schools existed with an enrollment of 400 their new homes than in financing a school indis- children (Fox, 1943). The Cherokee National Coun- tant Kentucky. cil, in 1846, passed an act providing for a National Fox (1943) summarizes the reasons for theclose of Male Seminary and a National FemaleSeminary. Choctaw Academy as follows: (a) changes intribal These were tribally controlled and financed second- attitudes and support for the school; (b) Colonel ary schools whose objectives were: Johnson's tactics and the decline of his political power; (c) development of arather definite federal To carry out a further degree of maturity the national sys- Indian education policy between 1818 and 1849, tem of education already commenced and inwhich all 10 Historic Antecedents of Contemporary Indian High Education other branches of learning shall be taught whichmay be The first graduates after the Civil War were three required to carry the mental culture of the youth ofour students at the Female Seminary in 1879, but it was country to the highest practicable point. (Henshaw, 1935, pp. 57-58) not until 1882 that the Male Seminary had its first two postwar graduates. In addition to providing for In order to enter the seminaries, students had to their own young people after the war, the Chero- pass examinations in English, language and gram- kees founded schools for Black freemen. In 1890, mar, arithmetic, and geography. they -stablished a "Colored Highschool" located John Ross, principal chief of the Cherokee Nation, fivemilesnorthwestofTahlequahatDouble was the leading proponent of the seminaries. He Springs Place. In addition to the secondary curricu- laid the cornerstone of the Female Seminaryon June lum, in 1900 a normal session was held with 22 21, 1847, and in the same year led the groundbreak- Black teachers in attendance (Henshaw, 1935). Little ing for the Male Seminary. The Male Seminarywas has been written about the significance of this located one mile south of Tahlequah, the Cherokee school in the educational development of Blacks in capital, and the Female Seminary was at Park Hill, the Cherokee Nation, but it shows that the Chero- three miles to the southeast (Henshaw, 1935). These kee were supportive of the education of the children solid brick buildings trimmed with stone werecom- of others in their country. pleted in 1850. These buildings contained eighty Another tragedy hit the Cherokee schools when rooms exclusive of bays, closets, and storerooms. the Female Seminary burned to the ground in April The first floors had classrooms, library, auditorium, 1887, but the Cherokee Council appropriated $6,000 dining room, kitchen, parlor, and guestrooms; and for a new building which was completed in 1889. the second and third floors had the living quarters The rebuilding of the seminaries after the Civil War for students and teachers (Henshaw, 1935). and again after the fire of 1887 are evidence of the Both Cherokee Seminaries were opened in 1851 high priority the tribe placed on advanced educa- The first year the Male Seminary had 27 students tion for their people. The graduates of the seminar- andtheFemale Seminaryenrolled25 young ies made valuable contributions to the education of women. These schools became the pride of the the Cherokees. Of the eleven graduates of the Fe- Cherokee Nation. The first teachers in the seminar- male Seminary in 1887, seven became teachers in ies were white persons educated in eastern colleges. the Cherokee primary schools. Unfortunately, in They taught not only the academic subjects but also 1891 the seminaries were forced once again to close required behavior expected of educatedmen and due to lack of funds and political disagreements. Af- women of the era. Although there was less empha- ter reopening in 1892, the seminaries and primary sis on religious 'raining than in the missionary departments again prospered and grew in enroll- schools, all teachers were required to profess faith ment. In the summers, normal schools were held in Christianity. The courses of study were four years for young teachers at the Female Seminary (Hen- inlength and included a number of advanced shaw, 1935). courses. Because both students and teachers lived in In the early years of the twentieth century the the school building, the programs of studywere Cherokee Seminaries decreased some in their en- quite intensive. The male students were required to rollments and effectiveness. After Oklahoma gained do close order drill three times a week, "not topro- statehood in 1907, the seminaries were doomed; mote knowledge of military science, but to cultivate and in 1909 they were purchased by the state of a manly bearing and to engender habits of prompt- Oklahoma. The Female Seminary became North- ness and obedience" (Henshaw, 1935, p. 72). eastern State Normal School which today is North- The first classes were graduated in 1855 with 24 eastern Oklahoma State University. This institution and 8 graduates from the Female and Male Seminar- has continued to serve the higher education needs ies,respectively. After successfully carrying out of many of the Cherokees and other local Indian their educational mission in the first few years, the people. In 1982, Northeastern State had 964 Indian seminaries had to close in 1857 due to a lack of students, the fourth largest Indian enrollment in the funds. The continued financial problems and the United States (NCE Statistics, 1984). Civil War postponed the reopening of the Cherokee The strong commitment to advanced education by Seminaries until 1875. The buildings were restored the Cherokees is shown by the more than fifty years and enlarged to accommodate 200 students at each of support for their seminaries in spite of financial institution. problems, fires, political differences, and a war. The Historic Antecedents of Contemporary Indian HighEducation contributions of these schools to the educational tendent from 1849 to 1861 (Baird, 1965). As with the and cultural development of the Cherokee people other tribal schools, Spencer Academy declined dur- was very important. The high literacy rate among ing the later years of the nineteenth century and the Cherokees during the latter years of the nine- closed in 1900. teenth century was primarily due to the seminaries As with the Cherokees, most of the tribal schools and the teachers they provided for the primary of the other Five Civilized Tribes closed during the schools in the Cherokee Nation. Civil War (1860-1864), but in the postwar years the A number of noted Cherokees attended the semi- schools reopened. The day schools and boarding naries. From 1855 to 1909, 382 Cherokee men and schools which reopened included those that were 252 Cherokee women graduated from the Cherokee part of the tribal school systems and thosemain- Seminaries. This provided the Cherokees with a tained by religious groups. After the Civil War, the cadre of educated persons unequalled by any other Chickasaws invested more than three-fourths of Indian tribe and by most contemporary non-Indian their annuities in education. By 1880, this tribe had groups. The primary schools and seminariesof a literacy rate of over fifty percentwhich was high the Cherokee People laid a foundation for their ed- for that time period (Baird, 1974). A few young peo- ucational development which surpassed any other ple of the Five Civilized Tribes attended schools and Indian tribe of their day. This was accomplished colleges in other states during the latter years of the through the initiative and resources of the Tribe twentieth century (Davis, cited in Morris, 1954). with little outside assistance. Soon after the end of the Civil War, several In the post removal era, the Choctaw People also church supported colleges were founded, ostensibly continued to strongly support education in their for the higher education of Indians. Most of these nation. As early as 1833 they inaugurated a tribal schools were short lived and had little permanent school system which flourished. By 1847 they had influence on Indian education, but a few survived ten academies and seminaries for young menand as predominantly white institutions. women. These schools were financedjointly by A school named the Presbyterian School forGirls tribal, federal, and/or missionary monies. The Choc- was founded in 1882 in the townof Muskogee, In- taws also had seven schools to teach reading, writ- dian Territory. In 1907 this school was moved to ing and arithmetic to adult members of their tribe Tulsa, Oklahoma, and renamed Henry Kendall Col- (Adams, 1946). lege. It was again renamed Tulsa University in 1920 One of the schools established by the Choctaws in and continues today as an independent, predomi- 1842 was Spencer Academy which was named for nantly white university (Logsdon, 1977). Secretary of War, John C. Spencer, a strong advo- One post Civil War era college is of particular cate of Indian education. The school, located ten interest becauseithas been proven thatit was miles north of Doaksville in the Choctaw Nation, founded not to serve the Indians but to defraud was primarily an elementaryschool with some sec- them of their land. This college was founded in 1860 ondary level work. The tribe made an annual appro- as Roger Williams University onthe reservation of priation of $6,000 which was from the Treaty of the Ottawa Indians in eastern Kansas Territory.The Washington, formerly used for Choctaw Academy residents of this reservation were members of sev- (Fox, 1943). Spencer Academy was under the control eral bands of Ottawas who had been forced tosell and management of the General Council of the and vacate their lands in the Maumee Valleyof Choctaw Nation. It was administered by the Presby- Ohio in the 1830s. They were granted a reservation terian Church through a charter from the Choctaw of 73,000 acres of rich farmland on the Marias de Tribe. Cynges River in Kansas Territory. Spencer Academy became known as the "Choc- A number of persons, white and Indian, were in- taw Harvard" and was influential ineducation of volved in the complex scheme to develop Ottawa many of the tribe's leaders. Manywell-to-do Choc- University and the adjacent town of the same name. taws gave generously to maintain theAcademy, The three persons who were most prominent in this showing the high priority they placed on education. scheme were John Tecumseh (Tauy) Jones, Clinton As was the case with other early Indian schools, C. Hutchinson, and Isaac S. Ka lloch (Unrau& there was one person whose dedicated work kept Miner, 1985). Born a mixed blood Chippewa inCan- Spencer Academy going through some difficult ada, Jones was raised by white relatives and at- times. He was Alexander Reid, who was superin- tended Columbia College in Washington, D.C.,and 12 Historic Antecedents of Contemporary Indian High Education

Madison Seminary in New York. He was employed ported that the college was needed for the educa- as an interpreter at the Sault Saint Marie Indian tion and civilization of the Ottawas and other local Agency and as a teacher at Choctaw Academy. Later Indians, there is no evidence that this institution he moved to the Potawatomi reservation west of the had the support of any Ottawas other than John Missouri River in Kansas Territory. Soon he moved Jones and his friends who stood to benefit finan- again to the nearby Ottawa Reservation where he cially from the institution. and his wife were adopted by the Ottawa Tribe. His In 1865, Ka lloch was appointed the first president membership in the tribe provided influence which of the developing college and it was renamed Ot- would benefit him later in dealings to defraud the tawa University.In 1867, while thefirst college tribe. building was being built, the Ottawas, under Fires- Reverend Isaac S. Kalloch, a Boston Baptist minis- sire from the federal government, agreed to move ter, had been charged with adultery and, although south to the northeast corner of Indian Territory. found not guilty, was forced to leave his church. He This treaty of 1867 provided that the money from visited Kansas Territory in 1857 and 1860 before the sale of their Kansas lands would be used to pur- moving there at the end of the Civil War in 1864. chase the western portion of the Shawnee reserva- His reputation as a womanizer and heavy drinker tion in Indian Territory (Kapp ler, 1904). continued in Kansas as he preached the Gospel to Jones, Kal loch, Hutchinson and others benefited the Indians and settlers of the frontier. He was ad- from the Ottawa move by purchasing Ottawa lands mitted to the Kansas Bar and was appointed a at $1 an acre and selling them later at much higher founder of Bluemont College which later became prices. Part of the 20,000 acres allotted for the sup- Kansas State University. Kal loch was a charismatic port of the university was also sold or obtained by speaker and a successful fund raiser. These talents speculators through Jones' influence in the tribe were to be well utilized in his participation in the and Hutchinson's pressure on the Indian Office. A taking of the lands and other assets of the Ottawas variety of other means were used to illegally obtain (Marberry, 1947). the assets of the Ottawas by those who were sup- The third member ofthis unholy triad was posed to be protecting their rights. Clinton C. Hutchinson, a close friend of Jones, who In spite of the fact that the Ottawas were moving believed that the rich Indian lands of eastern Kansas to Indian Territory and selling their Kansas lands, were ripe to be plucked. In 1861 he was appointed building of their university continued; and in 1869 as agent to the Sac and Fox Tribes. This proved to be the first building, Tauy Jones Hall, was completed a classic example of the fox being put in charge of at a cost of $50,000. It was much larger and ornate the hen house. In a short time Hutchinson was dis- than was needed by the Ottawas even if they had missed from this position as "unfit for Indian ser- remained in Kansas. It appears that the founders vice" as a result of an unaccounted for $2,000 of had long planned that this building was to serve the Indian money and his frequent verbal abuse of his local white population and not the Indians (Unrau charges. In spite of his dismissal, in 1862 he wasap- & Miner, 1985). pointed agent for the Ottawa Tribe indicating his After the Ottawas moved to Indian Territory, the political influence and probable collusion of officers UniversityboardcontrolledbyKalloch and of the Indian Service (Unrau & Miner, 1985). Hutchinson refused to provide free education for Although otherschurchmen, government offi- Ottawa children as provided for in the Treaty of cials, and Indiansbenefited from the scheme to 1867. This caused most of the Ottawas to refuse to defraud the Ottawas, Jones, Kal loch, and Hutchin- send their children to Ottawa University. In 1871 son were the three most centrally involved and may only one Indian child, Idelette Jones, the daughter be seen as representative of the greed and dishon- of John T. Jones, attended Ottawa University; and it esty of frontier land speculators. thus became a school for white youth. The presence of a college in a small frontier town Although the move from Kansas was not long in was an economic advantage and establishing a col- distance, the cultural and emotional trauma experi- lege was a common means to raise the land values enced by the Ottawas caused great suffering and in- of small communities before and after the war. This creased their death rate (Cash & Wolff, 1976). In the was the major motive for the founding of Roger ensuing years the tribe made several attempts to ob- Williams University by the men mentioned above tain compensation for their valuable lands in Kan- and the other Baptist leaders. Although it was pur- sas, but a lack of national concern for India; rights Historic Antecedents of Contemporary Indian High Education 13 and the apathy of federal officials entrusted with In- Summary of Missionary Period dian welfare made their efforts futile. of Indian Education Finally in 1946, the establishment of the Indian Claims Commission presented a means for the Otta- was to press their claims. A petition wasfiled in The missionary period of Indian education has been 1951 with the Commission which contained twelve judged by all researchers who have studied it as a principle charges related to the loss of their lands failure. In reference to the missionary efforts in In- and the monies from their sale. The three charges dian education during the years 1778 to 1871, Mar- pertaining directly to Ottawa University were (a) tha Layman (1942) wrote: "permitted the organization of an illegal university board of trustees and sanctioned operation of this The net result of almost 100 years of effort and expendi- illegal board," (b) "failed to guarantee that Ottawa ture of hundreds of thousands of dollars for Indian edu- University would always be open to Ottawa chil- cation were a small number of poorly a. Itended mission dren" and (c) allowed the settlement of 1873, which schools, a suspicious and disillusioned Indian population, provided that only a small portion of university or and a few hundred products of missionary education who, for the most part, had either returned to 'their tribal trust lands remaining unsold to return to the tribe, ways] or were living as misfits among the Indian or white and only a fraction of the assets obtained from the population. (pp. 213-214) proceeds of the land sales to return to the tribe (Doc. 303, 1951). The task of proving these charges Frederick R. Schmeeckle studied Indian education was complicated by the federal government's at- during the period from 1845 to 1865 by examining tempts to terminate a number of tribes in the early annual reports of the Commissioner of Indian Af- 1950s including the Ottawas who were terminated fairs and letters received by the Office of Indian in 1956 (Cash & Wolf, 1976). Affairs from agents and teachers. In his 1970 thesis, In 1960 the Indian Claims Commission finally re- he concluded that the efforts to educate Indians leased its opinion which upheld almost all of the were a failure. Ottawas' cha-ges, included awards of $22,600 for the Ottawa University section of land and $7,490 Its chief objective was to convert the red man from a for the 1,200 acres illegally conveyed to Ottawa Uni- hunter to a farmer and to induce him to adopt the white versity. On April 30, 1965, one hundred years after man's civilisation. It failed utterly to achieve these objec- the founding of Ottawa University, the Ottawa Tribe tives. Indeed, many of its products were unsuited for ei- received$406,166.19fortheir claims (Amended ther red or white society. (pp. iv-v) Final Award, 1967). These funds were distributed to the 630 members of the tribe. Finally, legal, if not Little has been written, specifically, about the his- moral restitution was made to the Ottawa People. tory of Indian higher education during the mission- In the early 1970s, Ottawa University was still ary period. Most historiesof American higher in operation and advertising itself as an innevative education barely mention this topic except to state institutionaffiliatedwiththe American baptist that attempts to provide higher education for Indi- Church. A school publication states the University ans were ill conceived and ineffective. Becauseof was founded in 1862 on land given by theOttawa the paucity of factual information, the summary of Indians (Ottawa University Bulletin, 1972-73, p. 83). this period is brief and most of the conclusions are The history of Ottawa University is the best docu- speculative. mented case of higher education and civilization be- As described in this section, several of the early ing used as a means to defraud a tribe of its valuable colonial colleges in America, i.e., Harvard, William lands. The persons responsible included several and Mary, Dartmouth, and Hamilton were estab- Baptist ministers, federal government agents and In- lished, at least partly, for the education of Indians. dian leaders. The failure from the beginning to attain this objec- With this array of influence and power against tive can be attributed to a number of complex, inter- them, the members of the tribe had little chance to related factors in the colonies and conditions of defend their rights. Careful examination of other white relations with the local Indians. early Indian colleges and schools might reveal simi- The primary motivation of the missionaries, who lar misconduct on the part of persons entrusted initiated and implemented nearly all colonial Indian with Indian welfare. education, was to Christianize the local tribes. A 14 Historic Antecedents of Contemporary Indian High Education second, complementary objective was to civilize the desire for Christianity and European education. Indians. Their objectives were to save the souls of The colonists who saw the reality of Indian culture the Heathens and to protect the colonists from the and the conflicts between it and English life style attacks of "uncivilized savages." The higher educa- were aware of thefutilityof the missionaries' tion provided was designed to prepare preachers means. and teachers who would return to accomplish these The emphasis on conversion to Christianity as the objectives among their people. The higher educa- major Objective of education was an important factor tion initially provided to do this was the same clas- in the failure of the missionaries' efforts to change sical program imported from England for white the Indians. The missionaries, notably Eliot in his students. This classical education which included villages, not only expected the Indians to learn learning to read Latin and Greek and study of clas- English language, skills, and manners of dress but sical literature and history along with the study of to give up all their own traditional culture and be- the Bible was inappropriate for the Indians and for liefs. They wanted to remold the Indian and make most white colonists. Beyond the basic skills of him a white European in every way possible. The reading, writing, and arithmetic, the Indians in con- Indians deeply resented and resisted attempts to de- tact with the colonists had no use for these studies. stroy their culture and religion and the harsh pun- Itis surprising that even a few of them, such as ishments meted out for transgressions. Had the Samson Occum, completed such a course of studies. missionaries' educational goals for the Indians not Vocational and other useful skills which might have been tied so closely to such complete changes in been of value to the Indians were not available. culture and all aspects of the Indians' lives, the Thus, a major cause of the failure of missionary In- missionaries might have met with more success. dian education was its inappropriateness for colo- But as the goals were, they alienated the Indians nialIndians.Inthe few schools where Indians from all formal white education. The French and gained some control over their education, such w: Spanish were generally more successful in Indian Choctaw Academy, the curriculum became more at- conversion because they were more adaptive in tuned to their needs. Unfortunately, the religious their expectations. groups continued to be the major influence on what The dedicated missionaries cited in this section type of education was best for the Indians.The prin- worked long and hard for the civilization of the In- ciple of local citizen control of schools, that is a keystone of dians; and, although their means were ineffective, public education in the United States, was never extended the ends they sought were more noble than those of to flu' education of Indians because they were deemed to be their fellow colonists who wanted to remove the In- unqualified to manage their own schools. dians from their area by the most efficient means, Another factor in the failure of missionary educa- including extermination. The efforts of the mission- tion for Indians was the lack of support from the aries were doomed by the factors stated earlier and local colonists. The zeal of the missionaries to con- the diversity of the two cultures, neither of which vert and civilize the Indians was not shared by most could accommodate the other. The early missionar- colonists. The colonistsfearedthe Indians and ies did light the fire of learning in a few Indians and considered them a hindrance to the development proved to some skeptical whites that Indians were of prosperous colonies in the New World. Some capable of attaining a higher education. This had whites believed Indians were subhuman and that some influence on the Indian tribes which later es- extermination was the only real solution to the con- tablished their own school systems. flicts.It was generally viewed that it was quicker Although it cannot he fully examined here, the and cheaper to kill an Indian than to convert and documents on early Indian-white relations indicate civilizehim.Therefore,mostofthefinancial that racism was pervasive among the colonists in- support for colonial Indian education came from cluding those who worked with Indian education. It missionary societies and church collections in Brit- is evident that they saw the white race as inherently ain. The distant doners in England and Scotland superior to dark skinned persons. They would not were uninformed and unrealistic concerning the accept even well-educated Indians as their equals, conditions, needs, and desires of the Indians. The as Samson Occum realized in his later life. Marriage religious fervor of the ministers and the few edu- between whites and Indians was not accepted al- cated Indians, such as Samson Occum, who trav- though white men taking Indian women as their eled to Britain, gave a distorted view of the Indians' wives was better accepted than a marriage between

2) Historic Antecedents of Contemporary Indian High Education 15 a white woman and an Indian man. It is interesting 6. The dedicated leadership of Reverend Thomas to note that a high proportion of white Indian cap- Henderson from 1825 to -140. tives, w1-.had been with their captors for some During the missionary period assistance of the time, chmt to remain with their Indian families. federal government to Indian higher education was Thus, Indians were more successful in assimilating minimal. Even in the later part of this period, fed- whites into their culture than vice versa. eral support for Indian education beyond the basic Indians of that time were less racist than were skills was insignificant. After the Civil War, Howard their white contemporaries. The existence of perva- University (1867) was founded for Black freedmen sive racism among colonial whites made assimila- and received fullfederal funding; but no such tion of Indians impossible. This has continued into higher education institution was, or ever has been, later periods of history as a factor interfering with provided for American Indians. Nearly all the fed- the melting pot view of American society. As men- eral support for Indian elementary schools during tioned, French settlers adapted more easily to the this period was directed to the aid for schools oper- Indian cultures, and assimilation including inter- ated by various Protestant churches. Thus, rather marriage was more common between French per- than considering the Indians' views in planning sons and members of various Indian tribes. their schooling, the federal government and the During the latter part of the missionary period a churches conspired to try b make the Indian into a number of treaties between the United States and docile Christian who did as the white man wanted. various Indian tribes included provisions for federal Under these conditions, it was predestined that In- funding of Indian education. The earliest of these dian education was to fail those it served. was the Treaty of 1794 which provided forOneida The only positive outcome of over two centuries Academy later to become Hamilton College. The of misisonary directed education for Indians was frequency of provisions for education in these trea- that a few Indians educated during this period were ties is evidence of an early awareness by Indian able to help their people in dealing with the whites, leaders of the potential value of education to their and the seeds were sown for tribal higher education people. Unfortunately, most of the promises for In- dian education were never kept, and those that which would bear fruit a century later. were met with little success due to factorsprevi- ously mentioned. Several tribes, notably the Cherokee and Choctaw. The Federal Period: A Century of established effective tribal school systems in their Continued Neglect of Higher homelands in the southeast and again after their re- Education for American Indians moval to Indian Territory. The leadership of a few educated Indian leaders and the relative prosperity and stability of these tribes were major factors in the Prior to the Civil War, most missionary schools success of their schools. Choctaw Academy (1.825- among the Indians were operated byProtestant 1845) was the most effective institution in the field churches. With the advent of government "contract" of Indian education during this period.It was a schools in 1869, the Catholics saw an opportunity to unique school and its relative success among so become more active in missionary education. The many failures is of importance. The particularfac- Catholics, under the organization of the Bureau of tors which combined to make it a success were: Catholic Indian Missions, aggressively sought con- tracts for mission schools among the Indiantribes, 1. Adequate funding from the Choctaw and other which resulted in a great increase in the number of Indian tribes. these schools, pccticularly in the period from 1874 2. The politicalinfluenceof ColonelRichard to 1883. These schools were funded by contracts Johnson. with the federal government and private funds from 3. Support of the Choctaw chiefs and local whites the wealthy Drexel family of Philadelphia (Prucha, and their educational input in the early years. 1979). 4. A progressive educational program including In the early 1880s, Protestant leaders saw the extra-curricular activities and vocational courses. growing Catholic school system as an obstacle to the 5. Lack of emphasis on religious conversion that development of a Protestant controlled public school was so strong at the missionaryschools. system. As a result, a number of Indian education 16 Historic Antecedents of Contemporary Indian High Education leaders, including Richard H. Pratt, founder of Car- school for Indians was established in 1860 on the lisle Indian School, presented strong anti-Catholic Yakima Reservation in Washington Territory, the positions concerning Indian schools. The Indian Civil War interrupted further development of these Rights Association was founded in 1882 and became schools for several years. The first federal appro- allied with the mission boards of several Protestant priation for government Indian schools was enacted denominations. The goal of this organization was in1870.This appropriation inthe amount of the complete Americanization of the Indian. This in- $100,000 marked the beginning of the United States fluentialgroup composedoftopgovernment, government taking much more control and respon- church, and private leaders held its annual meet- sibilityforthe educationof American Indians ings at Lake Mohonk, New York.It was a major (Berry, 1972). supporter of the infamous Dawes Allotment Act of As federal efforts in Indian education increased, 1887. The Indian Rights Association also strongly the tribal school systems in Indian Territory began promoted the separation of ck:rch and state using to decline. Soon after Oklahoma became a state in this position to argue against the increase in Catho- 1907, all of the tribal schools closed or became part lic contract schools (Prucha, 1979). of the public school system. Indians were expected During the years 1888 to 1912, the conflict contin- to attend the public schools or the few federal ued between the Protestants and Catholics over the schools. The literacy rate of the Cherokees and control of Indian schools. The welfare of Indians Choctaws declined considerablyafterthetribal was not the major concern of either religious group, schools closed and the missionary schools de- but the issue of Indian education was drawn into creased. Literacy among the Oklahoma Indians r:_- this bitter religious struggle. As Prucha (1979) wrote: mained low until later years; and even in recent "In some cases it seems fair to say, they [the Indi- years, the achievement level of Indians was higher ans] were but pawns in the hands of the managers in private or public schools than in federal institu- of the campaigns" (p. xii). From 1888 to 1912 the di- tions (Peniska & Bailey, 1977). rect government aidto mission contract schools It was six decades before American Indians were gradually came to an end. By the turn of the cen- again allowed to develop their own Indian con- tury, the Catholics had gained much more political trolled and Indian-centered schools. Had the Five power in the country including membership on Civilized Tribes been permitted to continue their the Board of Indian Commissioners, and thereafter own schools, the history of these tribes might have had more voice in decisions concerning Indian been much different. Subsequent sections of this education. book relate some of the influence of early tribal The outcome of this religious conflict involving schools on the development of Indian higher educa- the Indian schools was to greatly decrease the num- tion in Oklahoma. ber and influence of mission schools for Indians and The Dawes Act, officially titled the General Allot- to indirectly increase the role of the federal schools ment Act, was passed by the United States Congress in Indian education. The later unsuccessful attempts in 1887. It provided that Indian tribal lands be allot- of the United States government to provide elemen- ted to individual Indians with the proviso that these tary and secondary education for Indians and the lands could not be disposed of for 25 years. Each almost total absence of federal higher education for adult Indian who was the head of a family was al- Indians contributed to the tragic condition of Indian lotted 160 acres and others were awarded lesser education described in the Meriam Report (1928) amounts. The passage of this act was supported by and later surveys of Indian welfare. Thus, the major two factions with very different objectives. One fac- losers in the Protestant-Catholic religious conflict tion was eager to obtain the valuable Indian lands were the American Indians. for their own enrichment. The others, lead by the As a result of the conflict described above and the Indian Rights Association, believed that individual increased separation of church and state in the land ownership would encourage Indians to take up United States, in the post-Civil War years, the fed- agriculture and hasten assimilation of Indians into eral government took over nearly all responsibility the dominant culture. They reasoned that if an In- for Indian education (Berkhofer,1978). President dian owned his own land, he would become a full- Grant's peace policy was instituted and government fledged citizen with all the rights, privileges, and efforts were increased to civilize and assimilate the desires including education. Lands in excess of Indian people. Although the first federal boarding those allotted to individual Indians were declared

27 Historic Antecedents of Contemporary Indian High Education 17 surplus, and purchased from the tribe by the federal During the Civil War, Richard H. Pratt, a Union government at $1.25 an acre. The government then officer who commanded a unit of Black soldiers, be- sold these lands or made them available to white came convinced that they were no differe, from homesteaders. Traditionally, Indians had no concept whites in their capabilities and potential for uevel- of personal land ownership and were not prepared opment. His experience was to significantly effect to farm or make other gainful use of their allotment. the history of Indian education. After the war, Pratt Many leased their lands to whites at very low fees. who then was stationed in Indian Territory, became Most land held by individual Indians soon fell into interested in Indians and their welfare. white ownership through a variety of schemes, in- Captain Pratt was ordered, in 1875, to conduct 72 cluding marriage of white men to Indian women in Indian prisoners of war to the federal prison at Ft. order to obtain their allotment. The long range con- Marion near St. Augustine, Florida. These Indians sequences of the General Allotment Act weredis- were purportedly the most savage membersof the astrous for many Indian people. Between 1887 and recently defeated Southpn Plains tribes. They were 1933 the Indian land holdings were decreased from Kiowas, Cheyennes, Coanches, and a few Caddos 150 million to 48 million acres (Gibson, 1980). Most and Arapahoes, all but two of whom were men. of the land retained by the Indians was the least Pratt remained at Ft. Marion as the Indians' jailor, productive for agriculture and recovery of natural but he soon became more than their keeper. He be- resources. Some Indian tribes, particularlythose lieved that his wards could and should be educated with the best farm lands and those with known in the basics of reading and writing and set about mineral resources, never recovered from this loss. promoting this with much enthusiasm. Pratt re- Thus, the valuable tribal land resources of many cruited local teachers to teach the Indians to read of the western tribes which could have helped pre- and write, and most proved to be apt pupils. Sev- serve the tribal unity and support schoolsfor their eral became able to write letters to their families and people were lost forever. The members of the allot- read newspapers. Pratt's efforts became one of the ted tribes were doomed to lose much of their heri- most successful early programs in penal education tage and live in poverty (McNickle,1973). One (Pratt, 1964). Indian writer has referred to the Dawes Act as By 1878, Pratt had conceived the concept of an off- "history's larlest land swindle" (Brightman, 1971, reservation residential school for Indians which was p. 16). to have a strong influence on federal Indian educa- The Five Civilized Tribes were not included under tion for fifty years. He tried to find a school that the original General Allotment Act, but legislation a would accept his Indian students; and after several few years later forced individual ownership of their rebuffs, he convinced General Samuel C. Arm- tribal lands and resulted in the loss of nearly all of strong, superintendent of Hampton Institute,to their valuable land base and rich oil deposits. A few take some of them (Pratt, 1964). Located in Virginia, Southwestern and Northern Plains tribes, notably Hampton had been founded as a school for Black the Navajo, Pueblo, Apache, and Sioux, whose land freedmen. Pratt brought 17 Indians from Ft. Marion was not coveted by the whites, avoidedallotment so to Hampton in 1878. Hampton Institute continued were sparedthiscatastrophe.Their reservation to enroll Indians with government subsidies until lands provided a base for tribal cohesiveness and 1912. After this the institute, a private school, subsi- later influenced the development of tribal schools. dized Indian students in decreasing numbers until Some of the money gained from the sale of 1923. During the 45 years from 1878 to 1923, approx- surplus Indian lands was used to support federal imately 1,288 Indians attended Hampton Institute. Indian schools which tried to force the assimila- The educational objective at Hampton was to give tion of Indians into the white culture and the ex- the Indian and Black students a basic education and termination of the Indian language and culture. to teach them a trade (Brightman, n.d.). Hampton Therefore, the Dawes Act had, in two ways, the ef- Institute was the first non-federal, off-reservation fect of nearly destroying the culture of many west- boarding school to admit adult Indians. Some of the ern Indian tribes. This act and itstragic conse- Indians who attended Hampton later became lead- quencesarewell-documentedevidenceofthe ers in their tribes or successful in otherfields. avarice and misunderstanding of most white per- In 1879, Pratt began working toward the establish- sons concerning American Indians andtheir cul- ment of a separate boarding school for American tures (Prucha, 1976). Indians. He was able to convince Carl Schurz, Sec- 18 Historic Antecedents of Contemporary Indian High Education retary of the Interior, that an abandoned military finest coaches of the period, and Carlisle soon com- post could be utilized as an Indian boarding school. peted on a level with the best college teams of the Pratt's vigorous lobbying efforts enabled him to gain late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Carl- permissionto use Carlisle Barracks atCarlisle, isle produced many fine athletes of whom the most Pennsylvania, for his Indian school. He traveled to famous was Jim Thorpe, a Sac and Fox Indian from the western reservations where he was successful in Oklahoma. Thorpe is still considered by many to be persuading some of the chiefs and other tribal lead- the best and most versatile natural athlete in the ers to send their children to Carlisle. The first year, history of American sports. He was the only man 1879, Pratt enrolled approximately 200 young Indi- ever to win both the pentathlon and decathlon in ans from twelve tribes, primarily from the Western the Olympic Games, accomplishing this remarkable Plains (Pratt, 1964). feat in 1912. He was a two-time All American in As at most Indian schools, funds for its operation football, played major league baseball, and excelled were not easy to obtain; but in 1882, Congress ap- in every sport he attempted. A movie and several propriated $67,000 for Carlisle. In the same year books have been produced in describing the life Congress passed legislation to permit conversion of and exploits of this great Indian athlete. Two other other unused Army posts to Indian normal and in- Carlisle Indians who achieved athletic fame were dustrial schools (22 Stat. 181, 25 USC, 276). Charles "Chief" Bender, a Hall of Fame baseball The curriculum at Carlisle Indian School empha- pitcher, and Louis Tewanima, a Hopi, who was an sized both manual arts and academic courses (Pratt, Olympic champion distance runner. 1964). It was not an institution of higher education Pratt's main objective was the assimilation of the as is known today, but it provided the highest level Indian into white society, a goal shared by most of of education then available to the children of the his contemporaries. He saw his program as "wash- western tribes. Each boy and girl at Carlisle learned ing the Indian out of" his young students. He con- a trade. Unfortunately, some of these trades were cluded the best way to do this was by educating the not useful on the reservations to which many of the Indian children far from the cultural influences of Carlisle Indians returned. A distinctive characteris- their families and tribes. He saw Carlisle as the first tic of the program at Carlisle was the "outing sys- step in integrating Indians into public schools and tem" in which Indian boys and girls were placed in other social institutions of the dominant culture white homes to live and work during the summer (Pratt, 1964). It was believed for many years, and months. The purpose of these placements was to still is by some persons, that Indians had high man- promote acculturation of the young Indians. The ual aptitude but lacked ability to do abstract reason- outing system served as an effective second culture ing. The academic accomplishments of some Carl- learning device, and most of the Indians who expe- isle Indians helped to break down this stereotype. rienced it found it a pleasant experience. Some of The lack of long range success of the Carlisle pro- the Indians voluntarily stayed with their "country gram in assimilating the Indian students into the parents" during the school year (Walker-McNeil, white culture is evident. Most of the students re- 1979). Even later critics of Carlisle, such as Commis- turned to their reservation and the tribal life of their sioner of Indian Affairs, Francis E. Leupp, admired people. The reservation life, where they lived as the outing system (Pratt,1964).Conversely, the wards of the federal government, provided little en- many later critics of Pratt's programs and methods couragement or opportunity to utilize their new saw the outing system as forced labor and subjuga- skills or practice the trade they learned at Carlisle tion of the young Indians. They believed the main (Morris, 1954). The attitudes, dress, and behavior purpose of the Carlisle Indian School was to hold learned at Carlisle caused some returning students Indian children as hostages to control their war- to be rejected by their own people. like kinsmen. (This situation of the Indian caught between the The athletic teams at Carlisle brought more pub- white and tribal cultures and not totally acceptable licity to the school than any other facet of the insti- in either is a sadly recurring theme throughout the tution. Pratt, after an initial negative attitude toward history of Indian-white relations in our country. interscholastic athletics, decided it would be desir- Some persons have proposed various simplistic an- able to include competitive sports as a part of the swers to this dilemma ranging from assimilation to program. He hired Glenn "Pop" Warner, one of the separatism. There are no simple solutions to this Historic Antecedents of Contemporary Indian High Education 19 complex problem and many "experts," both Indian The later Indian boarding schools differed signifi- and non-Indian do not comprehend the complexity cantly from Pratt's original concept. One of the of cultural conflict.) main differences was that many of the students in later years were taken involuntarily from their Although Carlisle's team occasionally played Harvard, it homes and parents. This caused a hostility toward is important to remember that these institutes were not these schools on the part of both parents and chil- true colleges. Their standards of training at best approxi- dren. The later schools' also enrolled children who mated only those of a good manual training high school. One specialist in Indian Affairs (G. E. E. Lindquist, 1923) were too young to be separated from their parents. has asked whether this was enough to meet the needs of These young children were lonely and homesick a people striving to convert in one generation from the much of the time. The methods of forced assimila- way of life of a primitive society to the more complex tion became more strict and cruel. Young Indians realities of a modern American culture. His feeling was were handcuffed, beaten, and placed in solitary that an institution like Carlisle which taught no higher confinement for minor infractions such as speaking than the tenth grade failed despite its many admirable their tribal language or trying to run away. The qualities to equip Indian youth with sufficient education quality and humanity of the teachers declined over to face American life on an equal basis. (Brubacher & the years. The students hated the schools, and the Rudy, 1958, p. 79) pride and spirit of the early students at Carlisle were lost. In later years some of the more prosper- Carlisle Indian School set a pattern for the off- ous Indians were able to send their children to pri- reservation boarding schools that became the pre- vate or public schools.Therefore, most of the dominant institution in federal Indian education for students taken to the boarding schools were from fifty years (Walker-McNeil, 1979). These schools the poorest and least acculturated families. These were characterized by removal of young Indians factors andotherschangedtheoff-reservation from their homes, a work and study curriculum, boarding schools from Pratt's moderately successful military discipline, an emphasis on agricultural and efforts to concentration camps for the involuntary industrial arts for boys and homemaking for girls. acculturation of young Indians. Many of these schools were located at former mili- By 1887 there were 2,137 students enrolled in the tary posts in the western part of the country. eight existing off-reservation boarding schools (Lay- The second off-reservation boarding school was man, 1942). The numbers of these schoolsincreased founded in 1880 at Forest Grove, Oregon. This and reached their peak enrollment in the 1890s (Ad- schoolwaslaterrenamed Chemawa Boarding ams,1946).Twenty-five off-reservationboarding School; its enrollment in 1890 was 453. Other early schools for Indians had been founded by 1900 off-reservation, federal boarding schools for Indians (Szasz, 1974). After 1900, these schools declined in with their founding dates and enrollments are number and enrollment as increasing numbers of shown in Table 1. Indians attended public or reservatic.day schools (Morris, 1954). World War I interrupted the federal Table 1 government's efforts in Indian education. Indian Early Federal Indian Off-Reservation school personnel entered the armed forces,off- Boarding Schools reservation boarding schools deteriorated, and less money was appropriated for Indian education(Mor- FoundingEnrollment ris, 1954). Carlisle Indian School was closed in 1918 Date (18901 School aswereseveralotheroff-reservationboarding schools. The off-reservation boarding schools were Albuquerque Indian School, NM 1884 328 pre-eminent in federal Indian education until 1930, Chilocco Indian School, OK 1884 397 Haskell Institute, Lawrence, KS 1884 397 and some continue to operate in the 1980s. Two of Santa Fe Indian School, NM 1890 380 these boarding schools evolved into post secondary Carson Indian School (Stewart), NV 1890 170 institutions as recounted in Chapter 4. Phoenix Indian School, AZ 1891 686 Off-reservation boarding schools operated by the Pierre Indian School, SD 1891 158' federal government were strongly criticized by Indi- Flandreau Indian School, SD 1893 279' ans and non-Indians in the 1960s and 1970s,i.e., 'First year enrollment Note From Hunt, 1946 Senate Subcommittee on Indian Education, 1969; 20 Historic Antecedents of Contemporary Indian High Education

Brightman, 1971; Szasz, 1974; and Indian Education Carlisle are overly laudatory, presenting only the Task Force, 1976. Much of this criticism is justified; positive view. Since the early 1960s, Indian and the involuntary removal of children from their par- non-Indian writers have held Carlisle and similar ents and the brutal treatment of students rightfully schools responsible for many of the problems of embittered some Indians against all types of "white American Indians. These persons find little good man's" education. In no way should the serious about the efforts of Pratt and his contemporaries. misconduct of some personnel in these schools be The truth lies somewhere between these extreme condoned or excused. However, it should also be positions. Some of the most objective and fair writ- pointed out that, if judged in the context of their ten material available is a dissertation completed historic period, some good came from these schools. by Pearl Lee Walker-McNeil (1979). She presents Robert M. Utley (1964) editor of Richard Pratt's auto- evidence to support the following two major hy- biography, wrote: potheses:

Pratt's true significance lies rather in his role as a deter- 1.The federal program for American Indian edu- mined, courageot..s, selfless worker in behalf of justice to cation in the United States had its genesis in a pol- people suffering from four centuries of oppression by the icyofforcedacculturationexemplifiedinthe dominant culture. (p. xvii) founding and operation of the Carlisle Indian In- dustrial Training School, 1879-1912. Some of the students who attended these schools, 2.The Carlisle Indian School Outing System, as particularly Carlisle, later became noted leaders of a second culture learning strategy, was critical to the their tribes and successful in other endeavors. They implementation of the boarding school program of credited their education and experiences at boarding forced acculturation. (p. 7) school for some of their achievements. Dr. Carlos Montezuma, the noted Indian physician, worked at Walker-McNeil presents both the positive and Carlisle in 1894-1896. He agreed with Pratt concern- negative results of the efforts in Indian education ing the need for the type of education provided at and acculturation at Carlisle. In the positive vein, Carlisle. Another who attended Carlisle from 1890 she points out that the Carlisle students demon- to 1892 stated that he was well treated and benefited strated that Indians were educable and identified from his attendance. This person was Richard Sand- education as a key element in the survival of Indi- erville, a Blackfoot, who became a skilled inter- ans in the competitive industrial society of modern preter and the founder of the Museum of the Plains American. Today these points seem self-evident, but Indian at Browning, Montana (Liberty, 1978). Many they were not widely accepted in the latter part of others, particularly those who were in boarding the nineteenth century. It was also concluded that schools in later years, had only bitter memories of the Outing System at Carlisle was an effective their school days. system to promote learning about a second culture. Pratt'sstrict disciplinary methods became out- Indians at Carlisle learned to understand and ap- moded and were much too authoritarian for mod- preciate their civil rights, duties, and liabilities in ern educational philosophy; but, considering the our democratic form of government. An uninten- conditions of the late nineteenth century, he worked tional product of the contact among the members of hard with good intentions and some limited success the various tribes at Carlisle was the development to solve a complex cultural dilemma. Pratt's faith in of a pan-Indian perspective. A result of this was the the potential of young Indians is expressed in the leadership in pan-Indian organizations exhibited by following quote in American Indian Magazine (1916): Carlisle Indians. The significant negative results of the education at If I was the Commissioner of Indian Affairs and had a su- Carlisle listed by Walker-McNeil are also important. perintendent of schools who could not see in every little The most significant detriment according to most Indian boy a possible president of the United States,I critics was that the educational program and the to- would dismiss him. (p. 246) tal environment was aimed at destroying the Indian cultures. The disastrous consequences for individu- Although much has been written about Carlisle als and the tribes of this motive was ignored. Pratt Indian School, it is difficult to find an objective view did not understand that the Indian culture could be of this important Indian school. The writings of changed to adapt to the changes taking place. Also, most whites ar ithe few Indians employed at separating the young Indians from their heritage Historic Antecedents of Contemporary Indian HighEducation 21 caused them to be contemptuous of their own tribal to 1968 the emphasis at Haskell was on the second- ways and family. This resulted intheir being re- ary vocational program with a "learn toearn" ob- jected by many of their relatives. Those who at- jective. The later development of Haskell as a junior tempted to participate in the white society found college is included in the section on federal institu- their expectations and hopes dashed by white racial tions in Chapter 4. discrimination. Pratt had not taught them to be re- Almon C. Bacone founded a Baptist college for In- alistic about the attitudes of whites toward Indians. dians in the year 1880 in Tahlequah, Indian Terri- Many students developed loyalty to Pratt and the tory.The school was originally named Indian school which interfered with an objective view of ei- University. Its name was changed in 1910 to Bacone ther. Bitterness toward the federal government for College. In 1885, land was donated by the Creek closing Carlisle was a common feeling of former stu- Tribe and the college was moved to Muskogee in the dents (Walker-McNeil, 1979). Creek Nation. In 1988 Bacone was still in operation, In regard to its defined objectives of functional lit- making it by far the oldest Indian college in the eracy, vocational skills, and survival inwhite com- United States. munities, Walker-McNeil sees Carlisle as a success. Bacone was established primarily to train teachers The Indians who attended Carlisle did learn to read and preachers among the Five Civilized Tribes, re- and write and had some salable skills, but the price flecting the long standing objective of converting they paid to live in a hostile white society was too theIndians. The founder stated: "A Christian high to be considered a success. In order to survive school planted in the midst of a people becomes one they had to give up not only their cultural heritage of the most powerful agencies in the work of civili- but their self-respect and behave as the white man zation" (Bode, 1957,p.43). The firstclass was defined. Pratt's programs and methods at Carlisle awarded bachelor's degrees in 1883. are significant in Indian educationbecause they set In the early years of the college, Mrs. John D. a pattern for federal Indian schoolsfor the next fifty Rockefeller became interested in it, and in 1883 she years. For better or worse, theoff-reservation board- donated $10,000 for the construction of a building ing school was the dominant form of Indian educa- on the campus. At that time$10,000 was a substan- tion until the 1930s. tial amount of money. In June 1885 Rockefeller Hall The best known contemporary Indian college in was dedicated. Its total cost was$24,000, and it pro- the country is Haskell Indian Jlinior College which vided all the living and learning facilities for the was founded in Lawrence, Kansas,in 1884 as a fed- teachers and students of the college. Almon C. Ba- eral off-reservation boarding school. The school was cone, who died in 1896, stated hisphilosophy of named for Dudley C. Haskell, a Kansas congress- Indian-white relations simply as "The extermination man, responsible for the schoolbeing established of a race is unworthy of a Christian people" (Bode, in Kansas (HaskellIndian Junior CollegeBulletin, 1957, p. 32). His efforts toward improving the edu- 1977-79). cational opportunities for American Indians were Intheearlyyears,Haskell's superintendent, more effective than others who sharedhis commit- James Marvin, stated that in all classes two points ment. Athletics were instituted in 1895 atBacone were stressed: how to speakEnglish and how to do and in 1896-1897 the primary grades were discon- all work quickly and well. Haskell was originally an tinued. Bacone never limited its enrollment exclu- elementary school with a few secondary level voca- sively to Indians, and the proportion of Indians to tional courses. By 1921, it offered a four year high non-Indians varied considerably over the years. In school program and was the first federal Indian the period 1895 to 1900, whites outnumbered Indi- school to offer education at this level. The firsthigh ans in the student body. A numberof Indian and school class at Haskell graduated in 1923. Later non-Indian alumni of Bacone have gained fame. Haskell added postsecondary vocational training in Patrick J. Hurley, who was Secretary of War in 1929- three broad areas of trades, business, and technical. 1933 and held other high government posts includ- For a number of years Haskell was the only federal ing Ambassador to China in 1944-1945, was one Indian school providing work beyond the eighth famous Bacone alumnus. Peter McDonald, present grade. This is indicative that, in spite of much talk Chairman of the Navajo Tribal Council, and a num- by government officials about the need for moread- ber of other tribal leaders attended Bacone. Other vanced educational opportunities for Indians, al- noted Indian alumniof Bacone includeLloyd most none was available (Layman, 1942). From1930 House, Navajo, former Arizona State Senator; Al 22 Historic Antecedents of Contemporary Indian High Education

Momaday, Kiowa, artist and school principal; Joan The initial enabling legislation provided only $500 Hill, Creek/Cherokee, artist; Clarence Acoya, La- for the college. The law provided that if the Lum- guna Pueblo, public administrator; and Acee Blue bees did not provide a building within two years Eagle, Pawnee/Creek, artist. Blue Eagle, a developer the act would be repealed. With this motivation, the of the "Kiowa style" of painting, founded the art Lumbees worked diligently to raise funds for their department at Bacone and was instrumental in the school. They purchased one acre of land a mile west development of a number of talented Indian artists of Pembroke, North Carolina, and built a two story in the 1930s (Gridley, 1971). frame building with donated materials and labor. In The college level enrollment at Bacone increased 1889, the General Assembly of North Carolina in- significantly in the post-World War I years. By 1925, creased the annual appropriation for the college to some non-Indian students had to be refused admis- $1,000. This meager support continued for several sion due to over enrollment. Newly oil rich Indians years. The General Assembly appropriated $75,000 gave generously to the college during the 1920s, in 1921 for construction of a building which was raising the endowment to $900,000 in 1924. completed in 1923. This structure, known as Old The years between World War I and World War II Main, still stood on the campus in 1980. Although it have been referred to as the "golden era" for Bacone was known as a normal school since its inception, College. After the junior college was revived, it be- Pembroke was actually an elementary school in its came the only predominantly Indian college in the earlyyears.In1909,high school classes were United States and continued as such until the 1960s. added, and the school was moved to its present lo- Benjamin D. Weeks served as president of the col- cation. Apparently the high school enrollment grew lege from 1918 to 1941, providing outstanding lead- slowly, as in 1924 there were only seven students in ership for this small college. In 1943 Earl L. Riley the graduating class. Not until 1926 were normal became the first Indian alumnus to serve as Ba- school classes for the preparation of teachers of- cone's president (Bode, 1957). Other major changes fered, and in 1928 the first normal school class grad- came about when the elementary school was closed uated (Dial & Eliades, 1972). in 1946, and the last high school class graduated in Pembroke has undergone several name changes 1957. Thereafter, Bacone was exclusively a two-year which reflect the changes in programs and enroll- institution of higher education. Also in 1957 all re- ment. It was known as Croatan Normal School until strictions limiting enrollment to persons of Indian 1911 when it became the Indian Normal School of blood were eliminated. Bacone has always been a Robeson County. The first four year college degrees small school. Prior to 1957 its enrollment never ex- were granted in 1940; and in accord with this mile- ceeded three hundred students, but its fame and in- stone, the name was changed to Pembroke State fluence in Indian education and leadership extends College for Indians. In 1949 the name was short- to many parts of the country. Bacone has benefited ened to Pembroke State College. Prior to 1945, only from being in the area of the Five Civilized Tribes Indians of Robeson County were admitted to Pem- which had supported Indian ee.ication so strongly broke State,but inthat year admissions were for many years. This is one rea..on Bacone did not opened to other American Indians. In 1953, the close or become dominated by non-Indians as did North Carolina legislature approved enrollment of so many early Indian colleges. The recent history of white students at Pembroke up to forty percent of Bacone College is presented in Chapter 4. the total enrollment. The United States Supreme The only state supported college established spe- Court ruling of 1954 making segregation of schools cifically for the education of Indians was founded in illegal caused another change in Pembroke's admis- 1887 in the state of North Carolina. This school, sion policies. From that time, the college has been originally known as Croatan Normal School, was open to all qualified students regardless of race founded by the North Carolina General Assembly (Dial & Eliades, 1972). It is interesting to note that for the education of the Indians of Robeson County. the 1954 Supreme Court decision aimed at providing These Indians,of uncertainorigin,were then access to public institutions for minorities also pre- known as Croatans, but later their tribe was called vented Indians from having their own college that Lumbee. excluded non-Indians. W. L. Moore, a well-known local educator, was The existence of this single state supported col- named the first principal of the school. In the first lege for Indians emphasizes the fact that Indian year the student body consisted of fifteen Indians. higher education has been viewed as a federal re- Historic Antecedents of Contemporary Indian HighEducation 23 sponsibility even though federal support was not early part of this century to the 1960s most writers provided at this time. Although a number of south- were supportive of the church's goalsand efforts. ern states establishedstate collegesfor Blacks, An example of this is the following statement by Pembroke was the only state school of higher educa- Samuel A. Eliot (1937). tion for Indians. The section on public colleges for Too much of the record of the white man's relation to the Indians in Chapter 4 contains the recent history of primitive Americans for the last three centuries has been Pembroke. humiliating, not to say revolting, but the resolute persis- A school that was founded in 1878 as a church- tence of missionary endeavor has been a bright page in a relatedinstitutionfor AlaskanativesinSitka, dark history. It is often, to be sure, a tale of pathetic fail- Alaska, later became Sheldon Jackson Junior Col- ure. Often the missions have beenobliterated as the tide lege. It began as a Presbyterian mission day school of migration swept westward, or the best efforts of the which soon closed but was reopened in 1880. Its missionaries have been defeated by the cruelty and rapac- founder, Reverend John G. Brady, a Presbyterian ity of the conquering race; but it is still a splendid story minister, later became territorial governor of Alaska. that well deserves to be retold. (p. 111) The school was first named Sheldon Jackson Insti- In the latter half of the nineteenth century most tute, but in 1884 the name was changed to Sitka In- writers on Indian education have seen the effortsof dustrial School to reflect an increased emphasis on vocational instruction. Later in the same year the federally supported Indian education by missionar- ies in a much different light. Their concern forthe school became a government contract school. The preservation of Indian cultures in a pluralistic soci- stone museum building was built in 1895. It housed ef- the best Alaska collection of that time, and is still ety is the antithesis of the previous missionary culture of the North- forts to remold the Indian into a Christian white one of the top museums in the man. This view is exemplifiedby the following west Indian. quote from the Indian historian JackForbes, as he Enrollment at Sheldon Jackson in 1908 consisted viewed the government support for Indian church of 115 native Alaskan students ranging in age from 6 to 21 years. In 1911, the name of the school was schools during the period 1870 to 1930: again changed to Sheldon Jackson School to honor In spite of the constitutional provisions relating toreli- the work of the pioneer missionary of the same gious freedom, the federal government conducted a60- name. The first high school classgraduated in 1927, year enforced enculturation that bearscomparison to the and the high school was accredited by the North- most notorious eras of religious and socialtotalitarianism west Association in 1935 (Armstrong, 1967).The in modern history. (Cited in Pace, 1976, p. i) later development of Sheldon Jackson into a post- secondary school is presented in Chapter 4. The period 1870 to 1920 saw a great increase in All direct federal allocations to religious groups the federal responsibility for, and support of,Indian for Indian education ceased in 1917. This marked elementary and secondary schools but a total ab- the end of nearly a century of federal government sence of federal postsecondaryschools for Indians. support of missionary contract schools for the edu- At the close of this period, there were ahandful of cation and conversion of American Indians. This small private colleges and one state institution pur- change was the result of the increased responsibility porting to provide for special higher education of the United States for providing Indian day and needs of American Indians. As in the past,the boarding schools, and the increased national em- primary emphasis for all Indian schools was still on phasis on the doctrine of the separation of church assimilation and, to a lessening degree, on Chris- and state. Some forms of indirect federal support of tianization. The only curriculum provided from pri- Indian education by religious groups continued un- mary to postsecondary levels was atraditional til the 1930s. white program with an emphasis on vocational Church officials hold that they have contributed courses above the elementarylevel. None of the so much to the education and welfare of Indians who called Indian colleges involved Indians in program have attended their schools. This reflects the mis- planning or gave any consideration in their curricu- sionaries long standing objectives of Christianiza- lum to the unique heritage of their Indianstudents. tionand assimilationof their Indian students. In 1928 a landmark study of Indian administration Whether these aims are valid depends upon one's officially entitled The Problem of Indian Administration historic and philosophical perspective. From the and generally known as the Meriam Report for its 24 Historic Antecedents of Contemporary Indian High Education major author, Lewis Meriam, was published. The Report, there were some increased opportunities for report focused attention on the deplorable condition Indians to enter higher education in the 1930s. An- of educational programs and other services for Indi- nual federal appropriations were provided in the ans. James Officer (cited in Waddell & Watson, fields of nursing, home economics, forestry, and 1971) wrote of the Meriam Report: other areas. In 1932-33, small amounts of financial Without question the most comprehensive and objective aid to advanced Indian students and loans to Indi- survey of the American Indian situation ever made, cov- ans were appropriated by Congress. By 1933, 161 In- ering a whole range of subjects related to federal Indian dians had beenenrolledinhigher education policies and recommending significant changes. (p. 42) through the aid of federal and tribal funds. A few The Meriam Report was particularly critical of the colleges began to offer limited numbers of scholar- off-reservation boarding schools and the absence of ships for Indians, e.g., five scholarships were avail- Indian involvement in the planning and manage- able at the University of Michigan (Adams, 1946). In ment of all federal Indian schools. The highly regi- spite of the increased opportunities for Indians in mented routine and the cruel punishments to which higher education in the early 1930s, Ruth Muskrat Indian children were subjected were documented Bronson (1932) estimated that in 1932 a total of only and condemned. It was concluded that the Indians 358 Indians were enrolled in United States institu- had the lowest educational level of any ethnic group tions of higher education. She also determined that in the United States (Meriam, 1928). As a result of there were only 52 known Indian college graduates this report, some of the problems were alleviated and that only five colleges were offering scholar- over the succeeding years; but, as will be seen, ships for Indians. many of them still existed more than forty years Another result of the Meriam Report and the New later. Deal was the Wheeler-Howard Act of 1934. The offi- The majority of the education section of the Me- cial title of this act is the Indian Reorganization Act riam Report dealt with elementary and secondary which was a revised version of the original Wheeler- education of Indians, but several short sections ad- Howard Act. This act is often referred to as the In- dressed higher education, college preparation, and dian Bill of Rights. It enabled Indian tribes to form training for nursing, teaching, and clerical work. a constitution, organize for self-government, form The following quote is from the section on Higher tribal corporations, and conduct business.It also Education and the Indian: provided a small amount of money ($25,000) for loans to Indian college students. Most importantly More and more Indian youth will go on for education of the Wheeler-Howard Act finally stopped the loss of college and university grade. Already hundreds of Indian Indian tribal lands by superseding the General Al- men and women are in higher educational institutions; lotment Act of 1887. the University of Oklahoma has nearly 200 students with In response to the needs noted in the Meriam Re- some Indian blood and the increasing number of Indian port, $250,000 of federal funds were authorized in boys and girls in high school will undoubtedly lead to a 1934 for higher and postsecondary education of corresponding growth in applications for college admis- sion. (Meriam, 1928, p. 419) members of Indian tribes reorganized under the In- dian Reorganization Act. Contracts between the fed- This statement proved to be inaccurate; in particu- eral goverr ment and states for the education of lar,it was overly optimistic concerning the rate of Indians were authorized in legislation passed in growth of Indian enrollments in higher education. 1936 (Amendment to the Johnson-O'Malley Act, A more realistic reference to the status of Indian op- 1936). portunities for higher education in 1928 is contained John Collier served as Commissioner of Indian in another section of the same report: Affairs from the beginning of the New Deal era to the close of World War II. His outstanding leader- Indian boys and girls who graduate from these schools ship and knowledge of Indians complemented the [federal government] at present find it practically impossi- effects of the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 to ble to continue their education in acceptable colleges and universities because the colleges cannot take them even initiate badly needed reforms in Indian education. when there are persons interested in Indian youth who More emphasis was placed on Indian day schools will provide the funds. (Meriam, 1928, p. 420) and less on off-reservation boarding schools. For the first time, some respect for the rich cultural heritage In response to the needs indicated in the Meriam of American Indians was shown in Indian schools Historic Antecedents of Contemporary Indian High Education 25 and assimilation was de-emphasized. This was pro- eral schools. There was a growing movement in moted by Commissioner Collier, who was one of the Congress to decrease the federal responsibility and first federal officials to see the value of preserving expenditures for all Indian services, including edu- and transmitting Indian arts and beliefsin the cation. In a broader perspective, legislators began schools. This was an important step away from the to question the unique relationship between the long held position that all Indian ways and beliefs United States and the Indian tribes. This was par- must be eradicated from Indian students. tially the result of the increase in successful legal The years prior to World War II saw the begin- claims by tribes concerning damages accrued over nings of the recognition that Indians should have the years since the treaty period. Some governmen- some voice in the planning and managementof tal leaders believed that reducing the federal govern- their schools. Unfortunately, World War IIinter- ment'sresponsibilityforIndianaffairswould rupted the efforts of John Collier to reform Indian accomplish two worthy goals. It would benefit the schools and move toward a more pluralistic curricu- Indians by changing their status as wards of the lum. During the war, 25,000 Indians served in the United States and greatly decrease the expenditures armed forces, and many served with distinction in of federal funds for Indian programs and services. combat units. After their military service through- It was proposed that the special federal relation- out the United States and other parts of the world, ship between the United States and the Indian many returning Indian veterans weredissatisfied tribes be voided by terminating the tribes as legal with the employment and educational opportunities entities. This concept became known as the termi- on their reservations. Defense work had also intro- nation policy. duced thousands of Indian men and women to em- William Zimmerman, Acting Commissioner of In- ployment and benefitsnotavailableathome. dian Affairs, testified in the early 1950s that ten Because of their wartime experiences, some Indian tribes were ready for termination and twenty others veterans wanted better jobs and took advantage of might be ready in five to ten years (Provinse, 1954). the G.I. Bill (PL 346) by enrolling in higher educa- The national support for termination of some Indian tion or vocational programs (Sando, 1976). An ex- tribes reached its peak in 1953 with the passage of ample of the vocational programs was the Hopi House Concurrent Resolution #108. This resolution silversmithing program that gave impetus to the de- read in part that termination should be undertaken: velopment of a number of talented silversmiths. The As rapidly as possible, to make the Indians within the ter- increased interest among Indians in higher educa- ritorial limits of the United States subject to the same laws tion, the development of new programs, and the fi- and entitled to the same privileges and responsibilities as nancial aid provided by the G.I. Bill were important are applicable to other citizens of the UnitedStates, to end factors in increasing Indian college enrollments after their status as wards of the United States, and to grant the War (Szasz, 1974). However, the proportion of them all the rights and prerogatives pertaining to Ameri- Indians utilizing veterans educational benefits was can Citizenship. (HCR #108, 1953, p. 1) significantly lower than among whites, and the attri- tion rate among Indian students was high. This rather innocuous sounding resolution had Some Indian tribes evidenced increased support serious implications for American Indians, particu- for higher education in the post World War II years. larly those enrolled as members of federally recog- Twenty-four tribes had established funds for schol- nized tribes. The apparent benefits of rights and arshipsinhigher education by thelate1950s privileges amounted to nothing because the Indians (Holmes & Rosenthal, 1959). In 1953 the Navajo already had all of these. Had this resolution been Tribal Council established a scholarship trust fund implemented, it would have ended essential ser- with an initial appropriation of $30,000. This trust vices which are guaranteed to American Indians by was expanded in 1972 andfunds were contracted tre?ties with the United States. It would also have under the authority of PL 93-638. As of 1987, 4,578 destroyed the base of tribal culture on the reserva- Navajo students were enrolled in higher education tions. Most Indian leaders were aware of the drastic with financial assistance from the tribe. The total consequences of termination and, along with their amount expended on scholarships was $9,697,915 non-Indian allies, fought against its implementa- (Morgan, 1988). tion. Fortunately, by 1958, support for termination After the war, opposition developed in Congress had lessened and attempts to implement it had to the increased emphasis on Indian culture in fed- waned. The final result of Resolution #108 was the

t3lJ 26 Historic Antecedents of Contemporary Indian High Education termination of two major tribes, the Klamath of Or- into the dominant society. The termination and re- egon and the Menominee of Wisconsin, and 59 location movements are two more in the long list of small bands and tribes. The termination philosophy misguided actions by the white bureaucracy to solve also had direct effects on elementary and secondary the "Indian problem." education for Indians. Federal Indian schools were The 1950s and 1960s saw an increased interest in closed in four states: Idaho, Michigan, Wisconsin, and study of the education of American Indians. and Washington. This was a result of the widened public awareness The direct effects of Resolution #108 on Indian of the discriminatory practices of our society. The higher education were negligible, mainly because so activism of Blacks, Hispanics and, to a lesser de- little education for Indians at this level existed. It gree, American Indians brought attention to the fact did have a long range influence on Indian leaders that many members of these minorities were not by making them more suspicious of any federal ten- able to take part in the dream of a good higher ed- dency toward reduction of services and responsibil- ucation. Most of the studies of this period docu- ity for Indians. Indian leaders are well aware that, mented the problems and shortcomings of Indian although the threat of Resolution #108 passed, the education, and a few pointed out the advances termination philosophy is still held by some legisla- made. (Studies of contemporary education of Amer- tors and bureaucrats. In the early 1980s, Secretary of ican Indians during this period include: Porter, 1955; the Interior James Watt was promoting an end to Artichoker & Palmer, 1959; McGrath et al.,1962; "socialism" on Indian reservations for the welfare of King, 1963; Wheeler, 1966; Se linger,1968; Berry, American Indians. This reawakened the old fears of 1968; Saslow & Harrover, 1968; Bass, 1969; and the federal termination of Indian tribes, and the public Kennedy Report, 1969). outcry of Indians and their supporters was a factor There were an estimated 2,000 Indian students in forcing Watt to resign in 1983. enrolled in colleges and universities of the United A concurrent movement affecting American Indi- States in 1957 (Fuchs & Havighurst, 1972). In the ans was the effort to relocate reservation and other same year the first formal study of the problems of rural Indians to urban areas. The primary rationale Indian college students was conducted in the four for this action was that there were more jobs in ur- year institutions in South Dakota. The investigators ban areas and that the high unemployment among found that Indian students have more serious prob- Indians would be reduced. This was obviously also lems than non-Indians and that the problems hav- a continuation of the long standing assimilation pol- ing the greatest significance for Indians were: poor icy of the federal government. The concept of Indian academic training, especially in mathematics, sci- relocation had its roots in the pre-World War II ence, social studies, and English; insufficient funds, years and may have emerged from as far back as particularly for clothing and spending; inability to concerns stated in the Meriam Report in 1928 (Of- relate oneself to the future, particularly in educa- ficer cited in Waddell & Watson, 1971). tional and career objectives; and concerns about By the late 1950s and early 1960s the relocation their family members (Artichoker & Palmer, 1957, program had significantly increased the numbers of p. 33). urban Indians. However, the employment opportu- In spite of advances made in the post-World War nities for unskilled Indians in the cities were gener- II years in opportunities for Indians in higher edu- ally poor. Many of them moved into slum areas cation and increased enrollments, there was still resulting in a high rate of social problems, alcohol- much to be done to reach parity for this group. Bru- ism, and drinking-related arrests among these new bacher and Rudy (1958) wrote: urban Indians. Many of these relocatees soon left the city and returned to their rural homes with feel- If we can say, then, that the education of American Ne- ings of failure and discouragement concerning their groes has made a slow but very real progress in the years unsuccessful urban experiences. since emancipation, we must acknowledge that the col- lege training of another minority group, the American In- Although their motivating forces were somewhat elan, has been practically nonexistent in a special or different, the termination and relocation policies of distinct sense. The Bureau of Indian Affairs, the United the 1950s are related philosophically. As viewed by States government agency with the supreme authority for most Indians, they are simply parts of the overall planning an educational program for the tribes, decided long term efforts of the white society to destroy the early to terminate the schooling of Indian youth at the Indian tribal cultures and force Indians to assimilate secondary level. (p. 78)

3 Historic Antecedents of Contemporary Indian High Education 27

FollowingtheleadofHaskell,anotheroff- the fundamental needs of the Indian community, which reservation boarding school established a postsec- needs an institution of higher education both Indian con- ondary program in 1962. This institution, Santa Fe trolled and Indian centered. (p. 1) Indian School, was founded in 1890 in Santa Fe, Forbes proposed an inter-tribal, four year university New Mexico and served primarily the Indians of that would provide a wide range of educational pro- the local Pueblo tribes and Navajos to the west. grams and services designed specifically to meetthe The Institute of American Indian Arts (IAIA) is a needs of Indians. He believed it was absolutely nec- middle college boarding school offering two year essary that the institution be controlled by Native college programs to American Indians. It is the only Americans but that federal funds should support it postsecondary institution devoted to the artistic as they do Howard University which servesprimar- development of American Indians aspiring to ca- ily black Americans. In a few years, Forbes was in- reers in the arts. The recent development of this volved in founding D-Q University, a two year school unique federally funded Indian college is given in designed to meet some of the needs he listed in Chapter 4. 1966. By 1962 the estimated number of Indians enrolled The development of Indiantribalbusinesses, in colleges and universities in the United States had schools, and natural resources inthe 1960s in- reached 4,000, double the number enrolled five creased the shortage of Indian lawyers, physicians, years earlier (McGrath et al., 1962). The increase in teachers, and business managers to serve the needs Indian enrollments did not produce an equal rate of of the tribes and their members. To help meet the increase in college graduates. Only 66 American In- need for Indian lawyers, the American Indian Law dians graduated from four year colleges and univer- Center was established in 1967 at the University of sities in 1966 (Szasz, 1974). Two factors account for New Mexico. The Center provides research and most of the low proportion of enrolled Indians to training services in law and policy to Indian tribes four year graduates: (a) the high attrition of Indians and their people. Its primary purpose is the ad- in four year schools and (b) the increased atten- vancement of the interest of Indian people through dance of Indians at two year colleges. During the greater knowledge of the law and improvement of decade of the 1960s Indian high school graduates in- tribal government. In 1974 there were 85 students creased significantly,but the increase in college enrolled in this program, and 35 graduated in the graduates was not significant (HEW, 1974). 1975 academic year. One year later, 122 Indians were Two parallel studies of Indian education in the attending 41 schools of law and 47 were scheduled Northwest and Southwest regions of the country in- to complete their degrees in 1976-77 (IERC Bulletin, dicated that in the 1960s, 70% of Indian high school 1976). graduates continued their formal education. In the As of 1979, a total of 370 American Indians and Southwest 26% and in the Northwest 29% of Indian Alaska nati-,'s had graduated from law school with high school graduates during this decade were en- assistance from the Special Scholarship Program in rolled in academic college programs. Seven to 8% of Law for Native Americans. The pre-law summer court these students received college degrees (Bass, 1%9; programs have also benefited manytribal Se linger, 1968). This is not as encouraging as it ap- judges, tribal court advocates, and paralegal person- pears because in the 1960s the proportionof high nel. Each year in the late 1970s, 150 American Indi- school age Indians graduating from high school was ans and Alaska natives were receivingaid from the very low. As Astin pointed out, the mainfactor ac- Special Law Scholarship. In 1976 the American In- counting for the underrepresentation of Indians in dian Law Center (AILC) became an Indian con- higher education is the very high rate of Indian at- trolled,not-profit corporation separate from the trition at the secondary level (Astin, 1982). University of New Mexico. It was funded by govern- One of the first written proposals for a truly In- ment contracts, foundation grants, and contracts dian college was made by the historian Jack Forbes with Indian tribes and organizations. The AILC has in 1966. He wrote concerning the need for establish- carried out a number of projects since 1967 which have been of value to Indian tribes and individual ment of such an institution: Indians. As the need for legal assistance in the It is clear that although some Indians now attend public fields of business and energy resources increases, and private colleges and universities, a problem in higher the services of AILC will gain even greater impor- education still exists. No institution is designed to meet tance (Deloria, 1979). 28 Historic Antecedents of Contemporary Indian High Education

An estimated 181 Indians graduated from four of American Indian Art in Santa Fe be raised to the year colleges and universities in 1968. This was al- level of a four year school; and (c) the BIA fund an most a three-fold increase over two years earlier institute similar to IAIA in Alaska. The final higher (Szasz, 1974). Although progress was being made in education recommendation was that TitleIIIof the numbers of Indians attaining college degrees, the Higher Education Act of 1965 be amended to in- the need for educated Indians was still far from be- clude recently founded institutions on or near In- ing met. dian reservations, This final recommendation was A national investigation of Indian education was implemented providing initial funds for the estab- undertaken by a special subcommittee of the United lishment of new colleges described in Chapter II. States Senate Committee on Education in 1967. Sen- Although the changes in the BIA colleges were not ator Robert F. Kennedy was the initial chairman of implemented, the other recommendations have in- the Special Subcommittee on Indian Education. Af- fluenced federal policies and later legislation con- ter Kennedy's assassination in June 1968, his brother cerning Indian education. Senator Edward Kennedy became chairman. The The Senate Subcommittee concluded that the purpose of the Special Subcommittee was "a com- present unsatisfactory conditions in Indian educa- plete study of any and all matters pertaining to the tion, at all levels, were the result of an historic na- education of Indian children" (Senate Report 91- tional policy.Itstated that this policy had two 105). The Subcommittee report published in 1969 sources in the history of Indian-white relations: (a) was a strong condemnation of Indian education as self-righteous intolerance for tribal communities and indicated by itstitle:Indian Education: A National cultural differences and (b) a continuous desire to TragedyA National Challenge. Some of the deplor- exploit and expropriate Indian lands and resources able figures concerning Indian higher education in (Senate Report 91-105, 1969). this study were: only 18% of the students in federal Madison Coombs, a former BIA administrator, Indian schools went to college compared toa pointed out in 1970 that the Kennedy Report and national average of 50%; only 3% of the Indian other recent investigations of Indian education had students who enrolled in college graduated; the na- overemphasized failures and ignored the long range tional average was 32%; and only 1 of over 100 In- progress made in Indian education. In particular, he dian college graduates received a masters degree stated that the Kennedy Report was "wholly con- (Senate Report 91-105). demnatory of both the public and federal schools' The Special Subcommittee on Indian Education efforts to educate Indian children" (Coombs, 1970, (1969) concluded: p.1). He conceded that Indian education was far from what it should be but emphasized that there The major findings of the Meriam Report were that were significant advances which had been obscured (1) Indians were excluded from management of their own affairs and (2) Indians were receiving a poor quality of by slanted and inaccurate reports and articles. He services (especially health and education) from public of- believed that there were political reasons for some ficials who were supposed to be serving their needs. persons wanting Indian education to appear more These two findings remain as valid today as they did inadequate than it really was. In the area of higher more than forty years ago. (p. 13) education, Coombs cited the 1968-69 study con- ducted by the Northwest Educational Laboratory The recommendations of the Special Subcommit- which showed increases in the number of Indian tee were primarily concerned with elementary and high school graduates entering colleges. He also secondary education of Indians, but six of these quoted BIA enrollment figures to support progress were directly aimed at higher and postsecondary in postsecondary education of Indians. education. Two of the recommendations were to ex- Coombs makes a valid point that politicians often pand Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) scholarship want to stress the shortcomings of other administra- support for Indians in graduate study and to make tions; and Indian education is a good area in which financial need rather than place of residence the de- to do this because it plays on the guilt feelings of terminant for granting financial aid. Three recom- many liberal Americans. On the other hand, incum- mendations were concerned with federal Indian bent politicians and federal bureaucrats want their postsecondary institutions. The recommendations efforts in Indian education to appear in the best were: (a) a graduate institution of Indian languages, possible light. Therefore, almost all governmental history, and culture be established; (b) the Institute investigations and reports on Indian education must Historic Antecedents of Contemporary Indian HighEducation 29

be read with careful consideration of their period This indicates a continuance of the century-old as- in history and the possible vested interests of the similation policy with a decreasing emphasis on writers. conversion to Christianity. Whether Fischbacher was In the 1960s and 1970s the majority of writers on correct in his assessment of the effectiveness ofthis Indian welfare overemphasized the negative aspects policy and practice in assimilating the Indians is of all fedczal Indian education programs. Coombs questionable. Brewton Berry wrote in his 1968 sum- was one of the few to make a case for some progress mary concerning Indian education: having been made. Although the evidence in Indian higher education supports the view that, as of this That formal education isfailing to meet the Indians' era, the institutions and programsprovided by the needs, that there is widespread dissatisfaction with its re- federal government were inadequate, the conditions sults and that the schools are falling short of their goal of were not as bad as indicated by mostcritics who preparing the Indian to participate in American society. wanted to keep the pressure on the BIA. Progress (p. 8) had been made in the increased Indian enrollments in higher education, but the more meaningful num- It is obvious that during this period the federal bers of graduates were still too low to meet the government's provisions for Indian higher educa- needs of the tribes. All programs for Indians in tion were totally inadequate. A few federal dollars higher education were still planned and controlled were spent on assisting a handful ofIndians to at- by non-Indians making them unsatisfactory for the tend college, but the number of Indians who actu- education of western tribal Indians. ally graduated from college prior to World War II was woefully small. It is apparent that until the mid-twentieth century federal Indian officials believed secondary voca- Summary of Federal Efforts in tional education was sufficient for even the most in- Indian Higher Education, 1870-1968 tellectually able Indian youth (Brubacher & Rudy, 1958; Hoxie, 1977). This is evidenced by the fact that Haskell Junior College and IAIA were the only During the nearly one hundred years from 1870 to federal institutions of postsecondary education de- 1968,thefederal government grew increasingly veloped during this period. Nearly one hundred dominant in providing Indian education at all lev- yearsearlier,in1867, Howard University was els. The missionary schools, with a few exceptions, founded for the education of freed Blacks. The closed; and most Indian children who went to Blacks also had separate, although definitely infe- school attended public or federal schools. In higher rior, colleges in most southeastern states. The overt education the proportion of Indian students en- prejudice in higher education was generally not rolled in private schools decreased, and Indian en- as strong against Indians as Blacks,but the lack rollments in state colleges and universities grew, of responsibility on the part of the federal offi- particularly in the post-World War II years. The fed- cials and the conditions on the reservations com- eral government provided no degree granting insti- bined to make Indians the most under represented tutions for Indians until the establishmentof two minority in United States higher education (Astin, two-year collegesHaskell Indian JuniorCollege 1982). and the Institute of American Indian Art near the National studies,notably the Meriam Report end of this period. (1928), the Senate Special Subcommittee (Kennedy) Theodore Fischbacher (1967) in a study of the role report (1969), and the National Study ofIndian of the federal government in Indian education drew Education (1972) all concluded that there were great the following conclusion: inadequacies in federal Indian elementary and sec- ondary education but barely mentioned the even The writer concludes that a single purpose underlies the greater deficiencies in higher education opportuni- varyingfederalpoliciesand educationallegislation, ties among American Indians. These reports ig- namely to prepare Indians for full assimilation into the nored this important aspect of Indian education in body politic of the United States, and the government is presently employing effective educational means to help spite of the fact that as late as 1960 there were only them adjust to the dominant culture. (Fischbacher, 1967, 2,000 Indians with four-year college degrees. Of higher education abstract) course, it is impossible to attain a 30 Historic Antecedents of Contemporary Indian High Education without an adequate base at the elementary and Northeastern Oklahoma State University early in secondary levels; but even those few able Indians the twentieth century. who completed secondary education in federal In- There was a significant increase in the enroll- dian schools had few opportunities and little chance ments of Indians in higher education from the 1950s of success in higher education. Indian students who to the 1970s. The factors responsible for this increase graduated from pubic or private high schools were were: increased numbers of young Indians graduat- better prepared and had a higher rate of college at- ing from public and private secondary schools tendance and graduation. which prepared them better for college programs; Only two church related schools founded during the use by Indian veterans of the G.I. Bill; and a this period or earlier continued to provide postsec- number of tribes that initiated tribal scholarship ondary education which purportedly met the needs funds. Another major factor influencing the growth of American Indians and Alaskan natives. These are of Indian enrollments was the civil rights movement Bacone College founded in 1880 and Sheldon Jack- of the 1960s and the resulting affirmative action leg- son Junior College founded in 1878. Neither of these islation which forced colleges and universities to schools have Indian planned or managed programs seek out Indians who had the potential to attain a to meet the needs of tribal Indians. college degree. As described in this chapter, the Five Civilized In summary, this period of federal responsibility Tribes and several northeastern tribes had a long for Indian education closed with totally inadequate star ling interest in providing good formal educa- federal provisions for Indian higher education, two tion for their people. The Five Civilized Tribes es- small church related schools with white planned tablishedeffectiveschool systems and founded and managed programs, and not one postsecondary academies to meet their needs for advanced educa- institution with an Indian planned and controlled tion in the latter half of the nineteenth century. The curriculum to meet the unique needs of tribal Amer- level of education among the people of these tribes ican Indians. But the future held hope in growing and the leadership developed by these schools con- enrollments and numbers of Indian college gradu- tri.,.lited greatly to tribal welfare during this period. ates, improved secondary schools for Indians, awak- Unl'orcinately, the General Allotment Act of 1887 eningtribalinterestinhigher education, and and the subsequent loss of the tribal land base and increased public awareness of the need for better cohesiveness precluded the continued development higher education for Indians. A new era in Indian of Indian controlled higher education institutions. higher education was on the horizon, and the One example of a potentially effective Indian con- dreams of Indian centered and controlled postsec- trolledpostsecondaryinstitution was Cherokee ondary institutions for tribal Indians of the western Female Seminary founded ;n 1847 which became United States were about to be realized. Chapter

American Indian HigherEducation in the 1960s: TheBeginnings of Self Determination

The social activism in the United States during the of the west. Attempts to modify white programs 1960s publicly appeared to involve primarily Blacks were no longer seen as adequatefor the special ed- and to a lesser degree Chicanos, but it also gave im- ucational and cultural needs of Indians. Thebasic petusto major changes for American Indians. premise of white educationall persons were to Among the concerns of the leaders of western In- be assimilated into white middle class valuesand dian tribes were actions needed to improve educa- behaviorswas antithetical to tribal desires to pre- tional opportunities for their people at alllevels serve some of their culture.This long standing con- including higher education. They no longer were flictof educational objectives was the primary willing to passively accept the inadequate programs impetus for the significant changes in Indianhigher offered them at the white controlled public and pri- education. vate institutions. The advent of Indianstudies pro- In examining their current educational opportuni- grams during the 1960s was seenby some educated ties, Indian leaders concluded thatfederal funds Indians as a major step forward, but these white being expendedtosupportfederalinstitutions planned and controlled programs did nothing to and Indian programs at white public and private meet the postsecondary needs of tribes ortheir schools could be utilized in other ways tobetter members or to advance self determination in Indian serve the needs of tribal Indians.The few who were education. completing college degrees were not returning to A number of societal conditions in the decadeof theirreservations becausetheonly work that the 1960s presaged major changes in American In- allowed them to utilize their education was afew dian higher education. Foremost was the lack of sat- government jobs. This "brain drain" fromthe reser- isfaction by a majority of American Indians with the vations was depleting human resourcesand en- educational institutions of the states, federal govern- couraging some of the best and brightest toleave of their ment, and private agencies. Of all theminorities in their tribal homes and the reinforcement the United States, Indians were the mostunderrep- traditional culture. Something had to be done to resented in higher education and had the highest provide additional opportunities for meaningful em- attrition rate (Astin, 1982). These facts in themselves ployment on or near the reservations, ortribes were indications that changeshad to be made to would continue to become even moreintellectually meet the special needs of Indians,particularly those impoverished.

31 32 American Indian Higher Education in the 1960s

Black civilactivism, commencing in February the tribal group and we must make it clear that Indians 1960, influenced the thinking and actions of some can become independent of Federal control without being Indian leaders particularly in the Northern Plains. cut off from Federal concern and Federal support. (Nixon, TheAmericanIndianMovement(AIM)was 1969) founded by two Chippewa Indians, Dennis Banks This policy was formalized in 1975 by passage of and George Mitchell, in July 1968. The activism of the Self Determination and Assistance Act (PL93- AIM culminated in the occupation of the small 638) which gave support to Indians for develop- South Dakota village of Wounded Knee in February ment of postsecondary education programs on their to April 1973. Although the overall effects of the reservations. civilrights movement was not as pronounced among Indians as it was for Blacks, it did cause A national movement in postsecondary education them to be more aggressive in fighting for their which strongly influenced the form of self determi- rights in all areas including education. Initially the nation in Indian higher education in the 1960s and Indian movement was considered by some white 1970s was the rapid growth of community colleges. persons to be primarily the result of a few alienated The concept of a two-year college designed to meet urban Indians who did not represent the attitudes the needs of a particular community was being pro- of the tribal Indians on the reservations. When a moted throughout the country. It was evident to number of the respected tribal and religious leaders some Indian educators that a community college of the Northern Plains tribes joined the movement would be ideally suited to meet the needs of people during the march on Washington, both Indians and on an Indian reservation (Sando, 1969; Medicine, non-Indians began to take the movement for Indian 1975; Kickingbird, 1976). The community college in- rights more seriously. The actions at Alcatraz, the cluded both vocational training and the general or BIA office in Washington D.C., and at Wounded transfer education needed by many reservation Indi- Knee predictably alienated some whites, but it was ans who previously had not been able to travel the necessary to gain improvements in services includ- great distances necessary to obtain such studies. ing education and to get the bureaucrats to listen to The two-year colleges could offer flexible admis- the Indian demands. Not all tribal Indians agreed sions standards, remedial services, and delivery with the methods of AIM and their radical tribes- systems tailored to the circumstances peculiar to the men which resulted in bitter intratribal conflict, no- non-traditional students on isolated reservations. tably among the Oglala Sioux at Pine Ridge, South In spite of the positive influences mentioned Dakota. above, there were also significant barriers to the de- The decade of the 1960s was a period of economic velopment of Indian controlled community colleges. growth and prosperity in the United States. This af- These were lack of financial and human resources fected the Indians by increasing expansion of busi- and, to a lesser degree, inadequate physical facilities nessandindustryon manyreservations.In and difficulty in obtaining accreditation. The latter particular, the development of energy resources of two problems were overcome by most of the tribal oil, coal, and natural gas was initiated on a number colleges, but the lack of finances continued to be a of western reservations. The tribal income from serious problem for all of these schools. these sources increased the need for postsecondary In concurrence with these social changes which education to manage the development of the new significantlyinfluencedthe educationof many tribal enterprises. American Indians, several major federal legislative The national prosperity coupled with the pressure acts were passed during the latter half of the 1 ')60s from Indian and other civil rights groups promoted and early 1970s. This legislation directly aided the the passage of Title III of the Education Act of 1965 development of tribal higher education, particularly which provided funds for assisting developing insti- on the large western reservations. tutions of higher education. A related action was As previously noted, the monumental Education the support for Indian self determination by Presi- Act (PL 89-329) was enacted into law in 1965. Title dent Richard Nixon. In a September 1968 speech, he III of this act provided for the strengthening of stated: developing institutions of higher education, particu- larly those schools with high proportions of minor- We must assure the Indian that he can assume control of ity students. Most of the tribal colleges obtained his own life without being separated involuntarily from funds from this act in their early years and some American Indian Higher Education in the 1960s 33 continued to do so. A major Indian concern in the and 44 Indian tribes were represented. The average awarding of Title III funds was that few of the annual grant was $5,000 per student (HEW News, grants were made directly to tribal colleges. Most of 1976). As of 1980, the Office of Education had made the grants intended for development of tribal col- over 1,500 grants under this act. leges were made to accredited four-year schools in As previously noted, President Nixon had voiced the area (Nichols, 1979). The administrators of these support for Indian self determination in the late sponsoring schools then oversaw the funds pro- 1960s. The Indian Self Determination and Assis- vided for the tribal college's development. This re- tance Act of 1975 (PL 93-638) gave legal support flects the continued paternalistic attitude of federal to the administration's position. This act provided officials toward American Indians and the manage- that the Secretary of the Interior submit a report to ment of their education. It appeared that the Title Congress including: "a specific program, together IIIadministrators were insensitive to the educa- with detailed legislative recommendations, to assist tional needs and wishes of Indians and did not the development and administrationof Indian- judge the tribal college administrators capable of ad- controlled community colleges"(88Stat.,Sec. ministering their own funds. This caused problems 203.4). This provision had not been fully imple- in the tribal colleges receiving their funds in time to mented as of 1981. Public Law 93-638 is important make plans for future years. becauseit was later used to support legislation In 1979 a total of 25 Title III grants were made to which provided for the funding of tribally con- developing Indian programs. Seven of these were trolled colleges. This act explicitly provided for In- made to tribal colleges, three direct and four to dian self determination by stating its intent was: sponsoring non ndian schools with some Indian lb provide maximum Indian participation in the Govern- participation. The remaining 18 grants were made to ment and education of Indian people; .. . to establish a "Indian programs" at predominantly white institu- program of assistance to upgrade Indian education; and to tions. Therefore, as of 1979, the great majority of the support the right of Indian citizens to control their own Title III funds ostensibly granted for strengthening educational activities. (U.S. Stat. 88; 2203) Indian institutions were administered by whites (Nichols, 1979). This unfair condition led to restric- As of the late 1960s, powerful social, political, and tions in later legislation for the support of Indian legislative forces were at work to influence the be- colleges. In spite of the problems of non-Indian ad- ginning of self determination in American Indian ministration of their funds, Title III was important higher education. The time was ripe for the estab- in the early funding of all the tribally controlled col- lishment of the first Indian planned and managed leges when other funds were very scarce. postsecondary institutions since the academies of Another piece of federal legislation that supported the Five Civilized Tribes closed in the early years of the concept of Indian control of Indian education this century. was the Indian Education Act of 1972 (PL 92-318). Although the lack of Indian control and manage- ment of Indian education had been considered a se- The Tribally Controlled Colleges: rious problem since the Meriam Report in 1928, this Higher Education's Best Kept Secret was the first legislation to directly addressthis prob- lem. The Indian Education Act of 1972 is primarily concerned with elementary and secondary educa- Navajo Community College tion, but it does speak to the preparation of Indian teachers and other professionals. Funds provided The Navajo Tribe took a momentous step toward ed- for in the 1974 amendments of this act were appro- ucational self determination of Indians by founding priated to assist American Indian students' study in Navajo Community College (NCC) in 1968. This the field of medicine, law, education, engineering, landmark institution was an innovative means to forestry, and business. In 1976, 104 scholarships meet the long unmet postsecondary educational were granted to Indians from a poolof 800 appli- needs of tribal Indians. It was the first college estab- cants in the six fields listed above. Sixty-seven of lished by Indians, for Indians. It set a precedent for these grants were awarded to students in profes- later Indian controlled community colleges, on or sional studies and 37 to those in undergraduate pro- near western reservations. In the followingdecade, grams. Thirty-eight of the recipients were women fifteen similar colleges would be founded by other

ca . 34 American Indian Higher Education in the 1960s

Indian tribes. Margaret Szasz (1974) wrote: "The the ladder. Tell our people to take it" (Underhill, late 1960s witnessed the beginning of self determi- 1853, p. 218). For the past four decades, the Navajos nation in Indian education" (p. 156). Even she could have allocated a relatively large proportion of their not have seen how prophetic this would be for In- efforts and resources to improving educational op- dian higher education during the succeeding ten portunities for their tribal members. years. As with any significant social movement, it is a Because it was the first tribally controlled college, few dedicated leaders who step forward and initiate Navajo Community College's development deserves action. In the early 1960s, Navajo leaders began dis- some detailed discussion of the motivation for its cussing the possibility of founding their own college founding and the growth of its curriculum. In order on the reservation. Some of them had long hoped to to understand the importance and development of have a college planned and controlled by the Navajo NCC, it is necessary to have some knowledge of the People. Two tribal chairmen, Peter McDonald and Navajo reservation, its resources, and the persons Raymond Nakai, supported this movement. Other and agencies involved in the, establishment of the leaders instrumentalin planning and founding college. Most of the 25,000 square mile Navajo res- NCC were Guy Gorman, Allen Yazzie, Dillon Plat- ervation is located in northeastern Arizona, but it ero, and Ned Hatathli, who became the first Navajo also extends into the portion of Utah south of the president of NCC. Tribal Judge Chester Yellowhair, San Juan River and into the northwestern corner of Dr. Howard Gorman, and Dean Jackson were other New Mexico. The topography varies from high pla- tribal leaders deeply committed to allocating tribal teaus to low mountains and is cut by numerous ar- resources to the establishment of this unique in- royos, and elsewhere networks of deep impassible stitution. canyons. The country is generally semi-arid, but In addition to the Navajo leaders named above, heavier precipitation at higher elevations supports two other persons responsible for bringing this the growth of heavier vegetation including large dream to fruition were Robert Roessel and his wife trees. Transportation, except for a few major roads, Ruth. Robert, a non-Indian, was director of Rough is poor and communications are often unreliable. Rock Demonsration School, an experiment in Na- The great seasonal variations in temperature cause vajo self determination at the elementary level. He hardships to the many poorly housed Navajos, and is an energetic and outspoken advocate for Navajo services taken for granted in most of the country are self determination in higher education. Ruth Roes- nonexistent or unreliable at best. In spite of the sel, a Navajo with exceptionally deep understanding shortcomings of their reservation, the Navajos have of the culture of her tribe, was responsible for plan- much greater natural and human resources than ning and directing the Navajo Studies Program, other American Indian tribes. Their huge reserva- writing text materials, and later collecting materials tion contains largely undeveloped energy sources of for the future cultural center. Sanford Kravitz and coal, oil, natural gas, and uranium. The 180,000 Na- Richard Boone, two Office of Economic Opportunity vajos along with other native people in the area are (OEO) officials, were strong supporters of Navajo becoming a political force. Politicians can no longer self determination in education and were instru- ignore their Indian constituents, and more Indians mental in obtaining initial OEO funding for Navajo are seeking and gaining public office. Community College. The Navajo Tribe allocated The Navajos on the reservation are employed pri- $25,000tothe college and agreedto continue marily in livestock raising, farming, unskilled labor, support. and tribal or federal government jobs. Unemploy- From its inception, Navajo Community College ment is very high, the overall educational level is was an independent institution. It was not, as were low, and many families are below the poverty level. later tribal schools, tied to a sponsoring institution The isolated geographical setting and lack of acces- of higher learning. Assistance and advice were ob- sible educational services determined to a great ex- tained from the staffs at Northern Arizona Univer- tent the need for postsecondary resources and the sity and Arizona State University (ASU)-Tempe. form they have taken at NCC. Faculty at ASU wrote a supportive feasibility study The Navajos have a long history of dedication to for the Navajo Tribe in 1966, but there was no offi- education for their people. A few days before his cial affiliation with this institution. death in 1893, the great head chief, Hastiin Ch'il Haa- From 1968 to 1971, Navajo Community College jin (Manuelito) said: "My grandchild, education is was funded by OEO grants, Title III money, appro- American Indian Higher Education in the 1960s 35

Ned Hatathli Cultural Center Navajo Community College Tsai le, Arizona, 1982

priations from the Navajo Tribe and small grants In 1973, the college moved to its new permanent from private agencies. The college shared facilities campus at Tsai le in the mountains of northeastern with the Bureau of Indian Affairs secondary school Arizona. The campus is on 1,200 acres in a beautiful at the small town of Many Farms for five years. The isolated setting with the Lukachukai Mountains to enrollment grew and NCC soon outgrew its tempo- the east and the spectacular canyons and prehistoric rary location. Anasazi ruins of Canyon de Chelly nearby. A major step was taken in the financial stability of The Tsai le campus was designed in accordance NCC in 1971 with the passage of the Navajo Com- with traditional Navajo beliefs and customs. Most of munity College Assistance Act (PL 89-192). This act the permanent buildings are eight-sided to reflect provided that federal funds be authorized for sup- the traditional octagonal Navajo dwelling known port of a community college for members of the as a hogan. The main building, theNed Hatathli tribe and other qualified persons. Funds were ap- Cultural Center, is an impressive six story octagonal propriated for operating costs and for construction building covered with panels of copper colored of facilities on a permanent campus. Although the glass. This building dominates the campus, and its funds allocated were not sufficient to fully support modern materials contrast with a nearby log and the operation of NCC, PL 89-192 set a precedent for sod hogan used for healing ceremonies (photo). federal funding of a tribally controlled college and The Cultural Center, named for the late president made NCC more fiscally stable. Ned Hatathli, houses offices, meeting rooms, class- 36 American Indian Higher Education in the 1960s rooms, a museum covering two floors, and a repos- in the 1980s, grew and strengthened its faculty, stu- itory for sacred Navajo paraphenalia and recordings dents and programs. of chants. The college library, also octagonal, con- Lloyd L. House (1974), in his history of NCC, tains a modest but well organized collection of stressed that if the college was to attain its goals it materials. Resident students are housed in ten oc- must be controlled by Navajos. President Jackson's tagonal residence halls, each accommodating thirty administration worked toward developing a compe- students. The Tsai le campus is isolated from popu- tent Navajo administrative staff, but he did not be- lation centers; in fact, there is no town near the site lieve an exclusively Navajo administration or faculty and few services are available. The nearest town, was best for Navajo Community College. Chin le, Arizona, is twenty-five miles to the south- Published enrollment figures for NCC are often west near the mouth of Canyon de Chelly. Al- inaccurate and lack consistency in various reports though the isolation at Tsai le poses transportation and publications, but it is evident that the college problems for students and staff, the setting is con- grew significantly in its first de ,de. The best esti- ducive to study and has a religious significance for mates of Fall enrollments indicate an increase in the Navajos. student headcount Iron,11 in 1969 to 1,097 in 1978 Robert Roessel, former director of the Rough Rock (NCC, 1988). Some enrollment reports mix Fall en- Demonstration School, was named founding presi- rollments with totals for Spring and Fall which con- dent of NCC in 1968. Roessel was judged to be the fuse the reader. The reported enrollment in Fall of best person available to lead the school through its 1986 was a headcount of 1,640 students (NCC, first year. Ruth Roessel directed the college's Navajo 1988). Of the total, 470 were full-time and approxi- Studies Program for the first two years. mately 80% were American Indians. The increase in In 1969, Ned Hatathli, a Navajo leader supported the proportion of non-Indians enrolled at NCC may by Roessel, succeeded him as president of Navajo indicate an increased respect for the college among Community College. He proved to be an effective Anglo persons. Table 2 provides the headcount en- administrator leading the college through its early rollment figures obtained from Pres. Dean Jackson years.President Hatathlistressedthenecessity in 1988. of Navajo controlofthe NCC administration. He stated: Table 2 Navajo Community College Enrollment The Anglos should not be in the driver's seat. They should not be the ones directing and controlling this col- 1969-1988 lege. Most Anglos will find it very difficult to be satisfied Year Spring Fall Total in a relationship which places them in an advisory capac- ity and not in a decision making role. (Hatathli, N., April 1969 301 311 612 21, 1970 ) 1970 453 498 951 1971 438 495 933 Roessel continued to be active and influential at 1972 523 563 1086 NCC during Hatathli's tenure. He served the col- 1973 387 412 799 lege in fund raising and promotion. Unfortunately, 1974 677 736 1413 President Hatathli died suddenly in 1972. His death 1975 1014 1099 2113 1976 1177 1500 2677 deprived the Navajo Tribe of one of its best educa- 1977 1700 944 2644 tional leaders. Hatathli's successors were Thomas 1978 990 1097 2087 Atcitty and Donald McCabe, both Navajos. Their 1979 1776 1609 3385 administrations saw the college grow in enroll- 1980 2222 2.074 4296 ments, but ended in turmoil caused by low faculty 1981 2744 1221 3965 1982 1991 1419 3410 and student morale. In 1979, Dean Jackson was ap- 1983 1747 1356 .3103 pointed the fourth permanent president of NCC. 1984 2077 1502 3579 Jackson's education, experience, and personality 1985 2214 1330 3544 prepared him well to serve as the leader of NCC. 1986 1827 1640 3467 His administration began with high hopes that the 1987 1842 1786 3728 school would become more stable and that morale 1988 1865 1405 .3270 would improve. The next few years showed that Source Jackson, Dean C 116 Nov 19ii8) Navaho Community College, Isin le, NCC, in spite of the problems of higher education Arizona American Indian Higher Education in the 1960s 37

In 1981, 68 persons received associate degrees and tinuing their education is high, but less than20% 50 were awarded certificates in non-degree pro- have attained degrees. However, considering that grams at NCC. This compares to atotal of seventeen many of the top Navajo highWool graduates ma- degrees and certificates a decade earlier in 1971. triculate at other colleges and that some of the per- Much of the increase in enrollment and graduates in sons studied still had time tograduate this may not the late 1970s and early 1980s is attributable to the be too low. The fact that one-half of thegraduates opening of a branch of NCC at Shiprock, New Mex- are in education and 78% havereturned to the res- ico in 1973. In the Fall of 1975, 270 students were ervation indicates that NCC is contributing tothe enrolled at the Shiprock Branch (NCC, 1976). In ad- need for more Navajo teachers. As of 1980 only 5% dition to the students at Shiprock, a number of Ute of the 6,000 teachers on the reservation wereNa- Mountain Ute Indians attended classes held on their vajo, so there is still much to be done to increase reservation at Towaoc, Colorado. In spite of these self determination in the schools serving Navajo extension efforts, Navajo Community College, asof children (Kidder, 29 May 1984). the early 1980s, was still primarily a centralizedin The degrees and certificates offered at NCC are stitution as opposed to the dispersed organization reflective of the needs of the Navajo Tribe and its established at most of the succeeding tribally con- members. Associate of Arts and Associate ofScience trolled colleges. degrees are offered in the following areas of study: The primary criteria of success of an institution of allied health sciences, studio arts, arts and humani- higher education is how well it is attaining its stated ties, secretarial, business administration, and spe- objectives. The objectives of Navajo Community cial education. Associate of Applied Science degrees College as listed in the 1975-77 Catalog were to pro- are available in automotivemechanics, and certifi- vide: basic programs for students who plan to go on cates of proficiency in several other vocationalfields to a bachelor's degree; vocational-technicaltraining (NCC Catalog, 1975-77). The vocational programs programs; community servicesand development; did not prosper in the 1970s and early 80s for sev- assistance and consultation to the public, church, eral reasons. The major deterrent was that theyhad BIA pro- and BIA schools and organizations; encouragement strong competition from off-reservation to Indian students to develop and preserve apride grams that were more attractive to youngNavajos in their heritage; and service as a center forthe de- (House, 1974). In addition to the regular two-year velopment of Indian culture with emphasis on the and certificate programs, NCC provided thefollow- Resource Navajo (p. 9).It is important to note how similar ing special programs and services: Navajo these objectives are to those of later tribally con- Center, Community Service, Career Opportunities trolled colleges. This may be the result of the influ- Program (COP), and Navajo CommunityCollege ence of NCC's statement on laterschools or indica- Press. tive of the similar unmet postsecondary needsof An important aspect of any educationalinstitu- other western tribes. As of 1982, there were notsuf- tion is the characteristics of its students. Aswould ficient data to determine how well all of theseobjec- be expected, Navajo Community Collegestudents tives were being met, but some can beexamined. are unique in several ways.Although the college A follow-up study of persons whograduated does not discriminate on the basis of race, sex,reli- from NCC from 1970 to 1980 provides data onthe gion or ethnic background, as of 1984, 80% ofthe 859 graduates during this period. Of the 750(87.3%) students were American Indians, 17% were white, who continued their formal education, 50% trans- and Hispanics, Blacks, and Asians made up the re- ferred to schools in Arizona. Approximately140 maining 3%. This was an increase of whitesfrom (18.7%) attained bachelor's degrees, 11 (1.5%) mas- the earlier years of the college. The students atNCC ters, 1 doctorate, and 1 medical degree.A total of are older than traditionalundergraduates. Few Na- 78% had returned to the Navajo Reservation,and vajos enter NCC directly from high school. Most en- the majority (50.5%) were employed in thefield of ter after attending another college orworking for a education (U.S. House Subcommittee on Postsec- few years. In the mid 1970s, the college was not ondary Education, 1983). Without previousbaseline highly thought of by most academically-oriented of data itis difficult to determine how well NCC is Navajo high school graduates (House, 1974). As meeting its objective of providing generaleducation 1983, the school's reputation had improved some, of programs for students whoplan to go on for further but it was still working to gain full confidence education. The proportion of NCC graduates con- the Navajo People (Kidder, 29 May 1984). 38 American Indian Higher Education in the 1960s

The great majority of Navajo students at NCC equivalent Indian students enrolled. Recalculation come from homes far below the national poverty of the FTE at Navajo Community College reduced level and from families whose formal education is the full-time Indian enrollment to 793 warranting very limited. Considering the high rate of unem- an allocation of only $2,500,000. Although NCC was ployment on the reservation,itis not surprising not required to return funds, the full-time equiva- that few of the students at NCC can payany signif- lent Indian enrollment in 1981 qualified NCC foran icant part of the cost of their education. Nearly all allocation of only $3,172,000. As of 1988, the alloca- of the students qualify for federal grants and/or tion from Public Law 95-471 was approximately loans, and Navajo tribal grants assist those whocan- $4,000,000. The allocations from PL 95-471 have not not qualify for federal aid. been sufficient to fully fund NCC, but it haspro- In spite of the barriers mentioned above, many of vided a more stable funding base. the students at NCC are accomplishing their two A major milestone in the development of Navajo major goals of vocational preparation for survival in Community College was its attainment of accredita- the world of today and a reinforcement of their tra- tion by the North Central Association of Schools ditional Navajo culture. The courses in Navajo lan- and Colleges in 1976.It became the first tribally guage, Navajo history and culture, Navajo arts and controlled institution to be fully accredited as a two- crafts, and Navajo psychology provide the opportu- year college (AIHEC Newsletter, 1976). This endorse- nity for young people to learn about and gainan ment aided students in receiving financial aid and appreciation for their rich cultural heritage. Navajo in transferring credits to four-year schools. The self- Community College provides a postsecondary set- study required for this accreditation gave the college ting where the Indian student may see his heritage a more sharply focused direction and was encourag- as an integral part of the curriculum. This is one of ing to the faculty and staff. The fears of some per- the most significant results of this first attempt at sons at NCC that they would have to give up their self determination in Indian higher education. The uniqueness to become accredited provedto be college is also providing valuable leadership experi- unwarranted. This accreditation encouraged other ences for the future leaders of the Navajo Nation. tribal schools that they too, could become accredited The major obstacles to NCC's fulfilling its poten- while retaining their unique characteristics. tial over the years have been lack of funding and the In addition to the lack of funding and the time conflicts in administrative decision making. From and expense to become accredited, other problems 1971 to 1978 the college was funded through annual beset NCC during its first decade. These included appropriations from the U.S. Congress under the lack of variety in curricular offerings, poor morale Navajo Community College Assistance Act, Office among some non-Indian faculty, and the high rate of Economic Opportunity grants, allocations from of turnover in faculty and administration. The latter the Navajo Tribe, and decreasing donations from situation was the most serious because it affected private agencies. Funding has been an annual crisis the operation of the entire college. The college had at NCC, making it impossible to make any long four presidents and one acting president in its first range plans. Some faculty and staff did not know nine years. This lack of continuity at the top level whether or not they would be reemployed for the was partly due to the inexperience of the Navajo ad- next academic year until late spring or summer. ministratorsinhigher education administration. In 1978, through the efforts of tribal leaders and There was also a high rate of turnover among fac- educators with the coordination of the American In- ulty. In 1978, there were sixty-one faculty at NCC, dian Higher Education Consortium, the United twenty-eight of whom resigned during the 1977-78 States Congress passed Public Law 95-471, the Trib- academic year (Roessel, 1979). It was also evident ally Controlled Community College Assistance Act. that the NCC Board of Regents had become too in- This act provided for the appropriation of funds for volved in the daily administration of the college and all qualified tribally controlled colleges based on the that politics and nepotism had adversely influenced number of full-time equivalent Indian students en- the selection and performance of the administrators, rolled at each school. as well as other administrative decisions. The NCC Since the first funds were received from PL 95- Board of Regents is composed entirely of Navajos 471 in 1980, it has been an important source of sup- including several members of the Tribal Council and port for the first tribal college. In the first year 1980, the president of the NCC student body. The chair- NCC received $6,405,000 based on 1,600 full-time man of the Navajo Tribal Council strongly influ- American Indian Higher Education in the1960s 39 enced the members of the Board of Regentsand Conversely, there are some Navajos, particularly therefore the major decisions made by theboard. younger more assimilated persons,who agree that The president and the board made nearlyall of NCC should offer and promote Navajo studies,but the decisions, leaving little authority for thefaculty. that top priority should be given to academicskills Faculty, particularly those who had taught at other and knowledge that will prepare the students to colleges, were dismayed at the lack of faculty partic- compete in the white world beyond the reservation. ipation in decision making at NavajoCommunity They believe the future of the Navajo people isde- pendent upon an education for some degree of as- College. The majority of the faculty and staff at NCChave similation. In order to accomplish this, top priority worked diligently over the years to overcomethe must be placed on academic skillssuch as reading, problems mentioned above and should be given writing and mathematics so the students can go on credit for the progress in surmounting thebarriers to higher levels of education andvocational prepa- to reaching the school's goals. In spiteof usually ration. If Navajos qualified to teach thesesubjects short tenures, and lack of power, most administra- are not available, non-Indiansshould be employed. tors, Navajo and non-Indian, have mademajor con- Between these two extremes is a middle position tributions to the institution and its students.The that is the official public view of NCC and someof staff at NCC had an impact beyond theircollege its faculty and administration. Thisposition holds through preparation of materials for use atother that cultural reinforcement and preparation to con- the dominant tribalcolleges. The Navajo Community College tinue education and be competitive in materials for culture are not mutually exclusive. NavajoCommu- Press pioneered in the publication of of two use in the study of theNavajos. nity College can offer its students the best Over the years at NCC an underlying issuehas worlds. Dean Jackson shared this view. Hedid not divided the faculty, staff, and students resultingin see the transmissionof traditional culture and a disagreement and a dilution of effort toward a uni- solid curriculum as necessarily being inconflict. In He saw fied mission. The issue concerns how muchempha- fact, he felt they could support each other. sis should be placed on Navajo culturalstudies the primary mission of the college as meetingthe academic prepara- unique needs of the Navajos including the needof versus studies which emphasize English and tion for further education in thedominant white the majority for remedial courses in culture. Navajos who support the view thatpriority mathematics. In keeping with this positionJackson history, re- did not propose an all Navajo faculty becauseNCC should be given to the study of the art, and non- ligion, and psychology of the Navajo people saythat students need to learn from both Navajos the knowledge and values of the whitemajority are Navajos (Kidder, 29 May 1984). available at any one of a thousand collegesin the This is an age old issue for cultureswhich exist country. If NCC is to best serve itspeople, it must within a dominant culture. Within someAmerican is Indian tribes it has resulted in a split betweenthe provide what is not available at other schools, and Hopis being taught in increasingly fewer Navajofamilies. traditionals and the progressives. Among the Therefore, they support Navajo Studies as the top it caused groups to split into separatevillages. The priority and believe it should be requiredof all stu- Navajo People have a long history ofadaptation dents at NCC. As would be expected, they want a to other cultures, and it is likelythat this issue will Community faculty and administration composed mainlyof Na- be resolved without a division. Navajo vajos who are well versed in the Navajoculture. College has an opportunity to provide acurriculum who have that enables the Navajo student toreinforce his/her Some look down on acculturated Navajos in the not been raised in the traditional manner.One man cultural heritage while preparing for a future herded dominant white culture. told the writer that a man who had not Navajo sheep as a boy was not a real Navajo.They hold Outside the Navajo reservation and tribe, that the college should be operated inaccordance Community College has set a precedentthat gives also establish a with Navajo beliefs and values and notcontrolled by hope to other tribes that they may white traditions of higher education. Thisview has community collegeto meet the needs of their strong support among olderNavajos who have people. As of the mid-1980's, NCC was thelargest much power on the reservation plus sometradi- and best supported tribal college, butother younger about schools were thriving and meeting theneeds of tional younger persons who are concerned NCC in the loss of the Navajo language and customs. their people as well. The pattern set by 40 American Indian Higher Education in the 1960s

1968 and the development of the later tribally con- Oglala Lakota College trolled colleges is described in the remainder of this chapter. In contrast to NCC which started as an independent institutionwithlittleoutsideassistance,Oglala Sioux Community College (OSCC) had considerable Tribal Colleges of the Sioux Tribes help from other schools and individuals. In 1969, the Oglala Sioux Tribe invited staff members from During the 1960s, the social and political pressures the University of Colorado (CU) at Boulder to serve previously mentioned in regard to the Navajos were as consultants and resource persons for the develop- influencing the educational plans on other western ment of a community college on their reservation. reservations. The tribes which next considered fol- Three of the CU staff members who were most ac- lowing the example of the Navajos in rounding their tive in the planning and establishment of the college own community colleges were those on the large were Bob Hunter, Phil Roose, and Howard Higman. sparsely settled reservations in the Northern Plains. By the summer of 1970, college courses were being Among these were four Sioux groups in North Da- offered at a CU branch campus on the Pine Ridge kota and South Dakota which started plans for a col- Reservation. This branch evolved into OSCC. lege concurrently with the Navajo. The first two One of the persons most responsible for the founded after NCC were Oglala Sioux Community founding of OSCC was Gerald One Feather who College, founded as the Lakota Higher Education was serving as tribal president in 1971. He and a Center at Pine Ridge in 1970, and Sinte Gleska Col- few other members of the tribe had dreamed of hav- lege established by the Rosebud Sioux in1971. ing their own college to serve the postsecondary These two schools have similar goals, missions, and needs of their people. When this dream became a histories reflecting the similar conditions and post- reality in 1970, One Feather was named the found- secondary needs of the Oglala Sioux and Rosebud ing president. He was succeeded by Thomas Short- (Sicanju) Sioux on their adjacent reservations in bull who served for four years; Elgin Bad Wound southern South Dakota. became the third president in 1979. These colleges differ from NCC in that they were The first board of trustees of the college consisted developed with a dispersed format for delivery of of Birgil Kills Straight, Hattie Twiss, Helmut Jacobs, postsecondary programs and services to their peo- Ray Howe, and Norman Rogers. These persons ple. Rather than having a central residential campus worked hard to establish the new college for the as NCC has at Tsai le, they have an administrative tribe. Off the reservation, Dr. Keith Jewett, Aca- headquarters with a few educational facilities, but demic Dean at Black Hills State College, Spearfish, the majority of the classes and services are dis- South Dakota, was strongly supportive of the Oglala persed in learning centers throughout the reserva- Sioux in their efforts to develop their own college. tion. This plan iswell suitedto their sparsely He worked out a bilateral agreement whereby the populated reservations with poor roads and little OSCC could offer classes for credit through Black public transportation. This system brings the pro- Hills State College. In the early years, the OSCC grams close to the residences of most of the tribal administratorsalsoestablishedaffiliationswith members and makes an expensive residential cam- South Dakota State University, Brookings, and the pus unnecessary. The most serious shortcomings of University of South Dakota, Vermillion. These affil- a dispersed system are the difficulty of providing iations set the pattern for the development of all needed educational resources and facilities at all of succeeding tribally controlled community colleges. the learning centers. For example, it is not feasible In accordance with its system of decentralized de- to offer laboratory and some vocational programs at livery of postsecondary education, OSCC offers each of the learning centers, and adequate libraries courses at nine 'ollege centers distributed through- are not available at all centers. Therefore, some pro- out the reservation. Only the science laboratories grams and services must be centralized at one or are centralized at the headquarters building on two sites. It also complicates the coordination of fac- Three Mile Creek near the town of Kyle, South Da- ulty and programs. In spite of these disadvantages, kota. The modern headquarters building is an at- the dispersed system of delivery has proved to be tractive structure set away from other buildings the most effective for the people and conditions of (photo). It was originally planned to house the BIA the Rosebud and Pine Ridge Reservations. offices, the Oglala Sioux tribal administration, and

r 4 American Indian Higher Education in the 1960s 41

Piya Wiconi Oglala Sioux Community College Three Mile Creek, South Dakota, 1982

OSCC; but when the former two agencies withdrew Oglala Sioux Community College grew rapidly in from this agreement, the college fell heir to the en- enrollment during its first decade of operation. The tire building. The center at Three Mile Creek is total enrollment at all college centers grew from 150 named Piya Wiconi in the Lakota language which part-time students in 1970 to 100 full-time students translates to "new beginnings" in English. This re- and 203 part-time students in 1973. By 1978 there fers to the new opportunities offered by the commu- was a total headcount of 368 students ofwhom nity college to the Oglala Sioux people. The Piya 319 were Indians. In the Fall of 1982, the total Wiconi Center was designed by Sioux architect Den- headcount had reached 665 of whom 90% were nis Sun Rhodes who emphasized circular forms American Indians (National Center for Educational rather than straight lines and angles. Rhodes (1980) Statistics, 1984). stated: Associate degrees were offered in the following areas of study: general studies, social sciences,agri- The circle, a derivative of the earth, is the symbul of con- culture, home living, business, education, Lakota tinuance, rejuvenation, and renewal. Like the earth it has studies, psychiatric technology, and registered nurs- a connotation of goodness and wholeness . . . Indians have a revulsion to walls, square boxes and especially cor- ing. A GED diploma program was also available for ners. When Indians begin to live in squareboxes they will non-high school graduates. no longer be Indians. (President's Report,1980, p. 8) In 1978, OSCC attained candidacy for accredita- 42 American Indian Higher Education in the 1960s tion status with the North Central Association of leges but are broader and somewhat more ambitious Colleges and Schools enabling the college to offer than those of the other schools. credit and associate degrees. The final step in ac- As with the other tribal colleges, Oglala Lakota creditation took place in 1983 when the North Cen- College has had serious difficulty in obtaining suffi- tralAssociation granted OSCC the authority to cient funding to meet its objectives in serving the grant four-year bachelor's degrees. The name of the Oglala Sioux people. It has had to rely mainly on a college was changedtoOglala Lakota College variety of federal programs and grants plus some (OLC) to reflect its move to four-year status. At the support from the Oglala Sioux Tribe, and small 1982 spring graduation, Rhonda Two Eagle, the first grants from private sources. In fiscal year 1980, the student to receive a bachelor's degree from OLC college received $833,703 from PL 95-471 based on a graduated in elementary education. The courses she full-time Indian student equivalent of 282 students. took on the Pine Ridge Reservation were accredited This appropriation provided the college a significant through an agreement with Black Hills State Col- increase in its funding and enabled it to provide lege. At this graduation 28 students received Asso- new services and programs (Olivas, 1981). ciate of Arts degrees, 8 were awarded nursing certificates, 22 attained vocational certification, and 112 earned GED diplomas. This total of 171 persons Sinte Gleska College who reached their educational goals was impressive evidence of the contributions OLC was making to Sinte Gleska College, founded by Rosebud (Sicanju) the Indian and non-Indian residents of the Pine Sioux on their reservation in 1971 has a similar his- Ridge Reservation (OSCC Graduation Program, tory and objectives to its slightly older neighbor at 1982). Pine Ridge. Sinte Gleska (Spotted Tail in English) Oglala Lakota College is one of the few tribally was a noted chief of the (Sicanju) Band of the Sioux. controlled colleges to have any systematic follow-up The college was named for him because of his con- data on its graduates. During the period 1974 to tributions to the tribe and the sacrifices he made 1981, 163 persons received two-year degrees from during the difficult transition from the nomadic OSCC. Of these, 85% were women and 89% were hunting existence to life on the reservation. American Indians. Education, nursing, and general As early as the 1950s, the need for postsecondary studies had the largest percentage of the total grad- education on the Rosebud Reservation was evident uates with 37%, 24%, and 15%, respectively. A to the Sioux leaders. The dropout rate of Sioux stu- follow-up of these graduates showed that 30, or dents attending off reservation colleges was exces- 18%, of them went on to receive bachelor's degrees sively high. Tribal leaders realized that a bridge was and four, or 2%, had attained master's degrees. Of needed between the reservation secondary schools the 39 nursing graduates, 24 had passed the Regis- and the off reservation colleges and universities. tered Nurse State Board Examination (OSCC Gradu- The nearest state fo'ir year college was 240 miles ation Survey Statistics, 1981). Comparing these data from Rosebud, and the difference in culture be- with the high attrition rate of Oglala Sioux students tween the reservation and the predominantly white who attend off-reservation institutions indicates that campus was even greater. The local people needed the persistence is much higher at this tribally con- academic and social preparation to increase their trolled college. The purposes of OLC are. to provide chances of success in a strange and sometimes hos- adequately prepared human resources to serve the tile environment. tribe; to prepare the students to earn a livelihood; to In 1966, a proposal was written by members of the provide a Lakota perspective through the entire cur- Rosebud Sioux Tribe to found a community college riculum and as a separate field of study; to conduct on the reservation, but it was not until 1969 that ac- research, as far as resources allow, in the Lakota tion was initiated to establish such an institution. A language and culture; to raise academic standards committee composed of staff members from the among students and faculty while continuing an University of Minnesota, Notre Dame, and the Uni- open enrollment; and, finally, to contribute to com- versity of South Dakota assisted tribal members in munity development needs on thereservation the initial planning. The local persons who were (OSCC, 1981-1982). These purposes are similar to most instrumental in founding Sinte Gleska College Navajo Community College and the later tribal col- and/or served on the first staff were Stanley Red F' American Indian Higher Education in the 1960s 43

Administration Building Sinte Gleska College Rosebud, South Dakota, 1982 Bird, Lionel Bordeaux, Gerald Mohatt, Lester Two postsecondary education on the Rosebud Reserva- Hawk, James Tydings, Isadore White Hat, Joe Mar- tion. In the first few years, most of the students at- shall, and Sherry White Owl. tended part-time.In 1973, of atotal headcount It was hoped that a postsecondary education in- enrollment of about 300, only 52 were full-time. The stitution on the reservation would increase the first graduation ceremony was held for two students number of educated Rosebud Sioux who would re- in August 1973 (Center of Indian Studies, BlackHills main on their reservation to contribute to their tribe State College, n.d.). A total of 337 students were en- and its members. Prior to this time, work opportu- rolled at Sinte Gleska in 1977-78. The numberof nities for educated Indians on the reservation were full-time students increased from 105 in 1977 to157 limited to a few federal positions. in 1981, and the total enrollment in the fallof 1982 Sinte Gleska College serves an area composedof was 246, of whom 81.7% wereAmerican Indians four large counties in south-central South Dakota.In (National Center for Educational Statistics, 1984). 1971, the first year courses were taught atSinte Although Sinte Gleska College was founded pri- Gleska, these counties had a population of approxi- marily as a two-year college, its founders did not mately 23,000 persons of whom 7,500 were Indians. limit its mission or curriculum to two-year pro- One-half of the Indian population was under six- grams. From its inception, it was seen as aschool to teen years of age, indicating the futureneed for meet the postsecondary educationalneeds of the 44 American Indian Higher Education in the 1960s

Rosebud Sioux and other residents of the reserva- The funds from these two sources totaled 36% of the tion at whatever levels of education it could pro- revenue for Sinte Gleska in fiscal year 1977, but by vide. Four-year degrees were seen as a definite 1982 they had decreased to 16%. As shown in Table possibility and, perhaps, even graduate work in the 3, Sinte Gleska received $551,851 from PL 95-471 in future. fiscal year 1980 which was 37% of the total operating Sinte Gleska developed a dispersed delivery sys- budget for that year. These data show how depen- tem for its educational programs similar to that at dent Sinte Gleska College is on federal funding and nearby OSCC. Classes were offered in communities recently on PL 95-471 in particular. on and near the Rosebud Reservation, including the Sinte Gleska differs from other tribally controlled town of Rosebud where the administrative offices colleges in the character of its faculty and programs. were located in an old Indian agency building The faculty at Sinte Gleska in the early 1980s had a (photo). Most of the physical facilities are old and strong humanistic orientation. The administration poorly maintained. and staff wanted to go beyond training persons for The college faculty and administration see the in- jobs to develop leaders who were divergent thinkers stitution as going far beyond the traditional voca- and excelled as analytical problem solvers.It was tional emphasis of a community college. The major expected that this form of education would prepare efforts he college are placed on transfer educa- them to be the type of leader needed by the Rose- tion, cultural reinforcement, and service to the tribe bud people in the years ahead. The faculty members and community. at Sinte Gleska placed more emphasis on research In the late 1970s, the college offered Associate of and publication than did those at other tribally con- Arts degrees in several fields, an associate degree in trolled colleges. The faculty has made contributions nursing, and bachelor's degrees through the Univer- in the areas of language and mental health and has sity of South Dakota. The first Associate of Arts de- worked with the medicine men on the Rosebud Res- grees were granted in 1973. In the spring of 19'79, 36 ervation (Mohatt, 1982). A major strength of Sinte persons received Associate of Arts degrees. Two Gleska since its founding has been an exceptionally Sinte Gleska bachelor's graduates had received mas- well-qualified faculty who have worked diligently to ter's degrees, one was in a doctoral program, and provide good educational programs and services. one in law school as of 1980. Many Sinte Gleska Col- The attrition rate of Indian students at Sinte Gleska lege graduates have remained on the reservation. College in 1982 was 13% to 28% as compared to 50% They are primarily employed by tribal programs, among Indian students at off-reservation colleges Bureau of Indian Affairs, Indian Health Services, lo- and universities. This is indicative of the success of cal schools, and Sinte Gleska College (Center of In- Indian students at Sinte Gleska and probably other dian Studies, Black Hills State College, 1979). tribal colleges for which retention data are not avail- In 1983, Sinte Gleska College became fully accred- able (Sink Gleska Self-Study, 1982). ited as a four-year college by the North Central As- These first two Sioux tribal colleges set a pattern sociation of Colleges and Schools. It was the first for the establishment of such institutions by other tribally controlled college to be accredited at both Northern Plains tribes. These tribes do not have the the baccalaureate and associatelevels(Wassaja, natural or human resources of the Navajo Tribe and 1983). This was an important milestone in the his- have somewhat different educational and cultural tory of tribally controlled colleges as it set a prece- needs. Their pioneering in the establishment of bi- dent for other schools. Oglala Lakota College also lateral agreements with sponsoring institutions of received four-year accreditation later the same year. higher education facilitated accreditation, the trans- Until 19's 3, Sinte Gleska College received most of fer of their students to four-year schools, and the ac- its funding from a variety of small federal grants quisition of educational resources. Oglala Lakota and educational programs. After 1980 appropria- College and Sinte Gleska College were also the first tions from PL 95-471 became by far the largest sin- two-year tribal colleges to become accredited to offer gle source of funding. Funds from PL 93-638, the four-year bachelor's degrees. Self Determination and Educational Assistance Act To the north of Pine Ridge and Rosebud are two of 1975, supported the Adult Basic Education (ABE) other large Sioux reservations with similar environ- program at the college; and monies authorized by ments and educational needs. These are the Stand- the Synder Act, 1921, were budgeted and allocated ing Rock Sioux Reservation in North Dakota and through the contracting provisions of PL 93-638. South Dakota and the nearby Cheyenne River Sioux American Indian Higher Education in the 1960s 45

Standing Rock Sioux Skill Center Standing Rock Community College Ft. Yates, North Dakota, 1982

Reservation in northwestern South Dakota. During Rock Community College (SRCC). With the assis- the 1960s, leaders of these tribes were discussing the tance of the staff of the Division of Continuing Ed- postsecondary needs of their people and closely fol- ucation of BJC, a learning center was established on lowing the development of Navajo Community Col- the reservation at Fort Yates (Standing Rock Commu- lege and the two Sioux tribal colleges to the south. nity College Catalog, 1977). Among the tribal leaders who worked in the early years to develop the community college wereDavid Standing Rock Community College Gipp, Bernard White, Elvina Gray Bear, and Imo- gene Blue Earth. Dr. Jack Barden, a non-Indian,also In the 1950s and 1960s, several colleges and univer- made valuable contributions to the establishment of sities in North Dakota were offering courses on the Standing Rock Community College as well as other Standing Rock Sioux Reservation. As there was little Indian colleges. coordination of these courses into programs, tribal The large Standing Rock Sioux Reservation strad- leaders saw a need to have a centralized system of dles the North Dakota-South Dakota state line west higher education on their reservation. The Commu- of the Missouri River. The Indians at Standing Rock nity College Committee was formed on the reserva- are from four bands of the Dakota andLakota Sioux. tion in 1971 with representatives of the Standing The Dakota people live primarily in the North Rock Community Action Committee, Bureau of In- Dakota portion of the reservation and the Lakota dian Affairs, Headstart, Public Health Service, and in the southern portion. In 1981, 7,958 American the Standing Rock Siodx Tribal Council. One of the Indians lived on the Standing Rock Sioux Reserva- colleges which had been offering classes on the res- tion, and a nearly equal number of non-Indians ervation since 1968, Bismarck Junior College (BJC), lived on or near the Indian lands. The four bands to was chosen to assist in the developmentof Standing which most of the Indian residents of the reserva- 46 American Indian Higher Education in the 1960s tion belong, are the Yankton, Yanktoni, Oglala, and The conditions that motivated the founding of Hunkpapa. SRCC were similar to those at NCC and the two Classes commenced at the Fort Yates Learning earlier Sioux colleges. Many Indians at Standing Center in the fall of 1972 with a total of 95 students Rock could not leave their reservation homes to pur- enrolled. Although classes were initiated in 1972, sue a postsecondary education, and most of those the college did not officially open until July 1973. In who did leave and attained their educational goals 1972 the name of the institution was changed to did not return. In spite of this, the Standing Rock Standing Rock Community College. SRCC is in the Sioux Tribe has produced a number of educated and small town of Fort Yates on the Missouri River in successful persons including noted author Vine De- south-central North Dakota. The SRCC Board of loria, Jr., David Gipp, President of UTET Center, Trustees has seven members, each of whom serve and Gerald Gipp, President of Haskell Indian Junior two year terms. The Board has final authority in all College. Another noted Standing Rock Sioux, an- matters affecting the institution and has jurisdiction thropologist Bea Medicine, wrote thefollowing over its financial, educational, and other policies about the tribal colleges in 1975: "I believe the great- (SRCC Catalog, 1977). est strength of these colleges is their flexibility in In 1973, Bismarck Junior College received a Title enrollrr.mts" (p. 17). This flexibility provides educa- III grant of $100,000 for the support of SRCC. These tional opportunities for many Indians who would funds were used to expand the curriculum and pro- otherwise be unable to pursue a higher education. vide added administrative and counseling services. Ms. Medicine believes another strength of the trib- Another TitleIIIgrant was awarded to SRCC ally controlled colleges is their emphasis on "cul- through Bismarck Junior College in 1974. Until 1974, tural retrieval" (Medicine, 1975, p.17). This is a the and offices of the college were housed in stated objective of almost all sixteen of these col- the Douglas Skye Memorial Complex at Fort Yates. leges and is referred to as "cultural reinforcement" The college moved to the building known as the at Navajo Community College. Unfortunately, few Skill Center in 1974 (photo). This facility includes of- of Standing Rock's outstanding, educatedtribal fices, five classrooms, an auditorium, library, and members have returned to reside permanently on shops. Classes were also available in the South Da- their reservation. The founding of SRCC has pro- kota towns of McLaughlin, Mobridge, and McIntosh videdincreasedjobopportunitiesfor educated (SRCC Catalog, 1977). By 1982, in addition to the ad- members of the tribe in their homeland. ministrative headquarters and classes at Fort Yates, The objectives of SRCC, as stated in the 1977-79 classes were also offered at Cannonball to the north Catalog, were to provide academic programs for and centers in South Dakota at McLaughlin, Little beginning students and training in vocational skills Eagle, Wakpala, and Bullhead. to help people find satisfactory jobs, to promote In 1973 approximately 90 students were enrolled appreciation of the Dakota/Lakota culture, to pro- at SRCC, and the staff was composed of three full- vide for the educational needs of the adult popu- time persons. The enrollment in the fall of 1982 had lation, to promote the economic and social develop- grown to 201 of whom 87% were Indians; there ment of the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe, and to were 36 full-time staff. Another important change provide for self-enrichment in skills and abilities. It was the increase in the proportion of full-time stu- was also a goal of the college to become an inde- dents. In the first few years most of the students at- pendently accredited two-year college. In regard to tended part-time, but in 1982 almost 90% were full- the latter goal, SRCC became a candidate for accred- time. Between 1975 and 1982, 93 students received itation with the North Central Association of Col- associate degrees at SRCC; another 24 received cer- leges and Schools in1978, and six years later tificates in clerical, nursing, or farm programs; and was fully accredited at the two-year level by North 77 GEDs were awarded. This is particularly signifi- Central. cant because so few Standing Rock Sioux completed A unique characteristic of SRCC, as seen by its degrees or received certificates prior to the establish- administrators in 1982, was its greater emphasis on ment of the college. academic programs than other tribal colleges. They believed what was most needed by their people was "The noted Indian leader, Sitting Bull, a chief of the llunkpapa a good general education to prepare them to trans- Band who was killed in 1890, is buried at Fort Yates a few blocks fer to a four-year college or university. A component from SRCC. peculiar to SRCC is its ownership and operation of a American Indian Higher Education in the 1960s 47

..24111,1

Office and Classroom Building Cheyenne River Community College Eagle Butte, South Dakota, 1982

farm and ranch in association with its program in land area, most of the reservation is well suited only vocational agriculture. for grazing. The climate is dry and the great sea- As at the other tribally controlled colleges, funds sonal fluctuations in temperature make most profit- received after 1980 from PL 95-471 (Tribally Con- able types of agriculture very difficult. Compared to trolled Community College Assistance Act of 1978) the three previously mentioned Sioux reservations, were very important in the developmentand sur- Cheyenne River is even more sparsely populated vival of SRCC. The appropriations to SRCC from and isolated from the outside world. There are few this act in fiscal year 1980 totalled $354,078, com- paved roads and no major population center or rec- puted on 111 full-time equivalent Indian students reation attraction in the area. These factors combine (Olivas, 1981). The direct outcome of these monies to make the Cheyenne River Sioux even morecul- at SRCC were increased and better qualifiedstaff, turally isolated and educationally deprived than movement toward full accreditation, curriculumde- their fellow Sioux on other reservations. velopment, and development of instructional and The contemporary Cheyenne River Sioux are de- administrative staff. scendants of the Two Kettle, Minneconju, Sans Arcs, and Blackfeet Bands of the Lakota Sioux. The total reservation population of 7,400 persons is com- Cheyenne River Community College posed of 4,500 Indians and 2,900 non-Indians (Lane, 1982). More than one-half of the Indian families on In the northwest quarter of South Dakota lies the the Cheyenne River Reservation were below the huge Cheyenne River Sioux Reservation. Its land poverty level in the late 1970s. In 1979, evenwhile area of 2,804,000 acres is approximatelythe size of unemployment was still rising rapidly, the unem- the state of Connecticut. As on most western Indian ployment rate on the reservation was 38%. reservations,thetransportation,communication, The Cheyenne River Sioux have, in spite of pov- and other services on the Cheyenne River Reserva- erty, unemployment, low level of education,and tion are very poor. Although it encompasses a large other special problems, placed a high priority on 48 American Indian Higher Education in the 1960s postsecondary education, at least since the 1960s. A guage courses were offered, the curriculum was of number of classes were being offered on the reser- value to them in their jobs, and they could attend vation and in nearby towns. Black Hills State Col- school part-time while continuing to hold a job (Le- lege, Spearfish, and Northern State College and Beau, 1980). It is significant that, except for the rep- Presentation College, Aberdeen, all had offered utation of the college,all the reasons given for courses on the Cheyenne River Reservation, but selecting CRCC coincide with the most common ra- there were no degree programs or groups of coordi- tionales for establishing a tribal community college nated courses. Leaders of the Cheyenne River Sioux on an Indian reservation. This indicates that, at concluded that a tribal college would be the best least on the Cheyenne River Reservation, the educa- means to coordinate the development of post- tional needs and preferences of the people were ac- secondary education on their reservation (Lane, curately assessed by the college planners. Outsiders 1982). Arlene Marshall, an employee of Public Ser- might not place such a high value on the reputation vice Careers, was instrumental in funding the early of CRCC, but it meets the needs of the local people development of the community college on the Chey- so well it is obvious why it is held in such high enne River Reservation. Through Marshall, Public repute. Service Career funds were made available for the Because of its extreme isolation, CRCC has been costs of tuition, books, and instruction for the first influenced less by outside forces than other tribally classes. controlled colleges. This has enabled it to establish After much discussion and planning, Cheyenne a modest but highly autonomous operation. Its staff River Community College (CRCC) was finally orga- resources, in the early 1980s, were limited as com- nized on April 11, 1972; one year later a charter was pared to the other existing tribal colleges. Very few granted by the Tribal Council. Agreements were Cheyenne River Sioux had postsecondary educa- signed with Northern State College and Presenta- tions, and they had to rely on temporary or part- tion College to secure limited funds from Title III of time teachers. In spite of these problems, Cheyenne the Education Act of 1965 (Lane, 1982). River Community College has progressed well in its Ellsworth A. Le Beau, a Cheyenne River Sioux, development. In 1982, Associate of Arts degrees was appointed the first director of the new college. were offered in general studies, business, nursing, The other three members of the small staff were and education. Michael Claymore, financial aids, academic counse- CRCC is organized on a decentralized format lor, and admissions recruiter; Sylvan C. Brown, which is appropriate to the great size, sparse popu- Lakota language instructor; and Carole O'Neal, cen- lation, and poor transportation on the reservation. ter secretary. The difficulty in securing qualified Classes are offered at Eagle Butte, South Dakota, the full-time instructors necessitated that the college headquarters, and seven to nine other reservation employ primarily part-time teachers during the first towns, depending upon the residents' needs and few semesters (Lane, 1982). In the first semester, availability of instructors. Each year, beginning in Fall1975,84 students were enrolledineight 1978, a survey has been made to determine the courses. By 1976 enrollment had increased to over courses wanted in the various communities. Trans- 100; and in the spring of 1978, 200 students were at- fer education for students wanting a four -year de- tending classes in eight communities on the Chey- gree is given priorityat CRCC. Somewhat less enne River Reservation. important are vocational education and service to Director Le Beau, in 1980, completed a survey of the tribe. Another high priority objective is rein- the motivational factors affecting American Indian forcement oftheLakota language and culture students who had attended CRCC. He received re- among the Indians on the reservation (Lane, 1982). sponses from 84 of the 98 Indian students (62 fe- In 1980, the college staff moved from very inade- males and 16 males) wi o had completed two or quate facilities to a modern new building in Eagle more semesters at CRCC. The respondents averaged Butte owned by the Cheyenne River Tribe (photo). 34.5 years of age. The major motivating factors for This building is small, and there was still a lack of attending college were to obtain a job, to be near some types of space, but conditions were much im- home, and to increase their feeling of self-worth. It proved. Two other important developments in 1980 was found that Indian students had the following were theinstitutionofanursing programin reasons for selecting CRCC: the school had a good conjunction with Presentation College, Aberdeen, reputation, it was less expensive, cultural and lan- South Dakota, and a new four-year teacher educa- American Indian Higher Education in the 1960s 49 tion program through Black Hills State College, Dakota in an area of beautiful wooded hills and Spearfish, South Dakota. lakes. The population of 8,100 Chippewas is con- Cheyenne River Community College is no excep- centrated in and around the town of Belcourt tion to the chronic problem of tribal collegesinsuf- with some Indians residing inthe neighboring ficientfunds.Unfortunately,itwasdeclared off-reservation towns of Dunseith and Rolla, North unfeasible for appropriations from PL 95-471 in Dakota. The Turtle Mountain Chippewa people 1980 and 1981 (Olivas, 1981). The college was being and their reservation differ greatly from the Navajo operated on a bare bones budget even as compared and Sioux tribes whose movement into tribal higher to other tribal colleges, none of which are well education has already been described. The Turtle funded. It was expected by the college leaders that Mountain Reservation is much smaller and more they would receive PL 95-471 funds in 1982. densely populated than those of the earlier tribal Standing Rock Community College and Cheyenne colleges. The Turtle Mountain Chippewa have inter- River Community College have similar histories and married with non-Indians, particularly with per- programs due to the similarities of the two reserva- sons of Frei ch descent. The long, close contactwith tions and the needs of their people. Neither have non-Indians has assimilated the Turtle Mountain the trained human resources or population base of Chippewa into the white culture more than other Pine Ridge or Rosebud. However, they have over- western reservation Indians. come these deficiencies and, as of the early 1980s, As on the previously mentioned reservations with were moving toward becoming significant forces in tribal colleges, the need for a coordinated postsec- the development of their people and tribes. ondary program was discussed at Turtle Mountain in the 1960s. Isolated classes were being taught by several North Dakota colleges on the reservation. Eastern Plains and Prairie Tribes Under the leadership of Dale Nadeau, the tribal leaders planned the establishment of a tribal college in the early 1970s. In 1972, the Turtle Mountain To the east of the four large Sioux tribes with tribal Chippewa Tribe granted a charter to establish Turtle colleges, four tribes with much smaller reservations Mountain Community College (TMCC) at Belcourt, charteredtribal community colleges during the North Dakota. The first funding came from a Devel- early 1970s. These tribes are located in eastern oping Institutions Grant from Title III of the Higher North Dakota, South Dakota, and Nebraska. These Education Act of 1965. This grant came through the schools and the dates they were chartered are Turtle sponsorship of the North Dakota State University Mountain Community College (1972), Nebraska In- (NDSU) Branch at Bottineau, North Dakota, located dian Community College (1973), Sisseton-Wahpeton west of the reservation. Bilateral agreements with Community College (1973), and Little Hoop Com- NDSUBottineau and a later one with Mayville munity College (1974). Descriptive characteristics of State College, Mayville, North Dakota, continued these colleges and the other tribal colleges are pre- until 1979 (Turtle Mountain Community College Cata- sented in Table 3. These eastern reservations are log, 1982-84). much more densely populated and are not as iso- TMCC is more similar to a general community lated from larger population areas and postsecond- college with less traditional Indian influence than ary institutions as are the western reservations. are the other tribally controlled community col- The history and development of each of these four leges. It is significant to note that in addition to Ger- colleges is presented in this section so they may be ald "Carty" Monnette, the president of TMCC, two compared to other tribal colleges and to show how other members of this tribe were tribal college pres- they relate to the overall development of the tribally idents in the fall of 1982. These were Wayne Stein, controlled college movement and Indian self deter- Standing Rock Community College, and Rose mination in the United States. Davis, newly appointed president at Little Hoop Community College. The major objective of TMCC is to function as an Turtle Mountain Community College independent, Indian controlled college emphasizing general studies and vocational education.It also The Turtle Mountain Chippewa Reservation is lo- strives to develop an environment where the cul- cated on the Canadian border in north central North tural heritage of the Indian people can be brought to

Gil 50 American Indian Higher Education in the 1960s

1111M 111100111111111Y

Campus Turtle Mountain Community College Belcourt, North Dakota, 1982 light through the curriculum. The college works to can Indians (National Center for Educational Statis- establish a faculty, administration, and student body tics, 1984). The growth of full-time equivalent stu- that will provide leadership and service to the local dentswasproportionallygreaterindicatinga community (TMCC Annual Report, 1982). substantial increase in full-time students. TMCC The physical facilities at the TMCC campus, as of was fully accredited as a two-year college by the 1982, were not adequate and prevented the college North Central Association of Colleges and Schools from reaching its full potential in serving the Turtle in 1984. Mountain Chippewa people. The greatest needs A follow-up study of the 60 persons who received were for a library, student lounge, and physical ed- associate degrees at TMCC from 1974 to 1980 was ucation facility. Most of the buildings were con- conducted in 1981. Of the 43 graduates who re- nected mobile homes that were not suitable for the turned the questionnaire, 26 (71%) had gone on to severe climate of northern North Dakota (photo). In complete a bachelor's degree, and 2 had earned 1982, the college obtained a site for a new campus master's degrees. At the time of the study, all of the west of Belcourt; but with the cuts in federal spend- respondents were employed, primarily by the Turtle ing at that time, it was unlikely they would be able Mountain School System, BIA,r other federal agen- to implement their plans for more adequate physical cies, or the Turtle Mountain Tribe. Considering the facilities. high national unemployment in 1981, this survey In 1977, the programs available at TMCC included shows that the TMCC programs were making a ma- Associate of Arts in liberal arts and programs in jor contribution to the employability of its gradu- teacher education and business administration that ates. Also TMCC is preparing tribal members with prepared students to pursue a bachelor's degree needed skills for service to their tribe (TMCC Annual while remaining on the reservation. The school to Report, 1982). which most Turtle Mountain students transferred in Although funding has not been as serious a prob- the early 1980s was the University of North Dakota, lem for TMCC as for most other tribal colleges, it Grand Forks. has never had sufficient financial resources to meet The headcount enrollment grew from 181 in the the postsecondary needs of its people. In fiscal year fall of 1969 to 233 in the fall of 1982. Approximately 1980, TMCC received $341,318 in appropriations 86% of the students in the latter year were Ameri- from PL 95-471 based on 107 full-time equivalent

61 American Indian Higher Education in the 1960s 51

Indian students (Olivas, 1981). These funds were Tribe, Macy; Santee Sioux Tribe, Santee; and the important in allowing the college to expand and im- Winnebago Tribe, Winnebago. prove the quality of its programs and services. The courses offered at each of these sites are pri- TMCC's unique characteristics are a reflection of marily determined by the educational needs and the conditions of the Turtle Mountain Chippewa concerns of the Indians in the communities. The people and their reservation. Compared to other three sites enrolled a total of 17 students in 1974; tribes with tribal colleges, they have a very small and by 1977, the total had increased to 116 students reservation with better transportation making a cen- (Horse, 1979). In 1982-83 the average headcount was tralized form of higher education appropriate. The 265 students with an Indian full-time equivalent of Turtle Mountain Chippewa people are nearly all 160. The ratio of females to males was 1.5 to 1 and mixed bloods. They are striving to be vocationally the average age was between 18 and 27 years. In competitive in a predominantly white environment 1982-83, 90% of the students enrolled at NICC were while trying to preserve what little remains of their American Indians. Indian culture. TMCC is trying to assist in this dif- The basic purpose of the college as stated in 1979 ficult endeavor. It appears that the college is having was: is too some success in the vocational area, but it To provide an educational program in which Indian stu- soon to evaluate the effectiveness of its attempts at dents can experience success and cultural reinforcement cultural preservation and transmission. as Indian people. The extent to which students experience success determines the success of the college program. (Horse, 1979, p. 29) Nebraska Indian Community College This statement is similar to those at several other The other three tribally controlled colleges in this tribal colleges, but as these schools have found, region are smaller in enrollment and not as well de- "success" must be defined with some consideration veloped as TMCC. They have reservation Indian for academic standards in the dominant society. populations of only 3,730, 3,047, and 2,916 and lack NICC was striving in the 1970s to assist Indians the natural resources of most of the western tribes' on three small reservations to developtheir postsec- reservations. ondary educational skills, manage their own affairs, Nebraska Indian Community College (NICC) was and reduce unemployment. In 1978, unemployment chartered in 1973, and one year later the Devil's among members of these tribes served bythe col- Lake Sioux Tribe chartered Little Hoop Community lege was slightly over 50%, and the average family College (LHCC) on their reservation. One of the income was $3,800 to $4,800 (Horse,1979).Al- youngest tribally controlled collegesisSisseton- though the members of these three Nebraska tribes Wahpeton Community College which was founded are not as isolated from contactwith non-Indians in 1978. and their culture as are most Indians on western As of 1982, all three of these schools were small, reservations, the conditions of low employment, struggling institutions suffering from lack of financ- high poverty, and an overall low level of educational ing, inadequate facilities, and other problems. They attainment are just as prevalent. all had the potential to meet the postsecondary The short term objectives of NICC in 1979 were to needs of their people, but lack of support and re- provide training in Indian tribal government; educa- sources prevented them from reachingthe level of tion in various Indian and tribally-related areas; development of the colleges of the larger and rela- course work needed to achieve certificates,degrees, tively more prosperous tribes. and promotion or entrance into other institutions of Nebraska Indian Community College, located at higher education; skill training or retraining in areas three reservation sites in northeastern Nebraska, related to job opportunities in the vicinity; develop- was chartered as American Indian SatelliteCommu- mental education programs needed to overcome de- nity College in 1973. It was originally founded as a ficiencies in present educational systems which branch of Northeast Technical Community College, would allow for individual and group educational Norfolk, Nebraska. It serves three small northeast advancement; meet special interest and vocational Nebraska tribes with a total tribal enrollment of desires in each community; training in human rela- 3,047 in 1980. These tribes and the Nebraska towns tions areas for non-Indians who will be workingfor in which the college sites are located are: Omaha and with Indians; training in non-Indian govern- 52 American Indian Higher Education in the 1960s ments so that Indians can effectively compete with Little Hoop Community College non-Indians and share in governmental functions that affect their lives; and a linkage in a broad career The second tribally controlled college in this region development concept which will allow and encour- is Little Hoop Community College (LHCC) founded age Indians in paraprofessional roles to gain the by the Devil's Lake Sioux Tribe in 1974. The Devil's competence to fill professional roles (Horse, 1979). Lake Sioux Tribe and its reservation differ signifi- This list of short range objectives is too broad and cantly from the Sioux groups in the western Dako- vague to provide a focus for the college. It appears tas. The reservation is much smaller in size, less that a number of persons were asked to indicate arid, and the population is more densely settled. what the college should do, and all of the sugges- Fort Totten, the site of the college, is in the lake re- tions were included. In addition to these objectives, gion of east-central North Dakota, a wooded area some of which are long term rather than short term, withrecreationalattractions.Thecollegewas the college listed seven even broader and more am- named in honor of PFC Paul Yankton, Jr., whose In- bitious long term objectives in 1979. dian nameCaddiska Cenntinnameans "Little Primarily as a result of the passage of PL 95-471 Hoop" in English.' in 1978, the three Nebraska tribes changed their col- The enrollment at LHCC was low and rather lege to an independent, tribally controlled institu- static for the first few years, then increased rapidly tion making it eligible to receive funds from PL 95- in the fall of 1980 to a headcount of 85 students with 471. The name of the college was changed in 1980 to a student full-time equivalency of 45 students. As Nebraska Indian Community College to reflect its with nearly all of the tribally controlled colleges, independence and the population it was designed to the initial funding for LHCC came from a Title III serve. In 1981, the newly independent college be- grant of the Education Act of 1965. Cizsses were first came a candidate for accreditation with the North offered in 1975, and credit was granted through a Central Association of College and Schools. bilateral agreement with Lake Region Community As of 1982, approximately ten percent of the Indi- College in nearby Devil's Lake, North Dakota. This ans on the three reservations enrolled for at least agreement terminated in 1980, and the college re- one course at NICC. Of the 81 students who gradu- ceived candidacy status for accreditation from the ated between 1974 and 1982, 78 were employed or North Central Association in 1982. The full-time attending a four-year college or university. Three equivalent Indian enrollment at LHCC in 1980 was tribal chairmen were attending NICC in 1982 (Ne- only 35 which qualified it for $111,696 in PL 95-471 braska Indian Community College Catalog, 1982-84). appropriations (Olivas, 1981). These figures are indicative of the important con- The goals of Little Hoop Community College tribution being made by NICC to the education were based on the philosophy that Indian students of tribal members and the development of tribal deserve a system of higher education responsive to leadership. their needs and concerns. It is believed that it is im- Federal funds provided nearly all of the financial perative that Indian students experience success and support for NICC in the early 1980s. In 1980, the reinforcement in higher education. The college is school had 109 full-time equivalent Indian students dedicated to assist each person in defining his or which entitled it to $329,453 in appropriations from her goals and to serve the community by providing the Tribally Controlled Community College Assis- leadership for intellectual development (Reportto tance Act of 1978 (Table 3). As a result of receiving NCACS, 1981, p. 7). these funds, the college was able to add a graphic As on other Indian reservations, the unemploy- arts degree in 1982. In the same year, a vocational ment rate at Devil's Lake was very high (61%), and grant from Title III of the Education Act of 1965 was many members of the tribe lacked the job skills or an important source of funding. The continuance of knowledge necessary to compete in the depressed these federal sources of financial support was cru- job market of the early 1980s. A major objective of cial to the survival of NICC. Major needs at NICC LHCC is to help provide these skills and knowledge in the early 1980s were stable funding and govern- for members of the Devil's Lake Sioux Tribe. The ing boards, more student services, courses to meet tribe had a very young population in 1980 with 58% the needs and level of the reservation student par- ticularly remedial assistance in reading, writing, *PFC Yankton was the recipient of two Purple Hearts and died and mathematics (Griffin, 1982). while serving in Europe during World War II. American Indian Higher Education in the 1960s 53

,!

John F. Kennedy Center Little Hoop Community College Ft. Totten, North Dakota, 1982

under the age of 16 years. Thus, in future years the college could arrange with the public school system need for postsecondary education will be even for the part-time use of laboratory and shop class- greater. rooms. A new high school was under construction The majority of the administrative offices and ser- in1982, and the college administration had re- vices at LHCC are located in a wooden frame build- quested use of the present building when it was va- ing known as the John F. Kennedy Center (photo). cated in 1984. This small building also houses the business depart- Several Indian staff members had been with the ment, special services, and the career planning cen- college since its founding, notably Ms. Joyce Bel- ter classrooms. Additional classroom space and a garde who served as teacher, counselor, and aca- small library are located in the Devil's Lake Tribal demic dean at Little Hoop. In the fall of 1982, Building across the road. When the Tribal Building Donald Matter was theoutgoing presidentat is not open, the library is unavailable, making it in- LHCC. His successor was Ms. Rose Davis, a Turtle convenient for students. Laboratory facilities are Mountain Chippewa. lacking, and space for vocational courses is very LHCC, in the fall of 1982, was a small, struggling limited. The lack of necessary physical facilities was institution trying to establish itself as a significant a major factor in limiting the enrollment at LHCC in contributor to the education of the Devil's Lake the early 1980s. It was hoped at that time that the Sioux people while undergoing the trauma of a ma- 54 American Indian Higher Education in the 1960s jor administrative change. This change had both the prevented the school from reaching its potential in students and faculty experiencing anxiety about the meeting the postsecondary needs of the Sisseton- future of their college. Wahpeton people. The staff was aware that the col- lege had the potential to serve as a coordinating agency for a broad range of community services and Sisseton-Wahpeton Community College programs; but lack of resources and, more impor- tantly, discord among the staff and faculty interfered The Sisseton-Wahpeton Sioux Tribe chartered a trib- with this in the early years. ally controlled community college in 1978 to serve In 1978-79 Sisseton-Wahpeton Community Col- their people on the Lake Traverse Reservation. Most lege had a head count enrollment of 96 students of. of this reservation is located in extreme northeast- whom 30 were full-time. By Fall 1982, the enroll- ern South Dakota with a small portion extending ment had increased to 225 students with an Indian into southeastern North Dakota. The reservation full-time equivalent of 175. This growth in enroll- has an area of 105,930 acres with a 1980 Indian pop- ment and the great improvement in staff and stu- ulation of 3,730. Crop agriculture and cattle raising dent morale were brought about, primarily, by two form the main economic base for the Sisseton- events. First was the $225,000 in appropriations Wahpeton Indians on the reservation. The tribe also received from PL 95-471 in 1981-82 based on an In- operates a restaurant, grocery store, and garage in dian full-time equivalency of 66 and then appropri- the town of Old Agency. ations nearly tripled this amount for 1982-83 based The administrative offices, classrooms, and the li- on an Indian full-time equivalent of 175. The origi- brary of Sisseton-Wahpeton Community College nal funding in 1978 for SWCC came from a grant (SWCC) are located in a modern skills center in Old from the Fund for the Improvement of Postsecond- Agency. Classes were also offered in Veblen, South ary Education (FIPSE). Later other small federal Dakota, in 1978, and plans were being made to pro- grants were the main source of operating funds. vide classes in other reservation communities de- The end of the CETA Title III federal programs in pending upon the needs of the residents and the 1982 was a serious blow to the students at SWCC resources available. because most of the vocational students were de- The local persons most responsible for the found- pending upon these funds. The PL 95-471 appro- ing of SWCC were Thomas LeBlanc, Gyla Robert- priations in fiscal year 1980 came just in time to save son, Kurt Bluedog, and Clifford Chanku. Their SWCC, and they continue as the college's major motivations for founding the college were similar to source of funding. those of the founders of the tribal colleges previ- The second event that contributed to improved ously describedinthissection.The Sisseton- morale at SWCC was the appointment of Schyler Wahpetontribal membersneeded accessible Houser as president in 1981. He and his staff were postsecondary education that was designed to meet able to unite the administration and faculty which the needs of the Indians on the reservation. The fol- brought about much better morale among the em- lowing quotation summarizes the purpose of SWCC ployees and students at the college. By 1982-83, the in 1979: college was seen as a good place to work and obtain advanced education by mostoftheSisseton- The philosophy of the Sisseton-Wahpeton College Center is to offer quality educational opportunities for those seek- Wahpeton people. There were still problems to be ing courses of study in the area of academic, vocational, solved, but PL 95-471 and the leadership of Houser and personal growth. (Horse, 1979, p. 128) and his staff had turned the fortunes of the college around (Hill, 1983). The preservation of the Dakota Sioux language and Programs and services initiated in 1981 mainly as culture was also seen as an important goal. The a result of PL 95-471, the Tribally Controlled Com- programs at SWCC were first accredited through munity College Assistance Act of 1978 included agreements with the University of MinnesotaMin- computer terminals for instruction; added courses neapolis and the branch of the same university at in most major areas; plans which resulted in the Morris, Minnesota. eventual candidacy for accreditation; service to the As the college struggled to survive in the early tribe; revision of fiscal and budgeting procedures; years, faculty moral( was generally low. Inadequate and, most importantly, the potential to add as many funding and disagreements among tribal leaders as 300 students in the near future. None of these American Indian Higher Education in the 1960s 55 changes would have been possible without the share some characteristics of poverty, environment, $225,000 received from PL 95-471. In spite of the and needs for educational programs to provide for help from PL 95-471, SWCC still suffered from fi- development of their people and tribes. nancial instability in 1982 because the only other sizeable source of revenue was tuition. In addition to funding, the administrators saw the lack of class- Fort Berthold Community College room space as a major obstacle to the institution in meeting its potential as a major influence in the Fort Berthold Reservation is unique in that it is the lives of the Sisseton-Wahpeton people. home of three originally separate and unrelated Another significant development in the history of tribes. The tribes are the Mandan, Hidatsa, and SWCC occurred in June 1981 with the affiliation of Arikara, now known as the Three Affiliated Tribes. the college with Dakota State College, Madison, Brief histories of these tribes are of value to the un- South Dakota.Associate of Arts degrees were derstanding of this unusual relationship and its con- awarded through this agreement in the fields of sequences for the contemporary conditions affecting business, accounting, business administration, sec- their education. retarial science, general studies, fine arts, educa- The Mandans' ancestors came from the east, mi- tion, counseling, and social services. The North grating west in several groups until they reached Central Association of Colleges and Schools granted the valley of the Missouri River. At the time of the SWCC candidacy for accreditation status in 1984 en- first contact with white man, they were living in abling the college to offer credit and associate de- earth lodge villages at the confluence of the Heart grees as an independent institution. and Missouri Rivers near the present site of Bis- SWCC had come a long way from its found- marck, North Dakota. In 1837 the Mandans' were ing in1978 to a provisionally accredited,well- nearly exterminated by an epidemic of smallpox administered, and more financially stable college brought by white explorers. The death rate was in- only six years later. As described in this section, the creased by the coincidence of a siege by Sioux raid- three tribes and their tribal colleges in this region ers during the height of the disease. Thisprevented differ in size, population, and culture from the five the Mandans from dispersing which might have tribes with colleges previously discussed. These are saved some of them from contracting the disease. In all young institutions that have suffered from lack of a few weeks, an estimated population of1,600 was funding, poor physical resources, and, in some reduced by death to only 31 survivors (Price, 1978). cases, inadequate leadership. As of 1982,these The few pathetic survivors moved up the Missouri schools had made major advances and were well on where they settled with the Hidatsa Tribe on the their way to meeting their objectives in service to Knife River (Cash & Wolff, 1974). their people and tribes. The Hidatsas had originally been a band of the Crow Tribe in present day Canada and northern Montana. They separated from the Crow; and after Far Northern Plairis Tribes a long migration, they finally settled onthe Mis- souri, developing a semi-sedentary life style depen- dent primarily on agriculture but continuing to Leaders of the six tribes whose reservations are lo- hunt buffalo in the summers. Lewis and Clark first cated in the far northern plains of Montana and visited the Hidatsas in 1804 at the Knife River vil- North Dakota examined their postsecondary educa- lages. The Hidatsa and the few Mandan survivors tional needs during the early 1970s, and each con- developed a subsistence pattern depending mainly cluded that a tribal community college was needed on the cultivation of corn which, when asurplus oc- by their people. These tribes, the names of their col- curred, was traded to other tribes. The Sioux, and to lege, and year chartered are: Mandan, Arikara, and a lesser degree other nomadic tribes,raided these Hidatsa (the Three Affiliated Tribes), Fort Berthold "corn Indians" to steal their supplies of corn and Community College, 1973;theBlackfeetTribe, any other foods (Cash & Wolff, 1974). Blackfeet Community College, 1976; and the Assini- The Arikaras were a band of the Pawnee Tribe in boin and Sioux Tribes, Fort Peck Community Col- pre-contact times. They separated from the other lege, 1978. These tribes each have large reservations Pawnee bands, moving north from Nebraska into in the drainage of the Upper Missouri River and present day South Dakota. In 1770, French furtrad- 56 American Indian Higher Education in the 1960s ers contacted them on the Missouri River below the sired (photo). As of 1982, the college library and the mouth of the Cheyenne River. Hostilities with the business classes were located in the Three Tribes white traders and the U.S. Army in 1823 caused Museum. the Arikaras to move further up the Missouri. There has been a need for postsecondary educa- They joined the Hidatsas and Mandans at Fort tion at Fort Berthold for a number of years. The Berthold in 1862 for protection against Sioux raiders. proportion of young people attending college from This was the beginning of the association that even- F )rt Berthold was even lower than at most of tually became a permanent affiliation of these three the other western reservations. FBCC was founded tribes on the Fort Berthold Reservation (Cash & to provide postsecondary education that was appro- Wolff, 1974). priate and convenient to the needs of the people of This brief summary explains how three small the Three Affiliated Tribes. The specific goals of the tribes from very different origins were forced by In- college were to retain and reinforce the cultures of dian and white depredations and disease to join to- each of the three tribes, upgrade academic skills gether for mutual protection and survival. and enable members to obtain a GED certificate or In 1973, the Three Affiliated Tribes on the Fort enter college, provide Associate of Arts degrees, Berthold Reservation chartered the Fort Berthold providevocationaleducationtomeet personal Community College. The college began operation in needs, aid in development of the tribes, and provide a dispersed delivery system, scheduling classes at community services throughout thereservation several sites throughout the reservation. In the first (FortBerthold Community College 1980-81Catalog, year only two courses were offered at two of the res- p. 11). ervation towns. In the first few years of the existence of FBCC, the The need for a tribal community college at Fort student enrollment was small. In 1974-75, a total of Berthold was evidenced by low employment, high 53 students were in attendance, and three years college attrition among the few Indians who en- later the enrollment was 60 students. In 1980, the tered college, a lack of workers with salable occupa- student body had increased to 251, and in that year tional skills, and the residents' desire to preserve 15 students were graduated. Approximately 40 stu- their cultural identities. The completion of Garrison dents were graduated in 1982-83, and in 1981 a total Darn on the Missouri River in 1952 and the subse- of sixty courses were offered at five sites on the res- quent filling of huge Lake Sakakawea seriously dis- ervation. In the fall of 1982, the enrollment dropped rupted the lives of the Indians residing on the Fort to only 67 students of whom 56 were American In- Berthold Reservation. Because all of the Indians on dians (National Center for Educational Statistics, the reservation lived in the lowlands along the river, 1984). this necessitated the movement of most of the 3,000 There was a small group of persons who, in the residents to new homes at higher elevations. The early years, worked diligently to establish FBCC. long lake divided the reservation into several seg- Among the leaders of this group was Ms. Phyllis ments making travel time and transportation from Howard who was appointed the first president of one area to another excessively time-consuming and the college, a position she still held in 1982. She expensive. For example, a distance of five miles worked under difficult circumstances to develop a across the lake requires a circuitous trip of 100 miles viable institution and placed high priority on a stu- by road. This made the task of Fort Berthold Com- dent oriented college by reminding others that the munity College (FBCC) to provide classes to all res- college existed for the students. idents more difficult, but a necessity if all members The college offers Associate of Arts degrees in ac- of the Affiliated Tribes were to be served. counting, business administration, computer sci- The college is located two miles west of New ence, liberal arts, public administration, and social Town, North Dakota, near the tribally owned Four work. An Associate of Science degree is also offered Bears Motor Lodge and the Three Tribes Museum. in the field of tribal administration. Courses and as- In 1982, the physical facilities consisted of six mobile sociate degrees were accredited in the early years homes and a dome shaped building built by the through cooperative agreements with Mary College, vocational students under the supervision of Ben- Bismarck, University of North Dakota, and Minot nett Yellowbird, the Director of Vocational Educa- Co.:ege, Minot. Fort Berthold Community College, tion. The buildings were not adequate, and their in 1981, attained candidacy for accreditation status maintenance and appearance left much to be de- with the North Central Association of Colleges and American Indian Higher Elucation in the 1960s 57

4

-

_,,,;Lairehmaravabdiaidik

Administration Building Fort Berthold Community College New Town, North Dakota, 1982

Schools enabling it to independently award credit Blackfeet Community College and degrees. In 1981, FBCC received $129,998 from PL 95-471 The Blackfeet Reservation consists of 1,525,712 acres based on 38 full-time equivalent Indian students composed of two-thirds rangeland with the remain- (Olivas, 1981). New programs and services initiated dertimber andfarmland.Thereservationis as a result of thi,, appropriation included:Farm/ bounded by the Canadian border to the north and Ranch Advisory Committee, public administration Glacier National Park on the west. The total popula- and energy technology curriculum, Childrens' Re- tion of the Blackfeet Tribe in 1982 was approximately source Center, and three summer workshops in the 13,000 persons with 6,632 living on the reservation field of business. (ProfileBlackfeet Community College,1981). As on The decrease in enrollment in1982 at FBCC other western reservations, poverty and unemploy- meant that the college was going to have serious fi- ment are high among the Blackfeet. The educational nancial problems. As the full-time equivalent Indian level of the Blackfeet people was very low in the enrollment drops, the funding from PL 95-471 and 1970s, and attrition from secondary school was other federal sources based on enrollment will also high. According to the 1980 United States census, decline. As of 1983, the future of FBCC was not only 25% of the Blackfeet had graduated from high bright.If the decline in enrollment was not re- school. The Blackfeet Reservation economy is based versed, the college would not survive. primarily on agriculture (mostly cattle raising), tim

' 58 American Indian Higher Education in the 1960s ber, _ourism at nearby Glacier National Park, and These decreases in enrollment may be the result of the Blackfeet Writing Company which employs more accurate reporting or evidence of an actual de- about 100 persons in the manufacture of writing ma- crease in the number of students at BCC. If the lat- terials, including the red Big Chief writing tablets ter is the case, a continuance of this decline will known to many school children. cause serious financial problems for the college. Blackfeet Community College (BCC) was founded As with other tribal colleges on large western res- by the tribe in 1976 to provide for the postsecondary ervations, BCC was designed on a dispersed deliv- and higher education needs of the Blackfeet people. ery system. In addition to the courses taught at the Foremost among the Blackfeet leaders who were in- main headquarters in Browning, Montana, courses strumenta; in the establishment and development of were offered at the reservation towns of Heart BCC were Percy De Wolfe and Earl Old Person, Butte, East Glacier, Babb, and Seville. Female stu- former chairman of the Tribal Council. The first dents outnumbered males about two to one in the classes were taught in the fall of 1976 when a total of early years, and approximately 95% of the students 67 students enrolled in five courses. Credit for these at BCC were Indians. The proportion of Indians to courses was granted through a bilateral agreement non-Indians has fluctuated somewhat depending on with Flathead Valley Community College. BCC re- the courses offered. In 1977, BCC awarded its first ceived candidacy status from the Northwest Associ- three Associate of Arts degrees, and in 1981-82, 30 ation of Schools and Colleges in 1979 and after that associate degrees were awarded. The total associate time was eligible to independently offer accredited degrees granted from 1976 to 1982 was 58; an addi- courses and two-year degrees.In 1980 Blackfeet tional 281 vocational certificates were awarded in Community College became independent of Flat- various areas. head Valley Community College. BCC saw as its The major objectives of BCC were to provide vo- mission the achievement of harmony between mod- cational training and transfer programs. The top pri- ern educational achievement and preservation of ority, as seen by President Carol Juneau in 1982, the traditional Blackfeet culture. It provided access was preparing students to get a good job. This basic to postsecondary education on the reservation for goal had to be attained before other aspects, such as those who wanted it. The BCC staff strove to pro- broad general education, could be given more em- vide postsecondary programs for their people with- phasis. Community service and cultural reinforce- out doing unnecessary harm to their traditional life ment were important at BCC, but first and foremost style and beliefs (Blackfeet Community College Catalog, were the skills and knowledge needed to be able to 1981-82). This laudable objective has been found support oneself through a steady job (Juneau, 1982). difficult to attain here, as at other tribal colleges, President Juneau rated the physical facilities and where it has been a source of conflict among Indian !ibrary holdings as inadequate in 1982. She stated staff, students, and administrators. that a new education building was needed in Brown- As with other tribes, students who left the reser- ing for all levels of education, and that the library of vation and directly entered four-year institutions approximately 3,000 volumes was insufficient for had not only the disadvantages of academic weak- program needs. Student services were also judged nesses from substandard elementary and secondary as inadequate. The top priority capital construction schools, but also the violent culture shock of mov- item of the Blackfeet Tribe in 1982 was a new hospi- ing from the rural Indian reservation environment tal, making it unlikely that a new education build- to the large town or city with its foreign white cul- ing would be constructed in the near future. ture and discrimination. One reason for founding As shown in Table 3, appropriations to Blackfeet BCC was to make the initial step to college some- Community College from PL 95-471 in fiscal year what lessdifficult academically and sociallyin 1980 totaled $264,761 based on 83 full-time equiva- hopes that more Blackfeet students would be suc- lent Indian students. This amount was 39.2% of the cessful in completing a four-year program. total operating budget for the year. Annual enrollments at Blackfeet Community Col- The falling enrollment and the related lack of fund- lege grew from 265 in 1976-77 to 576 in 1980-81. In ing were the two main problems of BCC in the early the fall of 1981 there were 376 students enrolled in 1980s. The energetic president and well-qualified all classes at the college (Profile of Blackfeet Commu- faculty were working diligently to overcome these nity College, 1981). In the fall of 1982, there was an- deficiencies. Whether or not they would be success- other decrease to a total of 190 students enrolled. ful remained to be seen. American Indian Higher Education in the 1960s 59

Ce FORT PECK 1114 COMMUNITY MIRE lit;ii.11 CENTER SMI arradMII!

Old Indian Agency Building Fort Peck Community College Poplar, Montana, 1982

Fort Peck Community College Because few of the Assiniboines and Sioux at Fort Peck had salable vocational skills, it was decided by On the plains of northeastern Montana, north of the tribal leaders in 1977 to establish the Tribal Educa- huge Fort Peck Res-rvoir on the Missouri River lies tion Department. The goals of the department were the reservation of the Assiniboine and Sioux Tribes. to improve the current negative image of formal The total area of the reservation is two million education among Indian youth; establish a sound acres, about one-half of which is open rangeland. system of postsecondary education and career pro- The total Indian population on the Fort Peck Reser- grams within the tribal structure; and ensure an up- vation in 1980 was 5,095. As at the Fort Berthold to-date educational program by keeping abreast of and Blackfeet Reservations, Fort Peck is isolated changing local, state, and federal educational trends from centers of population and educational institu- and opportunities. The major initial concern of the tions and is an area of high unemployment and pov- Tribal Education Department staff was the establish- erty. High school attrition among the youngIndians ment of a community college on the reservation at Fort Peck was nearly fifty percent in the late which resulted in the Tribal Education Department 1970s. Many of the young Indians at Fort Peck did evolving into the Board of Directors of Fort Peck not want to leave the reservation which contributed Community College (FPCC). Staff members at Miles to the high unemployment rate. Community College, Miles City, Montana, and 60 American Indian Higher Education in the 1960s

Dawson Community College at Glendive, Montana, largest class in 1982 was a course in the Dakota lan- were of great assistance in planning and develop- guage. This class enrolled thirty persons ranging in ment of FPCC. It was through bilateral agreements age from 17 to 77 years. This indicates a need for with both of these schools that FPCC was autho- and commitment to preservation of this language. rized to grant associate degrees. FPCC was char- An earlier statement indicated support for cultural tered by the Fort Peck Assiniboine and Sioux Tribal awareness at FPCC as follows: Executive Board on January 1, 1978. A six member To serve the people of the Fort Peck Reservation and board of directors was appointed by the Tribal northeastern Montana by serving as a vehicle for educa- Council, five members of the board were Indians tional programs stressing Indian culture and awareness and one was a local non-Indian. Among the leaders and individual awareness. (Horse, 1979, p. 79) who were instrumental in founding the college were Jake Bighorn, Ernie Bighorn, and Bob Mc- Enrollment grew from a headcount of 7 students Nally, who became the college's first president in in the fall of 1978 to 109 in the fall of 1981. Another 1978. Prior to the establishment of FPCC, the post- significant change has been the increase in the pro- secondary offerings on the reservation were not portion of full-time to part-time students at the col- centralized nor well coordinated. lege. In the first few years, there were very few full- The curriculum the first year consisted of limited time students; but 1 y the fall of 1980, 42% of the courses in secretarial science, human services, com- students were full-time and in the fall of 1982, 107 of munications, Indian language, auto body repair, the total enrollment of 152 were full-time students. and basic adult education. In the next few years, the This reflects not cnly a change in the students but college broadened its offerings to provide more vo- also is the result of an increase in program offerings cational and transfer oriented courses. By 1982, As- at FPCC. The full-time equivalent studentsin- sociateof Arts degrees were available through creased from 13 in 1980 to over 100 in 1982. The pro- Dawson Community College in English, history/so- portion of males to females in 1982 was 43% to 57%, cial science, human services, and pre-nursing. Miles a significant change from 1978 when 83% were fe- Community College sponsored Associate of Applied males. In 1982, 85% of the students enrolled were Science degrees at FPCC in automotive body, auto- Indians; a small increase in the percent of non- motive mechanics, business administration, and Indians may have resulted from the increased pro- business-secretarial. Certificates were available in grams and the improved reputation of FPCC among several other vocational fields (Fort Peck Community local non-Indians in the early 1980s. College Catalog, 1981-83). The first academic courses In addition to the classes taIght at the main cen- were offered at FPCC in the spring of 1978. Approx- ter in Poplar, Montana, classes were also offered"at imately eighty persons enrolled in these courses the small reservation towns of Wolf Point, Fraser, which were accredited through Miles Community and Brockton. The vocational classes were taught at College or Dawson Community College. FPCC was a site one mile east of Poplar. The main offices and initially a satellite of these two institutions. As of classes at Poplar are housed in an old Indian 1981, the administration was corresponding with Agency building built in 1894 (photo). It is centrally the Northwest Association of Schools and Colleges located between the tribal offices and the Bureau of to indicate their intention to seek accreditation by Indian Affairs facilities. Overall, the physical facili- that agency. ties at Fort Peck in 1982 were old and inadequate. The mission of Fort Peck Community College in The greatest physical facility needs were for more 1981 was: to offer an academic program to prepare classrooms and a better building for the library. students to transfer and continue their higher edu- The Tribal Council at Fort Peck has been very sup- cation, to provide an occupational program provid- portive of the staff and programs at Fort Peck Com- ing trainingfor availablejobs on or near the munity College. In 1982, the tribal chairman and reservation, and to support community organiza- another council member were enrolled at the col- tions and services that will better the tribes and lege. The president, Michael Telep, an Indian, re- meet community needs (Fort Peck Community College signedaspresidentinlate1982forpersonal Catalog, 1981-83). Notably absent from this mission reasons. Ms. Marilyn Ridenhower, who had served statement is the mention of a major effort in the cul- the college as an English teacher, registrar, and dean tural reinforcement of the tribal cultures of the of instruction, was appointed acting president at Assiniboine and Sioux Tribes. However, the single that time. She had been employed by FPCC since its

7k 6t American Indian HigherEducation in the 1960s

in the annihi- founding and had contributedsignificantly to the treaties. These hostilities culminated She was the lation of a unit of the 7th Calvaryled by General quality and stability of the institution. Big Horn River in only non-Indian in the administrationand is an out- George A. Custer on the Little 1876. After the Battle of theLittle Big Horn, the standing example of how a fewlocal non-Indians pursued the Chey- have contributed to thedevelopment of tribal col- United States troops relentlessly ennes until the twomain bands were captured in leges. the winter and spring of 1877.These two bands led As at other tribal colleges,lack of funding has development of FPCC by Chiefs Little Wolf andDull Knife were taken to been a major obstacle to the Indian Territory in present day westernOklahoma. and its services to the Siouxand Assiniboine peo- climate, lack of game, ple. A variety of small federal grants werethe major Because of the difference in undependable government rations,and hostility of source of support inthe early years of the college. the resident tribes, theCheyennes could not live in In 1980 and 1981, FPCC wasruled not feasible for this reservation environment.Desperate, they de- allocations from PL 95-471the Tribally Controlled than their present of 1978 (Olivas, cided that even death was better Community College Assistance Act conditions, and a small bandled by Dull Knife and 1981). The administration ofthe college expected reservation to begin eligible for funding from Little Wolf left the Oklahoma that in 1982 they would be their epic 1,000 mile trek totheir homeland. Under this act. If this did not materialize,the future of the attack by the military, starving,and freezing, only a college was bleak. the far Northern few of the band of 300 men, women,and children The three tribal colleges of succeeded in reaching theirhome on the Tongue Plains tribes included in thissection are ooviously has been retold many the older tribal colleges River. This amazing exploit not as well developed as the book Cheyenne Au- previously described. Theenrollment declines at times and is immortalized in tumn by Mari Sandoz. Fort Berthold CommunityCollege and Blackfeet finally relented Community College in 1982 willhave serious ef- The United States government and gave the remainingNorthern Cheyennes a fects, if they are not corrected,and the inability of Tongue River in south- become eligible for small reservation west of the Fort Peck Community College to of the few white settlers in PL 95-471 funding is a seriousdetriment to that eastern Montana. Most the area left the reservation,leaving the Northern school. The staff members at allthree of these col- contact. Until the increase enrollments Cheyennes isolated from white leges were working hard to Northern Cheyennes have been and funding in the fall of 1982,but only time will past few decades, the the most isolated of all of theNorthern Plains tribes. tell whether they will Lesuccessful. The long range It was 1955 before a paved road wasput through the effectiveness of these three tribalcolleges cannot be town, Lame Deer, graduates. reservation, and the principal evaluated until they have produced more late as 1982. tribes to found trib- had no public transportation as The last two Northern Plains In the late 1970s and early1980s, the energy de- ally controlled colleges ontheir reservations were Northern Cheyenne Tribes. Although velopment on all sides of the Crow and Northern Cheyenne Reservation began to reduce theisolation and make these tribes have differentlanguages, cultures, and residents. The need southeastern Mon- other changes in the lives of the histories, their reservations in the surrounding min- conditions are similar. for trained persons to work in tana and their current ing operations was an importantmotivating factor in the growth of postsecondaryeducation on the reservation. Tribal leaders realizedthat special pro- Dull Knife Memorial College grams were neededif their people were going to of the area. In long history of re- capitalize on the economic growth The Northern Cheyennes have a level of the Nortl whites into their home- the 1970s, the overall educational sistance to the intrusion of low. It was estimated that, lands in the northern plains.In1864,alarge, ern Cheyenne was very was in 1975, only five NorthernCheyenne had gradu- peaceful village of Cheyenneand Arapahr Dull Knife Colora.'by ated from a four-year college program. massacred at Sand Creek in Eastern Memorial College, named for thebeloved chief, was Colorado Volunteers led byColonel J. M. Chiving- chartered by tribal ordinance as theNorthern Chey- ton. The remaining Cheyennejoined with the Sioux enne Action Program,Inc., in 1975. It was funded and Northern Arapahoes to avengeSand Creek and Center of the Bu- other attacks on plains tribesand the many broken by the Indian Technical Assistance 62 American Indian Higher Education inthe 1960s

IS

Dr. John Wooden legs Memorial Library Dull Knife Memorial College Lame Deer, Montana, 1982

reau of Indian Affairs, and the first classes were sity of Montana in recognition of hiscontributions taught in the winter of 1978. In December1979, Dull to his people (photo). Another Northern Cheyenne Knife Memorial College (DKMC) received candidacy leader who lead the movement to foundDKMC was for accreditation status from the NorthwestAssocia- Allen Rowland, former president of tion of Schools and Colleges. Associate of the Northern Arts de- Cheyenne Tribal Council. He continuedto support grees in academic areas and Associate of Applied the college and its goals after histerm as president Science degrees in vocational fieldswere first of- of the Tribal Council had expired. fered in 1980. The first two Associate Darius "Ted" of Arts de- Rowland was the president of Dull KnifeMemorial grees were granted in 1980 through credit granted College in the early years and is by an agreement with Miles Community one of the persons College most responsible for the rapid growth and solidde- (MCC) in Miles City, Montana. The staff ofMCC, velopment of the college. and inparticularitspresident, Dr. Judson H. The objectives of Dull Knife MemorialCollege as Flower, was instrumental in the developmentof listed in the 1981-82 catalog include general DKMC. educa- tion,transfer education, careerprograms, adult A small group of tribal leaderswas primarily re- community based education, student services, sponsible and for the establishment and growthof community services. The emphasison vocational DKMC. One of these personswas the late Dr. John education was originally very high, but later Wooden legs, Sr., who helped to break trans- down the fer programs rose in priority. Theemphasis on cul- long standing suspicion of highereducation as tural reinforcement was somewhat lowerthan at something foreign and hostile to the welfareof the other tribal colleges. The community Northern Cheyenne people. The library service respon- at DKMC sibility was seen as important, but theadministra- was named for this leader who was awardedan tors agreed that it should not interfere with transfer honorary Doctor of Humane Letters by theUniver- and vocational education which hadtop priority. American Indian Higher Education in the 1960s 63

One unique factor that influences the environ- leaders must work out a compromise which will ment at DKMC is the unity and stability of the provide planned controlled development of their nat- Northern Cheyenne people. Most of the 3,110 Chey- ural resources while protecting the valuable tribal ennes on the reservation see themselves as an inte- culture. DKMC has a challenge to prepare leaders gral part of a tribal unit, and the leadership has and educated citizens who can resolve these crucial remained remarkably stable. For example, in the issues. fifty years prior to 1982, the tribe had had only three tribal chairmen. The ability of the Northern Chey- enne to survive as a people influences the view- Little Big Horn Community College point of the Indian faculty and students who have a strong drive to overcome obstacles which might In southeastern Montana, immediately to the west have discouraged less strong willed and tenacious of the Northern Cheyenne Reservation, is the Crow persons. Indian Reservation, the location of one of the later Reductions in federal funding in 1981-82 necessi- tribally controlled colleges. As of 1982, the Indian tatedclosingseveral programs and servicesat population on the Crow Reservation was 4,969. DKMC. This brought about an increased effort to The Crow Central Education Commission was broaden sources of funding and, in particular, to ob- founded by the tribe in 1972 to coordinate all educa- tain private sources of funding. This effort was tional programs on the reservation. The commission moderately successful and the potential for funding formed agreements with Miles Community College, from mining and other energy-related industries Dawson Community College, and Eastern Montana was thought to be good. DKMC has been more suc- College to contract for courses and instructors for a cessful in attracting private funding from a variety program of postsecondary education. of sources than have the other tribally controlled In 1978, a charter was presented to the Crow In- colleges with the exception of Navajo Community dian Tribal Council for the organization of Little Big College and College of Ganado. Horn College (LBHC). The charter was not passed As shown in Table 3, the total enrollment in 1984 until 1979. A Board of Trustees for the college was at DKMC was 237 students; females outnumbered formed under the Crow Central Education Com- males by almost five to one. In 1980, DKMC had a mission. Eleven persons were selected for the first full-time equivalent Indian enrollment of 93, quali- Board of Trustees, five from the Commission Execu- fying it for $296,709 in PL 95-471 allocations (01i- tive Board and six for one-year terms as District vas, 1981). Board Members. One member of the Crow Tribe who As of the early 1980s, DKMC had an ambitious, was especially active in the developmentof LBHC energetic administration and staff that saw a bright was Janine Windy Boy. She servedthe tribe as Direc- future for their college to develop and meet the tor of Adult Education in 1975 and became Executive challenges resulting from the energy development Director (president) of the college in 1982 (photo). on and around their reservation. As anindication of The main factors determining the need for a com- their optimism and long range planning, they had munity college on the Crow Reservation were inac- requested and received from the tribe a site in the cessibility of higher education, lack of skills needed Crazy Head area between Lame Deer and Ashland to fill jobs on the reservation, early marriage and for a new campus. child bearing of many Crows, decreased funding for Although the coalreserves on the Northern student financial aid, and the fact that only a few Cheyenne Reservation have considerable economic exceptional Crow Indians were successful in white value, they also have created serious conflicts among institutions of higher education (Windyboy, 1982). the Northern Cheyenne people. An uncontrolled The college founders deliberately did not use the development of strip coal mining could damage the term "community college" in the name ofthe environment and, more importantly, disrupt the tra- school in anticipation that someday Little Big Horn ditional values of the Northern Cheyenne culture. College might offer programs beyond the traditional Some members of the tribe are in favor of a maxi- two-year community college degrees. Being oneof mum development of the natural energy resources the later tribal colleges, they had the perspective of to provide needed funds for tribal programs and Oglala Sioux Community College and Sinte Gleska welfare. Other more traditional members are against College which were already moving toward four- any resource development. The NorthernCheyenne year programs. 64 American Indian Higher Education in the 1960s

Ms. Janine Windy Boy, Director Little Big Horn College Crow Agency, Montana, 1982

The two top priorities at LBHC in the early 1980s develop their college.Earliertribally controlled were vocational education and service to the tribe. colleges were better established and had more sta- Somewhat less important, but still considered of ble funding when the federal funding cuts took value, were Lansfer education and cultural rein- place. There were also some intratribal disagree- forcement (Windy Boy, 1982). These priorities reflect ments and rivalries that interfered with a more the rather conservative, deliberate implementation rapid and orderly development of Little Big Horn of postsecondary education on the Crow Reserva- College (Windy Boy, 1982). tion. The Crows did not move as rapidly or boldly A study funded by the Donner Foundation in in founding a community college as did the other 1974 concluded that the most needed vocational Northern Plains tribes previously discussed. They training for the Crows was in the areas of commu- later believed that not jumping on the band wagon nity health technician.secretarialscience/clerical earlier may have caused them to lose some bene- training, vocational agriculture, vocational business, fits because federal and state administrators may and printing/media training. The selection of the have doubted the Crows' depth of commitment to initial programs by the Commission was partially supporting a community college. The reduction based on this study (Little Big Horn College, 1980). In of funding by the federal government in the ear- 1980, Associate of Applied Science degrees were ly1980s made it more difficult to establish and available in community health technology, recre- American Indian Higher Education in the 1960s 65 ational science, vocational agriculture, and voca- energetically leading the way toward improvement tional business. Certificates were awarded to those of these schools. From an outsider's perspective, it persons completing the printing/media program. would seem that these two small colleges with sim- The influence of the Donner Foundation Study is ilar goals could be combined into one stronger insti- still evident in these later offerings. Also in 1980, a tution supported by both tribes. However, tribal Bachelor of Science in elementary education was of- animosities and cultural differences might make this fered through Eastern Montana College at Billings. very difficult. Factions within these tribes and the The enrollment at LBHC in 1980 was 102 stu- conflicts of progressives versus conservatives have dents. In the early 1980s nearly 100% of the stu- made consensus hard to attain. Adding the inter- dents at the college were Indians and 98% were tribal differences between the Crow and Northern members of the Crow Tribe. The college's small Cheyenne would make progress even more difficult. size, sparsity of non-Indians in the area, and its lim- The planned, controlled development of natural re- ited programs account for this unusually high pro- sources on the two reservations has great potential portion of Indian students. LBHC, as of 1982, was for the future of these tribes and their colleges. If affiliated with Miles City Community College, and they wisely utilize the funds obtained and the em- credit was granted through this bilateral agreement. ployment possibilities are fully taken advantage of, In the same year, LBHC received a setback in the this will enable the tribes and their colleges to move loss of federal funding for several of its vocational forward while retaining their cultural identities. programs. The college was also determined to be in- eligible for PL 95-471 appropriations in the first two years (1980 and 1981) (Olivas, 1980), but the admin- Tribal Colleges Outside istrators expected to be eligible in fiscal year 1982. the Great Plains These funds would be of great assistance to this struggling institution. Little Big Horn College is located in the Commu- The final three tribally controlled colleges that are nity Action Program Building in the small reserva- located in other parts of the country have significant tion town of Crow Agency. It shares this building differences from those described in previous sec- with the Crow Agency Headstart Center. The col- tions. As of 1982, one of these colleges was prosper- lege also owns three mobile homes that are used is ing, one was struggling to survive, and the third classrooms. The small library was destroyed by fire was no longer in operation. in the early 1980s, forcing students to use the public library at Hardin, Montana, 15 miles from Crow Agency (Little Big Horn College, 1980). Overall, Direc- Salish Kootenai College tor Janine Windy Boy rated the college's physical fa- cilities and library in 1982 as moderately adequate, Although the Flathead Indian Reservation in north- but this seemed to be overly optimistic. At this western Montana is not far in distance from the time, student services were limited to academic, fi- Blackfeet Reservation, its people and environment nancial, and personal counseling and vocational are quite different. Culturally the Indians at Flat- planning. head are a combination of Basin and Northern Because of its late start, small size, poor facilities, Plains peoples with some influences from the and the conservatism of many Crows, LBHC was Northwest Coast tribes. The Flathead Indian Reser- behind the other Northern Plains tribal colleges in vation is situated in the beautiful Flathead Valley in its development. On the positive side, it did have a northwestern Montana, south of Flathead Lake. personable, energetic leader in Jeanine Windyboy This is an area of higher precipitation and less ex- who was striving to move the school over the obsta- tremes in temperature than the plains to the east. cles and enable the Crow People to gain the postsec- The reservation was originally the home of four ondary education needed for the advancement of tribes that formed a confederation in 1855. These members and tribe. four tribes were the Pend Oreille, Kalispell, Salish, The two tribal colleges described here had many and Kootenai. In 1934, the remaining Salish and shortcomings in funding, facilities, and support; but Kootenai Tribes became chartered as an Indian the leaders at both Dull Knife Community College owned corporation now known as the Flathead and Little Big Horn College were optimistically and Tribe. 66 American Indian Higher Education in the 1960s

- * * $ *,, 6 r. 411V4r1-k*- .

e.

Campus Salish Kootenai College Pablo, Montana, 1982

In1981,ofatotalreservation population of A satellite center of Flathead Valley Community 20,690, only 3,300 were enrolled members of the College in Kalispell, Montana, operated on the Flat- Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes. Compris- head Reservation from 1974 to 1979. In November ing only about 16% of the reservation population, 1977, this institution was chartered by the tribal the Salish and Kootenai are a minority on their own council as Salish Kootenai Community College. reservation. Homesteading of the reservation in Tribal members who were active in the founding 1910 resulted in less than one-half of the reservation and early development of the college were Mike land being retained in Indian ownership. Most of O'Donnel, Karen Fenton, Jerry Slater, and Joe Mc- the agricultural and industrial developments in the Donald who became the first president of Salish Flathead Valley are owned by non-Indians. Due to Kootenai Community College. The college was the high incidence of contact with non-Indians, granted candidate status by the Northwest Associa- there has been much assimilation of the Indian peo- tion of Schools and Colleges in 1980, and in 1981 ple into the dominant white culture. In spite of this changed its name to Salish Kootenai College (SKC). assimilation, the overall educational level of the One of the primary objectives for establishing the members of these tribes is low and has been of con- college was the preservation of the Salish/Kootenai cern to tribal leaders for some time. Some Salish culture. During the period of the 1940s to the 1960s, and Kootenai believe that the discrimination by the loss of the spoken language and other aspects of whites against Indians is greater here than on reser- traditional culture among the Salish/Kootenai people vations where there is less contact with whites. was very rapid. In order to counteract this loss, it American Indian Higher Education in the 1960s 67 was seen as imperative that they have their own As of 1982, SKC was prospering in enrollment tribally controlled college where their language and and was providing adequate programs in vocational other aspects of the culture could he preserved and education and transfer education. The efforts to pre- transmitted. Two other important objectives were to serve the language and cultureoftheSalish- provide accessible, convenient, affordable postsec- Kootenai people were too recent to be assessed. ondary education on the reservation and to assist in Without support of a sufficient number of Indians the development of the Salish Kootenai Confeder- who speak the language and practice the traditional ated Tribes (Salish Kootenai College, 1980). beliefs and ways, this is going to be difficult to Salish Kootenai College grew rapidly in enroll- attain. ment in the early years. In the 1976-77 school year there were 49 full-time equivalent students. Four years later, in 1981-82, this had nearly quintupled Lummi Community College to 240 full-time equivalency of whom 152 were full- time equivalent Indian students (Salish Kootenai Col- The only tribally controlled college in the Pacific lege, 1982). The headcount enrollment in fall of 1982 Northwest is Lummi Community College (formerly was 516. The proportion of full-time students in- Lummi College of Fisheries and Aquaculture) lo- creased in the 1980s, and the proportion of males to cated at Lummi Island, Washington. This school females was 1 to 1.5. Only about two-thirds (67.4%) was established by the Lummi Tribe in 1973 for its of the students enrolled in 1982 were enrolled mem- people and other American Indians of the North- bers of Indian tribes. This is the lowest percentage west. The five persons most responsible for the of Indians of any tribally controlled college. The founding of thiscollege were Sam Cagey, Jim high proportion of intermarriage and the presence McKay, Penny Hillirre, Vernon Land, and Jeannette of an Indian Job Corps at Flathead, Montana, ac- Casimer who later served as president of the counted for many of the non-enrolled Indians at Sal- college. ish Kootenai College. The original purpose of the college was to provide In the early 1980s, Associate of Applied Science specialized educational programs that would enable degrees were available in seven fields: forestry, nat- Indians to obtain employment in tribal, state, or fed- ural science, management, surveying, health educa- eral fisheries or to continue their fisheries studies at tion, secretarial science, and law enforcement. At the four-year institutions. From 1975 to 1980, Lummi spring 1981 commencement, 35 students received College of Fisheries and Aquaculture had a bilateral associate degrees (Salish Kootenai College, 1980). agreement with Whatcom Community College, Bell- The central office of Salish Kootenai College is lo- ingham, Washington, to offer accredited courses in cated in an attractive new building east of Highway aquaculture and related areas. This agreement was 93 in Pablo, Montana (photo). This outstanding fa- terminated in 1980 when Lummi Community Col- cility houses offices, classrooms, a library, and labo- lege (LCC) received candidacy for accreditation sta- ratories. Classes are also taught at centers in Elmo, tus from the Northwest Association of Schools and Arlee, Ronan, and St. Ignatius on the reservation. Colleges enabling the college to offer accredited Overall, the physical facilities in 1982 were ade- courses and degrees without affiliation with an ac- quate, but there was a need for more space and bet- credited institution. ter classrooms at some of the centers. The need for fisheries education had increased in In 1981-82, SKC received $428,000 in appropria- the Northwest since 1974 when the fishing rights of tions from the Tribally Controlled Community Col- American Indians were more clearly defined. The lege Assistance Act of 1978 (Olivas,1981). This Indian tribes of Washington state are responsible for amounted to 40.3% of the total operating budget of the management of nearlyfiftypercent of the $1,062,211 for that year. Another major source of salmon stocks of Puget Sound and Washington's Pa- funding was the Minority Institutions Science Im- cific coast. More than eighty percent of the members provement Program which provided $131,251. Be- of the Lummi Tribe were directly involved in fishing cause this reservationis more compact and has and water related occupations in 1982. The propor- better transportation than those of the Northern tion of non-Indians attending LCC from 1973 to 1980 Plains tribes, they do not have the magnitude of ranged from 25% to 50%. In addition to the Lummi problems with coordination, facilities, and resources Indians at the college, students from a number of for their college programs. other Pacific Northwest tribes have attended LCC. 68 American Indian Higher Education in the 1960s

As would be expected, because of its curricular em- In 1980, the first year of PL 95-471 allocations, phasis, the school attracted students primarily from LCC was ruled ineligible for these funds. By 1982, reservations with fisheries resources. they received funding from this act, and the budget In 1978 only one person received an associate de- reductions made the college almost totally depen- gree at LCC, but in 1980-81,18 persons were dent upon it for financial resources. granted Associate of Science degrees in aquaculture In 1982-83, it became evident that changes had to and fisheries, indicating the significant growth of be made to enable the college to survive as a viable enrollments in these programs. As of 1982, the ma- postsecondary institution. The narrow, specialized jority of the college's graduates (56%) were em- curriculum could not attract enough students to ployed in the fisheries field; others had transferred keep the college going. It was decided that the pur- to four-year institutions to continue their studies. In poses and programs should be changed to meet the the same year, LCC reported a completion rate of needs of a broader range of Lummi and other Indi- 82% which is exceptionally high for a two-year col- ans of the Pacific Northwest. In addition to the ex- lege. Since 1979 over eighty percent of the Lummi isting aquaculture and fisheries programs, business Tribe members who attended LCC have remained administration, secretarial science, business man- on or returned to the reservation. In the early years, agement, and a general studies program for transfer the main strengths of LCC were its responsiveness students were added. A commercial fishing pro- to the need for trained fisheries personnel on North- gram was also initiated. These major revisions in west Indian reservations and to its contribution to purpose and programs also resulted in the school's providing salable vocational skills for Indians of the name being changed to Lummi Community Col- Northwest. lege. To strengthen the administration, Dr. Robert Prior to the college's establishment, very few Indi- Lawrence was appointed the new president of the ans were employed in the higher level jobs in college in the summer of 1983. These major changes aquaculture and fisheries because they lacked the also necessitated that LCC reapply for accreditation training to be promoted to more responsible posi- to the Northwest Association of Schools and Col- tions. The types of work done by most LCC gradu- leges (Casimer, 1983). ates are fisheries research and management, man- As of 1983, LCC was trying to establish itself as an agement of tribal oyster operations, technicians in institution with a sufficient breadth of programs to oyster hatcheries, and stream surveys for spawning attract more Lummi and other Indians of the North- escapement. Others have continued their studies in west. It is not situated, as are most other tribal col- these fields. The Lum_graduates who complete leges, so far from other postsecondary institutions their fisheries programs and work for their tribe are that the local residents have no other options.It conserving an important tribal resource. must offer programs that are unique and of high As at other reservations with a tribally controlled quality to attract not only American Indians but at college, the educational opportunities at LCC help least some non-Indians. If this is not done, itis to remove some of the financial, social, and geo- doubtful that LCC will continue to exist. graphic barriers co higher education for Indians. Al- though LCC is located in a more densely populated and prosperous area than most of the other reserva- tions with tribal colleges,its residents also have Ojibwa Community College high unemployment and a low level of formal edu- cation. The reservation is very small in area and The final tribally controlled community college in- had a population of only approximately 2,290 in 1981. cluded in these profiles is Ojibwa Community Col- Although complete enrollment data are not avail- lege and Learning Center located in the Upper able for the recent years at LCC, the headcount in Peninsula Michigan town of Baraga. The college was 1980 was reported as 85 students; and the Indian founded in 1975 by the L'Anse-Vieux Desert Band of full-time equivalency was 28. The National Center the Chippewa at their Keweenaw Bay Reservation for Educational Statistics reported that in the fall of on the southern shore of Lake Superior. 1982 there were only 19 students enrolled at LCC, Ojibwa Community 'ollege had 75 students en- 94.7% of whom were Indians. If this is accurate and rolled, sixty percent of whom were Indians. The the enrollment does not increase, the college will Chippewas on the Keweenaw Bay Reservation num- not be able to survive. bered only 893 persons in 1980, making it necessary American Indian Higher Education in the 1966s 69 that the college attract non-Indians to maintain a been published about it other than in local newspa- sufficient enrollment. pers, it is discussed in some detail inthis section. The founder and first director of Ojibwa Commu- nity College (OCC) was Donald A. LaPointe who worked long and hard to establish and promote the D-Q University college. The college applied for a feasibility study for PL 95-471 in 1980 but was ruled to be nonfeasi- In the early morning hours of November 3, 1970, a ble. Thus OCC received no funds from the Tribally group of American Indians andChicanos scaled Controlled Community College Assistance Act of a seven-foot cyclone fence andclaimed a surplus 1978. U.S. Army communications site in the Sacramento Later in 1980, the severe financial recession in Valley of California for the campus of the newly Michigan caused the cancellation of all Michigan formed D-Q University. This action brought to the Tech classes on the reservation. This forced OCC to public's attention a unique institution that has ex- close its doors. As of 1983, Director LaPointe was isted in controversy for over fifteen years (Fitch, 1 still optimistic that the college could form an affili- April 1982). The following profile of D-Q University ation with Northern Michigan University and re- reflects the greatly differing views of its founders, open. He noted that the reservation was118 miles staff, local citizens and federal agents who dealt from the nearest community college; and therefore, with the staff. It is evident each of these persons there was a real need for postsecondary educational used a different value system to evaluate D-Q Uni- programs (LaPointe, 3 January 1984). versity. It appeared, in 1983, that the nationwide cutbacks beginning in the early 1960s a small group of in federal funding for education would make it very American Indians in California led by Jack D. difficult for a small tribe in a sparsely settled area to Forbes, a professor at University of California maintain a new community college. Ojibwa Com- Davis, began discussing the need for an institution munity College was the first tribal college to close, of higher education to meet the unique needs of but it probably will not be the last. American Indians. Forbes envisioned a national In- dian university with a broad range of academic pro- grams and services for Indians.It was to be an "Indian controlled and Indian centered" institution Two Colleges that Reorganized to supported mainly by federal funds (Forbes, 1966). Qualify for PL 95-471 Funding Forbes and his associates were unable to obtain suf- ficient support or funding for this ambitious project. The concept of an Indian university was scaled With the passage of the Tribally Controlled Commu- down and modified into a two -year college that pro- nity College Assistance Act of 1978, two existing vided some of programs and services of the original postsecondary institutions with very different histo- proposal. As the concept of an Indian college devel- ries made changes in their governance and became oped, the proposed constituency was broadened to chartered by Indian tribes. Their primary purpose include the term "indigenous persons." This in- for this action was to meet the definition of a tribally cluded the Native American and Chicano popula- controlled college and thus become eligible for ap- tion of the area. The name chosen, Deganawidah- propriations from PL 95-471. It had been feared by Quetzelcoatl University, reflects the heritage of the some observers that there wouldbe a number of two peoples this school was to serve. Deganawidah, schools that would minimally reorganize and "go a Huron Indian, was the primaryfounder of the Iro- shopping" for a tribe to charter them for financial quois Confederacy, the most successful confedera- gain from PL 95-471 (Olivas, 1981). Fortunately,the tion of American Indian tribes in our history. The definitionoftriballycontrolled collegeistight principles upon which the five original tribes were enough to have prevented this from occurring, and associated were used as a source by the writers of only the two colleges described in this section have the Constitution of the United States. Quetzelcoatl taken this action. These two colleges are D-Q Uni- was the plumed serpent god of theAztecs who versity, near Davis, California, and the College of brought important aspects of civilization to his peo- Ganado,Ganado,Arizona.D-QUniversityis ple. Because the names of these two cultural heroes unique and controversial; and, because littlehas are considered sacred by thefounders of D-Q Uni- 70 American Indian Higher Education in the 1960s versity, they are not to be used except in religious The 1976-77 catalog of D-Q University listed the ceremonies, so the college is known simply as D-Q following institutional objectives: University. In the fall of 1970, a 632 acre Army communica- To meet the needs of the Chicano and Native American tions site seven miles west of Davis, California, was communities through practicums which combine contem- declared surplus, and it was announced publicly porary technologies and professional skills, to preserve that educational institutions could apply for its use. and develop the two cultural heritages as substantive dis- Two institutions, the University of CaliforniaDavis ciplines of scholarly inquiry, to serve as a learning center (UCDavis) and the fledgling D-Q University made for the two indigenous communities, and to bring educa- application. UCDavis wanted the site for agricul- tion to the Native American and Chicano peoples in the tural research and a primate laboratory. In late Octo- community in which they live through the Community ber 1970 word was received that UCDavis was to Education Outreach Process. (p. 2) be the successful applicant. This motivated the D-Q These objectives are broad and lack specificity. The University group to occupy the site in early Novem- terms "needs," "cultural heritage," "learning cen- ber of 1970. Some nonforceful efforts were made by ters," and "education" were not well enough de- federal officials to remove the occupants, but the In- fined to give direction to the educational programs dians and Chicanos would not be removed. After a and services at D-Q University. The objectives of month of occupancy, UCDavis withdrew its ap- most of the other tribal colleges are more clearly fo- plication, clearing the way for D-Q University to cused on vocational programs; transfer preparation; acquire use of the site. In spite of the lack of com- reinforcement of tribal languages, arts, crafts, and petition, the Indians and their allies did not trust beliefs; and service to the tribes in specific areas. the Department of Education and were unwilling Some of D-Q University's later enrollment problems to abandon the site. They remained until Janu- may have been due to the lack of specificity and ary 12, 1971, when the Department of Education clarity of the institution's goals. agreed to lease the site to them for thirty years Associate of Arts degrees were offered at D-Q (Fitch, 1 April 1982). University in 1976-77 in general agriculture, indige- The controversial manner in which they obtained nous studies, social science, community develop- the lease caused resentment among some local resi- ment, and general education (D-Q University Catalog, dents toward the faculty and students of D-Q Uni- 1976-77). These programs do not prepare students versity. In justifying their claim to the site, the for specific available occupations nor do they give a Indian leaders held that all of America, particularly good basic education for success in a four-year pro- federal land, belongs to the Indians because it was gram. The academic deficiencies of American Indi. taken from them illegally (Guelden, April 1982). ans throughout the Western United States are D-Q University opened its doors to the first group primarily in the areas of written and spoken English of fifty students on July 6, 1971. The institution, al- and mathematics. Neither of these areas is empha- though titled "university," was in essence a two- sized sufficiently in the D-Q University curriculum year community college. The first governing board to prepare students to be successful in further edu- of 32 persons was equally divided between Ameri- cation or in most self-fulfilling careers. This is not to can Indian and Chicano members. In spite of this say that the courses at D-Q University were not of apparent equal representation of the Chicano and value to the students; but if students planned to Indian people at D-Q University, it became evident continue their education or enter a career in the from later events that leadership and curriculum dominant society with an opportunity for advance- was weighted toward the Indians. The original ment, they would be disappointed. It appears that plans called for D-Q University to be organized in the educational needs of the Chicanos and Ameri- three colleges: Tiburcio Vasquez was the college can Indians in the area were not carefully assessed of general studies, Quetzelcoatl College was to be prior to formation of the objectives of D-Q Univer- the unit emphasizing Chicano studies, and the unit sity. The founders of D-Q University envisioned an emphasizing Native American studies was named institution with objectives based on values differing liehaka Sapa College (D-Q University Catalog, 1976- from tl- ose of the dominant culture which is valid; 77). In actuality only the general college and the but if the students want to progress in the non- Native American programs were even partially im- Indian world, they must also attain the educational plemented. skills this requires.

-L American Indian Higher Education in the 1960s 71

In the early 1970s, D-Q University grew and de- dian colleges that promoted and finally were suc- veloped several new programs. In 1972-73, the col- cessfulinthe enactment of PL 95-471. D-Q lege administered a program for migrant workers in University did not meet the criteria for funding un- four area cities. The program was designed to serve der this act because it was not chartered by an In- 5,500 workers, but the actual number served was dian tribe and did not have a governing board made only approximately 600. The federal government re- up of Indians. In anticipation of passageof PL 95- quired that $30,000 be returned in 1972 as a result of 471, D-Q University became chartered by the Hoopa "questioned funds" in the audit of this program Valley and Soboba Indian tribes in 1977 (Olivas, (Powell, 21 November 1982). 1981). After passage of PL 95-471 in October 1978, Dennis Banks, a founder of the American Indian D-Q University still did not meet the requirement Movement, was hired as chancellor of D-Q Univer- that the majority of the governing board members sity in 1976. Banks was being sought by authorities be American Indians. This was remedied in Novem- in South Dakota as a result of a conviction on as- ber 1978 with the resignation of all of the Chicano sault charges in that state. California governor, Jerry board members. There was disagreement among Brown, had refused to extradite Banks to South Da- those involved as to whether or not the resignations kota, but Brown's successor stated during his cam- were voluntary. David Risling statedthe resigna- paign that he would not protect Banks. Banks left tions were not forced and that they were necessary California and fled to an Indian reservation in New for the financial survival of the college (Sacramento York where he claimed immunity from extradition. Bee, 12 April 1979). In contrast to Risling's state- In late 1984, Banks voluntarily returned to South ment, fifty Chicanos demonstrated on the D-Q Uni- Dakota and turned himself in to the authorities. He versity campus on February 12, 1979, in protest of was tried and sentenced to three years in prison. the layoffs of Chicano faculty members and the The employment of Banks at D-Q caused some lo- forced resignations of the Chicano board members cals to see the school as a haven for fugitives from (Horowitz, 11 April 1979). justice and reinforced their prejudices against Amer- The reconstruction of the board of trustees en- ican Indians and D-Q University, in particular. abled D-Q University to meet all requirements for Jack D. Forbes continued as a leader and teacher funding by PL 95-471. In fiscal year 1980, the first at D-Q University during the mid-1970s. Twoother year funds were available, D-QUniversity was faculty members at UCDavis, David Risling and ruled eligible and received $242,431 based on a re- Sarah Hutchinson, were the main instructors in Na- ported 76 full-time equivalent Indian students (01i- tive American studies and strong supporters of the vas,1981). This was an important milestone in college. Dr. Jorge Acovedo was one of the Chicano establishing a ntore stable source of funding for D-Q leaders in the early years of D-Q University. He University. Later served as the Dean of Academic Affairsand Throughout much of its existence, as reported in taught courses. the newspapers, officials at D-Q University have D-Q University attained an important milestone been accused of mismanagement, violations of fed- in 1977 when it was accredited as a two-year college eral government regulations, and sub-par educa- by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges. tional programs. These charges resulted in audits This significant action enabled the college to inde- and investigations by several federal agencies. D-Q pendently grant associate degrees and entitled the University president Steve Baldy claimed in 1980 students to transfer credits to other institutions. thatit was the most investigated school in the Problems became pressing at D-Q University in United States (Middleton, 19 February 1980). Con- the late 1970s. These problems centered around low sidering its short history, this is probably accurate. enrollments, inadequate maintenance of facilities, Publicly, D-Q University's problems have centered and most importantly a serious lack of financial around disagreements between federal agencies and support. The lease for the D-Q University site spec- the school officials relating to the student enroll- ified that by 1979 the school must have 200 full-time ment figures and the illegal leasing of partof the students. Failure to meet this deadline and other campus site for non-educational purposes.The fed- problems caused the officials in the federal funding eral government has repeatedly charged that D-Q agencies to become increasingly concerned about University did not attain an enrollment of 200 stu- the conditions at D-Q University. dents by 1979 as required to maintain their lease D-Q University was a member of the group of In- and, in fact, has never had 200 full-time students. 72 American Indian Higher Education in the 1960s

The second major charge was that the college leased itation and was stillfully accredited in April of part of its site for agricultural purposes in violation 1984. of the lease which required that the site be used ex- In 1979, the supporters of D-Q University got clusively for educational purposes. some support that had the potential to resolve many Problems at D-Q University began to come to a of their problems with the federal government. Rep- head in the spring of 1979. The FBI investigated resentative Vic Fazio (Democrat-Sacramento) spon- charges that D-Q University was padding enroll- sored HR 3144 in the US House of Representatives. ment figures by having faculty members enroll for This resolution provided that D-Q University would classes. It also looked into allegations that persons gain ownership of its campus site over a period af who never attended classes received financial aid in- years. Fazio's bill soon met with opposition in the tended for students. As a result of these charges, local area. His political opponents tried to use HR D-Q University's federal funding was suspended in 3144 to defeat his bid for reelection in the fall of April1979(Mendel,4April1979).President 1982. It was held by his Republican opponents L.:at Drusilla Parker reported in that month that D-Q his action was a waste of valuable federal land. Af- University had a total of 163 full-time students at ter an attempt to defend his reasons for supporting the main campus and two branches. She held that deeding the site to D-Q University, Fazio finally the college would have reached an enrollment of gave in and withdrew his support for this bill (Guel- 200 full-time students if the federal government had den, 31 March 1982). In late March of 1982, Fazio not suspended funding for the second time. The stated: "The bill to grant D-Q land will not pass, charges by the FBI and HEW were investigated by D-Q is simply not strong enough to win the confi- United States Attorney Herman Silas who found no dence of a Congress sorely pressed to save every grounds for criminal prosecution (Fitch, 11 April possible dollar of taxpayers' assets" (Fitch, 1 April 1982). In addition to federal agencies, local groups 1982, p. 1). Fazio added that the opposition of the continued to publicly criticize D-Q University. The United States Department of Education to D-Q Uni- American Citizensfor Honesty in Government versity would in itself prevent passage of the bill. sponsored by Scientology investigated D-Q Univer- As expected, David Risling was critical of Fazio's sity and charged poor financial management of the decisionto withdraw support for thebill. He institution. This particular religious group may not charged that Fazio had given in to political pressure be representative of public opinion, but it is indica- caused by the audits and investigations which cast tive of the variety of local groups opposing D-Q unfair suspicion on D-Q University. He claimed that University (Horowitz, 11 April 1979). the numerous audits had never required a payback David Risling, Chairman of The D-Q University and that the auditors had not accurately determined board claimed in February 1979 that most of D-Q the enrollment at D-Q University (Fitch,1 April University's problems were the result of poor com- 1982). This is true, except for the $30,000 payback of munications. He believed that if individuals and funds required from the migrant program of 1972. groups concerned about the institution would con- Two groups of local citizens took advantage of the tact the D-Q administration first rather than publicly loss of Fazio's support and the public criticism to making charges before getting the facts, many of the publicly attack D-Q University. The president of the issues could be resolved (Horowitz, 11, April 1979). Yolo County Taxpayers, referred to the federal funds Part of the responsibility for informing the public spent on D-Q University as "wasted tax money." concerning its operations and programs lay with the And the Yolo County Farm Bureau president, called D-Q University staff who were not as open and co- the school "an inappropriate use of federal land" operative as they could have been. (Fitch, 1 April 1982). As the above statements indi- Still another problem surfaced in the spring of cate, in the spring of 1982, D-Q University was un- 1979 when the Western Association of Schools and der attack on several fronts and had little open Colleges placed D-Q University on probation in re- support from outside individuals or organizations. gard to its accreditation. The reason given for this D-Q University officials stated strongly in 1980 action was the continued late submission of re- that the federal government was harassing the ins'i- quired reports to the accrediting association. This tution. They claimed that racists wanted to see the probation was not lifted until three years later in college close and that government audits and inve' June of 1982. In spite of D-Q University's continued tigations were being used to discredit and under- financial and other problems, it never lost its accred- mine the institution (Middleton, 19 February 1980). American Indian Higher Education in the 1960s 73

In March 1982 another audit, this time by the US dero, President of D-Q University, stated that the Department of Education (DOE), charged that D-Q institution had the equivalent of 200 full-time stu- University had greatly overstated its enrollment. dents with 40% on the main campus (McCurdy, Jan- Rather than the 200 student minimum required by uary 1984). the lease, only 86 were in attendance in fall of 1981. In the fall of 1982, D-Q University had a head- The DOE audit also reiterated charges that D-Q Uni- count enrollment of 257 students, two-thirds (177) of versity had inadequately maintained its campus and whom were Indians; 19.5% (50) were white; 9.1% leased part of the site to local farmers in violation of (25) were Hispanic; and the remaining were Black the lease agreement. and Asian-American (National Center for Educa The federal government, in June 1982, filed to re- tional Statistics, 1984). This indicates a stable enroll- claim the D-Q University site. As a result, D-Q Uni- ment but probably not 200 full-time equivalent versity suffered another blow in September 1982 students. when the school officials were notified that they In spite of the serious problems facing D-Q Uni- must vacate the site in thirty days. However the versity in the early 1980s, as of early 1984 it was still deadline was extended to allow the college to use open. The closure of this tribally controlled college the site on a temporary basis until the close of the had been predicted for several years, but it was able academic year in June 1983 (California Aggie, 24 Sep- to survive under strong pressure to close it. tember 1982). This action appeared to place another It is difficult to objectively summarize the stormy nail in D-Q University's coffin. history of D-Q University. Nearly all of the persons A feature front page article by R. W. Powell in the involved with this controversial institution are parti- November 21, 1982, issue of the Sacramento Bee sum- san and biased concerning itseffectiveness and marized the situation at D-Q University at that time. quality of administration. Supporters of the college It reported that in its eleven years of existence, D-Q see it as an effective institution fighting against rac- University had graduated a total of seventy students ist, narrow-minded bureaucrats and politicians and and only nine had graduated in the 1980-81 school red tape. The federal officials who have dealt with year. During this same eleven year period, the fed- D-Q University consider it to be responsible for an eral government had expended at least $9.5 million inefficient expenditure of federal funds which are at the institution. The obvious conclusion was that administered by persons who refuse to provide the programs at D-Q University were excessively ex- needed accurate data and to abide by government pensive in terms of the graduates produced. Board regulations. Many local residents of this part of Yolo chairman, David Risling, countered this charge by County have a negative perception of D-Q Univer- pointing out that the federal government was im- sity caused by the manner in which the lease was posing its definitions of college education and stu- obtained and the view that the school administators dents on aschool designedfor non-traditional are misusing federal funds and promotingunlawful students. Large numbers of graduates was not the behavior. goal of D-Q University because many of its students came for a short term and did not seek adegree. Programs such as those for the sun dancers do not College of Ganado fit the criteria for formal classes but are valuable be- cause they help to preserve the cultural heritage of The final profile is of another unique tribally con- Native Americans. Risling also stated that the col- trolled institution with a history different from any lege was run efficiently and that most of the operat- of the other colleges chartered by Indian tribes. ing funds came from foundations and other non- Since the early 1900s there had been a Presbyte- federal sources. This article also detailed the long rian mission, hospital, and Indian boarding school standing federal charges that the college had insuf- at Ganado, Arizona, in the heart of the Navajo Res- ficient enrollment and had leased part of its campus ervation.In1968, Ganado officials decided that for non-educational purposes. there was no longer a need for an elementary and In January 1984,District Judge Philp Wilkins secondary boarding school at Ganado because fed- ruled that the federal government could not evict eral and public schools were meeting the needs of the college from its site at that time. He ruled that Navajo children in grades 1through 12.It was he question of rightful possession of the site could agreed that what wis needed was a postsecondary not he resolved on the current evidence. Carlos Cor- program for the local members of the Navajoand 74 American Indian Higher Education in the 1960s

Hopi tribes, so in 1970 Ganado Learning Center was tionally more than any other tribal college. This was created. One year later the community college con- probably a hold over from its years as a church affil- cept was adopted and the new College of Ganado iated institution. opened with 85 students enrolled.Initially, an Dr. Daniel Honahni, the Hopi president of Col- agreement with Northern Arizona University, Flag- lege of Ganado in 1982, stated the funds from PL staff, was made so college credit could be granted 95-471 probably saved the college from closing in for courses taught at Ganado (College of Ganado, 1980. He also said the only major difficulty was that n.d.). The college was granted candidacy status in AIHEC, the contracting agency, had trouble in ob- 1973 by the North Central Association of Colleges taining appropriations promptly from the Bureau of and Schools allowing the college to independently Indian Affairs. award credit for its courses. In 1979, the College of The College of Ganado offered Associate of Arts, Ganado was given full accreditation as a two-year Associate of Science, and Associate of Applied Sci- college by North Central Association. ence degrees. The curriculum was organized into The college was a two-year institution that wel- three divisions: humanities, social science-business, comed all students without regard to race, religion, and natural science-mathematics (College of Ganado or national origin. It placed special emphasis on the Catalog,1980-81). Prior to 1980 the college was needs and cultural heritage of Native Americans. In funded by tuition, income from on-campus enter- 1977 there were 301 American Indians enrolled at prises, private gifts, and federal grants. Financial the college (Peniska, 1979). The next year the total support from the United Presbyterian Church was headcount had increased to 321. From 1977 to 1979, terminated in 1979. 85% of the full-time students were Navajos, 2% were The College of Ganado as of the late 1970s had Hopif Tewa, 8.1% were other Indians, and 4.3% were several special educational entities operating under Anglos. It is interesting to note how similar these its auspices. One of these, the Navajo Academy, was ethnic percentages were to those at nearby Navajo a non-profit, independent preparatory school serv- Community College. The college reported that from ing gifted and talented young people who wanted 95 to 97% of the students received financial aid N,viich to further their education. The Academy stressed in most cases was one hundred percent of their ba- academic excellence and individualised programs. sic expenses. The financial aid was primarily from Most funding came from private sources. Although federal programs with some small internal scholar- the Academy was independent from the College ship and/or loan funds (College of Ganado, 1979). of Ganado, a few secondary students attended the The Board of Regents was changed in 1978 from a college on a part-time basis. The Academy was group with membership of one-half Presbyterian founded in 1977 with twelve students and is gov- clergy to a body made up primarily of Native Amer- erned by a board of trustees, most of whom are icans. In 1978 there were nine Navajos, three Hopis, Navajos (College of Ganado Catalog, 1977-78). Other and .:hree Anglos on the board. The College of Ga- entities were the Navajo Alcoholism Training Pro- nado became independent from the Presbyterian gram that prepared counselors to work with alcohol- Church in 1979. In that same year it was chartered ics, a serious problem on the reservation, and the by the Hopi Tribe and sanctioned by the Navajo Navajo Advocates Program that provided a series of Tribal Council. This qualified the school to apply for weekend sessions for study of the Navajo legal sys- funds from PL 95-471. The initial allocation from tem. This program was designed to prepare persons PL 95-471 was $156,287, and later an emergency to take the Navajo Bar Examination. There was grant of $231,000 was awarded. The total for fiscal also a Career Studies Program, federally funded un- year 198(1 was $387,287 which was approximately der the Comprehensive Employment Training Act 25% of the total budget for that year. The Indian (CETA). This program offered vocationally oriented FTE on which the PL 95-471 allocations were based training in food service management and operation, was 131 in 1980 (Olivas, 1981). This was the fourth office and sales, clerical work, hospital and health largest Indian full-time equivalent of any tribally care, and institutional office and secretarial proce- controlled college; only Navajo Community College, dures. Thcre was also a General Educational De- Sinte Gleska College, and Oglala Sioux Community velopment (GED) program to enable students to College had larger Indianfull-timeequivalents prepare for successful completion of the state high (Table 3). Private gifts and grants to the College of school equivalency examination (College of Canada Ganado totaled $167,323 in 1980 which was propor- Catalog, 1977-78). American Indian Higher Education in the 1960s 75

In the fall of 1980, 97% of the 210 students en- fer programs and less on cultural reinforcement and rolled at College of Ganado were Indians, and 66% service to the tribes. Navajo and Hopi studies were of these were over 21 years of age. As at other two- offered at Ganado, but the cultural influences were year tribal colleges, the majority (75%) of the stu- not as pervasive as they are at other tribal schools. dents were women. There were 213students Because the students come from both the Navajo enrolled at the college in the fall of 1982, and the and Hopi tribes, there was not the focus on one lan- percentage of Indians decreased slightly to 94.4% guage and culture as at most other tribally con- (National Center for Educational Statistics, 1984). trolled schools. The College of Ganado placed more emphasis on The College of Ganado benefited from the good preparation of students for transfer to a four-year reputation of the Ganado Mission and Hospital. school than did most of the other tribal colleges. Be- Most Navajo and Hopi people see these institutions tween its first graduation in 1973 and 1981, a total of as having contributed to their welfare and a number 157 persons received associate degrees of whom of the leaders of these tribes attended the mission fifty percent went on to four-year colleges and uni- school as children. As the College of Ganado devel- versities. Of the 157, 22 had received a bachelors de- oped and moved away from the private college tra- gree by 1981 and 11 of these were back on the dition, it became more similar to the other tribally Navajo or Hopi Reservation teaching school. Nearly controlled colleges. all of the College of Ganado graduates who did not Support and funding for the College of Ganado continue their education were employed full-time decreased in the mid 1980s forcing the college to (College of Ganado, 1980). close in 1986. Navajo Community College is offering College of Ganado was the only tribally con- some classes on the Ganado campus and some of trolled college to have been founded as an indepen- the former College of Ganado students transferred dent church-related institution. It has continued to to the NCC campus at Tsai le (Gipp, 1988). benefit from private donations which are a result of This concludes the profiles of the nineteen tribally the tradition of giving to support private higher ed- controlled colleges active in 1982. The next chapter ucation. Compared to other tribal colleges, there summarizes and analyzes these unique tribal insti- was more emphasis at College of Ganado on trans- tutions for education of American Indians. Summary and Analysis of the Tribally Controlled Colleges in 1982

The previous chapter presented profiles of the nine- modern higher education framework within which Amer- teen tribally controlled colleges chartered between ican Indians can receive the tools necessary for a produc- 1968 and 1979. This chapter contains a summary tive life in whatever field they choose while at the same and analysis of information obtained from docu- time retaining their individual cultural aspects. (AIHEC, ments, personal and telephone interviews, and a n.d., p. 3) few secondary sources. Conclusions drawn by the The tribal college administrators interviewed in writer are also presented. A summary of descriptive 1982 saw AIHEC as significant in forming a united characteristics of the tribally controlled colleges in front that was effective in promoting the Indian col- the early 1980s is presented in Table 3. lege movement, particularly in the passage of the As indicated in the profiles of the nineteen trib- Tribally Controlled Community College Assistance ally controlled colleges, the national organization Act of 1978 (FL 95-471). The administrators viewed 1,,,hich contributed most to their establishment and AIHEC as especially effective in the early develop- development was the American Indian Higher Edu- ment of their institutions. In 1979 the leaders of cation Consortium (AIHEC). Six tribal colleges were AIHEC were Leroy Clifford, John Emhoolah, Jr., the charter members of this organization in 1972. and Perry Horse. These three men and their staff The original headquarters of AIHEC was located in worked diligently to promote the development of Denver, Colorado; in 1983 it moved to Washington, the tribally controlled colleges. D.C. As of 1981, there were eighteen institutional The Consortium was financed by funds from the members of AIHEC, most of which were located on member institutions and federal grants for special or near Indian reservations in the western United programs and services. A private grant from the States. Fund for the Improvement of Postsecondary Educa- In 1979, the mission of the American Indian Higher tion (FIPSE) provided technical assistance and re- Education Consortium was described as follows: sources to help the four non pre-a-xredited tribal colleges move toward application for accreditation. The Consortium's mission can best be described as devel- opmental technical assistance through such functions as In 1987. the Consortium established the American the provision of training, support services, resource iden- Indian College Fund in order to facilitate financial tification, and advocacy in the areas of: (1) research and contributions to tribally controlled colleges. data; (2) accreditation; (3) curriculum development; (4) fi- As pointed out in the preceding profiles, the nancial and instructional resources; and (5) human re- tribal colleges are in varying stages ofwelopment sources development. The overall aim of the Consortium and each has its unique characteris loweyer- isto help strengthen the programs of the individual ,they do share the following similarities: tribally member institutions and to work toward establishing a chartered governing boards composed entirely or

76 Table 3 Tribally Controlled Colleges in the United States College and Location Charter Date Chartering Tribes ReservationPopulation Indian 1981 Enrollment Total1982 Enrollment Indian 1982 Degree(s)Offered Accreditation Status 1984 OgNavajo lala LakotaCommunity College CollegeTsaiKyle, le, ArizonaSouth Dakota 19701968 OglalaNavajo Sioux 160,722 13,417 1,311 665 1,241 599 AssociateBachelors Accredited (1983)(1976) SmteStanding Gleska Rock College CommunityFortRosebud, Yates, College South North Dakota Dakota 19721971 StandingRosebud SiouxRock Sioux 7,9589,484 201246 201 174 AssociateBacnelors Accredited (19841(1983) TurtleCheyenne Mountain River Community CommunityEagleBe !court, College Butte, College North South Dakota Dakota 19731972 TurtleCheyenne Mountain River SiouxChippewa 4,4498,656 233 201 AssociateAssociate AffiliatedAccredited with(1984) NorthernState College, SP FortLummi Berthold Community Community CollegeLummiNew College Town, Island, North Washington Dakota 197,31973 LummiMandan, Arikara Hidatsa 2,2903,194 6719 56 18 Associate Candidate (19811 LittleNebraska Hoop Indian Community CommunityFortWinnebago, College Totten, College NebraskaNorth Dakota 19731974 SanteeDevil's Sioux, Lake Omaha Siouxand Winnebago .3,3462,916 (19841 200109 (19841 180 95 Associate Candidate (19811(1982 OjibwaDull Knite Community Memorial College CollegeBaraga,Lame Deer, Michigan Montana 1975 L'anse-VieuxNorthern Cheyenne Band (Chippewa) Keweenaw .3,110 893 (19841 237 76 (19841 221 Associate AffiliatedCandidate with(NWAES)Michigan Tech. Univ. BlackfeetLittle Big Community Horn College CollegeCrowBrowning, Agency, Montana Montana 19771976 CrowBlackfeet 4,9696,6.32 190 180 Associate AffiliatedAccredited with(NWAES) Miles (19841Comm. College, MT ISahsh )4) University Kootenai CollegeDavis,Pablo, MontanaCalifornia 19771977 SalHoopa ish- Valley andSoboba Kootenai 2,273.3,300 257516 348177 AssociateAssociate AccreditedCandidate (NWAES)(WASCI SissetonFort Peck Wahpeton Community CommunityPoplar, College Montana College 19791978 Sisseton-WahpetonAssimboine and SiouxSioux .3,7305,095 252 AssociateAssociate CandidateAffiliated (19841with MilesComm. College, MT College of Ganado Ganado,Sisseton, ArizonaSouth Dakota total 1979 Hopi 200,873 8,439 21.3 201 Associate Accredited (19791 78 Summary and Analysis of the Tribally Controlled Colleges in 1982 primarily of Indians; predominantly Indian student profiles, annual reports, class schedules, enrollment bodies; isolated locations; reinforce and transmit summaries, and newspaper articles. Materials pro- tribal cultures; offer a pract curriculum geared to vided by AIHEC were also used in compiling the contemporary, local needs; and, to some extent, are profiles. Telephone calls were made to three of the community service oriented. colleges the writer was unable to visit; information The First Annual American Indian and Alaskan obtained through these calls was also utilized in Native Higher Education Conference was held in this chapter. Rapid City, South Dakota, in April 1982. The major In the belief that the most significant elements of sponsors of this conference were AIHEC and Title a college are its human resources including stu- IV Resource and Evaluation Centers. The conference dents, faculty, and administrators, the main empha- attracted leaders in Indian higher education from sis in the interviews and this chapter is placed on throughout the United States and Canada. Major the characteristics and perceptions of these mem- topics addressed included the role of the tribally bers of the tribal college community. Other aspects controlled college in higher education, accredita- included are physical facilities, library resources, ex- tion, energy and natural resource development, pre- ternal influences, institutional goals and objectives, paring students for trades and the job market, accreditation, student services, relations with other legislation on Indian education, financial aid pro- collegiate institutions, and several national trends grams, and developing a strategy for Indian higher pertaining to Indian higher education. education (A Vision Quest, 1982). The national cutback in federal funding in the early 1980s had a detrimental effect on AIHEC and Students its services. This caused a reduction in staff, physi- cal resources and services, and threatened the sur- vival of this organization which had been so impor- The students enrolled in the tribally controlled col- tant to the tribal colleges. In 1983 AIHEC moved its leg..s in the 1970s and 1980s were best described as headquarters to Washington, D.C. to be close to the "nontraditional." Although this term has perhaps federal decision makers and the major sources of been overused, if clearly defined it is appropriate. funding for the Consortium and the tribally con- The Indian and some of the non-Indian students at trolled colleges it serves. the tribal colleges differed from the typical student As of 1982, what were the characteristics, strengths, at other community colleges in several ways First, and weaknesses of the nineteen tribally controlled these students were in the great majority enrolled colleges in the United States? At this time, little fac- members of federally recognized Indian tribes and tual information was available in publications con- were residing on reservations. This in itself gave cerning these schools. Therefore, the writer traveled them a unique legal status and in most cases had to thirteen of the tribal colleges to collect data and implications for their previous education, values, perceptions directly from persons at these institu- and socioeconomic status. They were generally from tions. Taped interviews were conducted with presi- homes with family incomes well below the poverty dents, deans, faculty,staff members, and a fey level. From 1980 to 1982 the unemployment on In- students on the campuses of these colleges. A 40- dian reservations increased from 40% to nearly question structured interview was employed, but 80%, and on some reservations the annual family usually the interview ranged far beyond the ques- income averaged only $900. The average level of for- tions on the form. Written materials varying greatly mal education was very low on all reservations, and in type and amount were collected from each school tribal college students were often the first in their visited. A list of the colleges visited, the primary family to attempt postsecondary education. The dif- persons interviewed, and the dates are included in ferences in cultural values between white and tribal the list of references. Indian life made it difficult for students to be suc- The historical questions contained in the inter- cessful in an educational system based on white val- views supplied much of the information for the pro- ues and behaviors (Oppelt, 1989). files of the tribally controlled colleges in Chapter II. The average age of students attending tribal col- Information for the profiles also came from institu- leges ranged from the late 20s to the mid-30s with a tional documents including catalogs, institutional median for all schools of approximately 32 years. Summary and Analysis of the Tribally Controlled Colleges in 1982 79

Several persons interviewed at the tribal colleges western reservation Indians who are served by the believed that the average age of their students was tribally controlled colleges. There is a significantly declining. The reason given for this was that the larger proportion of women than men attending tribal community college was beginning to attract tribal colleges. All of the tribal colleges for which more recent high school graduates. Many of the stu- there are data enrolled more female than male stu- dents at tribal colleges are married and have chil- dents in 1982. The percentage of females at these dren which places special responsibilities on them schools ranged from a low of 57% at Fort Peck Com- and requires services such as day care at the col- munity College to a high of 84% at Dull Knife Me- leges. morial College. The reasons for the preponderance The proportion of Indian students in the student of women in the student bodies of these colleges bodies of the tribal colleges varied from 75% to 80% were not clear. Several probable reasons wereelic- at Little Hoop Community College to a high of al- ited from the interviewees at the tribal colleges. At most 100% at Little Big Horn College and Lummi some tribal colleges, the curriculum was composed Community College. The median percent of Indian primarily of programs that prepare students for tra- students for the thirteen schools for which there ditionally female occupations, i.e., teaching, secre- were data available was 86% to 90%. The overall tarial, and nursing. Where this was the case,it proportion of non-Indians among the students had obviously would account for the high proportion of risen slightly in the early 1980s. This was apparently women enrolled. A closely related factor which in- due to the broadened offerings and the improved fluenced the college curriculum was the type of jobs reputation of these colleges among the local non- available on or near the reservation. At one-half of Indians. The proportion of Indian students in atten- the schools studied, the majority of jobs on the res- dance at the tribal colleges had a direct economic ervation were with the federal government, tribal effect on these institutions because PL 95-471 fund- schools, or tribal administration. The most common ing is based on the enrollment of full-time equiva- jobs requiring postsecondary training wcre teach- lent Indian students. Therefore, a high proportion ing, secretarial, health, and other human services of non-Indians would create higher educational which predominantly employ women. With a few costs with less income from this major source of fed- exceptions, the jobs held by men on the reserva- eral funds. Administrators at several of the tribal tions involve unskilled work in agriculture, road colleges were concerned about the rising proportion maintenance, and similar jobs. It appears that the of non radian students because of less revenue per jobs available and the curricula offered by the tribal student and the fact that if the proportion of non- colleges were the main factors accounting for the Indians exceeded 50%, the school would be ineligi- high proportion of women enrolled at some of the ble for PL 95-471 funding. colleges. A significant finding of recent studies of higher However, even at the reservations where male- education enrollments is the continued national un- oriented jobs and college programs were available, derrepresentation of Indians in colleges and univer- women still outnumbered men in the tribal college sities throughout the United States. Indiansboth enrollment. Several tribal college personnel inter- men and womenare the most underrepresented viewed speculated that there were cultural factors minority groups for which there are data (Astin, affecting the proportion of males to females en- 1982). One of the major objectives of the tribal col- rolled. At some reservations the influence of the leges is to increase Indian higher education enroll- matriarchal society was stillpresent, and many ments and, more importantly, raise the number of women were the main family financial providers. American Indian graduates. They realized they could better themselves and their Within the national underrepresentation of Indi- family's economic status by obtaining postsecond- ans in higher education there are tribal and geo- ary vocational training. It was also mentionedthat graphic differences among Indians in the percentage most young Indian men do not view attending who enter postsecondary education. Among the as- school as a very masculine activity and prefer more similated groups the proportion attending college is active occupations. This may be more of a general close to the general population; but among Indians rural male attitude rather than one specifically re- who reside mainly on western reservations, the col- lated to being an Indian. lege attendance is very low.Itis primarily the;:e In the early 1980s there were slightly more Indian 80 Summary and Analysis of the Tribally Controlled Colleges in 1982

men than women receiving bachelor's degrees in pride and accomplishment of the entire family is in- the United States. This may indicate that the pre- comparable to that of most traditional white stu- ponderance of females in tribal colleges is influ- dents. At such times,itis evident that higher enced by a lack of opportunity or encouragement education is valued by these families. forreservation women to attend four-year off- Overall, the morale and spirit of the students at reservation institutions. the tribal colleges was judged as high by the staff It is probable that all of these factors influence, to and only slightly lower by the students interviewed. varying degrees, the proportion of males to females The two schools where morale was not seen as high enrolled at each tribal college. It was of concern to were where recent events, such as an unpopular some tribal college administrators that there was a administrative change or budget cuts, affecting pro- relatively low proportion of males among their stu- grams and services had temporarily caused con- dents. Two schools were planning to institute ex- cern. Although the tribal colleges were all relatively pandedtfferingsinagriculture,forestry,auto young, their reputations and the concomitant pride mechanics, and welding to attract more male stu- of their students appeared to be increasing. Several dents. All of these are expensive programs. On the interviewees believed increased student activities, in reservations where the average age of the students particular intercollegiate athletic teams, would in- is decreasing, it may mean that more young men crease student morale and espirit de corps. are choosing to enter college soon after high school. The great range of age among the students was If this does occur, it would be advisable for college another characteristic of students at tribal colleges. officialsto survey the occupational choices and In one Indian language class, the students ranged in needs of males in local high schools. age from 17 to 77 years. This might be a difficult sit- According to the campus interviews, the Indian uation at some colleges, but it works well at this community college students had certain characteris- tribal college. As previously defined, a high propor- tics which enabled them to overcome the obstacles tion of tribal college students are reservation Indi- of poverty, poor academic preparation, and family ans (sometimes termed traditionals) rather than responsibilities. One nearly unanimous view was acculturated Indians who predominate at non-tribal that the mani-ity and lifeexperiences of most schools. There is also a higher percentage of full of these students were important factors in their blooded Indians at tribal colleges. Whether an In- educational success. Most of them had worked full- dian student is a more traditional or acculturated is time, experienced the responsibilities of parent- determined less by their blood quantum than by hood, and understood the advantages of postsec- where and by whom they were raised and where ondary education. They knew what was needed to they live. As one faculty member said, "We have get a better job and realized the improved financial real Indians here, not your drugstore Indian that status and increased feeling of self-worth that co. -es was raised in the city" (Lane, 1982). It is not known with acquisition of skills and/or knowledge not pos- specifically how this influences their education, but sessed by their peers. Terms used to describe their it is true that many of the students at tribal colleges students' strengths were: "a lot of fight" "intestinal come from as traditional "Indian" homes as existed fortitude," "hang in there," "survivors," "persis- in the early 1980s. As indicated in the profiles, the tent," and "willing to sacrifice." It is evident to any- proportion of acculturated Indians varies signifi- one who has worked in higher education that cantly from one reservation to another. Isolation of persons with these qualities are going to have a some tribes has preserved more of their traditional high rate of success in attaining their goals. culture, making it more difficult for them to accom- Another factor that was important to the students' modate to higher formal education. success was the support of their families. They often mentioned that the support of spouse, parents, chil- dren, and even grandchildren was essential in their Faculty educational success. The pride shown by relatives at commencement when the first person in their fam- ily receives a college degree is a heartwarming ex- Another important group on the tribal college cam- perience, and one of the greatest satisfactions of puses is the faculty. The interviews refuted some Indian higher education. When it has taken six commonly held misconceptions about the persons years of study to attain an associate degree, the who teach at these institutions. At most tribal col- Summary and Analysis of the Tribally Controlled Colleges in 1982 81 leges the majority of the faculty were non-Indians. work and received satisfaction from making a major In 19 only at Dull Knife Memorial College, Black- contribution to Indian higher education. feet Co munity College, and Oglala Sioux Commu- nity Cege we re more than one-half of the full- time teachers Indians. The percentage of Indian Administrators faculty members ranged from 33% to 86% with a median of 50%. Several of these colleges were at- tempting to hire more Indian faculty, but they were Most of the administrators at the tribal colleges in not available in some vocational specialties. As the 1982 were Indians. The lowest percentage of Indian tribal colleges graduate more Indians in the needed administrators was 50%, and several schools had en- fields, the p -oportion of Indians among the faculties tirely Indian administrations. At some schools, non- will increase. Indians had served in administrative positions until Allofthetribalcollege administrators inter- a qualified Indian administrator could be employed. viewed considered that, with a few exceptions, their The Indian administrators at the tribal colleges did faculty were well prepared for their teaching and re- not all support the concept that an all Indian faculty lated responsibilities. Several schools had a high and administration was ideal. As mentioned previ- proportion of part-time faculty. In a decentralized ously, an objective of most tribal colleges was to re- institution, the advantages of a full-time faculty are tain educated Indians on the reservation through not as great as at a school with a centra,tzed cam- employmentt the college. Qualifications for work- pus. The retention of faculty was not a problem at ing at a tribal college differ somewhat from those at these Indian colleges; however, several schools re- non-Indian institutions. In addition to the necessary ported a higher rate of turnover among non-Indian professional knowledge and expertise, the person faculty members. This apparently was due to the must have a knowledge of and appreciation for the isolation of most reservation towns and the lack of local Indian culture. services, cultural activities, and good elementary Initially there were problems at certain Indian and secondary schools. On some reservations it was schools finding Indian administrators who were ex- very difficult for non-Indians to find adequate hous- perienced in some of the administrative specialties ing. Another cause of turnover was the temporary in higher education. At several colleges, the fiscal appointments givento some non-Indians. They and personnel record keeping and reporting were were hired with the stipulation that they would be poorly managed. The enrollment statistics neces- employed until a qualified Indian could be found to sary for reporting to the federal government lacked replace them. In spite of these conditions, there accuracy in some cases. This has been remedied were a number of non-Indian faculty and adminis- since Indian administrators learned how to keep trators who had worked for a number of years at a records and deal with the federal bureaucracy. Char- tribal college. Most of these were local persons who acteristics and conflictsof Indiantribalcollege were compatible with the reservation conditions administrators arediscussedinthe section on and well accepted by the Indians. strengths and weaknesses at tribally controlled col- The faculty morale at the tribalcolleges was leges. In two or three schools the tribal council has generally good. The two schools where faculty mo- unduly interfered with the administration of the col- rale was somewhat low in 1982 had recently experi- lege, but more commonly the council has been very enced a decreaso in federal funding causing the cooperative and supportive of the efforts of the col- loss of programs ond services and salary freezes lege administrators. or reductions. Even at some of theschools where salaries were low and raises minimal morale was high. Physical Facilities In summary, the faculty members at the tribal col- leges were predominantly non-Indians who were well prepared for their responsibilities. There was Judged by the standard of other community colleges little turnover, and they were generally well satis- in the United States, the physical facilities of the fied with their jobs in spite of the relatively low pay tribally controlled community colleges are very in- and isolated life on the reservation. The faculty who adequate. However, a decentralized delivery sys- persisted were dedicated persons who enjoyed their tem, which is the most common pattern at the tribal 82 Summary and Analysis of the Tribally Controlled Colleges in 1982

colleges, has different needs than a school located Student Services on a centralized campus. The previously mentioned characteristics of the tribal college students also imply a need for different physical facilities. For ex- The availability of student services at the nineteen ample, a college in a centralized location removed tribal colleges varied considerably, ranging from from a town (such as Navajo Community College at NCC with good overall services to Little Big Horn Tsai le, Arizona) needs residence halls and food Community College with deficiencies in almost all services whereas in a dispersed organization (such areas. Considering all of the tribal colleges, counsel- as Oglala Lakota College) these services are unnec- ing was the most adequately provided service. Not essary.Other than Navajo Community College in the sense that highly trained clinical counselors (NCC), the only tribal college with residence halls were employed but that there were faculty, staff, and food services is Dull Knife Memorial College and administrators at each college who had the (DKMC). knowledge and willingness to help the student Most of the tribal college administrators and fac- needing assistance. It has been found at four-year ulty interviewed in 1982 rated their physical facili- institutions that Indians prefer an Indian counselor ties as inadequate. The most frequently expressed (Haviland et al., 1985); and all the tribal colleges need was for more classrooms. At nine of the have dedicated Indian staff who are available to talk schools this was mentioned as a high priority need. to students. This is an important factor in the suc- Another need at the majority of the schools was a cess of these institutions. student lounge or student center. Only four or five Day care for the children of students and staff schools had an adequate place for students to gather was one of the most frequently mentioned unmet and relax between classes and hold social functions. needs. Several schools had some day care, but Lack of library space and holdings was another DKMC had to close its facility because the federal common problem of the tribal colleges. At the de- funding was decreased. TMCC and NCC had well centralized colleges it was impossible to have a com- organized and effective day care that met most of plete library at each college center. Local libraries the needs of both students and staff. As with other were utilized by students,but few reservation services, the need for day care varies, depending on towns have an adequate library. At three of the col- the proportion of students with young children, leges, the college library was located in a tribal ad- numbers of full-time students, size of the college ministration building that was locked after business community, and other day care facilities available in hours so books were not available in the evenings. the community. Three of the schools with the best library holdings Social activities,athletics, student government, were NCC, Turtle Mountain Community College and other activities were minimal at most campuses, (T MCC), and Salish Kootenai College. The best li- but the need for them was not high due to the char- brary buildings were at NCC and DKMC. acteristics of the students and the dispersed organi- Aesthetically, the most attractive campuses are at zation at most of the tribal colleges. If the average NCC, Salish Kootenai College, and Oglala Lakota age of the students' at some of the tribal colleges College. All of these colleges have modern build- continues to decline, there may be an increased ings situated in surroundings of natural beauty. At need for social activities, student government, and the other end of the scale were Fort Berthold Com- interscholastic athletics at these schools. In the early munity College and Blackfeet Community College 1980s, most of the tribal college students met their whose physical facilities, as of 1982, were inadequate social needs through the family and community. and poorly maintained. The tribal colleges are primarily commuter schools; DKMC and TMCC both had sites and tentative only NCC had a residential campus isolated from a plans for new campuses. In 1982 the administrators community which caused a need for a variety of ser- at these colleges were hopeful that these plans vices and out-of-class activities (Oppelt, 1975). The would be implemented but realized that the federal administratorsatDullKnife Memorial College budget was tight and that construction funds might placed a high priority on the improvement of stu- be cut from PL 95-471. The outlook was not bright. dent services. Other physical facilities listed as needs at one or As of 1982,little formal assessment had been more tribal colleges were gymanasia, science labora- done of the needs of students at tribal colleges in tories, vocational education facilities, and offices. the area of student personnel services. At Salish Summary and Analysis of the Tribally Controlled Colleges in 1982 83

Kootenai College a survey of graduates indicated a Written goals and objectives of the tribal colleges need for more student services and activities. Day all included transfer education and vocational edu- care was specifically mentioned as an unmet need. cation.Culturalreinforcement and preservation It would be advisable for other tribal colleges to do was included in the written statements of all but at least an informal student needs assessment to one school, and some reference to tribal service was determine what services are perceived as most included in most of the written materials. At two needed and base planning for the future on such in- colleges research was included as a major objec- formation. tive. This was related to the training of faculty and administrators which stressed the importance of re- search in higher education. In the written state- College Objectives ments of these schools research is only tangentially mentioned as a goal if resources are available for all An important factor influencing the needed human higher objectives. resources, physical facilities, student services, and all other facets of a college are objectives and goals of the institution. An examination of tribal college External Influences documents and the writer's campus interviews indi- cates that there are four broad, common objectives of tribally controlled colleges. These are vocational In the founding and development of all tribal col- education, transfer or general education, cultural re- leges (except for NCC), external influences have inforcement and transmission, and service to the played an important role, most commonly in a pos- chartering tribe or tribes. During campus interviews itive direction. The staff of the American Indian in 1982, the writer asked administrators at 13 tribal Higher Education Consortium (AIHEC) was of valu- colleges to rank the four objectives listed above as able assistance in the development of these unique they were emphasized at his/her institution and to institutions. In a number of cases, the state educa- add major objectives not included under these four tion officials and state board of education of the areas. state in which the reservation is located were of as- The composite ranking for all schools showed that sistance. The external institutions that contributed transfer education and vocational education were the most were the nearby two-year colleges, partic- closely ranked as number one and number two, re- ularly in Montana and North Dakota. Without the spectively. Far below in third place was cultural re- help of the personnel at these schools it would have inforcement and transmission, and service to the been much more difficult for the tribes to establish tribe(s) was a distant fourth. Two college adminis- their own colleges. Some four-year colleges also fa- trators rated cultural reinforcement as the number cilitated the development of tribal schools, but oth- one priority, but actual programs and written mate- ers were initially not willing to get involved with rials at the schools did not coincide with this high these struggling colleges. The specific two-year and ranking. Two other administrators ranked service to four-year colleges and universities involved in the the tribe as number one and number two, respec- founding and growth of each tribal college are iden- tively, but nearly all the others ranked it at the bot- tified in the profiles in Chapter 2. The National tom as number four. These two high rankings for Congress of American Indians and the National In- tribal services may have resulted from a misunder- dian Education Association were supportive of the standing of this objective because the college pro- tribal college movement, specifically in promoting grams and services show other objectives were PL 95-471. The National Advisory Council on In- being allocated most of the resources. This indicates dian Education (NACIE) has continually been sup- a discrepancy between stated objectives andactual portive of tribally controlled community colleges allocation of resources at some tribal colleges.It in its annual reports and testimony to the United should be emphasized that the few persons inter- States Congress (NACIE, 1974, 1976, 1978). viewed at each schoolprimarily the presideats Several non-Indians made major contributions to were not a representative sample of the various the tribal community college development. Some constituencies. It is likely that the priorities of the served as administrators or faculty members in the several constituencies including tribal members, fac- early years of the tribal colleges. In a few cases, the ulty, students, and others vary to some degree. relationship of these non-Indians to other members 84 Summary and Analysis of the Tribally Controlled Colleges in 1982 of the college staff deteriorated when they were re- tional, four-year Indian university. However, several placed by Indians they believed less qualified to do believed it should be a senior level school and not the job. However, in most cases they realized theirs offer the first two years of bachelor's programs. was a temporary role, and they willingly stepped Most of them did not believe funds should be taken aside and assisted their Indian successor in the tran- from the three existing federal, two-year Indian sition. schools to fund an Indian university. As would be expected, none of the tribal college administrators or faculty were in favor of establishing an Indian Four-Year College Status university if it would result in reduced funding for their tribal colleges. Another concern was the loca- tion of this proposed university. The interviewees During the 1960s and 1970s a number of two-year said that unless it was in their region it would not colleges in the United States sought and attained be well-utilized by their people. The concept of an the status of four-year degree granting institutions. Indian university is discussed further in Chapter 5. In the latter 1970s and early 1980s this trend was slowed by the reduced enrollments in higher educa- tion and the national financial recession. Did the Views on Community Colleges and tribally controlled two-year colleges aspire to be- Education of American Indians come four-year colleges? In general, they did not; but two of these institutions have become four-year schools and two others have been considering a Prior to the present study, little had been written change. In 1983, Oglala Lakota College (formerly specifically concerning tribally controlled commu- Oglala Sioux Community College) and Sinte Gleska nity colleges, but a few persons have expressed College became the first two tribal colleges to be ac- their views about the appropriatenessof such credited at both the associate and bachelor's degree schools for the postsecondary education of Indians levels. Navajo Community College has been consid- on reservations and in Indian communities. ering a move to four -year status for some time, and As early as 1938, Dolan expressed the opinion staff atLittle Big Horn college has given some that two-year colleges were uniquely suited to meet- thought to such a change. NCC has the staff, enroll- ing the educational needs of many Indians. His ment, and facilities to provide four-year programs, view may have been influenced by the prevailing but the writer believes the other tribal colleges idea that Indians were best suited for vocational should work to strengthen their present two-year training rather than academic programs. Other writ- programs before moving to more advanced work. ers have supported the view that community col- The economic recession of the early 1980s and the leges are ideally suited in philosophy and design to enrollment declines have made it very difficult to serve the unique needs of tribal reservation Indians maintain small four-year institutions, and a number because they are more flexible than four year of these schools have had to close. schools and can accommodate the cultural differ- ences and local conditions of the Indian community (Hunt, 1946; Sando, 1969; Shannon, 1972; Cover, Four-Year Indian University 1973; Locke, 1973; Medicine, 1975; Kickingbird, 1976; Astin, 1982). Joe S. Sando, a Pueblo Indian, wrote in 1969 con- Since the 1960s there has been some discussion of cerning the advantages of community colleges for the establishment of a national Indian university Indian students: that would offer at least four-year programs and perhaps graduate and professional degrees. Some It is suggested that a community college would he more consideration has been given to making Haskell In- advantageous to the Indian student than a large univer- sity since the emphasis in the smaller school is on meet- dian Junior College a four-year Indian college; and ing the needs of the students and not on research. It is the staff at Bacone College, a private school, has also noted that the heavy emphasis or counseling and given some thought to such a change (Chavers, guidance provided at the community colleges is desirable 1979) The tribal college administrators interviewed for the Indian student especially if a counselor with an in 1982 were generally favorable to the idea of a na- Indian background can be found. (p. 7) Summary and Analysis of the Tribally Controlled Colleges in 1982 85

Lynn Kickingbird (1976) lists a number of ration- Indians, particularly those living on reservations or ales to substantiate the need for the continuation in rural Indian communities. As it related to the and expansion of the Native American community growth of self determination and local control of In- college. The Native American community college: dian education, the tribal community college move- ment between 1968 and 1980 was a development of 1. Provides for the unmet needs of Indians. great significance. This movement was given legal 2. Corrects lack of career education to meet the support by the passage of PL 93-368 (Indian Self De- manpower needs of the reservation. termination) and the Educational Assistance Act of 3. Makes higher education available to the total 1975. This law provided for increased self determi- tribal community. nation for Indians in education and other areas of 4. Is less expensive than off-reservation educa- management of tribal programs and services (88 tion. Stat. 2203). 5. Offers the potential to increase the number of Concerning the future of tribally controlled col- Indian people who can go to college. leges, Sioux leaders Lowell Amiotte and Gerald One 6. Suits the needs of the older Indian student. Feather (1973) wrote: 7. Decreases the distance Indians must travel to True success of the Indian community colleges will come attend classes. about when the public at large understands the goals of 8. Provides cultural continuity. higher education for Indians and the fact that Indian peo- 9. Prepares students for four-year institutions. ple are able to manage their own higher education sys-

10. Provides a means for continuing education. tem.. . . Ifnon-Indian people will expand their definition 11. Supports tribal services and programs. of higher education . they will be able to support us in 12. Increases exchange between Indian and non- our efforts. (p. 165) Indian cultures (pp. 9-11). As of 1982, this understanding had not come The "Old West Report" edited by Perry Horse for about. Part of the lack of progress is the result of AIHEC in 1979 gives a good summary of the charac- insufficient promotion and publicity of these schools teristics and objectives of tribally controlled commu- by the chartering tribes and news media. The mass nity colleges at that time. In part, the preface of this media has focused attention on the problems of the report states: "The growth of tribally-controlled tribal colleges with D-Q University getting an abun- community colleges is one of the most impressive dance of negative publicity in the California papers. success storie, in the history of American Indian ed- The tribal colleges need to put more effort into ucation" (p. iii). bringing the accomplishments of their students and Inhis comprehensive study of minorities in graduates before thepublic. Navajo Community American higher education, Alexander Astin (1982) College has done this through a newsletter and wrote: other materials highlighting the successes of its The relatively recent American Indian community college alumni. movement demonstrates how effective these institutions In 1974 Gerald One Feather made prophetic rec- can be in responding to the immediate needs of the com- ommendations concerning thefuture of Indian munity by affording career associate degree programs in higher education. He wrote that Indian colleges such areas as range management, animal husbandry, and should be based on the concept of self determina- practical nursing. (p. 192) tion and the strengths of the Indian people; that, ex- However, Astin also pointed to the high proportion cepting the Navajos, Indian tribes are not large of Indians and other minority students in two-year enough to support a centralized community college colleges as one reason for their low level of comple- with full-time students; and that the unique tribe- tion at the bachelor's degree level. His data indicate federal relationship which guarantees the Federal persons aspiring to a four-year degree who matricu- support and right of the tribes to govern themselves late at a two-year school are less likely to reach their must be maintained and expanded (cited in Deloria, goal than are those who initially enroll at a four- 1974, p. 41). year school. The views included above indicate the strong sup- The views included above indicate the strong sup- port among Indians and non-Indians for the tribally port for community colleges as the most effective controlled college movement in the 1970s and early way to provide for the postsecondary needs of tribal 1980s. Other than Astin's concern for the low pro- 86 Summary and Analysis of the Tribally Controlled Colleges in 1982 portion of two-year college students completing a limited amount of capital construction for a new bachelor's degree, only one other criticism of the campus. This was an important breakthrough be- tribally controlled colleges was found. A few educa- cause it established a precedent for direct federal aid tors believe that attending a reservation two-year toIndian postsecondary institutions other than college only postpones the inevitable move to the those operated by the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Al- white institutions where Indians must learnto though funding is much better than in the years be- achieve vocational and personal survival in a plural- fore 1971, the Navajos still have to annually lobby istic society. their congressmen and budget committees for ap- The writer believes that the two-year tribal col- propriations for their college. leges provide a bridge between the tribal reserva- Prior to 1978, tribal colleges other than NCC lived tion culture and the dominant white world that will virtually a hand-to-mouth existence. The annual increase the probability of educational success for federal programs upon which they depended for more Indian students. Further research on gradu- most of their funding might or might not be contin- ates of Indian tribal colleges is needed to determine ued. Even those continuing programs might have the effects on educational and vocational outcomes funding cuts causing reductions in personnel and for Indians who attend these institutions. supplies attheir college. With programs being funded for only one or two years at the most, it was impossible to do much long range planning and re- Tribal College Funding tain the top faculty and staff. Research data and in- terviews with tne tribal college administrators by the writer in 1982 substantiated that the lack of sta- As pointed out throughout the profiles of the tribal ble financial support was the major obstacle to these colleges, by far the greatest problems of the nine- schools reaching their potential. The presidents had teen tribally controlled colleges are caused by a lack to spend nearly all of their time seeking funding of sufficient funding. Initial funding for these col- and had little time for the important duties of man- leges was obtained from TitleIII grants usually aging the institution. The futures of these schools awarded to an accredited sponsoring institution of depended upon the vagaries of political manipula- higher education in the area. Other funds came tions at the federal level over which Indians had lit- from a variety of small federal education programs tle, if any, influence. on the reservations. In spite of the strong tribal sup- The most significant piece of legislation in the port received by most of the colleges, except for the field of American Indian higher education was the Navajos, funds from tribal sources were minimal. Tribally Controlled Community College Assistance The tribes did not have sufficient capital to allocate Act of 1978 (PL 95-471). This act provided the first any but token amounts to their college. Tribes can- reasonably stable funding for the qualified tribal col- not tax their lands, so this common form of fund leges. It was the result of much effort on the part of raising for state and district community colleges is Indian leaders and their supporters in the state and not available. Private sources have provided small federal governments. The American Indian Higher amounts of funding, particularly at College of Ga- Education Consortium coordinated the efforts of the nado, Navajo Community College, Dull Knife Me- tribes with tribal colleges toward the eventual pas- morial College, and Sinte Gleska College. State sage of PL 95-471 which was signed into law by funds have not been a source of funding for most President Jimmy Carter on October 7, 1978. The as- tribal colleges because the state officials have seen sistance from this act was not prompt as indicated these schools as private institutions and Indian ed- by the fact that the first operating funds were not ucation as a federal responsibility. In the early 1980s received by the qualified tribal college3 until June some tribalcollege students were granted state 1980. scholarships and other state financial aid. As defined in PL 95-471, a tribally controlled col- In 1971 the United States Congress passed the Na- lege was: vajo Community College Assistance Act. This act provided that federal funds could be appropriated An institution formally sanctioned or chartered by the to Navajo Community College foritsoperation governing body of an Indian tribe or tribes, except that no based on the full-time equivalent Indian enrollment more than one such institution shall be recognized with at the school and that funds could be provided for a respect to any such tribe. (Definition #4)

rm Summary and Analysis of the Tribally Controlled Collegesin 1982 87

The overall purpose of Title 1 of PL 95-471 was to: In Section 107(a) of the Act it was stated that: The Secretary shall, for each academic year, grant each Provide grants for the operation and improvement of trib- tribally controlled college having an application approved ally controlled community colleges and to insure contin- by him an amount equal to $4,000 for each full-time ued and expanded opportunities for Indian students. equivalent Indian student in attendance during that year. (Section 101) Section 107 also noted that advance payments of not Tribes with tribally chartered community colleges less than forty percent of the funds available for al- could apply for grants from the Secretary of the In- lotment could be made by the Secretary based upon terior to defray expenses of activities related to edu- anticipated or actual numbers of full-time equivalent cation programs for the postsecondary education of Indian students. Indian students (Section 102b). To be eligible for In the first few years the tribal colleges did not these grants, a tribally controlled college must be: receive $4,000 per full-time equivalent Indian stu- dent. The BIA did not request the maximum per 1. Governed by a board, a majority of which are student. In fiscal year 1980 the average amount actu- Indians; ally received per Indian full-time equivalency by the 2. Demonstrates adherence to stated goals, a phi- colleges was $3,101. This amount was inadequate losophy, or a plan of operation which is directed to when it is considered that in the late 1970s the di- meet the needs of Indians; and rect appropriations for education of an Indian stu- 3.If in operation for more than one year, has stu- dent at Haskell Indian Junior College were over dents a majority of whom are Indians. (Section 102) $5,000 per annum. The estimated allocations from PL 95-471 for fiscal year 1981 were $3,421 per full- In addition to the existing tribally controlled col- time equivalent Indian student (Olivas, 1981). leges, two collegesD-Q University and College of The statement of authorized appropriations is in- Ganadobecame chartered by Indian tribes and re- cluded in Section 109 of the act. Funds were autho- organized their governing boards to meet the above rized for the succeeding three fiscal years in the criteria and become eligible for PL 95-471 funding. following amounts: 1979$25 million; 1980$25 These institutions are described and discussed in million; 1981$30 million. The appropriations for Chapter 2. technical assistance for each of these three years was In order to be eligible for PL 95-471 funding, a $3.2 million. The amount actually allocated to the tribally controlled college must request a feasibility tribal colleges for fiscal year 1980 was $11,405,356 study. The feasibility studies have posed problems andtheestimatedamountforFY1981 was for several colleges because of the time taken to con- $8,863,000. The decrease was due to the overpay- duct them. The excessive time taken by the BIA to ment made to Navajo Community College in FY disperse the funds appropriated caused the first 1980. The actual allocations for technical assistance schools to have to wait one and one-half years be- and feasibility studies for 1980 were $600,000 and tween the passage of the act and receipt of thefirst $400,000, respectively. funds. In February 1980, tribal leaders were critical Because it already had funding from the Navajo of the slowness with which the federal officials were Community College Assistance Act of 1971, a sepa- moving in making funds available to the colleges rate title (Title II) was included in PL 95-471 for (Middleton, 1980). The tribal colleges were having NCC. Title II provided for a study of the facilities at severe financial problems and severalneeded these NCC similar to those for the other tribal colleges funds to survive. and for construction grants for its new campus. In the initial grants, priority was given to colleges In spite of the problems associated with the im- with sufficient students and those in operation at plementation of PL 95-471, it was a milestone in the the time the act was passed. The Secretary of the development of the tribal colleges. The importance Interior was instructed to the extent practical to con- of the act to each tribal college is included in the sult with national Indian organizations and tribal profiles. Although they still had to fight for the an- governments when considering the grant applica- nual funding of PL 95-471, they could present a tions. In the first year grants were awarded, the more effective, unified front, and theirfunding be- number of grants was limited to a minimum of eight came more stable than in previous years.Table 4 and a maximum of fifteen (Section 106). presents the amounts of money actually allocated to 88 Summary and Analysis of the Tribally Controlled Colleges in 1982

Table 4 cratic red tape in federal departments, particularly Tribally Controlled Community College the BIA and the Office of Management and Budget; Assistance Act Appropriations the impoverished conditions of the tribally con- trolled colleges; and design flaws in PL 95-471 (Oli- School and vas, 1981). Most of these could be corrected if the Title FY 1980 FY 1981 federal officials and the tribal leaders would cooper- ate better on the implementation of the act and its Estimated provisions. Indian Indian Estimated The national economic recession of the early FTE Grant FTE Grant 1980s had a significant effect on all federal pro- Title I grams, particularly funding for Indian and other mi- Blackfeet CC 83 $ 264,761 199 $ 680,779 nority higher education programs and institutions. D-Q University 76 242,431 82 280,522 Early in 1983 President Reagan vetoed the funding Dull Knife Mem. C 93 296,709 93 318,153 for PL 95-471. In doing this lie stated: Ft. Berthold CC 38 129,998 College of Gana& 131 156,287 82 280,522 College level Indian education has never been character- Little Hoop CC 111,646 42 143,682 Nebraska Indian CC 109 329,45.t 106 362,974 ized in law or treaty as a trust responsibility of the federal Oglala Sioux CC 282 833,703 214 732,094 government, and to do so now would potentially create Sa lish Kootenai C 90 297,079 125 427,625 legal obligations that are not clearly intended or under- Sinte Gleska C 173 551,851 173 591,833 stood. (Wassaja, 1983, p. 6) Sisseton-Wahpeton CC 66 225,786 The administrative policies of the Interior Depart- Standing Rock CC I 1 1 354,078 85 290,985 ment under the leadership of Secretary James Watt Turtle Mountain CC 107 341,318 107 366,047 were reminiscent of the termination movement of Total Title I 1,290 $ 3,779,316 1,412 $4,8 (1,000 4 231,0(X) the 1950s. Fortunately, Watt was forced to resign be- fore he was able to implement his plans to remove $ 4,010,316 the "socialism" on Indian reservations. Reagan's statement and Watt's desire to deny the tribal Indi- Title Il ans their rights were strong evidence that the fight Naval() C.C. 1,600 $ 6,405,000 793 $3,172,000 to find support for the tribally controlled colleges Feasibility studies 400,00(1 50,000 would continue through atleast1988 and that Technical assistance 600,0(X) 600.000 AIHEC and Indians' allies would need to work to Total TitleII $ 7,405,000 53,822,000 override presidential opposition in the future. GRAND TOTAL $11,415,316 $8,653,000

Snyder Act (Supplemental Funds' Accreditation of Tribally College of Ganado 506,(K)0 Controlled Colleges Oglala Sioux CC: 117,180 $133,000 Sinte Gleska C 358,3(X) 136,500 Turtle Mountain CC 93,700 80,500 Another problem faced by the tribal colleges in their Total Snyder Act $ 1,075,180 $ 350,000 early years was the difficulty and expense of gain- ing ac,_;editation by the regional accrediting associa- NOTE College of Ganado received an emergency grant of 5231,000 in 1980 tions. These associations were initially reluctant to NOTE From M A. Olivas, 119811 "The Tribally Controlled Community College As sistance Act of 1978 The Failure of Federal Indian Higher Education Policy," Amen approve Indian languages, philosophy, and other can Indian Law Review 9, 29125I. aspects of Indian cultures as equivalent to studies of European cultures or to approve Indian teachers who lacked traditional academic credentials. Locke each of the fourteen eligible colleges in FY 1980 and (1977) recommended the establishment of an Indian the estimated appropriations for sixteen colleges in college accrediting association ifit could gain the FY 1981. support of the tribes. In the late 1970s there was The fact that PL 95-471 did not live up to the ex- much discussion of establishing an accrediting asso- pectations of Indian education leaders for the solu- ciation for Indian colleges. In 1979 the members of tion of most of the tribal colleges' financial woes AIHEC were formulating plans to form such an or- was due to three factors: delays caused by bureau- ganization. They were working on standards and Summary and Analysis of the Tribally Controlled Colleges in 1982 89 planning to hold several pilot accreditation visits to accrediting association might have meant that their member schools. institutions would never have been accepted as Concurx ntly, most of the tribal colleges were "real colleges." It appeared that the former plans to moving ahead to seek accreditation by their regional form a separate agency for the accreditation of tribal association. By 1982 Navajo Community College, colleges had little support. College of Ganado, and D-Q University all had received full two-year college accreditation by their respective regional associations. Ten other tribal col- Administrators at Tribally leges had gained candidate for accreditation status, Controlled Colleges and in another year several would be eligible for full accreditation. The remaining four tribalcolleges were corresponding with their regional association In the early years of tribally controlled colleges, to gain candidacy status. there were too few Indians with the training and ex- Although regional accreditation was expensive perience in the administration of higher education and time consuming, the fears that accreditation to staff the growing numbers of tribal colleges. would require that the tribal colleges give up their Some schools, such as Navajo Community College, unique objectives and practices were unwarranted. employed non-Indians in the upper administrative The schools were able to move toward accreditation positions for a few years while they developed the by convincing the visitation teams that they were expertise of the Indian staff to take over the admin- meeting their objectives and serving the needs of istration. Some schools which relied solely cn Indi- the local Indian people in the manner that was most ans with no assistance from non-Indians had more appropriate and effective. initial problems but, after some changes, developed A survey carried out by Joseph McDonald, presi- competent administrative staffs. All of the tribal col- dent of Salish Kootenai College, in 1981 compared leges have eventually employed Indians, and a few accreditation practices in Indian community colleges non-Indians, who are dedicated and have learned by to those in non-Indian community colleges. He experience to administer their colleges. found that although most tribal college presidents A study of Indian administrators at tribally char- seemed to favor the concept of an independent as- tered community colleges in 1980 concluded that sociation for the accreditation of Indian colleges, the many needed more training and experience to be other administrators and faculty did not believe this more effective. Few had advanced training in educa- was a wise course. They felt that the self-studies tional administration or administrative experience and recommendations of the visitation teams were beyond their present position. These administrators helpfultotheir colleges. They were concerned saw two roles as being most important to the insti- about the major expenditure of funds and man- tution. These were advisor to the non-Indian per- power needed for the continued support of an inde- sonnel on campus and a mediator in the inevitable pendentIndiancollegeaccreditingassociation. personal conflicts among faculty, staff and students More importantly, they believed that a new separate (Isaac, 1980). association would find itdifficult to establish the The Indian administrators studied found that their credibility and prestige of the existing associations. most common problems resulted from conflicting If Indian colleges were accredited by their own sep- commitments to the institution and the Indian com- arate association, their credibility might be ques- munity. Specifically, they found a conflict in at- tioned by their colleagues at non-Indian colleges tempting to be a role model for other Indians and affecting the transfer of credit and status of their also administering the college. Another problem programs. was permitting conflict to become the primary initi- In interviews with administrators and faculty of ator of institutional change. They were too often be- the tribal colleges in 1982, it was the consensus that ing reactive to conflicting demands and did not the efforts to gain accreditation were progressing have the time and resources to be proactive (isaac, satisfactorily and that their schools were not being 1980). forced to change directions which would prevent In spite of the deficiencies and conflicts men- them from pursuing their original goals or serving tioned above, the Indian tribal college administra- their students in the best manner. Several inter- tors were accomplishing a great deal with their viewees mentioned that a separate Indian college depth of understanding of both the Indian and

i 90 Summary and Analysis of the Tribally Controlled Colleges in 1982 white cultures and their efforts to inculcate the tra- secondary education on the reservations which pre- ditional Indian philosophy into the white based pro- viously had only scattered courses offered by col- grams and services of their schools. Few,if any, leges in the area. The tribal colleges are meeting, to non-Indian administrators could have accomplished varying degrees, their four objectives of providing this. vocational education, transfer or general education, In addition to the financial, accreditation, and ad- preserving and transmitting the various tribal cul- ministrative obstacles mentioned by the tribal ad- tures, and serving the chartering tribes in a number ministrators, other less pervasive obstacles include of areas. They are providing for the first time the geographical isolation, lack of human resources, and opportunity for Indians in isolated areas to attend lack of awareness of the potential of the college college because they are accessible and their pro- among community members. One administrator be- grams and services are tailored to meet theneeds of lieved the college had been penalized for moving local people. Preliminary information indicates that too slowly in its founding and development. students who attend tribal colleges have lower attri- tion rates and are more likely to attain their educa- tional objectives than are those who attend off- Other Influences on Tribal Colleges reservationinstitutions.Data fromlongitudinal studies are needed to test this conclusion. The pride evidenced by many Indians as they A great variance in reservation tribal populations is speak of "our college" indicates they are beginning evident with a range from 893 Indians at the Chip- to see higher education as a part of their culture pewa Keweenaw Bay Reservation to the 180,000 In- rather than solely a white controlled institution. dians on the huge Navajo Reservation in Arizona, This change haF great potential for the development New Mexico, and Utah (1981). The reservations with of these people and their tribes. the larger populations were the first to charter tribal A unique objective of all tribal colleges and that colleges. Although there are exceptions, the reser- which distinguishes them most from other commu- vations with larger populations have better devel- nity colleges is their commitment to preservation oped colleges. The number of full-time equivalent and transmission of the cultures of the chartering Indian students is, as would he expected, propor- tribe(s). Although the long term effects of these ef- tional to the Indian reservation population; and be- forts cannot be predicted, it appears from interviews cause PL 95-471 appropriations are based onIndian with college officials and enrollments inIndian full-time equivalency, these are also related to the culture courses that they are beginning .to have a Indian populations. Whether or not a tribal college positive influence on the preservation of Indian lan- was ruled feasible for PL 95-471 fundingin 1980 is guages, arts, crafts, religious ceremonies, andother partially a function of the school's accreditation sta- facets of the culture. Because it is so important to tus at that time. All of the fully accredited colleges the survival of the tribal culture and considering received funds, and all of the schools lacking at that these schools are the major proponent of this least candidacy status were ruled non-feasible. Of preservation, the accomplishment of this goal alone the nine pre-accredited colleges, seven were ruled justifiestheir continued existence. The colleges feasible and two non-feasible. The data on these fac- alone cannot preserve the tribal culture, but with tors are shown in Table 3. the aid of other socialinstitutions such as the family, clans and medicine men,it may be ac- complished. Perhaps the highly assimilated tribes Conclusions Concerning Tribally cannot preserve much of their traditional tribal cul- Controlled Colleges ture, but they can strengthen their presentamal- gamated culture through the college supporting, along with the other social institutions, what still The examination of tribally controlled colleges in exists. the early 1980s supports the conclusion that these The programs and services of the tribal colleges unique institutions are making a significant contri- and their staffs and facilities are making major con- bution to Indians of the chartering tribes and other tributions to the tribes in areas outside their educa- residents of the reservations and adjacent commu- tional objectives. Prior to the establishment of these nities. The tribal colleges are coordinating post- colleges, there were few (other than a few federal Summary and Analysis of the Tribally Controlled Colleges in 1982 91 jobs) employment opportunities for educated Indi- the time or resources if they were so inclined, little ans on the reservations. The faculty and staff posi- research or publication has dealt with the tribal tionsatthetribalcollegeshaveencouraged colleges. educated Indians to return to their homes to work If these schools are going to prosper, they need to and live. In addition to their educational responsi- do a better job of publicizing their unique programs, bilities, these people are contributing their skills services, activities, and accomplishments. Such ac- and leadership to their tribes and are serving as role tivities as the pow wows at Navajo Community Col- models for young persons. They function as politi- lege and Oglala Lakota College have attracted large cal, social, and religious leaders of their communi- attendance and favorable attention from Indians and ties.As previously mentioned,this sometimes non-Indians in the area. Other such activities that produces role conflicts for these persons, but they bring favorable attention to the college need to be are providing a great deal of valuable service to instituted. their people. As reported in the tribal college profiles in Chap- Another conclusion is that the tribally controlled ter 2, the physical facilities and library holdings at colleges are higher education's best kept secret (Op- all except two or three tribally controlled colleges pelt, 1984). No one is purposely trying to hide these are inadequate. The areas of greatest need areclass- institutions, but the lack of more effective public re- rooms, library space and holdings, laboratories,and lations by the leaders of the tribal colleges has been student lounges. Most of the tribal colleges have a factor in their obscurity. Because these schools are chosen to put more of their limited financial re- intended primarily for local Indian clientele, it may sources into faculty, staff, and student aidthan in seem unnecessary to publicize them beyond the res- physical facilities which is a wise decision consider- ervation. However, there are non-Indians in atten- ing their decentralized organization. dance, and the broader their support, the better A dispersed delivery system of courses,pro- chance they will have to obtain continued federal grams, and services has proved mostappropriate and other sources of financing. Some local Indian for the large reservations with widely scattered res- residents know little about their own tribal school. idents, poor roads, and poor transportation.Al- Certainly local Indians and non-Indians should be though this format poses problems of coordination, better informed concerning the programs and ser- logistics, and facilities,itmeets the educational vices of the tribal college on their reservation. needs of the largest number of people living on The local news media share some of the responsi- these reservations. The few smaller, compact reser- bility for the kick of information disseminated about vations such as Turtle Mountain Chippewa, Devils the tribal college in their area. As with news in gen- Lake Sioux, and Lummi with concentrated popula- eral, unfavorable and sensational news is empha- tions are best served by a centralized system in sized in the mass media. The prime example of this which students come to a central campus for their is the almost entirely negative news releases in the courses. Navajo Community College startedwith a local press concerning D-Q University. When there centralized campus but now is following the lead of is a potential disturbance at a tribal college, the me- several other tribal colleges and moving to branches dia rushes in with reporters and television cameras; at other reservation towns, notable the successful but when an Indian student at a tribal college wins branch at Shiprock, New Mexico. The Indian enroll- an award it appears, if at all, in a small item onthe ment at Northland Pioneer Community College in back page. The national education press is either this area shows the need for programs at various uninformed or does not care about the tribally con- sites to serve the large population of Indians in this trolled colleges. Higher education leaders and fac- area. ulty in the west know little, if anything, about the In the area of accreditation the tribal colleges are eighteen tribally controlled colleges. Generally in making good progress toward acceptance by their higher education circles there is an almost complete regional associations. The accreditation self-studies lack of awareness of the existence of these institu- and visitations have been beneficial to the colleges, tions. Only persons in the immediate areas of the and the accreditation process has not forced them to colleges know anything about these unique institu- abandon their unique methods designed to meet the tions. Because of the general obscurity of these educational needs peculiar to the tribal Indian peo- schools and the fact that their own faculty and staff ple. An independent, separate accrediting agency are generally not research oriented and don't have for tribally controlled colleges is not warranted be- Summary and Analysis of the Tribally Controlled Colleges in 1982 cause of the increased expenditure in money and standards are the best or highest. The question of human resources and the probability that it would standards is often basically an issue of different in- never match the acceptance and prestige of the es- stitutional goals and objectives and students with tablished associations. The possibility that a few of differing educational backgrounds and goals. The the tribal colleges may not be able to meet the min- valid question is not to compare goals of different imal requirements for regional accreditation should types of schools with a variety of students but not prevent the others from having the opportunity whether or not the standards at any one college are to be fully accepted by the higher education estab- serving these students by encouraging them to do lishment. the best they can in whatever it is they want to ac- From documents, secondary sources, and inter- complish. If they are not doing this, the standards views with tribal college administrators and staff, are too low or, in some cases, too high. As at other the greatest obstacle to the tribal colleges reaching types of institutions, the faculty at most of the tribal their objectives appears to be the lack of adequate colleges have learned to set their standards at levels funding. These schools individually and collectively to challenge but not threaten their students. There- must strive to maintain their current federal support fore, the criticism of low standards is only valid if it from PI, 95-471 and other sources but must also seek is pertinent to the specific conditions and students all possible state and private sources of funding in- of each tribal college. Raising standards for the pur- cluding private foundations and individuals. If more pose of institutional prestige or public image, ifit tribal colleges are forced to close, it will most likely does not benefit the students, is wrong and a detri- be due to lack of sufficient financial support which ment to effective higher education. The criticism is related to the lack of broad political support in that tribal colleges are too vocational and not stress- their area. ing academic subjects is obviously related to the ob- The two most common criticisms of tribally con- jectives of the college and the needs of the students. trolled colleges are that they promote separatism If the objective of an institution and the majority of and that they have low academic standards and em- itsstudentsisvocational preparation, then this phasize vocational rather than traditional academic should he the major emphasis. All students should subjects (Kickingbird, 1976). The first criticism may be required to develop the basic survival skills of be a hold over from the long standing objective of reading, writing, and basic math; but the major goal assimilation as described in Chapter 1. This melting should be providing the students with saleable pot view has been held by most non-Indians in this skills and knowledge. In the few tribal colleges country for centuries and still is the predominant where the primary objective is preparation for fur- view in the United States. It is hoped that the melt- ther higher education, vocational education should ing pot view of our country is being replaced by be secondary to the academic skills and knowledge the acceptance of a pluralistic society, but old social needed to attain a bachelor's degree. These two ob- values die hard. Another concern about the separat- jectives are not mutually exclusive and are coexist- ism at the tribal colleges is that it may be working to ent at most tribal colleges. the disadvantage of the Indian students in atten- As of 1982, there was little evidence that the above dance.If these schools are providing a stepping were valid criticisms of the tribal colleges, but they stone encouragement to further education and de- must continue to study their students and graduates velopment, itis serving Indian students well; but to determine if separatism or the academic stan- if itis only prolonging the time when they must dards are working to the disadvantage of their stu- try their wings in the white dominated educational dents' education.Ifso,they should make the system, it may be serving little useful purpose. As appropriate changes. pointed out elsewhere inthisstudy, only time As of 1982, the eighteen existing tribally con- and further research will answer this important trolled colleges were in various stages of develop- question. ment and had a wide range of prospects for con- The second criticism of low academic standards tinuing to ser,e the people in their areas. During has been an issue in American higher education 1980-1982 the tribally controlled colleges granted since the early advent of different types of colleges. 1,085 associate degrees and vocational certificates in The great variety of postsecondary education which a variety of fields. Five of these schools, including is a distinguishing feature of United States higher Navajo Community College, Sinte Gleska College, education causes much of the debate over whose Oglala Lakota College, Salish Kootenai College, and

1 Summary and Analysis of the Tribally Controlled Colleges in 1982 93

Turtle Mountain Community College, were doing When judged by the standards of community col- well and should continue to develop and serve the leges throughout the United States and by persons postsecondary needs of Indians and non-Indians in not familiar with the educational history and culture and near their reservations. The growth of North- of American Indians, these schools are seen as land Pioneer Community College and other state in- small, poorly funded, IL cking in essential facilities stitutionsdecreasedenrollmentsatCollegeof and services, and, in some cases, too weak to sur- Ganado influencing its closure in 1986. vive. However, when seen in the context of the con- A small number of tribal colleges are not prosper- ditions of the Indian reservation and its people, ing and arc in danger of closing unless major they arc shown to be meeting the postsecondary changes are made. These include Lummi Commu- needs of a group of Indian and non-Indian people nity College, Fort Berthold Community College, Lit- who previously had little or no opportunity for this tle Hoop Community College, and Little Big Horn level of education. The Indian college administrators College. These schools are adequately serving small and faculty have learned to survive and in some numbers of students in their areas, but their overall cases prosper as a small minority with minimal ma- strength and support makes their continued exist- terial resources. Therefore, the future of these col- ence questionable, and they may join Ojibwa Com- leges is much brighter than it would appear to the munity College and College of Ganado, the two outside observer. Most of the staff and students tribal colleges that have already had to close their have faced deprivation and adversity all of their doors. lives and have learnedto survive. Many non- Theremainingtribalcollegesweremaking Indians would give up the attempt to keep their col- progress and are trying to increase their enroll- lege going under these conditions, but the staff and ments and broaden the programs offered. Most of students at the tribal colleges will persist. This per- them will continue to survive if present levels of sistence and dedication will stand them well in the federal financial support are maintained and tribal current decline of federal funding and the unknown fortunes remain stable. challenges that they are sure to face in the future. If D-Q University is unique even among this group they continue to meet the changing postsecondary of non-traditional colleges. Its history and politically needs of the members of their tribes and if federal controversial situation make itsfuture difficult to funding, specifically FL 95-471 continues at an ade- predict. (This college and its future are discussed in quate level, the tribal colleges should survive and some detail in Chapter 2.) continue to make a major contribution to the higher The overall strength and success of each tribal col- education of western tribal American Indians (Op- lege is a function of the following five interrelated pelt, 1984). factors: tribal enrollment, tribal resources, student The development of the tribally controlled col- enrollment, accreditation status, age, and financial leges since 1968 is the first real evidence that Amer- support. The schools which are prospering are ican Indians have gained some self determination in strong in all of these factors, and the schools t.iat the planning and management of their own higher are struggling are lacking in all or most of them. education. CHAPTER 4

Other Higher Education Opportunities for American Indians in the 1980s

In spite of the importance of the development of the Haskell Indian Junior College tribally controlled colleges in the 1970s and 1980s, it is necessary to emphasize that the great majority of As indicated in Chapter 1, Haskell Institute was Indian students (89%), as of 1980, were still attend- founded as a federal off-reservation boarding school ing other types of institutions of higher education. in 1884. In the 1960s and 1970s Haskell underwent These were public, private, and federal two-year several significant changes through which it eventu- and four-year colleges and universities controlled by ally became a full-fledged postsecondary institu- non-Indians. Therefore, although this book is pri- tion. The phase out of the secondary program marily about tribal colleges, it is necessary to place began in 1962 and was completed in 1965 with the these new schools in the context of the larger and graduation of the last high school class. During the still more influential environment of non-Indian phase out, postsecondary courses were added, and controlled higher education. in 1966 the staff began investigating the possibility of providing for the postsecondary needs of Ameri- can Indians through the establishment of an accred- Federally Controlled ited junior college (Haskell Junior College Bulletin, Two-Year Colleges 1977-79, p.1). Haskell gained junior college status in 1970 and, in the same year, changed its name to Haskell Indian Junior College. It became the first As of 1980,there were three two-year colleges Bureau of Indian Affairs degree granting institution funded and controlled by the Bureau of Indian Af- and was accredited as a two-year college by the fairs exclusively for American Indians and Alaska North Central Association of Colleges and Schools Natives. These schools are open only to persons in 1979. who are one-fourth or more Indian or Alaska native After the change to junior college status, enroll- blood. The students receive free tuition and board ment continued to be limited to persons of at least and room. These three colleges were the only fully one-fourth Indian blood. The wisdom of maintain- federally funded institutions beyond the twelfth ing a segregated student body has often been ques- grade for Indians These colleges are Haskell Indian tioned, but in the mid-1970s a survey of Haskell Junior College, Lawrence, Kansas; the Institute of faculty and students showed the majority supported American Indian Arts, Santa Fe, New Mexico; and this policy (Martin, 1974). It has been recommended the Southwestern Indian Polytechnic Institute, Al- that Haskell admit non-Indians on a tuition paying buquerque, New Mexico. basis to programs that are not filled by Indians. It

94 I i- C Other Higher Education Opportunities for American Indians in the 1980s 95 was purported that this would make the Haskell more in geographic origin. There are students en- student body a more representative cross section rolled from all 50 states. Although all are at least of society, improve enrollment in needed areas, one-fourth Indian blood, they come from many and raise the level of achievement of all students diverse tribes, cultural back6rounds, and socioeco- through added competition (Stiner, 1972). nomic levels (Stiller,1972). Many tribes are repre- After Haskell became a junior college, the pro- sented in the Haskell student body. Tribes with portion of general or transfer students to vocational more than fifty students in attendance in 1974-1977 students increased significantly. In 1977, two pro- were Apache, Cherokee, Creek, Navajo, andSioux. grams--liberal arts and businesshad a combined The total enrollment in 1974 was 1,300 students, giv- enrollment of 610 students, nearly 60% of the total ing it by far the largest Indian enrollment of any student body. Several of the vocational programs be- postsecondary school in the country. The enroll- came so small in enrollment they had to be discon- ment in the fall of 1978 was 866, consisting of 432 tinued. These changes in the curriculum brought in men and 454 women (Haskell Enrollment Status Re- new faculty, some of whom differed in philosophy port, 1"78). In the fall of 1984, the Haskell enroll- with the vocational teachers (Martin, 1974). This dis- ment continued to drop to 774 students (Fact File, 23 sension brought about a lowered morale among July 1986). These decreases from previous years some faculty. By 1978, enrollments in the vocational were probably due to the development oftribally and technical programs had stabilized and the mo- controlled community colleges and other increased rale of the faculty had improved. educational opportunities for Indians. The students Haskell was one of the first colleges where a stu- at Haskell live in residence halls rather than off- dent could feel proud to be an Indian. This was im- campus as do most two-year college students. portant because young tribal Indians often have a In 1978 nearly all of the administrative staff and low self-concept and their experiences at traditional 55% of the instructional staff at Haskell were Amer- federal Indian schools tended to magnify this per- ican Indians (Haskell Self-Study, 1978). The Haskell ception (Saslow & Harrover, 1968). Board of Regents had twelve members, one from Many Indian leaders of the past and present at- each of the BIA administrative areas plus a legal tended Haskell for some of their education. A sig- representative (O'Brien, 1975). nificant influence of attendance at Haskell, as at Placement studies of Haskell graduates from 1974 Hampton Institute and Carlisle in earlier years, was to 1977 show that 40% of the graduates were em- the development of Pan-Indian leaders.Contact ployed after graduation, 37% were continuing their with Indians of many tribes developed a realization education, 10% were unemplo; ed (including house- of their common problems and the potential that in- wives), and 10% failed to provide information. The tertribal cooperation had for the betterment of Indi- most frequently listed field of employment was busi- ans nationally. This resulted in the founding ofsuch ness with 26% in that field (Haskell Self-Study,1978). Pan-Indian organizations as the Society of American Over 50% of the Haskell liberal arts graduates in Indians, the Teepee Order, and the Native American 1976 planned to return to their reservation or work Church. These and other Pan-Indian reform, frater- among their people (Burgess, 1976). nal, and religious groups had cores of leaders who The academic ability of Haskell students, as mea- had attended Haskell Institute (Hertzberg, 1971). sured by the ACT test battery in 1978, was signifi- The history of Haskell can be seen as a microcosm cantly below the national average of allcollege of the history of American Indian education during students and also below the average of Indian stu- thefederal andlaterperiods. The school has dents attending other institutions of higher educa- evolved from an off-reservation boarding school for tion. The average Composite ACT score of 10 placed elementary children to a secondary school and then Haskell students in the first percentile of the na- to a junior college. Perhaps, in the future, it will tional norms (Haskell Self Study, 1978). Although cul- move to four-year college status to reflect the recent turaldifferences make the ACT lessvalidfor changes in educational ambitions and attainments Indians, this indicates that Haskell students did of contemporary Indians. have lower measured academic achievement than The student body at Haskell is atypical of two- their contemporaries at other institutions. These year colleges in several aspects. The students vary data show the need for remedial courses at Haskell less in age and ethnic background, but they differ which are similar to the previously reported needs 96 Other Higher Education Opportunities for American Indians in the 1980s of Indian students at the tribally controlled colleges. tation with the North Central .Association in 1978 Remedial programs need to be evaluated to determine and, as of 1982, continued to hold this status. if they arc effective in raising the scores of Haskell An examination by the IAIA staff in 1977 of the Indian students on the several parts of the ACT. shortcomings of the existing BIA off-reservation A 1982 survey oftribal college administrators boarding schools pointed out the serious deficien- showed they were generally supportive of Haskell cies of these schools and provided direction for new Indian Junior College. They believed that Haskell programs and procedures. The Division of Student served a different population and had different pur- Life, led by Dr. Martha Iwaski, developed an inno- poses than their institutions. Although Haskell's vative program that strove toward integration of the enrollment had decreased, it was now drawing stu- mind, body, and spirit of the student. A wide vari- dents mainly from tribes and areas which had no ety of activities which were integrative in nature tribal college, and the students who were attending and made extensive use of peer counselors were two tribal colleges would not be able or willing to attend main features of the Student Life Program (MIA Vi- a residential college far from their home (Tribal Col- sions, Book V, n.d.). Although the Institute had in- lege Interviews, 1982). adequate physical facilities, its innovative, dedicated Thus, it is evident that in spite of its changes and teachers and staff made its future bright, providing shortcomings, Haskell Indian Junior College contin- it could obtain sufficient funding from the Bureau of ues to meet the needs of a significant number of Indian Affairs. young AmericanIndiansfromthroughoutthe The changes at IAIA in the late 1970s included the United States and provides some continuity to the phasing out of the secondary school program. The efforts to encourage Pan-Indian cooperation in a last high school class graduated in June 1979. A number of areas. long-range goal at this time was the eventual accred- itation of the Institute as a four-year college. As of the late 1970s, a variety of changes were under con- sideration at IAIA. The All-Pueblo Indian Council Institute of American Indian Art had requested that the administration of IAIA he placed under its jurisdiction, but the BIA rejected The second federal controlled and funded two-year this and countered with the suggestion that the In- college for Indians, the Institute of American Indian stitute move to Haskell Indian Junior College. As Arts (IAIA), was founded in 1962 at the Santa Fe In- expected, this latter proposal met with much oppo- dian School. The mission of IAIA is as follows: sition from the Indians in the vicinity of Santa Fe The main mission of the institute is to provide culturally (Wassaja, 1979). sensitive education and extension through the arts to In 1982, the postsecondary programs of the Insti- American Indian students. It is a broad-based cultural in- tute of American Indian Art were moved to the stitute which offers educational experiences designed to campus of the College of Santa Fe, a four-year Cath- bridge the gap between the rich cultural past of the Amer- olic college administered by the Christian Brothers ican Indian and his/her potential position in contempo- Order. The Santa Fe Indian School on Cerrillos rary life. (IAIA Self Study, 1977, p. 1) Road continued with the K-12 programs for Indian students including some bused from Albuquerque. The 250 to 300 students enrolled at IAIA in 1977 For most of its existence IAIA has been controver- ranged in age from the mid-teens to the 50s and sial. Some of its critics do not believe that federal represented eighty American Indian tribes. Of the funds should be expended to train artists or other total enrollment, 219 were at 'he junior college level "non-essential" occupations. Those who do not ac- (IAIA Catalog, 1977-78). cept the validity of its mission believe the school is Courses offered at IAIA included creative writing, too expensive. Others, particularly some members fine arts, applied arts, painting and sculpture, jew- of local Pueblo tribes, believe it should be adminis- elry, ceramics, weaving, photography, dance, textile tered by the All-Pueblo Indian Council. Still another design, museum training, and a liberal arts curricu- view is that IAIA should be open to non-Indians. lum. Students completing the requirements of the These differing views have caused nearly continual New Mexico State Department of Education for a turmoil among students and faculty, but the fact re- two-year program received an Associate of Fine Arts mains that the college has contributed to the educa- (AFA) degree. IAIA became a candidate for accredi- tion of a number of outstanding Indian artists and

Li Other Higher Education Opportunities for American Indians in the 1980s 97 has provided teaching opportunities for some of William Vineyard, an administrator at SIPI, wrote American's most successful Native American paint- in 1972 that the institution was uniquely flexible. He ers, sculptors, potters, and other artists. emphasized that the total educational setting at SIPI In 1988, the controversy over the administration of was individualized. Students could enter the school IAIA resulted in the U.S. Congress severing IAIAs any day of the year, and there was no specific close ties with the Bureau of Indian Affairs. The length of time required in any program because stu- school was given private status with a board of dents worked at their own pace. Students worked trustees that reports to Congress. This provides the closely with their advisors who were always avail- opportunity for IAIA to expand to four-year status able during office hours to plan an individual pro- as it continues to provide the Indian people a good gram. SIPI was open to all Indians regardless of education in various fields of art. educational level and no formal grades were given, only the student's progress was noted. The philoso- phy in the early years was: "Treat students as re- sourceful, intelligent, mature adults, and they will Southwestern Indian PolyteLtinic Institute act accordingly" (Vineyard, 1972, pp. 89-90). In the early years the largest single certificate pro- Southwestern Indian Polytechnic Institute(SIPI), gram was the GED. In 1976-1977 the GED stud- the third BIA controlled and funded college, was ents accounted for 143 (57%) of a total of 251 c.rtifi- founded in 1971 in Albuquerque. This school has cants (SIPI, 1979). The fall enrollments from 1975 to been even more controversial than its sist r institu- 1978 decreased slightly from 463 to 404 students. tion in Santa Fe. The main criticism since its estab- The tribes with the largest percentages of students lishment has been that SIPI's programs are not at SIPI were: Navajo, 25.7%, Pueblo, 13.6%; Apache, economically meeting the needs of Indians of the 8.6%; and Sioux, 6.4%. The remaining 25% be- Southwest. It is held that other vocational schools in longed to 48 other tribes and groups. As of 1979, Albuquerque could accommodate the Indian stu- 60% of the instructional staff and 80% of the ad- dents at a much lower cost. ministrators at SIPI were Indians. In 1978, Donald Southwestern Indian Polytechnic Instituteis a McCabe, former president of Navajo Community postsecondary residential school designed to train College, became president of SIPI. Indians in technological or vocational skills (Peter- The goals of SIPI students were almost exclusively son,1972).It provides programs for both high vocational. Few were interested in continuing their school graduates and dropouts. Programs offered postsecondary education beyond vocational skills. are: General Educational Development (GED) for The institute did offer an opportunity to earn an non high school graduates and postsecondary cur- Associate of Arts degree through a consortium ar- riculain business,clerical,drafting,electronics, rangement with the University of Albuquerque. telecommunications, engineering aides, off-setli- Most SIPI students complete a certificate course thography, commercial food preparation, and opti- then go to work. If they return it is for the purpose cal technology. Most graduates of these programs of upgrading their vocational skills. SIPI was fully were placed in appropriate jobs or continued their accredited as a two-year college by the North Cen- postsecondary education. As at Haskell and IAIA, tral Association of Colleges and Schools in 1975 students must be atleast one-fourth Indian or (SIPI, 1979). Alaska Native blood to attend SIPI. The school is As of the early 1980s the viability of SIPI contin- governed by a board of ten Indians from various ued to be a topic of public discussion. Its decreasing tribal areas in New Mexico, Colorado, and Arizona enrollments andrelativelyexpensiveprograms (Peterson, 1972). made it a good target for the budget cutters. The ru- In its first few years, enrollments at SIPI were mors that the college was going to close contributed strong. The average daily attendance ;ri 1972-1973 to the loss of enrollment. In 1983, the enrollment at was 550 with 80 students graduating that year. The SIPI grew dramatically to 572 full-time students. median age of the students was 21 years, and they These students were enrolled in 48 certificate pro- represent! a total of 78 tribes. As at Haskell and grams. A reason given for the growth was the IAIA, all students had their board, room, and tu- greater degree of program stability brought about by ition provided by the BIA. As of ;972, nearly all of a change from the open entry system to astandard the staff at SIPI were Indians (Vineyard, 1972). semester and a move from the individualized format 98 Other Higher Education Opportunities for American Indians in the 1980s to more traditional classroom instruction (Wassaja, In 1970 the University of Minr.esota, Pennsylvania January/February,1983). Apparently, the original State University, and Harvard University established unstructured, flexible system of the early years was graduate programs to prepare administrators for In- not attracting and holding the students of the 1980s. dian schools and Indian education programs. Dur- It remained to be seen whether this enrollment in- ing the period 1970 to 1975, 159 persons participated crease would be maintailed and whether this would in the American Indian Administrator Training Pro- convince federal officials that SIPI could continue in grams at these three institutions. Of these, 88 per- operation. sons completed the requirements for a master's As of 1982, Haskell, IAIA, and SIPI were the only degree and 8 others completed a doctoral degree, a federally funded and controlled postsecondary in- completion rate of 60%. Salaries of these persons stitutions for American Indians. In 1977 the BIA ap- increasedsignificantlyafter completion of their propriated atotal of $4,500,000 for these three degrees (Indian Education Resources Center Bulletin, institutions. The total enrollment for these three 1975). Overall, the Administrator Training Programs schools in 1982-1983 was 1,628 students. Haskell, were rated good to excellent by the students, fac- the largest, oldest, and most stable, in spite of com- ulty, and administrators involved. Concerns were petitionfor students from the new tribal post- expressed over the participants who had not com- secondary schools, continued to prepare a large pleted their degree objectives, and annual funding number of young Indians for vocations and transfer caused concern about the continuance of the pro- to four-year programs. Its broad geographical and gram each year. tribal constituency provided strong support for its Unfortunately, in the 1960s and 1970s the propor- programs and the development of Pan-Indianism tion of Indian teachers in most Indian elementary among its alumni. and secondary schools was very low which, coupled The Institute of American Indian Art and the with the high turnover of non-Indian teachers, con- Southwestern Indian PolytechnicInstitute being tributed to the poor education received by children younger, smaller, and more specialized schools have in these schools. For example, in 1973 less than 200 more uncertain futures. IAIA is sharply focused in of the 2,800 teachers on the Navajo Reservation the fields of art and is dependent upon the support were Navajos. In order to try to remedy this the Na- of a small, specialized constituency, mainly in the vajo Teacher Education Development program was Western United States. Federal cuts in spending for established. The goal of this five year program was Indian education or a drop in the national popular- to increase by four times the number of Navajo ity of Indian art might spell the doom of IAIA. teachers. Contacts were made with two universities If the lack of support for Indian postsecondary in the Southwest to increase the admission and education for Indians by the Department of interior completion of Navajos in teacher education. continues, both IAIA and SIPI will have difficulty Another program to improve Navajo education, surviving. Indian leaders who want to retain these known as the Navajo Administrators Training Pro- schools will need to fight for their appropriations gram (NATP), began in 1975 with 20 participants. Of and enlist the assistance of Congressional leaders this group, 18 had received master's degrees by 1978 who will fight the battle in the House and Senate. and most were certified by state education depart- ments or the BIA as school administrators. This program was funded jointly by the Carnegie Corpo- ration, the Navajo Tribe, and the University of New University Programs for the Mexico (UNM). Its primary purpose was to enable Preparation of Indian Professionals Navajos to move into administrative positions in schools serving Navajos. The program required two years of study during which three nonconsecutive In addition to the three federally funded postsec- weeks were spent in intensive study at the campus ondary colleges, the federal government during the of UNM in Albuquerque. On weekends the partici- 1970s and 1980s funded programs at several univer- pants attended seminars, did reading, and research sities to prepare Indians for professions that are work. A field coordinator in Window Rock, Ari- needed on reservations and in Indian communities. zona, met regularly with each trainee providing The professions included are graduate programs in continuity during the period of absence from the educational administration, law, and health. campus. The Carnegie Corporation renewed its sup- Other Higher Education Opportunities for American Indians in the 1980s 99 port of NATP in 1977. As of the end of 1978, it was INMED studentshas been 80%forthepre- anticipated that 40 to 45 more Navajos would be professional students and 85% for those in the pro- trained for high school administrative positions in fessional health programs (INMED Fact Sheet, 1986). the near future (Training for Leadership, 1978). In addition to the support of higher education The Pueblo tribes of New Mexico were also con- programs of Indian students, the INMED staff carry cerned about the lack of Indian teachers for their out extensive communications by letter, telephone, children. The All Indian Pueblo Council contracted and personal visits with Indian peoples in the with the University of New Mexico in the early Northern Plains to inform and encourage them to 1970s to provide Associate of Arts degree programs consider and prepare for careers in the health pro- for Pueblo Indian persons. This program proved to fessions. They have produced a variety of written be successful for the preparation of teachers' aides materials, a puppet show on health careers, a book among the Pueblo people. One hundred and fifty entitled Medicine Women, and a video entitled Red persons from various pueblos were taking these Medicine Road, combining Indian medical philoso- courses from UNM in 1973. phy with motivational techniques. Fourteen work- In the area of Indian health, the University of shops on various diseases and health problems have North Dakota established a federally funded pro- been offered by the INMED staff. Three Canadian gram for Indians interested in medical studies. This universities have studied the INMED program and program, called Indians Into Medicine Programs used it as a model in their efforts in medical educa- (INMED), was started in 1973. It is designed to pro- tion for Canadian Indians UNWED Fact Sheet, 1986). duce well educated health professionals to help In 1985 the INMED program graduated 10 Indian meet the health needs of the Indian people. The health professionals including 8 physicians and 2 program serves 22 Indian reservations in the North- nurses, the highest total for any one year. As of ern Plains and other Indians and Alaska Natives 1986, INMED was providing financial, academic, throughout the United States. The objectives of and personal support for 23 pre-professional and 26 INMED are to make Indian students more aware of, professional students. These data shove the INMED interested in, and motivated toward health careers. program at the University of North Dakota is mak- Another objective is to enroll Indians in appropriate ing significant progress in preparing Indian health curriculum and provide academic, personal, cul- professionals to meet the health needs of the Indian tural, and other support services to promote aca- people in the Northern Great Plains region. demic achievement. The health programs of the The University of California-Berkeley has master's University of North Dakota (UND) Medical School degrees for American Indians in public health and and INMED's full year college course usually qual- social welfare. These two programs are open to per- ify students for Indian Health Care Improvement sons enrolled in a federally recognized Indian tribe Scholarships. Students not receiving the highly or who have acceptable identification as an Ameri- competitive Indian Health Service Scholarships may can Indian or Alaska Native. These two programs obtain funding from BIA, Pell, or tribal scholar- are designed to encourage Indians to enter these ships. During the summers, INMED sponsored two fields in which professionals are badly needed Summer Institute Academic Enrichment programs on reservations and in Indian commun;ties. for junior high, senior high, and college students. The Master of Public Health (MPH) for American In 13 years, 567 young Indians have enrolled in the Indians and Alaska Natives was established in 1971 Summer Institute (INMED Fact Sheet, 1986). with 10 students entering the first class. As of late Since 1973, INMED has assisted 67 Indian health 1986, 188 Indian students had been admitted to the professionals to obtain their training including 47 MPH program at UCBerkeley. Of these, 159 had physicians, 5 nurses, 1 dentist, and 14 others in var- graduated including 5 Doctor of Medicine and 1 ious health fields. This program has also aided other Doctor of Public Health recipients. Twenty-three stu- Indian students who changed their career goals dents had w;thdrawn and six would earn a MPH from health to other degree programs. A total of degree penC,ing completion of degree requirements 230 students have enrolled in the INMED pre- (MPH Proam, Employment of Graduates, 1971-86). professional program since 1973. INMED staff pro- From 1972 through 1985,149 Indian students vide intensive academic, personal, and financial graduated from the MPH program at Berkeley. Of counseling for their students that has contributed to these, slightly over fifty percent (75) were employed a high rate of retention. The retention rates for in health service to American Indians. Most of these 100 Other Higher Education Opportunities for American Indians in the 1980s were employed by the Indian Health Service and The first graduates received their degrees in 1983. the remainder by tribes and other agencies serving From 1983 to 1985 11 Indian students graduated Indians. Twenty-three alumni were employed in with MSW degrees from Berkeley. As of 1986 all of general health services where they may have contact these persons were employed in social work posi- with significant numbers of Indian clients. Eight tions dealing primarily with American Indians. graduates were working withIndiansinpro- The Indian participants were each from different fessional service other than health including law, tribes, and only three of those admitted had with- housing, education, tribal tourism, and economic drawn, one of whom graduated from law school at development. As of 1986, the occupations of 20 Berkeley. graduates were unknown; 5 were deceased; and 1 It is obvious that this young program for Ameri- was retired (MPH Program, Employment of Graduates, can Indians is beginning to decrease the great need 1971-86). for qualified Indian social workers and allied profes- The Indian alumni of this program represented sionals among western tribal Indians (MSW Pro- approximately sixty different tribes throughout the gram, Employment of Graduates, 1981-86). United States. The tribes with more than three per- One of the professional fields with the fewest In- sons among the MPH recipients were: Navajo-21, dians is medicine. The American Association of In- Sioux-11, Chippewa-9, Creek-7, Cherokee-7, Lum- dian Physicians (AAIP) had only 25 members in bee-5, and Nez Perce and Blackfeet with 4 each. 1974. At that time, the AAIP reported 82 Indians From 1972 to 1979, Berkeley awarded traineeships enrolled in medical schools, 13 in dental schools, 7 directly to Indian students from program funds. Of in veterinary medicine, and 22 in pharmacology for the 188 Indian enrollees in the MPH program 38 a total of 124 Indians preparing in these health pro- students were advocated for, or financially sup- fessions (AAIP, 1974). Estimates in 1979 indicated ported, at other schools of public health. In addition there were 125 Indian physicians, 6 dentists, and 2 to UC-Berkeley, the schools attended were uni- veterinarians. If these estimates are accurate, some versities of Minnesota, Texas, Washington, North progress is being made in the number of American Carolina, Michigan, Oklahoma, and Loma Linda Indians in the medical field (Bacone College, 1979). University, Harvard University, and Tulane Uni- For a number of years Indian leaders have dis- versity (MPH Program,Employment of Graduates, cussed the idea of an American Indian medical 1971-86). school. Dr. Taylor McKenzie, a Navajo, made a pro- The objective of providing trained public health posal in 1977 for the establishment of such an insti- workers tobetter serve American Indians and tution. This proposal was approved by the Navajo Alaska Natives throughout the United States is be- Tribal Council in February 1977. Dr. McKenzie pro- ing achieved to a considerable degree by the Master posed that Indian medical students would take their of Public Health program at UC-Berkeley. From 1971 basic science courses at Northern Arizona Univer- to 1986 this program was ably and energetically di- sity, Flagstaff, then do their clinical work in Indian rected by Elaine Walbroek, MPH. Health Service hospitals and other medical facilities There are eleven specialities in the MPH program serving Indians. It was planned that American In- and two special courses in Indian health care and dian Medical School would open in 1980 with 32 mental health perspectives focus on the unique students. Several similar proposals have been made needs of Indians. In fiscal year 1977, the BIA appro- but none has been implemented. An examination of priated $133,000 for support of the MPH program. the 1977 proposal concluded that only three urban The School of Social Welfare at Berkeley offers a areas have both sufficient Indian population and ad- Master of Social Welfare (MSW) degree with some equate medical facilities to make such a program emphasis on the special needs of Indian popula- feasible. The areas are Minneapolis, Minnesota; tions. This 21 month program provides courses in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma; and Phoenix, Arizona human behavior and social environment, social wel- (Goldberg, 1977). fare policies and services, social work practice meth- Two major reasons have been presented for the ods, and social welfare practice research. Field work need for an Indian medical school. First, very few in social welfare agencies is also required. Indians can qualify for the highly selective medical The MSW program for American Indians was be- schools in the United States; and, therefore, there gun in 1981 under the direction of Elaine Walbroek. are few Indian physicians. Secondly, medical educa- Other Higher Education Opportunities for AmericanIndians in the 1980s 101 tion in the existing schools does not adequately pre- initiated many of the unique services and programs pare physicians to treat tribal Indianpatients, many offered. Philip S. DelGria became the director in of whom still believe that illnesses are caused by 1979 (Deloria, 1979). witchcraft or other supernatural causes. An Indian The professional preparation programs described medical school would provide an opportunity for above are the major federally funded efforts in edu- more Indians to study medicine and wouldcombine cation, health, and law to meet the need for Indian the study of modern medicine with knowledge of professionals in these fields. Self determination of the curing ceremonies and natural medicines of the American Indian tribes is dependent upon the co.i- traditional Indian beliefs. This concept is similar to tinuance of these programs and the establishment of the view of holistic medicine. The major barrier to others. Without the professional expertise and lead- the idea of an Indian medical school is the great cost ership of their own people, Indian self determina- involved to establiso and maintain such an institu- tion cannot succeed. tion. As of the mid-1980s there was no available source of stable funding to make this typeof insti- tution feasible. Indians in State Institutions To help meet the need for more Indian lawyers, of Higher Education: 1980s the American Indian Law Center (AILC) was estab- lished in 1967 at the University of New Mexico to provide research and training services in law and Of all types of higher education in the 1980s,the policy for Indian tribes and their members. Its pur- largest proportion of American Indians were en- pose is the advancement of theinterests of Indian rolled in state supported colleges and universities. people through greater knowledge of the law and Small numbers of Indians were enrolled in a large improvement of tribal government. In 1974 there number of state schools with the largest concentra- were 85 students enrolled in this program,and 35 tions in the western states. The fourteen public in- graduated in the 1975 academic year. By 1976, 122 stitutions with the largest enrollments of Indians Indians were attending 41 law schools, and 47 were and/or Alaska Natives in the fall of 1982 are listed in scheduled to complete their degrees that year. The Table 5. AILC budget for 1976 was $700,000 (IERC Bulletin, As can be seen, four of these schools with large 1976). A total of 370 American Indians and Alaska Indian enrollments are two-year colleges located Natives have graduated from law school with assis- near large Indian populations.The others are four- tance from the Special Scholarship Program inLaw year schools in the western U.S. withlong histories for Native Americans. The pre-law program has also of providing higher education for Indians in their benefited many tribal judges, tribal court advocates, area. The increased proportionof Indians attending and paralegal personnel. The BIA appropriated two-year colleges is represented by the largeenroll- $1,250,000 in fiscal year 1977 for support of the In- ments at Northland Pioneer College near thelarge dian law programs at the University of New Mexico. populations of Navajos and Apaches and Santa Rosa By 1979, 150 American Indians and Alaska Natives Junior College in California with its large scatterJ were receiving assistance each yearfrom the Special Indian population. Scholarship Program in Law for American Indians. The recent history of several state schools that In 1976 the American Indian Law Center became have been active in Indian higher educationfor this chapter. The an Indian-controlled non-profitcorporation separate many years merits attention in from the University of New Mexico Law School. It is early history of Pembroke State University, theonly funded by government contracts, foundation grants, state school founded specifically forIndian higher and contracts with Indian tribes and organizations. education, is presented in Chapter 1. In the 1960s Since its founding, AILC has carried out a number and 1970s Pembroke State University (PSU) experi- of projects that have been of value to Indian tribes enced some maj(changes. One of these occurred and individual Indians. As the need for legal assis- in 1969 when the college became part of theUniver- tance in the field of energy resources and other ar- sity of North Carolina System as a regional univer- eas concerning Indians increases,the service of sity.In the early 1970s Pembroke established an AILC will become even more important. Thefirst American Indian Studies Program consistingof a director of the center was Frederick M. Hart who special concentration in American Indian studies 102 Other Higher Education Opportunities for American Indians in the 1980s

Table 5 therefore, have no reservation or tribal BIA benefits. Public Institutions of Higher Education In 1980 the Lumbees in this area of North Carolina with More Than 500 Indian Students, comprised the largest concentration of Indians east Fall 1982 of the Mississippi. Although Pembroke was founded for the educa- Total Indian tion of the local Indians, the curriculum, except for Enroll-Enroll-Percent of the recent Indian Studies Program, has been a tradi- College or University ment ment Indians tional white planned and administered program. This school is based on the objective of assimilation 'Northland Pioneer College of Indians into the white society and little is done to Arizona 6,377 1,371 21.5 'Santa Rosa Junior College promote cultural reinforcement or aid Indians in California 20,138 1,188 5.9 their personal cultural conflicts (Ackley, 1972). Sev- Northeastern Oklahoma State eral outstanding Indian graduates of Pembroke in- University, Tahlequah 6,512 964 14.8 cludehistoryprofessor AdolphDial,Attorney University of New Mexico Dexter Brooks, and two physicians, Dr. Martin Albuquerque 24,056 770 3.2 California State University Brooks and Dr. James Warriax. San lose 26,274 736 2.8 The growth of tribally controlled colleges has had 'Orange Coast College little effect on the Indian enrollments at Pembroke California 26,729 722 2.7 or its programs because there are no tribally con- California State University trolled colleges in the Eastern United States and Fullerton 24,385 707 2.9 University of New Mexico most of the Indians at Pembroke are Lumbees or Gallup 1,250 619 49.5 members of other local tribes (Pembroke, 1979). Northern Arizona University Another state college with a long history of large Flagstaff 11,975 599 5.0 Indian enrollments is Fort Lewis College in the 'Central Arizona College southwestern Colorado town of Durango.Fort Coolidge 5,606 566 10.1 California State University Lewis was founded in 1927, sharing facilities with Longbeach 36,397 546 1.5 the pre-existing Indian elementary and high school. California State University It started in 1878 as a BIA off-reservation Indian San Diego 33,937 543 1.6 boarding school and in 1911 became a Colorado University of Oklahoma state school of agriculture, mechanical, and house- Norman 21,802 523 2.4 Pembroke State University hold arts. The 1911 executive order signed by Colo- North Carolina 2,191 519 23.7 rado Governor John F. Shafroth stated that "Indian pupils shall at all times be admitted to said scnool Nor e From National Center for Educational Statistics Report, 1984 'Two year college. free of charge for tuition, and on terms of equity with white students" (Kinsey, 1975, p. 20). In 1933 Fort Lewis became a two-year college and in 1962 changed again to offer four-year programs. and a plan to expand this to a major concentration. For many years a few Indians attended Fort Lewis, This course of study focused on "American Indians, but in the 1960s the Indian enrollment grew rapidly. their cultures and contributions, their history and By 1970 there were 224 American Indians enrolled their aspirations" (American IndianStudies,PSU, at the college which was 10.8% of the total enroll- 1977, n.p.). ment. With more .han 1 in 10 students not paying There were a total of 479 Indians enrolled at Pem- tuition, a financial problem was created at the broke in the fall of 1978, including 383 full-time and college. 96 part-time students. As of the fall of 1982, 519 In- To try to remedy this, the Colorado legislature dians were enrolled at Pembroke, and nearby Robe- passed a bill in 1971 that limited tuition waivers at son Technical College enrolled 383 Indians. This Fort Lewis to those Indians who were Colorado res- concentration of Indian students is by far the largest idents. Indian students at Fort Lewis with support in the Eastern United States. As in past years, most from several national Indian organizations objected of the students at Pembroke are Lumbees from the to this loss of rights. They took their case to the Dis- vicinity of Robeson County, North Carolina. The trict Court and then to the Court of Appeals where Lumbees are not a federally recognized tribe and, the original 1911 executive order was upheld. Dur- Other Higher Education Opportunitiesfor American Indians in the 1980s 103

recession of the ing the litigation in 1971-1972, the B1Apaid the tu- its Intercultural Program in the early1980s.Southwest Indian leaders have ex- ition forthe out-of-state Indians attending Fort in In- Lewis. Since 1972, Fort Lewis College hasgranted pressed support for the efforts of Fort Lewis admitted to dian education. Its size and locationmake it well tuition waivers for all Indian students students from the school. For a few years Indianenrollments at suited to meet the needs of transf the college declined, but by 1974 theenrollment of Navajo Community College andIvirthland Pioneer Fort College who want to complete abachelor's degree. Indians was back to 251. Indian enrollments at Tahle- Lewis again dropped slightly in the latter1970s, but Northeastern Oklahoma State University at still 212 Indians enrolled (Na- qu2h is a four-year state institutionwith a long his- as of 1982 there were notedin tional Center for Educational Statistics, 1984).The toryof large Indian enrollments. As number of Indian graduates averaged 16 per year Chapter 1, it was formed from the CherokeeFemale maintained its from 1975 to 1978. In the latter year there were36 Seminary in 1909. This university has tribes represented by the students at FortLewis Indian enrollments through the declinesof the late nearby Navajo. 1970s and early 1980s. In 1982 it had964 Indian stu- with the largest number from the of any four- Fort Lewis College had Indian counselorsand an ac- dents, the largest Indian enrollment Intercultural year institutioninthe UnitedStates(National tive Indian Club in the late 1970s. The Northeast- Program helped provide for the specialneeds of In- Center for Educational Statistics, 1984). and reten- ern Oklahoma drawsIndian students primarily dian students increasing the achievement other tribes tion of these students. The InterculturalProgram from the Five Civilized Tribes and of brought into Indian Territory as a resultof the Re- included a number of special activities, some tribes are which were music and dance presentations,fashion moval Act of 1830. Most members of these and social highly assimilated into the dominantculture and shows, family events, rug auctions, led educa- events (Kinsey, 1975). have a long history of promoting advar perceived the tion among their people. Many leadersof the Okla- In 1972 Fort Lewis Indian students their higher emphasis on Indian culture to be the majorstrength homa tribes have received some of of the college program. Other strengths, as seenby education at Northeastern Oklahoma. students, were assistance given to new studentsin Northland Pioneer College in Holbrook,Arizona, adjustment to the college and unity amongthe In- was founded in 1974 with2,010 students enrolled the during its first term. This two-yearpostsecondary dian students. Two perceived weaknesses were of American lack of participation by some Indianstudents and institution had the largest enrollment with Indian Indians of any United States college in1982. Its the low concern for and participation prima- students exhibited by some faculty (Clark,1972). headcount enrollment of 1,371 Indians was large In- rily the result of itslocation near the Navajo, As is the case at most institutions with partic- dian enrollments, no organized follow-upstudy of Apache, and Hopi Reservations. Its centers, Reservation, Indian graduates has been done at FortLewis. Sev- ularly the one at Oraibi on the Hopi Arlene provide accessible programs to the manyIndians eral noted Indian alumni of the school are: there were a Millich, Ute Tribal official; Richard Mike,Director of living in this area. In the fall of 1981, and Nelson total of 6,377 students enrolled atNorthland Pioneer Teacher Education for the Navajo Tribe; and Angapak, corporate executive in Alaska(Fort Lewis College. In addition to the centers at Holbrook Oraibi, other sites in the 225 mile lengthof Navajo College, 1979). Low, and Fort Lewis College is one of the few stateschools Country were located at Winslow, Show Pnrollment prior to Snowflake. Programs were taken to thestudents by to have had a significant Indian and the the national increase in recruitmentof Indians and renting facilities in the above communities in the maximum use of mobile units. The shorthistory of the development of new Indian programs need for post- 1960s. In spite of the tuition problemsthat caused a this college shows there was still a Indians, the secondary education in this area in spiteof the de- temporary loss of confidence among the college has continued to serve the manyIndians of velopment of Navajo Community College to schools north. the Four Corners area. Whereas other state and have dropped or reduced Indian programsand ser- The University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, vices as federal funding has declined, it appears its branch at Gallup have large enrollmentsof Indi- commit- ans. As of 1982, Albuquerquehad an enrollment of that Fort Lewis College has the stability, 619. As with ment, and local support to find meansof continuing 700 Indians and Gallup enrolled 104 Other Higher Education Opportunities for American Indians in the1980s

Northland Pioneer College, the proximity to the ing the needs of Indians on the local reservations large Indian populations on the Navajo and Ute (Harrison, 1977). Reservations account for this large Indian enroll- ment. In spite of the presence of other colleges in the area, these schools attract a large number of lo- Independent Institutions Founded cal Indians to their courses. During the 1970s for the Education of A 1976 study of the education of American Indi- American Indians and Alaska Natives ans in public two-year colleges included a sample of public schools in the west but excluded triballycon- trolled colleges. It was recommended that Indians During the decade of the 1970s, in addition to the be allowed more self determination in higher educa- tribally controlled colleges examined in Chapter 2, tion particularly at the two-year college level, that several independent institutions were founded with cooperation with Indian leaders be fostered by two- the objective of serving primarily American Indi- year colleges to determine Indian needs, and that ans or Alaska Natives. These colleges are: Flaming two-year colleges strive to improve their public im- Rainbow University, Tahlequah, Oklahoma; Inupiat age so more Indians will want to attend (Pace, University of the Arctic, Barrow, Alaska;' and the 1976). It appears that some of these recommenda- Tanana Chiefs Conference Land Claims College, tions are being implemented particularly in the Fairbanks, Alaska. Southwestern United States. The data indicate that A unique institution of higher learning with a the major growth in Indian enrollments is in the large proportion of Indian students was founded in two-year colleges. In fact in the fall of 1982 over one- Tahlequah, Oklahoma, in 1971. Dr. David Hilligoss, half of all Indian college students were enrolled in the first president, founded Flaming Rainbow as an two-year schools (Astin, 1982). Not only have the educational counseling and referral agency. There tribal colleges been developed in recent years, but were no formal classes offered, and the clients were new public schools such as Northland Pioneer Col- mainly older students who were dissatisfied with lege have been established and Indian enrollments the available traditional higher education. This insti- at established two-year colleges such as Santa Rosa tution soon became a four-year independent college Community CollegeinCaliforniaandCentral known as Flaming Rainbow University. From 1972 to Arizona College have grown. As national college 1974, Flaming Rainbow was a member of the Union enrollments decline, it is probable that more institu- of Experimenting Colleges through the University tions will look to new markets such as American In- Without Walls program of Westminster College, Ful- dians as a source of additional students. The two- ton, Missouri (Flaming Rainbow, 1977). After 1974, year community college is well suited to meet the Flaming Rainbow was an independent member of educational needs of Indians residing on isolated the Union. reservations and Indian towns. Where tribal col- Flaming Rainbow University was established on a leges are not present, public and, to a lesser degree, flexible, individualized learning concept. Students private two-year colleges are being established to learned primarily through experience, independent meet the needs. State universities are also starting study, travel, and internships. In later years there branches in localities more convenient to Indians in was some change to incorporate more formal classes sparsely settled areas. into the students' programs. In its early years the An example of cooperation between public com- school went through some difficult times. Henry munity colleges and Indian tribes began in 1972 in Chitty, a Cherokee, became director of Flaming Oregon. Two public community colleges and two Rainbow in 1973; and it was primarily his leader- Indian tribes formed the Oregon Native American ship and inspiration that kept it going during the Consortium. The two schools were Central Oregon difficult early years. Chitty died in 1977, but his Community College at Bend and Blue Mountain spirit lived on in the hearts of the staff and students Community College. The Confederated Tribes of who worked with and learned from him. Upon Warm Springs andtheUmatilla Confederated Chitty's death, Dan Goehring, Dean of Academic Tribes were the two tribal groups involved. This co- Services, became president of Flaming Rainbow. In operative agreement was initiated by Dr. Frederick addition to Goehring, the small group of staff mem- Boyle, president of Central Oregon Community Col- lege, who believed that the colleges were not meet- *Inupiat University of the Arctic closed in 1981.

liC Other Higher Education Opportunities for American Indians in the 1980s 105 bers who kept the school operating in the early dent involvement in university governance, the years included Jean Fishinghawk and Regina Black- small size of the school and the good rapport be- fox. Apparently the interest in education evidenced tween faculty and students provided opportunities by members of the Oklahoma tribes in the mid- for students to have input in most decisions (Flam- nineteenth century was still alive. ing Rainbow, NCA Report, 1978). Flaming Rainbow's mission as of 1978 was: The financial status of FRU has been precarious since its inception. It is not an overstatement to say To provide undergraduate education foralli,,e non- the school operated on a shoestring. After several traditional student population of Eastern Oklahoma. The years of deficits, FRU finally was in the black in majority of the clientele consists of adult American Indi- 1978 showing a balance of $43,933. Working capital ans, particularly Cherokee, who have been limited educa- was nearly non-existent at FRU. The school oper- tionally, economically and socially because they did not ated almost entirely on tuition revenue, largely pro- grow up in a culture that conventional education organi- zations are designed to serve. (Status Study, 1978, Ab- vided by federal and state aid programs. In the 1978 stract, p. 1) report of the North Central Association visiting team, the following were stated as financial con- The students at Flaming Rainbow were non- cerns: traditional students who were not well served by Lack of planning data, need for improvement in develop- any existing institution in the vicinity including ment effort, lack of working capital and funding base to Northeastern Oklahoma University at Tahlequah. provide program flexibility and emergency funds, meager The students at Flaming Rainbow University (FRU) and minimal facilities, and a need to improve the financial were mainly older employed women who were report for significant volumes of student financial funds. married, had families, and differed from traditional (p. 10) collegestudentsinotheraspects.The modal FRU student was described in 1978 as a 32 year The school was operating in two locations in 1978: old American Indian woman who was head of a Tahlequah and Stillwell, Oklahoma. These two east- household, had 2.7 dependents, and earned an av- ern Oklahoma towns are about 25 miles apart.The erage monthly income of $327. It is obvious that a two centers were deemed necessary because the lo- very flexible, innovative program was required to cal students needed to have learning services close permit such students to pursue a four-year degree. to their homes. The buildings used by FRU were FRU's dedicated staff made every effort to accom- leased at both of these locations and were generally plish this. inadequate for instructional purposes. In 1978, 269 (86%) of the 313 students enrolled at The faculty was small in number but adequately FRU were American Indians. In the same year the trained, hard working, and had high morale. In school granted 22 bachelor's degrees, 7 of which 1979-80, 52% of the administrative and learning ser- were awarded to Indians (FlamingRainbow, NCA Re- vices employees at FRU were American Indians. port,1978). The enrollment grew for a few years, but The administration desired to increase the propor- by the fall of 1982 it had decreased to 211 students of tion of Indians on the staff (Ko lhoff, 1979). whom 165 (79%) were Indians. As of 1984, 66.5% The flexible curriculum at FRU was divided into (174) of the 221 students were American Indians. six broad functional divisions. These were: Learning These decreases were primarily a result of the con- to Learn I,Exploratory Courses, Interdisciplinary tinued financial problems of the school. Courses, Learning to Learn II, Area of C ntra- FRU is incorporated under the laws of the state of tion, and Senior Studies. it was not clear precisely Oklahoma as a non-profit educational institution. how these divisions contributed to the general edu- Members of the corporation include all faculty and cational goals of the institution (Flaming Rainbow, staff, students who have completed at least two NCA Report, 1978). years, and all persons who have contributed not Nearly all of the students enrolled at FRU re- less than $10 to the corporation. The Board of Trust- ceived some type of financial aid. The major propor- ees consists of eight members. The university presi- tionofstudentaidcamefromthefederal dentisassisted by four committees: Learning government with smaller amounts from the state of Services Committee, Administrative Council, Aca- Oklahoma and the institution. The total financial demic Council, and Academic Review Committee. aid to students in 1978 came from the following Although there was no formal arrangement for stu- sources: 46%, Basic Educational OpportunityGrants

1' 106 Other Higher Education Opportunities for American Indians in the 1980s

(BEOG); 36.6%, Bureau of Indian Affairs; 10.5%, Tu- mosook, Nuiqsut, and Point Ray. Because it was 540 ition Aid Grants from the Oklahoma Regents for air miles from the nearest institution of higher Higher Education; 2.8%, Work Study Program; and learning, Inupiat University provided the only ac- 1.5%, institutional scholarships. The average annual cessible postsecondary education for residents of amount of student aid was $3,700. the North Slope of Alaska (Inupiat University, n.d.). The North Central Association visitation team Inupiat University had open admission for general pointed out the following strengths at Flaming attendance but required a high school diploma for Rainbow in December 1978: high morale and com- admission to a degree program. Thu undergraduate mitment of the faculty and staff; well qualified staff degree programs were Arcticstudies,business, with good student relations; a population of non- economic development, education, Inupiat studies, traditional students served by no other institution in management and political science, and science. The the area; increasing enrollment and strong support non-degree programs included vocational and tech- from area Native Americans; competitive faculty sal- nical skills, aas and crafts, and para-professional aries; bilingual faculty; increasing library resources; levels of the degree programs listed above. There and openness to outside evaluation in order to in- was a long range emphasis on a certificate program crease its effectiveness (Flaming Rainbow, NCA Re- to prepare Inupiat teachers and teacher's aides for port, 1978). North Slope Borough schools. The North Central visiting team also listed eleven The philosophy of education of Inupiat University concerns most of which are mentioned above. of the Arctic as stated in the university brochure The team recommended that FRU be granted candi- was: date for accreditation status. Candidate status was awarded to Flaming Rainbow in 1979, and, as of Centraltothe program of Inupiat Universityisthe 1984, it still held this level of accreditation. premise of the value of the life and traditions of the In- upiat Eskimos of the Arctic Slope. inupiat University, FRU is unique in that it is an independent, four- therefore, offers a variety of courses in various aspects of year institution working to meet the educational Inupiat language and culture, taught by carefully selected needs of a population primarily composed of Amer- experts from the community of the Arctic Slope. (Inupiat ican Indians.Itis not tribally controlled or even University brochure, n.d.) associated with any particular tribe or tribes. Its ob- jectives are more traditional than the tribal colleges In 1971 the Arctic Slope Regional Corporation was in that it does not include cultural reinforcement or founded, as mandated by the Alaska Native Claims transmission in its goals. It is going it alone with lit- Settlement Act of 1971. One of the primary concerns tle assistance from other organizations. This was of the corporation was providing postsecondary ed- proving to be a difficult task in the recession of the ucation for residents of the Arctic Slope. Thus, the late 1970s and early 1980s. All Eskimo Inupiat Council for Postsecondary Edu- During the 1970s, two schools were founded in cation was formed including representation from Alaska for the education of Eskimos and Alaska Na- the villages of the North Slope and of the major lo- tives. These schools have some similarities to the cal entities. The university was established as an in- tribal colleges but are independent schools not char- dependent institution. tered by a particular Indian tribe. These two far The Northwest Association of Schools and Col- north institutions are the Inupiat University of the leges had recognized Inupiat University as a candi- Arctic, Barrow, and the Tanana Chiefs Conference dateforaccreditationwhichmeantthatthe Land Claims College, Fairbanks. Little has been Northwest Association recommended that credits be written about these schools. accepted by other schools on the same basis as from The farthest north university in the world, In- a fully accredited institution. In addition to the reg.. upiat University of the Arctic was founded in Bar- ular academic courses, Inupiat provided its students row, Alaska, in 1975. This four-year institution was with support services such as academic information, established by the Inupiat Eskimo leaders to meet counseling, and tutoring to promote individual suc- the post-high school needs of Inupiats and other cess in academic studies. Plans were being made in residents of Alaska's North Slope. In addition to 1978 for development of an Inupiat Center for Infor- the headquarters at Barrow, learning centers were mation, Language, and Culture (ICICL). This center opened in the North Slope communities of Anakte- would conduct researchrelatingtoinstruction vuk Pass, Wainwright, Point Hope, Kaktovik, At- and advancement of the Inupiat People, especially 1 Other Higher Education Opportunities for American Indiansin the 1980s 1.07 inthe preservation, study, and development of lege was founded in 1973, by the Tanana Chiefs circumpolar-linkages and cooperation (Inupiat Uni- Conference, to serve the postsecondary educational versity brochure, n.d.). Mr. Lyle Wright was the needs of the Alaska Natives in the interior region of first director of this center. Alaska. This area includes the valleys of the Yukon, As can be seen, limpiat University had many sim- Kuskokim, and Tanana Rivers, an area of 250,000 ilarities to the tribally controlled colleges, but the square miles. The headquarters of theLand Claims administration of the school did not consider it an College was in Fairbanks with subregional centers "Indian college" (letter from R. Dixon, 1979). in the towns of Yukon, Tok, Galena, and Holmberg. In 1976 there were a total of 54 Eskimos and Alas- Land Claims College was a non- traditional college kan Natives enrolled at Inupiat University. Testing with the primary objective of providing postsecond- programs for students included GED, CLEP,and ary educational opportunities forAlaska Natives other standard instruments. The faculty and all ad- and others living in the Tanana Chiefs region. The ministrators, including the president, served as college was governed by the Land Claims College advisors to students and prospective students. The Advisory Board composed of eight Alaska Natives. major sources of financial aid to students were BIA, The board is advisory to the Board of Directors of BEOG, and Alaska Scholarship Programp (Locke, the Tanana Chiefs Conference. In 1978 Melvin Char- 1978). lie was president of the Board of Directors and Inupiat University of the Arctic was the first ex- Michael Jarvis was Director of Land Claims College ample of the Eskimos or Native Alaska people ex- (Locke, 1978). pressing their self determination in postsecondary There were five specialized and one general pro- education by establishment of an institutionof gram available to students at Land ClaimsCollege. higher learning to meet the educational needs and The five specialized programs were business admin- cultural preservation of their people. istration, health, native humanities, education, and Inupiat University of the Arctic closed in1981 law. These programs could be taken for an associate when an election in Barrow deposed the supportive degree or as non-degree programs. The general area North Slope administration. The new mayor insti- known as "personal interest" was available for vil- tuted withdrawal of financial support for the institu- lage residents with a wide variety of interests. Aca- tion. Among the factors motivating this change demic credit at Land Claims College was offered were questions concerning the accuracyof enroll- through agreements with the University of Alaska, ment figures and other bookkeeping irregularities. Alaska Methodist University, Sheldon Jackson Col- In 1986, an agreement was signed between the lege, and Antioch College in Ohio (Locke, 1978). North Slope Regional Corporation and the Univer- In 1977 Land Claims College had a head count en- sity of Alaska-Fairbanks to form the North Slope rollment of approximately 200 Alaska Natives. Qual- Higher Education Center ENSHECI. The Center be- ified students received financial aid grants from the came a branch campus of Universityof Alaska- BIA, Tanana Chiefs Conference, and/or Doyan Ltd. Fairbanks and faculty members have affiliate status and other private foundations (Locke, 1978). Al- at the University. Students receiveUniversity of though Land Claims College was similar in some Alaska-Fairbanks credit for courses taken at Barrow aspects to the tribally controlled community col- and the NSHEC sites. As of 1987, all of the students leges, as of 1980, it had not requested funding from at NSHEC were attending part-time. The totalhead- the Tribally Controlled Community Assistance Act count enrollment was 450, of these 65% (292) were of 1978. Eskimos or Alaskan Natives. The governing Board The founding of Inupiat University of the Arctic was composed entirely of nativepeople represent- and the Tanana Chiefs Conference Land Claims Col- ing the citizens of the North Slope Borough. Gary lege both resulted from the lucrative financial agree- Smith was appointed director in 1988. The North ment of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Actof Slope Borough funds the Center with some in-kind 1971. This act provided financial resources to the support from the University of Alaska-Fairbanks. Alaska Natives and Eskimos which enabled them to The Center applied, in 1988, for membership in the found these institutions under the authority of the American Indian Higher Education Consortium. local Eskimo and Alaska Native organizations. As in This farthest north institution may become the next the lower 48 states, this was the beginning of self member of this group (Shepro, 1988). determination in postsecondary education for the The Tanana Chiefs Conference Land Claims Col- native peoples of Alaska. The increases in native en- 108 Other Higher Education Opportunities for American Indians in the1980s rollments at the University of Alaska, Alaska Pacific, versities, has an Indian enrollment that compared to and the community colleges in the 1970s were also the public colleges with the largest Indian enroll- influenced by the ircraasedfinancialresources ments as of 1982. Located in Provo, Utah, BYU is a available to the Alaska Natives and Eskimos. private university operated by the Church of Jesus As with American Indians, very few Alaska Na- Christ of the Latter Day Saints, commonly known as tives entered college prior to the 1960s. A study of the Mormon Church. It has a long history of en- Alaska Natives attending the three major state couraging higher education among western Indians. higher educationinstitutionsAlaskaMethodist This laudable effort has been somewhat countered University, Sheldon Jackson, and the University of by the attendant attempts to proselyte Indian stu- Alaska -- showed a four-fold increase in the number dents for the Mormon Church. Good educational of Alaska Natives entering these schools between opportunities are offered Indians at BYU, but ef- 1963 and 1974. During this period the number ofna- forts to convert them to Mormonism work against tive students completing a college degree also in- establishing a pride in Indian culture and religious creased significantly. However, an average of only 21 heritage (Fuchs & Havighurst, 1972). This is a con- natives per year received bachelor's degrees in the tinuance of the former missionary view that Indians years 1969 to 1972. The proportion of Alaska Natives could best have their souls saved by being educated completing degrees was still well below the propor- in colleges that encouraged assimilation and conver- tion of non-Natives (Kohout & Kleinfeld, 1974). The sion. A few other church-related institutions have authors of the study concluded: continued efforts to enroll and convert Indians, but While progress has been made in increasing Natives' col- lege entrance and success rates, their rate of success is Table 6 still substantially below that of white students and is not yet high enough to meet current social and economic Independent Institutions of Higher needs for educated Natives. (Kohout & Kleinfeld, 1974, Education with the Largest Enrollments p. x) of American Indians, Fall 1982 Total Indian As of 1978, there was a relatively large proportion Enroll-Enroll-Percent of of the total number of Alaska Natives and Eskimo College or Unirsity nient ment Indians college students attending the University of Alaska (Astin, 1982). In the fall of 1984 the University of Brigham Young University Alaska at Fairbanks had an enrollment of 570 Alaska Provo, Utah 29,695 .327 1.1 Natives and Eskimos which was 1(1.3% of its total Flaming Rainbow University enrollment. This was an exceptionally large propor- Tahlequah, Oklahoma 211 167 79.2 tion for the major higher education institution of a Mt. Senario College Ladysmith, Wisconsin 516 147 28.5 state. At Alaska Pacific University 8.6% or 59 of the 'Bacone College students were Natives or Eskimos. Four of the nine Muskogee, Oklahoma 327 140 42.8 Alaskan community colleges also had large propo.'.- University of Albuquerque dons of Native students (Fact File, 23 July 1986). Albuquerque, New Mexico 1,808 127 7.0 Overall,thestateof Alaskahas made better Sheldon Jackson College Sitka, Alaska 221 100 45.0 progress in providing for the postsecondary edu- Harvard-Radcliff Colleges cation of its native peoples than have the lower Boston, Massachusetts 15,859 79 .5 48 states. College of Santa Fe Santa Fe, New Mexico 979 78 8.0 'Mater Dci College Ogdensburg, New York 427 70 16.4 Independent Institutions That Alaska Pacific University Anchorage, Alaska 782 70 9.0 Continue to Enroll Large Numbers Heritage College of American Indian Students Washington 292 53 18.2 Dartmouth College Hanover, New Hampshire 4,504 45 1.0 As shown in Table 6, only Brigham Young Univer- Note From National Center for Educational Statistics Report. 1954 sity (BYU), among the independent college and uni- Twoyear college Other Higher Education Opportunities for American Indians in the 1980s 109

BYU has been the most zealous and successful in at- throughout the United States sit on the board and tracting Indian students. share in its policy making decisions. The Indian enrollment at BYU in the fall of 1978 The Bacone Board of Trustees adopted the follow- was 479 full-time and 78 part-time students.The to- ing statement of objectives in 1977: tal of 557 Indian students was, at that time, one of the largest at any United States institution of higher Name College is an independent church related college unique for its Native American Indian heritage and tradi- education. The Indian students at BYU in 1978 rep- tions. The environment is dedicated to meeting the di- resented 77 different tribal groups. By fall of 1982, verse needs of the Native American Indian in a diverse the Indian enrollment at BYU had decreased to 327. multicultural setting. Guided by Christian principles the This decline in enrollment of Indians is probably re- college is committed to offering quality educational pro- lated to increased postsecondary opportunities for grams through a personalized approach designed to en- Indians in the mountains and west and to increased rich career and personal development. (Bacone CollQe emphasis in preserving tribal cultures and religion Bulletin, 1978-80, p. 83) that cause more Indians to reject religious views which hold their tribal beliefs are inferior or wrong. Bacone is accredited as a liberal arts junior college BYU has put much effort into providing a good by the North Central Association of Colleges and program for Indians. As of the late 1970s theyhad Schools and the National League of Nursing. It is an Indian studies program and five Indian counse- also chartered under the laws of the state of Okla- lors. The university staff reported that the attrition homa and is empowered to grant the Associate of of Indian students was lower than that of the stu- Arts degree and to provide selected service courses dent body as a whole which is much better than for elective or terminal courses (Bacone College Bulle- most four-year institutions. Although BYU had no tin, 1978-80, p. 83). special federally funded programs for Indians, the In the late 1970s consideration was being given by great majority of the Indians enrolled were receiv- the Bacone administration to the possibility of the ing some form of federal financial aid. Among the school becoming a four-year institution in order to noted Indian alumni of BYU are Martin Seneca, attract more students. It was belk-ved one reason for former Acting Commissioner of Indian Affairs, and the decrease in Indian students was the increase in Larry Echohawk, the chief legal counsel for the land the number of tribally controlled colleges (Chavers, claim case of the Maine Indian tribes (BYU, 1979). 1979). However, it appears that Bacone serves pri- The independent institutionwiththelongest marily a different population than that served by commitment to providing for the postsecondary the tribal colleges. The percentage of Indians in the needs of AmericanIndiansisBacone College Bacone enrollment is still close to fifty percent, but founded in 1880 in Muskogee, Oklahoma. The early the overall enrollment loss has been the significant history of Bacone is included in Chapter 1. In 1973, change. The major cause of the significant decline in the total enrollment at Bacone was 770 students of overall enrollment since the mid-1970s is similar to whom 218 were American Indians, all of whom had that at other small private colleges in the United some form of financial aid. The totalenrollment de- States in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The de- creased to 603 in 1975 but the number of Indian stu- creased number of 18 year olds has reduced the pool dents increasedto347. The Indian enrollment of eligible entrants to colleges. Secondly, the eco- declined in 1977-78 to 289 representing 34 single nomic recession and inflation have forced private tribes and 44 students of mixed Indian heritage. The colleges to raise tuition and other student costs until five single tribes with the largest representation they have priced themselves out of business. Corn were: Cherokee, 59; Navajo, 55; Choctaw,22; Creek, petition with state supported schools with much 20; and Apache, 10 (Ethnic Analysis of Indian Students lower tuition has left the small private school in a at &wow College, 1977-78). The decline in enrollment precarious position. A number of these schools have continued in the early 1980s, and by 1982 the total had to close and nearly all are running in the red. It enrollment was only 327 of whom 140 were Indians isunlikely that changing Bacone toa four-year (National Center for Educational Statistics, 1984). school would alleviate these problems. Bacone College is governed by a 30 member board In celebration of the 200th anniversary of found- of trustees, 16 members are from the American Bap- ing of Dartmouth College, President John Kemeny tist Church constituency and 14 are from Oklahoma renewed the emphasis Eleazar Wheelock had placed and other non-Baptist churches. Indian leaders from on Indian education in 1769. Kemenyproclaimed 110 Other Higher Education Opportunities for American Indians in the 1980s that Dartmouth would seek to enroll fifteen new In- Indian programs, a more realistic admission policy dian students annually for four years. John P. 01- Indians, and an increased number of Indian up- guin, a Pueblo Indian, was appointed director of the perclassmen. new Indian program, and he proceeded to recruit The Indian enrollment at Dartmouth in the fall of qualified Indian students. He succeeded in enrolling 1982 was 45 students, the same as five years earlier fifteen Indian freshmen for the fall of 1974. These (National Center for Educational Statistics, 1984). In added to the eight returning Indian students gave spite of the plateauing of Darmouth Indian enroll- Dartmouth the largest Indian enrollment in its two ments as of the early 1980s, Dartmouth was making century history. At this time, it was estimated that a sincere effort to recruit American Indian students in its 200 years 117 Indians had attended Dartmouth and, more importantly, provide them with programs but only 19 had graduated. An Indian Cultural Cen- and services to increase their chances of attaining a ter was established at the college to support the college degree. After two centuries, Eleazar Whee- new program and students. It was intended that the lock's hopes for educating American Indians were center would serve to reinforce Indian culture and reborn at the school he founded for their education. aid in meeting the social and psychological needs of As reported in Chapter 1, Sheldon Jackson Insti- Indian students at Dartmouth (Kershner, 1970). tute was founded at Sitka, Alaska, in 1878 for the Michael Dorris, a Modoc Indian, was Chairman education of Alaska Natives and Eskimos. The jun- of Native American Studies at Darmouth from 1976 ior college program at Sheldon Jackson was orga- to1981, and as of 1978,there were fivefull- nizedin1944 when its name was changed to time staff members. A body known as the Native Sheldon Jackson Junior College. Prior to 1945 all American Council composed of eight Indians and students at Sheldon Jackson were Native Alaskans three non-Indians coordinated the activities of three or Eskimos, but in that year several white students groups concerned with American Indians at Dart- enrolled. By 1959 one-third of the enrollment was mouth. In 1976-77 there were a total of 45 Indians non-Native. The junior college program was accred- enrolled at Dartmouth. Three of these were gradu- itod by the Northwest Association in 1966 (Arm- ate students and the remaining 42 undergraduates. strong, 1967). The college offered Associate of Arts In spite of the many years of inactivity in Indian degrees in the fields of business administration, higher education, in 1979 the Dartmouth program data processing and computer science, education, was referred to as "the exemplary project of the fisheries, logging management, secretarial science, 1970s for the higher education of the Native Ameri- and liberal arts. In 1981, Sheldon Jackson College cans" (Churchill & Hill,1979,p.49). This may became a four-year institution with the granting of prove to be accurate but only the test of time will its first bachelors degree. prove its validity. Other schools have had brief peri- Sheldon Jackson reported that in the academic ods of concern for Indian education but the commit- year 1971-72 there were 76 Native students out of a ment declined after a few years. total enrollment of 131 (63%). Two years later the For a number of years Indian groups have ob- student body was 50% Native Alaskan, and during jected to the use of the Indian as a mascot or symbol the next six years the proportion of Natives re- for the Dartmouth athletic teams. Some Indians be- mained close to this percentage. During the years lieve that the use of this symbol and the antics of 1963 to 1979, the total student body ranged from 150 the person portraying it at athletic events are de- to 220 students (Goff, 1979). The enrollment at Shel- grading to the Indian people. Stanford University don Jackson in 1975 was 177 full-time and 68 part- changed their mascot from an Indian to a cardinal time students. The college did not have exact data as a result of similar protests. If Dartmouth is sin- on the numbers of minorities enrolled in these cerely concerned about the education and feelings years. Therefore, these figures are estimates made American Indians, it should also make this change. by the registrar, Richard M. Goff, in 1979. The Although not as great as President Kemeny had United States Office of Civil Rights reported 56.2% hoped, significant gains were made in increasing In- or 167 of the 297 full-time and part-time students at dian enrollments at Dartmough during the period Sheldon Jackson in the fall of 1978 were Alaska Na- from 1970 to 1976. Only two Indian students chose tives or Eskimos (Fact-file, 1981). These figures indi- to leave Dartmouth during 1974-76, and retention of cate that the proportion of Natives and Eskimos Indians remained high in 1976-1978. This improved enrolled at Sheldon Jackson Junior College in the retention was attributed to increased stability of the late 1970s ranged from 50% to 60%.

1 %, Other Higher Education Opportunities for AmericanIndians in the 1980s 111

In 1979 Sheldon Jackson had a learning center education of American Indians as the tribes move funded by Title III which, though not exclusively for toward self determination. Natives, was utilized largely by these students. Title III funds also supported a cross-cultural counselor at the college. A major event at Sheldon Jackson Indian Studies Programs in was Native Emphasis Week, and a fewNative Stud- Institutions of Higher Education ies courses were offered in the late 1970s (Goff, 1979). In the early 1980s the enrollment and proportion Another development in higher education during of Native and Eskimo students dropped at Sheldon the 1960s and 1970s was the establishment of pro- Jackson. The total enrollment in the fall of 1982 was grams variously known as AmericanIndian studies, down to 222 including 100 (45%) Native Alaskans Native American studies, ethnic studies, or minority and Eskimos (National Center for Educational Sta- studies. These programs are most common in the tistics, 1984). The enrollment decrease and the ris- larger state colleges and universities. They were the ing costs of postsecondary education caused serious result of increased interest among Indians and non- financial problems for Sheldon Jackson. In 1980 the Indians in the culture and history of the American trustees voted to seek a merger with the University Indian and pressure from civil rights groups and In- of Alaska in order to relieve the financial deficit. dian organizations to provide more complete and This merger was not accepted by the university. At accurate information concerning Indian history and the same time the trustees gave consideration to contemporary culture. In nearly all institutions of selling part of its 345 acre campus to reduce debts higher education, these areas of study had been (Chronicle of Higher Education, 7 July 1980). woefully neglected and most Americans had a very As of 1987, Sheldon Jackson College was still op- inaccurate and biased conception of Indians. erating as a fully accredited four-year college. The Robert Berkhofer wrote in 1978 that the white total enrollment that year was 187 including 80 man had defined the Indian aseither a "noble red- (43%) Alaska Natives or Eskimos. Nearly one-half of man" or a "bloody savage" (Berkhofer, 1978). The the graduates during 1987 were Alaska Natives or Indian studies programs were an attempt to correct Eskimos showing an excellent graduation rate for these misconceptions and to develop an apprecia- Native persons (Stenberg, 1988). don for the valuable contributions the Indian has The four independent institutions of higher edu- made to modern American society. cation whose Indian programs and enrollments are In 1971 the Bureau of Indian Affairs reported 48 discussed in this section indicate the problems com- Indian studies programs in the United States (Fuchs mon to private higher education inthe 1980s. Many Havighurst, 1972). Because many of the Indian private schools were having a difficult time holding studies programs were supported partially by "soft" their costs down and their enrollments up. Small, federal funds, they lacked stability and were short- less prestigious institutions, such as Bacone and lived. It was alleged that some colleges and univer- Sheldon Jackson, were fighting to survive. Larger sitiesestablishedIndianstudies programs and more prestigious schools withlarger endowments recruited Indian students to obtain federal funds and a broader base of support such as BYU and and meet civil rights regulations rather than from a Dartmouth were able to hold their own, but their real commitment to Indian education and welfare high student costs were making it very difficultfor (Locke, 1973). In a 1972-1973 survey, 170 of 262 col- American Indians and other minorities to afford leges contacted replied, and 66 (or 38%) of these these schools. The increase in postsecondary oppor- had American Indian studies programs. These pro- tunities at the less expensive state,federal, and grams were mainly in easterninstitutions and tribal colleges has cut into their potential Indian en- enrolled a total of 10,021 undergraduate and 950 rollments. These private institutions will continue graduate students (Locke, 1973). to serve decreasing numbers of Indians in spiteof A researcher in 1973 concluded that institutions their efforts to recruit them. Some of the smaller with a Native American studies program had a private schools will close, merge with larger state lower attrition rate for Indian students (11.2%) than institutions, or continue to struggle on in hopes so- schools without such a program (26.8%). Although cietal changes will save them. Overall, independent it cannot be concluded from this study that the Na- higher education is becoming less involved in the tive American studies programs caused the lower at- 112 Other Higher Education Opportunities for American Indians in the 1980s trition,itis probable thatit was a contributing opment of course materials (Center of Indian Studies, factor. It was also determined that the peak year for Black Hills State College, n.d.). In the 1970s the Cen- establishment of these programs was 1971. The con- ter certified instr jTors for Sinte Gleska and Oglala clusions were that Native American studies pro- Sioux Community _alleges in South Dakota. Occa- grams emerged as a missing component of our sionally problems arose because some instructors educational system, but their continuance depends were not certifiable and conversely some of the cer- on whether or not they are substantive enough to tified personnel were not acceptable to the local In- persist in the curriculum. They have had the impor- dian communities. As the tribal community colleges tant effect of convincing some non-Indians that In- became more stable and independent this issue de- dians have not only a past but also a present and a creased in frequency. future (Leitka, 1973). Since 1978 the staff of the center has published a Indian studies in 1978 were characterized by an monthly newsletter to inform Indian people in the emphasis on teaching and service activities rather Northern Plains about the services provided at than scholarly activities characteristic of other aca- Black Hills State College through the center and demic disciplines. One researcher held that Indian other news of Indian education. This newsletter be- studies was at that time a quasi-discipline; and, came a valuable means of communication for per- therefore, its continuance as an academic discipline sons involved in Indian higher education. was problematic. After examining a number of ob- Although there has been criticism of the center jections to Indian studies as an academic discipline, by some Indian leaders, it has done a good job of it was concluded that whether or not it emerged as balancing the demands of activist Indians with the an independent discipline depended upon political, conservatism of the white higher education estab- economic, and/or moral conditions externally im- lishment to the benefit of many Indians. The center posed rather than upon any inherent shortcomings could be criticized for not doing more scholarly re- (Thorton, 1978). It may be that some Indian studies search, but its major role is in the areas of teaching programs will continue as student personnel ser- and service rather than research. vices for Indians rather than as academic depart- Data are not available for a national evaluation of ments or programs. Indian studies programs in the 1980s. These pro- Not all observers are convinced that Indian stud- grams reached their height in numbers in the mid- ies programs are serving a worthy purpose and 1970s, and have decreased since that time. However, meeting their stated objectives. Churchill and Hill at schools with dedicated personnel and sufficient (1979) were very critical of all minority studies pro- resources, Indian studies have established them- grams. They stated: selvesasa permanent partof theinstitution As a mechanism to confuse social issues and priorities whether as an academic cFscipline or, more com- they have been amazingly effective. As educational devel- monly, as a teaching and service unit to serve Indi- opment, however, they are largely transparent devotion ans and non-Indians.Further investigation and to posture and gloss at the expense of scholarly content. analysis of this important facet of American Indian (p. 45) higher education is beyond the scope of this book. They see the major programmatic flaws as isola- tionism, the diversity of Indian cultures, and under- staffing. Indian Higher Education Enrollments One Indian studies center that has had a positive impact on the higher education of Indians and non- Indians in the Northern Great Plains is the Center Considering the many recent studies of American of Indian Studies at Black Hills State College, college students and, in pa:icular, minorities,it Spearfish, South Dakota. Established in 1969, the would seem to be easy to determine how many In- Center has an all Indian staff ably led in 1978 by dians are enrolled in institutions of higher educa- Lowell Amiotte. The staff has worked effectively to tion and the changes in Indian enrollments in provide leadership in developing and instituting In- recent years. This is not the case as evidenced by dian courses and programs that include intrinsic In- the great variance in reported numbers of Indians in dian traditions and customs. Reservation Indians higher education. For example, reported enroll- were being employed as consultants for the devel- ments of Indians in the 1970 academic year varied Other Higher Education Opportunities for AmericanIndians in the 1980s 113 from 10,000 (Fuchs & Havighurst, 1972) to 29,269 mean anyone who was born inthe United States. (DHEW, 1973). Table 7 presents total Indian enrollments of full- The lack of agreement and, therefore, question- time students for 1968 to 1980 as reported bythe able accuracy, of all Indian higher education enroll- United States Office of Civil Rights. For reasons ment figures is primarily due to the questionof stated above, these data are probably inflated pre- who should be counted as an Indian. The problem senting an overly optimistic picture of Indianenroll- of what criteria to use in determining who is anIn- ments during these years. dian has been with us for at least one hundred that have years. There are more than ten criteria Table? been used to define "Indian" or "Native American." These range from the strictest interpretation that Enrollments of American Indians only documented full-blooded Indians should be in United States Higher Education, counted, to some recent studies that include as Indi- 1968-1980' ans all persons who self-identifythemselves as Indian Total United such. The latter criteria is very unreliable because, Year Enrollment States Enrollment geographical, historical, and economic factors influ- self-identifies as an In- ence whether or not a person 4,820,000 of 1968 29,000 dian. There have been historic periods and areas 1970 27,000 4,966,000 the country in which it has definitely beendisad- 1972 32,000 5,531,000 vantageous to be considered an Indian, but in re- 1974 37,000 5,639,000 cent years it has been economicallyadvantageous 1976 38,000 5,755,000 and socially chic to be part Indian. Non-Indians 1978 36,000 5,664,000 1980 39,000 5,993,000 who claim to be part Indian are sometimes jokingly referred to as members of the VVantabe Indian Tribe. Now From Biennial Racial and Ethnic Enrollment Data from Institutionsof Higher Education, 1968-80. Astin et al. (1982) note in an extensive report on undergrAulites an two-year and four-year institutions who were enrolled minorities in American higher education: for at least 75% of a normal course load. The most serious problem in definition occurs with Amer- ican Indians. Self definitions (with no qualificationsbe- A second factor causing inaccuracies inreported yond "American Indian") are extremely unreliable,and Indian enrollments is the lack of consistencyin unfortunately produce systematic rather than random er- defining the terms "higher education" or "post- rors. Thus, nearly every source ofdata pertaining to secondary education." This could be corrected by American Indians greatly exaggerates the representation researchers being carefulto always specifically of this group at all educational levels. (pp. 23-24) define these terms in all enrollment reports and sta- of tistics. Astin et al. (1982) state reports from institutions full- higher education usually inflate the numbers of In- Another source of error is mixing data on dians in attendance. This is usually unintentional time or full-time equivalent Indian students as pre- data. but may have been influenced by the pressurefrom sented in Table 7 with numbers or head count the federal government during the 1960s and early Colleges with many part-time students are particu- 1970s to enroll larger numbers of minorities.What- larly vulnerable to this error because the head count of full- ever the reason for theseinaccuracies, it is still im- of Indians is much higher than the number possible to accurately determine past and present time equivalent students. Erroneousconclusions American Indian enrollments in higher education are drawn if researchers are notcareful to compare and, therefore, measure the apparent increases.As- only data that are explicitly defined and appropri- tin et al. suggest that in order to make thedesigna- ate to the question under study. Becausethis is usu- tion "American Indian" less ambiguousin data ally not done, invalid conclusions are oftendrawn gathering, persons should be asked to specifytheir concerning enrollments of American Indiansin would not higher education. tribe or band. This would help some but data entirelysolve the problem of who should be In spite of the obvious inaccuracies of most counted as an Indian. The term "Native American" on the enrollments ofIndians in higher education, of recent figures can be used toindicate relative should be avoided in determining the ethnicity and college students because it is often misinterpreted to changes in enrollments, numbers of graduates, 114 Other Higher Education Opportunities for American Indians in the 1980s

Table 8 Degrees Conferred on American Indians and Alaska Natives, 1975-76° and 1978-79" 1975-76 1975-76 1975-76 Public Colleges Private Colleges Total 1978-79 Degrees FemaleMaleTotal FemaleMaleTotalFemale Male Total Total

Bachelors 1,329 1,641 2,970 253 275 528 1,582 1,916 3,498 3,404 Masters 272 338 610 91 94 185 363 432 795 999 Doctors 14 65 79 2 12 14 16 77 93 104 First Professional' 13 80 93 16 96 112 29 176 205 216 Total 3,757. 839 1,990 2,601 4,591 4,723

'Source: U.S. Office of Civil Sights bSource. Digest of Educational Statistics. 1952 `First professional degrees include degrees in the fields of dentistry, medicine, osteopathy, optometry, podiatry, pharmacy, veterinary medicine, chiropractic, law, and theology. enrollments at specific institutions. The most reli- The National Center for Education Statistics re- able data indicate that enrollments of Indians in ported that in the fall of 1980 there were 84,000 higher education increased significantly in the 1960s American Indians and Alaska Natives enrolled in and early 1970s but have changed very little in the two-year and four-year colleges and universities in last decade (Astin, 1982). Possible reasons for this the United States (Fact File, 23 July 1986). In 1982, plateauing of Indian enrollments are discussed in 88,000 American Indians were reported as enrolled, Chapter 5. and in the fall of 1984 the number had decreased to The United States Office of Civil Rights reported 83,000. These are headcount figures of persons who that 2,970 American Indians and Alaska Natives re- self identified themselves as Indians or Alaska Na- ceived bachelor's degrees from public colleges in tives and, for the reasons previously stated, are 1975-1976. These numbers were composed of 1,641 greatly inflated. Such inaccurate figures lead the males ;and 1,329 females. In the same academic year American public to believe that great strides have 528 A_nerican Indians and Alaska Natives were been made to increase access to higher education, graduated from private collegesinthe United but this is not true. Figures on degrees granted to States. Thus the total bachelor's degrees granted to Indians in the late 1970s are more accurate than en- Indians and Alaska Natives in 1975-1976 was 3,498. rollments, and these show no significant increase in As can be seen in Table 8, the total bachelor's de- Indians completing degrees. The numbers of Indian grees granted three years later in 1978-1979 was college graduates isstill insufficient to meet the down slightly to a total of 3,404. Master's degrees needs of reservations and Indian communities. Self granted to Indians and Alaska Natives increased determination for American Indians cannot be at- from 785 to 999, and doctorates were up slightly tained until they have the educated leadership to from 93 to 104. First professional degrees were also manage their tribal resources and programs (Peniska up slightly. The grand total of all degrees granted to & Bailey, 1977). American Indians and Alaska Natives was up from There is a persistent myth in the United States 4,591 to 4,723 in this three year period. This in- that the American Indian is a vanishing race. This crease is almost totally attributable to the increase of may be due to the lack of public visibility of Indians 204 in master's degrees. It is evident that in spite of in most parts of the country. In the decade 1960 to increases in enrollments of American Indians in the 1970 the population of American Indians and Alaska mid-1970s, no significant gain was made in the de- Natives grew from 523,590 to 792,730, an increase of grees conferred on Indians in this period. In the late 34%. The 1980 censusfiguresgiveatotalof 1970s and early 1980s the degrees received by Amer- 1,420,000 American Indians and Alaska Natives, an ican Indians and Alaska Natives at four-year schools increase of 72% from 1970. It is impossible to deter- had reached a plateau. It is probable that increased mine the true increase in the Indian population be- Indian enrollments at two-year schools would be re- cause some of this apparent increase is due to more flected in a modest increase in two year degfees. accurate data gathering methods and the increase in Other Higher Education Opportunities for AmericanIndians in the 1980s 115 persons willing to self identify asIndians; but the considered the most prestigious and influential pub- American Indian rather than becoming extinct is lic institutions in the state. These are known as flag- one of the country's most rapidlygrowing ethnic ship universities. In nearly all western statesthe groups (United States Census Reports,1960,1970, Indian undergraduate enrollments at these institu- 1980). Thus, the magnitude of the lack of college ed- tions as of the late 1970s showed underrepresenta- ucated Indians is increasing. tionas compared tothetotalIndian student Some enrollment data for American Indians re- enrollment in the state. South Dakota State Uni- ported in the mass media has led to the belief that versity, the University of Arizona, Oklahoma State Indians are well represented in higher education. University, Montana State University, and the Uni- This is incorrect because of the biased data and versity of North Dakota were the five flagship characteristics of the Indian population. As pointed universities with the highest percent of underrepre- out previously, all data on Indians in highereduca- sentation of American Indian students. As is evi- tion are exaggerated. Another important factor is dent, these schools are all located in states with that thetotal Indian populationissignificantly relatively large Indian populations (Astin, 1982). A younger than the white population, andthe propor- few flagship universities had an overrepresentation tion of college age Indians attending college is even of Indian undergraduates in relation to the total In- lower than the proportion of the total population of dian enrollments in their state. These schools and these age groups. The higher proportion of Indians the percentage of their overrepresentation in 1978 in the younger age groups is due to a higherbirth were University of Alaska (2.8%),Oregon State Uni- rate and a lower life expectancy. The median ageof versity (.7%), University of MaineOrono (.4%), all American Indians in 1970 was 20.4 years as com- and the University of ArkansasFayetteville(.3%) pared to a median age of 28.1 for the entire United (Astin, 1982). Conversely, Indian students are con- States population (United States Census, 1970). An- centrated in the two-year and less prestigiousfour- other factor affecting the higher education ofIndi- year institutions of highereducation. In 1984 over ans is their high attrition rate incollege. Six out of one-half (54.7%) of all Indians in higher education eight Indian students who enter college drop out in were enrolled in two-year schools(Fact File, 23 July their freshman year (Peniska & Bailey, 1977). This 1986). If the present attitudes of the federal adminis- obviously reduces the completion rates of Indian tration continue, the underrepresentation of Indians college students as compared to whites and most in the flagship universities and larger proportionsin other minorities. two-year schools will continue to grow. The gains in Indian enrollments during the early In summary, as of the mid 1980s, the relatively 1970s caused optimism among some observersof low enrollment of American Indians and AlaskaNa- higher education (Chavers, 1975, p. 45; Washburn, tives in higher education and their high rate of attri- 1975, p. 263), but their hopes were not fulfilled in tion continued to be a critical problem for the Indian the late 1970s and early 1980s. As Astin (1982) re- people and the others in the United States. In spite ported, Indian college enrollments have leveled off of the efforts of the tribally controlled colleges and in the past decade. It was concluded that thesingle the institutions and programs described inihis most important factor contributing to theunderrep- chapter, Indian higher education was still a national resentation of American Indians in higher education tragedy. The federal budget cuts and the conserva- is the extremely high attrition rate insecondary tive att;:acles of the Reagan appointees did not bode school. An estimated forty-five percent ofIndian well for improved higher educational opportunities youth left high school before graduation(Astin, for Indians and especially the large numbersof and 1982). western tribal Indians residing on reservations Another fact of Indian higher education is thatIn- inisolatedrural communities. These conditions dians are not well represented in the most presti- made the growth and development of the tribally gious state institutions of higher education.Each controlled colleges more crucial to higher education state has one or more public universitieswhich are of Indians than ever before. Chapter 5

American Indian Higher Education in the 1980s: A Summary, Analysis and Look into the Future

Summary almost useless in the other. The classical education provided by early colonial colleges included such courses as Latin and Greek which were of no use to The Missionary Period: 1636-1870 colonial Indians. Robert Berkhofer (1965) wrote: For more than 300 years churches, the federal gov- The laborers in the Lord's vineyard were doomed not to ernment, and Indian tribes have attempted to pro- reap the harvest they hoped because of their cultural as- sumptions, the racial attitudes of their compatriots, and vide what they considered adequate education for the persistence of the aboriginal culture. (pp. 159-160) American Indians. As described in previous chap- ters, each of these entities has had different objec- The early colonial educators, when judged in the tives for providing Indians education beyond basic context of their time, did make minimal contribu- knowledge and skills. The Christian missionaries tions to the welfare of Indians. Many of their con- primary goals were to Christianize and civilize the temporaries considered the Indians less than human Indians they encountered. Their usual means to ac- and supported extinction as the only way to deal complishthis was to prepare educated Indian with them. Bounties were paid in some colonies for preachers and teachers who would return to their the scalps of Indians. Although the missionaries people to convert and civilize them. As presented in were naive and misguided, they made a valiant ef- previous chapters of this work, they were notably fort to deal with the conflict of two very dissimilar unsuccessful in their efforts. Few Indians attended cultures and should be recognized for their opposi- the early missionary colleges, and those who did tion to the barbaric attitudes and practices of their complete their educational programs were unfit for fellow colonists. The work of Eleazar Wheelock, life in either the white or Indian cultures. The early John Eliot, Samuel Kirkland, and other less well church colleges founded partly or wholly for the ed- known missionaries was the first organized effort to ucation of Indians, notably Harvard, William and help Indians learn to survive in a rapidly changing Mary, and Dartmouth, soon became predominantly culture. Their lack of success resulted from a combi- white, male colleges and exist as such today. The nation of their own inappropriate goals and meth- cultures of the colonial Indians and the European ods and sociological conditions beyond their control colonists were so different that education in one was as mentioned in Chapter 1.

116

L.) American Indian Higher Education in the 1980s 117

As a continuation of the early missionary efforts, boarding schools had been replaced by public or several colleges were founded in Indian Territory federal day schools, but a few of the old schools for the education of local Indians in the later de- were still in operation. cades of the nineteenth century. As described in a Prior to World War II,the federal government previous chapter, one of these schools, Ottawa Uni- policy held that education of American Indians versity, was used by local whites and Indians to de- should not extend beyond secondary school and fraud the Ottawas in Kansas. With one exception, that vocational programs were the only type suitable all of these church colleges closed or soon became for Indians. In the post war years, the economic predominantly white institutions. Bacone College is boom, GI Bill educational opportunities, civil rights the one college from this era that still exists as a legislation, and the development of Indian tribal re- school with a large proportion of Indian students. sources combined to finally increase higher educa- This small Baptist institution in Muskogee, Okla- tion enrollments of American Indians. The only homa, is over one hundred years old and is still federal postsecondary institution for Indians until contributing much to higher education of American the early 1960s was Haskell Institute in Lawrence, Indians. Kansas. In the next decade two other two-year col- leges were developed by the Bureau of Indian Af- fairs. These were the Institute of American Indian The Federal Period: 1870-1970 Arts in Santa Fe (1962) and the Southwestern Indian Polytechnic Institute (1971) in Albuquerque. During Soon after the Civil War, the United States govern- the 1960s the development of these schools, the in- ment began to take responsibility for providing edu- crease in financial aid for Indians, and theaffirma- cation for American Indians. The primary objective tive action requirements of the federal government of federal Indian schools was, and to a degree still had a significant influence on increasing enroll- is, the assimilation of young Indians into the white ments of Indians in higher education. Unfortunately culture. Therefore, every effort was made to force the attrition rates for Indians in all levels of educa- young Indians to give up their language, religious tion, particularly higher education, remained very beliefs, dress, and all other Indian ways. Through high resulting in insufficient numbers of Indian col- the efforts of Captain Richard H. Pratt, Carlisle In- lege graduates to meet the needs of the tribes. dian School, an off-reservation boarding school, was Some Indian tribes have had a long and dedicated founded in 1879. Pratt's view was: "To civilize the commitment to providing formal education for their Indian, put him in civilization and keep him there." people. In one of the earliest Indian treaties signed (Lindquist, 1944, p. 96.) Carlisle was an elementary in 1794, the Oniedas obtained an academy for the and vocational secondary school. It became a model education of their youth. As with most early Indian for the predominant federal Indian school for the colleges, this school soon became a white institution next fifty years. Unfortunately, most of the effective and exists today as Hamilton College in Clinton, characteristics f-f Carlisle were soon lost and, as so- New York. Many federal treaties with Indian tribes ciety changed, 'ts successors were operated as mili- had provisions for educational services; but as with tary camps with overlystrictdiscipline which other recompense Indians were to receive for their turned many young Indians against any form of valuable land, they seldom received what they were white education. promised. The five Civilized Tribes had developed A landmark national study of Indian administra- effective school systems in the late nineteenth cen- tion, directed by Lewis Meriam in 1928, emphasized tury, but all of these schools were closed or changed the serious deficiencies of off-reservation boarding to public control when Indian Territory became part schools and the almost total lack of Indian involve- of the new state of Oklahoma in 1907. ment in the planning and management of their ed- ucation. In the 1960s and 1970s two national studies and writings by Indians and non-Indians pointed The Tribal College Period: 1968-Present out the terrible conditions and cruelty at the federal boarding schools. A United States Senate subcom- In 1968 one of the most significant events in the his- mittee in 1969 found that many of the deplorable tory of American Indian higher education took conditions reported by Meriam in 1928 still existed. place. This was the founding of Navajo Community As of the early 1980s most of the off-reservation College (NCC), the first tribally controlled commu-

1 2J a./ 118 American Indian Higher Education in the 1980s

nity college. In the decade following the establish- of the Arctic,' established in Point Barrow, Alaska in ment of NCC, fifteen similar two-year institutions 1971 for the Inupiat and other residents of the North were founded by Indian tribesin the western Slope; and Flaming Rainbow University, a four-year United States on, or near, Indian reservations. As of college founded in 1970 at Tahlequah, Oklahoma. In 1982, four other tribal colleges had been chartered 1977, D-Q University reorganized and was chartered by Indian tribes. These unique schools are provid- by the Hoopa Valley and Soboba Tribes of Califor- ing higher education opportunities for many west- nia. The governing board is now composed entirely ern Indians who otherwise would not be able to of Indians and the enrollment is primarily Indian. attend college. These changes made D-Q University eligible to re- In a summary of the tribally controlled colleges in ceive appropriations from the Tribally Controlled 1979, the factors underlying the development of the Community College Assistance Act of 1978. These Indian colleges were considered to be: three schools, as of 1982, were all small and strug- gling to survive in a time when even well-estab- 1. Non-Indian institutions of higher education, lished independent colleges were having difficult whether controlled by religious institutions, the fed- times. These schools have the potential to meet the eralgovernment,or independent non-sectarian needs of local Indian students and Alaskan Natives, groups, have proved inadequate in meeting the but their size and lack of financial support makes unique educational needs of reservation Indians. their continued operation precarious. The three fed- 2. Emergence of the concept of self determination erally funded two-year colleges for Indians and the in recent years encouraged Indians to begin to take three independent Indian colleges and their 1982 In- control of the development of their own higher ed- dian enrollments are shown in Table 9. ucation institutions. In the 1960s and early 1970s, primarily through 3. The need for new skills and knowledge on res- the influence of federal equal rights and affirmative ervations to develop the Indian natural and human action offices, United States colleges and universi- resources has become more evident to Indian lead- ties sought to increase their enrollments of Ameri- ers (Horse, 1979, pp. 7-8). canIndians.Thisalso promoted services and programs designed to serve Indians at these institu- These threefactorshave combined withthe tions. A related development was the establishment unique characteristics and flexibility of the commu- of Indian studies programs, particularly in the west- nity college to make their establishment and success ern states with large Indian populations. Another on Indian reservations a natural consequence. innovationwastheestablishmentoffederally The tribally controlled colleges in 1979 enrolled funded programs to prepare Indians in the fields of slightly over five percent of the estimated total of law, business administration, education, and medi- 40,000 Indians enrolled in American colleges and cine. All of these developments served to increase universities. Although this is not a large proportion, enrollments of Indians in higher education. these new institutions have great potential for pro- Throughout the history of Indian higher educa- moting self determination in Indian higher educa- tion there have been a few dedicated persons who tion and providingtheonlyopportunitiesfor have worked long and hard to provide opportunities reservation Indians to obtain postsecondary educa- and programs for Indians. These persons have in- tion. As of 1982, it is too early to determine whether cluded missionaries, army officers, educators, gov- or not the tribal colleges will reach their full poten- ernment officials, and Indian tribal leaders. Much of tial. At this time, they have serious financial, facil- the good work of these persons has been obscured ity,andstaffdeficiencieswhichhavetobe by the changing attitudes toward Indians and the overcome; but they remain the brightest hope for vehement criticism of all formal white education meeting the long unmet higher education needs of which reached its height in the 1960s. For example, tribal American Indians in isolated reservation com- Captain Richard H. Pratt, founder of Carlisle Indian munities of the Western United States. School, made major contributions to Indian educa- Three independent institutions of higher educa- tion in the 1880s, but the failure of off-reservation tion were founded for American Indians or Alaska Natives in the early 1970s. They are D-Q University, 'Inupiat University of the Arctic closed in 1981. Financing from founded in 1971 in California for the education of the borough was withdrawn when an election brought a new ad- Native Americans and Chicanos; Inupiat University ministration into power. American Indian Higher Education in the 1980s 119

Table 9 guages, arts, and religious beliefs. The two-year Federal and Private Indian Colleges tribal colleges have provided the first opportunity for Indians to begin their higher education in a set- in the United States, 1982 ting that is accessible to their homes and more im- 1982 portantly supportive of their cultural heritage. Controlling Indian There has been much discussion of the rich natu- College or Organs- Year Enroll- ral energy resources of western Indian reservations, University zation Founded ment but the greatest resource of the Indian tribes is their young people and the development of thiscritical Federal Institutions human resource must have top priority. If this is not Haskell Indian accomplished, the material gains will prove to have junior College, Lawrence, KN 1970b 879 little significance. Already, the tribally controlled Institute of American colleges are beginning to produce the Indian leaders Indian Arts, who are needed to lead the tribes through the diffi- Santa Fe, NM BlA 1962 177 cult years ahead. The Indian wisdom of the past Southwestern Indian Polytechnic and a clear vision of the future are needed to pro- Institute, vide the education that will encourage the tradi- Albuquerque, NM BIA 1971 573'- tional culture to survive and the Indians to prosper Total Indian Enrollment 1,629 in an ever changing world.

Private Institutions Bacone College Amer. An Analysis of Higher Education Muskogee, OK Baptist 1880 140 and the American Indian of the 1980s Sheldon Jackson College Sitka, AL Presbyterian 19441" 100' Flaming Rainbow A view backward over three centuries of attempts to University provide higher education for American Indians is Tahlequah, OK Independent 1970 165 discouraging to both Indians and non Indians who Total Indian Enrollment 405 have worked to bring about some parity in educa- tional opportunity. The short range picture of those 'Alaska Natives and Eskimos. involved in this effort since the 1960s is much more I'Year these colleges became solely postsecondary institutions `198.1 Indian emollment optimistic. As indicated in the previous sections, new opportunities and resources nowexist for Indi- ans, particularly those on western reservations, to boarding schools as times changed and some unfair begin and complete at least two years of postsec- criticism obscured his accomplishments. In recent ondary education. The tribal colleges, in spite of years, through increased self determination, Indian lack of public support, problems, and shortcomings, tribal leaders have had the opportunity to assume have opened a new era in Indian higher education. leadership in tribal colleges and other higher educ In spite of this progess, American Indians still lack tion programs for Indians. The contributions of the opportunities open to whites and students from some of these leaders are noted in the profilesof the other minorities. As Astin (1982) points out, the tribally controlled colleges and other institutions greatest loss in the educational pipeline for Indians serving Indians. is at the secondary level. Although it is necessary to In the 1980s, the increasing acceptance of a plural- continue to improve retention of Indians in second- istic society as opposed to the former "melting pot" ary schools, we must work with theavailable Indian concept has given impetus to self determination in students until the attrition at the secondary level is Indian higher education. This change has influ- reduced. It is true that we don't have enough qual- enced the development of the new Indian colleges ified high school graduates, but there is still much which have the dual objectives of providing voca- to be done to provide for those who do matriculate tional and academic preparation for survival in the into higher education. modern white world and the preservation and The increase in Indian students attending two- transmission of traditional native American Ian- year colleges, tribal and other, hadresulted by 1982 120 American Indian Higher Education in the 1980s in over fifty percent of all Indian college students disadvantaged students.Ifthis trend continues, being enrolled in these institutions. The growth in the programs for American Indians at the tribally Indian enrollments at two-year colleges has both controlled colleges will be of increasing importance pros and cons concerning the educational develop- to Indian students who need these remedial ser- ment of American Indians. The obvious short range vices to be successful in attaining their higher edu- results have been to prepare increased numbers of cation goals. Indians for vocational and technical job opportuni- As mentioned in Chapter 4, the establishment of ties. Most Indians who have completed two-year an independent accrediting agency for Indian col- vocational programs have been able to find employ- leges was supported by AIHEC in the mid-1970s. It ment that has benefited them, their families, and now appears that such a separate agency is not their tribes. The effects of the transfer programs at needed. Most of the tribal colleges have gained or the two-year tribal colleges are less clear at this are making good progress in attaining accreditation time. Preliminary data from a few tribal colleges in- through their regional accrediting association. The dicate that transfers from these schools have higher few schools that may not be successful in attaining persistence at four-year colleges than do those Indi- accreditation may not have sufficient resources to ans who initiallymatriculatedatthe four-year provide adequate programs and services or their schools. However, Astin's (1982) study of minorities students. In spite of the view of some Indian lead- in higher education shows the students who aspire ers, the fact that an Indian tribe charters a college to a four-year degree are more likely to attain this does not in itself establish that the school has met degree if they start at a four-year rather than a two- the minimum standards for accreditation. year college. Research should be done on the effects Itis apparent from examination of the sixteen of attending a tribally controlled community college tribal colleges studied that they share four major ob- on the academic achievement and attainment of edu- jectives,tc.provide:(a) vocatic nal programs, (b) cational goals (McNamara, 1982). Until a controlled transfer or general programs (c) preservation and study of the effect of attendance at a two-year tribal transmission of the tribal culture, and (d) service to college on completion of four-year degrees is con- the tribe(s).In retrospect, how well have these ducted, we will not know how these new schools schools met these four objectives? As indicated are influencing the long range attainment of educa- above the most successful programs are those for tional goals of their students. In such a study, all the vocational students. The answer to how well the independent variables known to affect retention and transfer programs are serving the students and degree attainment must be controlled. A crucial fac- tribes awaits a comprehensive follow-up study of tor is the degree aspirations of Indians who attend former tribal college students. two- and four-year institutions. Does attendance at Interviews with Indian administrators and faculty a two-year college encourage a significant number members at tribal colleges indicate they believe that of these students to raise their degree aspirations to the objective of cultural preservation and transmis- a four-year program? It may be that a year or two of sion is being attained to some degree. Is this fact or experience and maturity at a tribal college increases wishful thinking? As no objective studies of this are the Indian student's chances of success at a four-year available, this question cannot yet be answered. school, conversely it is possible that it only prolongs Most anthropologists believe language is the glue the time when he or she must adjust to and learn to that holds a culture together. Without it a culture compete with better prepared non-Indian students. soon dies out. Traditionally the extended family, In some areas there are now sufficient Indian stu- and to a lesser degree the tribal elders, transmit the dents who have attended two-year tribal schools language and other aspects of a culture to the and then transferred to four-year schools to provide younger generation. Other social institutions such subjects for a study to answer this important ques- as the tribal college may help the family in transmit- tion. Better coordination between tribal colleges and ting the culture to the young Indians, but without four-year schoolsintheir geographical areasis the powerful influence of the family it is improbable needed to assess these schools and their alumni. that the traditional culture will survive. The lan- As of the mid 1980s some four-year institutions guage and artifacts of the culture may be taught and were phasing out their remedial or developmental preserved in the college, but this is not actually the programs, courses, and services for educationally culture, only the remaining vestiges. American Indian Higher Education in the 1980s 121.

The retention of a minority culture within a dom- and role model in their tribal affairs. This conflict inant culture is a difficult task requiring great effort of roles and time has been a factor in limiting the on the part of many of its members. In a primarily effectivenessoftribalcollegepresidents(Isaac, oral culture, the elders must spend much time in 1980). Administration of an educational institution passing the culture on through word of mouth to is more than a full-time job, and the president can- the young. As indicated by the existence of subcul- not be effective if he/she is also expected to meet tures in our society, it is possible to retain much of a other major responsibilities. Tribal college boards minority culture within our system, but it requires should try to protect their administrators from un- dedication and sacrifices by many of its members. reasonable demands that interfere with their pri- With the many problems besetting reservation In- mary responsibilities. dians in the United States, is the great effort and A problem noted throughout this study is the lack expenditure of human resources needed to retain of accurate data on enrollments of American Indians thetribalculture justified? Most tribalIndians in higher education. As Astin et al. (1982) indicate, would answer this strongly in the affirmative. They enrollment data consistently overstate the numbers see any other alternative as unthinkable. Others are of Indians enrolled in higher education, Students not so sure, and a few by their actions, have given who self-identify as American Indians at the time of up all but a token commitment to retaining the old their first enrollment are likely to identify them- ways. An examination of this significant question is selves in another ethnic category at subsequent en- beyond the scope of this book, but tribal college ad- rollments. Urban Indians are more likely to misidenti- ministrators and faculty must re-examine their ob- fy themselves than are Indians from rural areas jective of cultural preservation and transmission in (McNamara, 1982). In order to decrease misidentifi- light of the conditions peculiar to their area, tribe, cation, it is advisable to limit students to one racial- people, and what remains of their tribal culture. If ethnic category on enrollment forms.Forthis they decide to retain this objective, they must com- purpose the term "American Indian" is preferable mit the necessary resources and coordinate their ef- to "Native American" because the latter is often forts with the tribal elders, families, and others who misinterpreted to mean anyone born in this country retain knowledge and understanding of the lan- (McNamara, 1982). These practices will not com- guage and other facets of their tribal culture. Navajo pletely eliminate misidentification but should re- Community College and Sinte Gleska College are duceitsignificantly.StudiesofIndianhigher already doing this by holding programs for the edu- education that do not control for the significant cation of aspiring medicine men and, at NCC, pre- overstatement of Indian enrollments are of question- serving ceremonies and religious paraphernalia of able validity. Students who misidentify are different their people. from those who are accurately (consistently) identi- Although it ranks fourth among tribal college ob- fied as Indians, making conclusions about Indians jectives, service to the tribe beyond the educational based on these data invalid. programs is important at nearly all of the tribally Some of the significant differences in the rate of controlled schools. This service takes a variety of enrollment, persistence, and graduation rates be- forms including social and political activities, health tween rural and urban Indians indicate that resi- services, physical facilities and equipment, and as- denceratherthanethnicity may bethe most sistance during times of crisis. The most common significant factor in their educational achievement service provided by tribal college staff and adminis- (McNamara, 1982). This is important for tribal col- trators is leadership skills. Nearly all staff members leges because the majority of their Indian students serve as leaders in political, religious, or social orga- are from rural areas and are less acculturatedthan nizations. During the 1982 survey, a number of urban Indians. The students at the tribal colleges examples were given of how the college staff con- are predominantly those shown least likely toenroll tributed to the welfare of the tribe and its members. in and graduate from college. Another possible fac- This mutual support strengthens the bond between tor related to success is the type of elementary and the college and the tribe. A problem resulting from secondary schools attended. Indian students who this outside service by college personnel is that attend federal schools are generally less well pre tribal members expect the college staff member to pared than those who have attended public schools be both an effective educational leader and a leader (Peniska & Bailey, 1977). Studies of the achievement

13C 122 American Indian Higher Education in the 1980s of Indians at tribal colleges as compared to Indians be overcome, two adjacent tribes, such as the Crow at other higher education institutions must take into and Northern Cheyenne, could combine their re- consideration that tribal schools are working with sources in the support of one strong, comprehen- some of the least well prepared and least accultur- sive college. The objectives of these colleges are ated Indians. Therefore, the educational success or quite similar; and if they could adjust to the compli- failure of these students must be evaluated in light cation of preserving and transmitting two tribal cul- of their severe educational disadvantages. tures, this would be a feasible arrangement. This Funding has been, and will continue to be, a ma- has been worked out at the Fort Peck and Fort jor obstacle to providing adequate higher education Berthold Reservations where two and three tribes, for American Indians, particularly those in isolated respectively, share the same reservation and tribal rural areas. All of the tribal college administrators college. It would be necessary to assure that acces- interviewed in 1982 rated lack of funding as their sibility and flexibility of the institution in service to major problem. The passage of Public Law 95-471 in both tribesis maintained. A multi-tribal college 1978 provided a more stable source of funding, but a could be the solution to the funding problem of lack of financial support continues to be the single postsecondary education for some tribes. most pressing problem. The federal budget cutting Another topic concerning higher education of In- of the Reagan administration will continueuntil at dians is the discussions that have been held for over least 1988to make every federal dollar for Indian a decade about the advantages and feasibility of es- higher education a battle.It is evident that Presi- tablishing a four-year national Indian university. It dent Reagan does not believe the higher education has been proposed that such an institution would of Indians is a federal responsibility. American In- provide bachelor's and perhaps advanced degrees dian leaders and their supporters in Congress must for Indians from throughout the United States. One keep alert to fight cuts in appropriations for PL 95- proposal has been that Haskell Indian Junior Col- 471 and other sources of federal funding in the face lege in Lawrence, Kansas, be expanded to a federal of continued opposition from the administration. four-year institution. This would enable Indians to Considering the administration's negative stance attend Haskell for a four-year program or transfer on funding Indian higher education, the tribes must from a tribal college after one or two years. Other look for other sources of funding for their colleges. sites suggested for an Indian university have been Some state funds may be available, but in most Bacone College,aprivate schoolin Muskogee, states Indian higher education is viewed as a federal Oklahoma, or several locations near the large Indian responsibility. Some western tribes have valuable populations of the Southwest. deposits of coal, gas, and/or oil on their reserva- An important argument for an Indian university tions. If the intratribal conflicts concerning whether is that if it were federally funded it would establish or not to develop these resources can be resolved, it the federal government's commitment to support In- would be possible to earmark the incor, from dian education beyond the two-year level. Howard these resources for education and other services that Unversity, founded in 1867, for the education of benefit a wide range of tribal members. A few tribes Blacks has made a major contributiontoBlack may be able to obtain some funding from energy higher education. Supporters of an Indian univer- companies that are developing the tribe's energy re- sity contend it would do the same for American In- sources or other enterprises interested in expansion dians. If federally funded four-year programs were on reservations. Philanthropic groups have been the provided at little cost to Indians, this would provide source of some funding for tribal colleges but most educated Indians in academic fields needed by of this assistance is short term. In the long run, suf- many tribes. Cultural preservation could also be an ficient, stable funding for tribally controlled colleges important mission of an Indian university whether is not bright and appears to be the most likely cause it was the cultures of selected tribes or a Pan-Indian of failure of some of these institutions. culture approach. Such an institution could have a Some of the tribes with tribal colleges may simply strong influence in developing Pan-Indian leaders not have sufficient resources to support a viable, ac- as have Carlisle and Haskell in the past. This could credited posL-;econdary institution.Ifthisisthe serve to develop leaders who would promote the case, these tribes should consider the possibility of long held dream of unifying the tribes in this coun- jointly chartering a college with another tribe or try. An immediate issue concerning an Indian uni- tribes in their vicinity. If intertribal animosities can versity is its locaton. Although the Indian popula-

13; American Indian Higher Education in the 1980s 123 tion is located mainly in the western part of the cally support of the tribal colleges, should be given United States, it is concentrated in widely separated priority. Perhaps the discussion of an Indian univer- areas. Wherever the school was located, it would be sity is currently a moot question because the only a great distance from many Indians and would be feasible source of funding for such an institution is viewed by them as dominated by the tribes in its the federal government, and the administration in vicinity. This issue would need to be resolved to the the mid-1980s is not going to support such an ap- si,tisfaction of the majority of the tribes. propriation. Another problem concerns the admission and re- A closely related concern is the future of the three tention stanck rds of a four-year Indian university. existing Bureau of Indian Affairs supported two- What would re the criteria for admission to such a year colleges. The history of these schools and their school? Presently admission to the three BIA sup- status as of the mid-1980s is included in Chapter 4. ported two-year colleges is limited to persons of at Haskell Indian Junior College, Lawrence, Kansas, least one-fourth Indian blood. Whether this would has a long tradition of federally funded Indian edu- be appropriate for a four-year school or whether cation. Its students come from throughout the coun- other criteria such as enrollment in a federally rec- try. In spite of some competition for students from ognized tribe would be required must be decided. the tribally controlled colleges, Haskell has main- The standards for selection and retention would be tained an adequate enrollment. The college has a another issue. If all Indians who met some ethnic reputation for good education, particularly among criteria were admitted and high grading standards older Indians, some of whom attended Haskell as a were not maintained, the status of the school and its secondary boarding school. However, within the programs would be low. It would he seen as a di- non-Indian education establishment, it is viewed as ploma mill for Indians, and its graduates would be a second rate school with poorly prepared students judged as inferior. On the other hand, ifit were and low standards. In fact, Haskell does not attract highly selective in admissions and maintained high many of the brightest Indian students because they standards for graduation, it would not serve many are offered scholarships at more prestigious colleges of the poorly prepared tribal Indians from the west- and universities. With the development of the tribal ern United States. A compromise must he reached community colleges and the increased Indian en- in this difficult issue. rollments at non-Indian two-year schools, over one- A basic question concerning the establishment of half of all Indian students are in two-year colleges a four-year Indian university is whether Indian col- (Astin, 1982). Other than serving to develop a Pan- lege students are better off attending an all-Indian Indian view and leadership among its students, the school or a predominantly non-Indian institution for continuance of Haskell as it exists today seems ques- their bachelor's degree. The argument for an inte- tionable. If it serves a unique purpose in Indian post- grated institution is that Indians must eventually secondary education, it should be preserved; if not, learn to compete with non-Indians, and a four-year the appropriations should be moved to a more nec- all Indian school will delay their development and essary form of Indian education. If an Indian four- eventual success in the dominant culture. There is year university is eventually established, Haskell evidence that Blacks have higher interpersonal self would be a possible site for such an institution. esteem when they attend an integrated institution The Institute of American Indian Arts (IAIA) in as compared to a predominantly Black school (As- Santa Fe, New Mexico, has a unique mission in the tin, 1977). It is possible that this may also be true of development of Indian artists. No other school pro- Indians. The effects of attending a predominantly vides the high quality of specializationof this Indian institutionof higher learning on future school. In addition to its unique educational pro- achievement and success is not known. A compre- grams, it also provides opportunities for established hensive, national study of the higheeducation Indian artists to serve as teachers and mentors to as- needs and achievement of American Indians should piring Indian artists. Because it has been successful be conducted before any decisions are made con- inits unique mission, the writer believes IAIA cerning a four-year college for Indians. The writer should be preserved and expanded to serve more believes the present evidence and conditions do not Indian artists. warrant the expense and effort needed to promote, The third BIA postsecondary school, Southwest- establish, and maintain such an institution. Other ern Indian Polytechnic Institute (SIPI) in Albuquer- well documented Indian educational needs, specifi- que, New Mexico, has been reported to be closing

13: 124 American Indian Higher Education in the 1980s several times in its short history. The main objection demic self-esteem and eventually attain their full has been that it is too costly and that Indians could potential. This is true of other students who attend obtain similar vocational and technical training at college at a school where the student body is com- lower cost at other schools in the area. In 1983, SIPI posed of a homogeneous group of minority per- enrollment experienced an increase, and it received sons. Unless an Indian student is going to spend another reprieve. If the school can continue to en- his/her entire career on a reservation, he or she will rollsufficient Indian students and show thatit need the experience and confidence gained at an in- serves a special population with programs that meet tegrated college or university. Most administrators the vocational needs of Indians, it should be contin- at tribal colleges will probably disagree with this ued. If not, there is little justification for funding view, but the evidence on the higher education of such a relatively expensive institution. If it is closed, other minority groups supports this.Future re- Indian students could be given financial aid to at- search may show Indians are different, but what is tend other vocational schools in the area. known at this time indicates that after they develop Another proposal for Indian higher education has their basic educational skills, minority students ben- been the establishment of an Indian medical school. efit from attending an integrated institution. The main rationale for such an institution is that its The non-federal and non-tribally controlled col- curriculum would combine modern western medi- leges which have large proportions of Indian stu- cine with traditional Indian healing ceremonies and dents and programs emphasizing the educational folk medicine to better serve traditional Indians. needs of these students have dwindled to three as This is an intriguing concept, but the economic real- of the 1980s. Two of themCollege of Ganado and ities make it impossible. Considering that some en- D-Q University became tribally controlled. College tire states cannot support a separate medical school, of Ganado closed in 1986. The three remaining are it seems inconceivable that the federal government Sheldon Jackson College, Sitka, Alaska; Bacone Col- would fund a medical school for Indians. With med- lege, Muskogee, Oklahoma; and Flaming Rainbow ical school applicants decreasing and a predicted University,Tahlequah,Oklahoma.Thesethree over supply of physicians in the near future, there is schools enrolled a total of only 405 Indian and little hope that non-Indian federal administrators or Alaska Native students in 1982 (see Table 9). In spite legislators would support such a school. Programs of hard work by the staffs of these colleges to pro- to encourage and support Indians in pre-medical vide for the needs of their Indian students, their In- and medical studies such as the 1NMED program at dian enrollments continue to decrease. This trend is the University of North Dakota should be expanded a result of several factors including competition for to help meet the need for more Indians in all fields Indian students from tribally controlled colleges of medicine. and more prestigious private and state schools and Two tribally controlled colleges have initiated bac- the three BIA funded two-vear colleges. Flaming cclaureate degrees and several others are consider- Rainbow, a four-year institution, continues to have ing such programs. Oglala Lakota College and Sinte funding problems and lacks the support of some of Gleska College have been accredited to offer four- the major tribes in its area. This school has not de- year degrees, and Navajo Community College is veloped the strength or status to compete with other considering such a move. These programs have four-year institutions serving Indians. merit in providing accessible, flexible, inexpensive Bacone's Indian enrollments have decreased, and bachelor's degrees to Indians in their vicinity. How- as of 1982 the administration was undecided as to ever, there are some serious questions about such what course to take. Consideration has been given degrees. A college that can provide good vocational to becoming a four-year Indian university; but un- or two-year general programs may not have the less it is able to receive public funding, it would not staff,curricular offerings,library, and other re- be feasible to develop such an institution. Bacone sources to support a good four-year program. Un- has experienced the fate of other small private less such schools can rely on the resources of a schools during the past decade with rising costs and nearby four-year institution, their graduates may declining enrollments. It has served American Indi- not receive an adequate education, and their degree ans well for over one hundred years and has faced will lack the value of many other schools. As previ- and overcome adversity in the past. ously stated, it is necessary for Indian students to Sheldon Jackson College, serving primarily Alas- prove to themselves that they can compete academ- ka's Native people, is also struggling to survive. In ically with non-Indians in order to develop aca- the latter years of the 1980s this unique institution

1 3u American Indian Higher Education in the 1980s 125 was still having financial problems but was continu- particularly those on western reservations, have ing its long history of making a major contribution never seen an Indian physician and believeall doc- to the higher education of Alaska's native peoples. tors are white. Unfortunately, some of the few exist- The growth of tribal colleges and the increased ing Indianprofessionals have moved intothe support for Indian education have lessened the dominant non-Indian society and, therefore, are not need for these three colleges in serving Indians and available to serve or be role models for their people. Alaska Natives. Their continued existence is depen- Much of this is the result of the lack of opportunity dent upon them making major changes in their for professionals to make a decent living on reserva- funding and roles. tions or in isolated Indian communities. The growth As reported in this study, in spite of the inflated of the tribal colleges and the development of ser- figures, there is evidence that enrollments of Amer- vices on reservations should help to alleviate this ican Indians in higher education increased substan- problem by providing more opportunities for edu- tially from the mid -1960s to the mid-1970s, but since cated Indians. that time they have remained stable (Astin, 1982). Finally, it is evident from this study that the Indi- What are the reasons for this change after several ans who are most likely to enter andsucceed at all decades of slow, but steady, progress? No single fac- levels of higher education are those who are most tor is responsible; several related facto s have con- similar to whites in economic level, educational tributed to this trend: background, values, place of residence, and other predictors of educational achievement. Higher edu- 1. The national economic recession of the late cation is designed to best serve white students of 1970s and early 1980s adversely affected Indians and high ability. This is true not only of predominantly other poor Americans more than it did persons of white institutions but, to a lesser degree, even at the higher economic levels making them even less able tribally controlled colleges. This is true because to afford a higher education. higher education is a modern American institution 2. The Reagan administration has not enforced af- designed to prepare one for success in the dominant firmative action and equal opportunity laws as vig- white culture. orouslyasdidpreviousadministrations. Thus In light of the above, can an Indian retain his/her schools and colleges have not felt the pressure to traditional tribal culture and also be successful in seek out Indians and other minorities for their stu- higher education and the dominant non-Indian so- dent bodies and staff. ciety? Numerous examples in our country provide 3. Federal support of higher education has not had ample evidence that this can be done. It requires the priority of previous federal administrations. The much more commitment and effort than is neces- attempts to balance the federal budget have slowed sary if one chooses one culture,but it has its re- the development of tribal colleges and programs for wards. Bicultural Indians must spend the time and Indians at other postsecondary institutions. effort to learn two sets of values, languages, behav- 4. The national rise in unemployment and espe- iors and learn how to reconcile the incongruities be- cially the over supply in some professions have tween them. Children who are raised in abicultural made college degrees no longer a ticket to a good setting learn and adjust to this more easily than job. Young Indians and other minority persons do adults who are raised in one culture and must learn not see the time and effort needed to obtain a col- the other after they mature. Bicultural persons will lege education warranted if it does not guarantee a experience some discrimination from both white good job. The unemployment among whites has and Indian persons. Some traditional Indians will also led to an increased backlash against the pre- resent their white ways, and some whiteswill be ferred admissions and hiring of minorities. prejudiced toward their Indian ways and beliefs. Communities of bicultural Indians exist throughout In spite of the many improvements in Indian the country. They assist each other in retaining their higher education discussed in this study, there re- Indian culture and in overcoming the problems of mains in the late-1980s a serious lack of college ed- living in two cultures. ucated Indians ;n all professions, particularly social There are also unfortunate individuals who are services, medicine, law, and education. These short- caught between the two cultures and not comfort- ages cause not only a lack ofprofessional services to able in either, demonstrating the potential pitfalls of tribal Indians but provides few professional role bicultural existence. The self-misidentification of a models for young Indians. Many young Indians, number of Indian college students may result from

7 126 American Indian Higher Education in the 1980s an uncertainty of whether they are predominantly determine not only the future existence of educated Indian or white. Indians who have grown up in a tribal Indians; it will also establish the viability of a rural environment are less likely to misidentify be- pluralistic society in our country. If we continue to cause of their more traditional tribal background. operate colleges that ignore or exclude the tribal cul- The college years are a time of identity crisis for all ture of American Indians and those whc strive for a studentsIndian and non-Indian. This period may bicultural identity, we will have chosen to return to have a special significance for the young mixed the old melting pot concept. American Indians are blood Indians who are struggling to establish their not only our only true native persons, their culture, ethnic identity. One goal of higher education should if exterminated here, is gone forever. They cannot be to encourage the young Indian to establish his return to the old country on another continent to identity and, if he desires to be a bicultural person, revive the old ways as can many of us. The way we to learn and choose the best of both worlds. Indian treat the American Indians in higher education and students can benefit from a support group of other the society at large is indicative of our faith in our Indian students, faculty, and staff who can serve as ideal of a democratic society that is acceptant of cul- role models and strive for the goal of bicultural de- tural diversity. This country has been built on the velopment. Such groups can set goals of assistance premise that we benefit from accepting peoples in education, social, financial, and cultural areas from many different cultures. The vitality of this that make it easier for Indians to establish a strong country comes primarily from infusions of immi- bicultural identity. At institutions where there are grants from other lands. Can we also allow the only few Indian students or faculty, non-Indians who are original Americans to live in their traditional ways willing and able to learn the special needs and con- while fully participating in the larger society? The ditions of students from other cultures can be of establishniunt of the tribally controlled colleges is help with educational, financial, and personal prob- an indication that the American Indian can finally lems (Oppelt, 1989). participate in self determination whic''nables him Whether or not higher education is willing and to prepare for reaching his potential as a truly bicul- able to accommodate these cultural differences will tural person. LIST OF REFERENCES

111111,F.,MIIIII111, -.WNW! ANEW!

Fact-File: Sex and ethnic background of recipientsof Periodicals bachelor's degrees from private colleges. Chronicle of Higher Education, February 25, 1980, p. 10. Fact-File: Undergraduate enrollment, by race,in Ackley, R. (1972, summer). Discussion: Pembroke of State University. The Indian Historian, 5, 43-45. U.S. Colleges and Universities. The Chronicle American Indian Higher ConsortiumNewsletter. Higher Education, February 2, 1981, pp. 6-14. (1976, September). 1, (6), 1. Fact-File: Racial and ethnic makeup of college and university enrollments. The Chronicle of Higher Ed- Bass, W. P.(1971, Summer). Formal education of American Indians. Journal of Research and Develop- ucation, July 23, 1986, pp. 25-34. mental Education, 4, 21-23. call enrollments in colleges and universities 1982. (1984). National Center for Educational Statistics Re- Bearking, L. (1969). Indian education under federal Print- domination. Indian Historian, 2(1), 21-24. port, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Brightman, L. L.(1971). Mental genocide: Some ing Office. notes on federal boarding schools forIndians, in- Federal officials ask DQU to vacate land. (1982, Sep- equality in education. Indian Education, Harvard tember 24). California Aggie, p. 1. University, 7, 15-19. Fitch, M. (1982, April). Stormy saga of DQU: More Chavers, D. (1975). New directions in Indian educa- clouds. Davis Enterprise, p. 17. tion. Indian Historian, 8 (4), 43-46. Fitch, M. (1982, April). DQU blasts government Churchill, W., & Hill, N. S. (1979). An historical "vendetta." Davis Enterprise, pp. 1, 2. survey of tendencies in Indianeducation: Higher Forbes, J. D. (1966). An American Indian university. education. Indian Historian, 12, 43-56. Journal of American Indian Education, 5(2), 1-7. low Foreman, C. 1'. (1929). The foreign mission school at Coombs, M. (1970). The Indian student is not 7, man on the totem pole. Journalof American Indian Cornwall, Connecticut. Chronicles of Oklahoma, Education, 9(3), 1-9. 242-259. Dolan, W. W. (1938). Junior college for Indians.Jun- Foreman,C. T.(1931).The Choctaw academy. ior College Journal, 9, 63-67. Chronicles of Oklahoma, 9(4), 382-411. Eliot, S. A. (1937). Society for propagation among Foreman,C. T.(1932).The Choctaw academy. the Indians and others in North America, anhis- Chronicles of Oklahoma, 10(1), 77-114. toricalsketch.ProceedingsoftheMassachusetts Goldberg, D. (1977). Indians fight for own doctors. Historical Society, 66, 111. Rocky Mountain News. Fact-File: Race, ethnicity, and sex of recipientsof Gover, B. (1973). Serving the needs of nativeAmeri- bachelor's degrees from public colleges. The Chron- cans. Community and Junior CollegeJournal, 43(8), icle of Higher Education, February 19, 1980, p.10. 32-33. 128 List of References

Guelden, M. (1982, March 31). Fazio drops bill to Olivas, M. A. (1981). The tribally controlled commu- support DQU. Davis Daily Democrat, p. 1. nity college assistance act of 1978; The failure of Gueldon, M. (1982, April). DQU raps Fazio for end- federal Indian higher education policy. American ing support. Davis Daily Democrat, p. 4. Indian Law Review, 9, 219-251. Griffin, W. A. (1982). What is a Nebraska Indian Oppelt, N. T (1984). The tribally controlled colleges community college? Community College Review, in the 1980s: Higher Education's best kept secret. 9(4), 9-13. American Indian Culture and Research Journal, 8(4), Haviland, M. G.; Horswill, R. K.; O'Connell, J.J.; Sr 27-45. Dynneson, V. V. (1983). Native-American college Oppelt, N. T. (1989). Cultural values and behaviors students' preference for counselor race and sex common among tribal American Indians: a re- and their likelihood of use of a counseling center. source for student service administrators. NASPA Journal of Counseling Psychology, 30, 267-270. Journal, 26(3), 167-179. Holmes, D. K., & Rosenthal, E. C. (1958-59). Of Peterson, J. L. (1972). Technical skills for American students and scholarships. American Indian, 8, 46. Indians. American Vocational Journal, 47(8), 47-49. Horowitz,H.(1979,April 11). Controversies Powell, R. W. (1982, November 21). Showdown at threaten DQU. California Aggie, p. 4. DQU: Indiansfighttostay.SacramentoBee, Indian college benefits from government mistake. pp. Al, A18. (1980, May 5). Chronicle of Higher Education, p. 24. Pratt, R. H. (1916). American Indian Magazine, 4, 246. Institute for American Indian Arts-A National cen- Provinse, j., et al (1954, June). The American Indian ter for Indian art and culture. (1979). Indian Histo- in transition. American Anthropologist, 56, 388-392. rian, 12(3), 51-54. Richardson, L. B. (1930). The Dartmouth Indians, Jansson,P. A. (1975, November). Navajo Commu- 1800-1892. DartmouthAlumniMagazine, 22, nity College's unfulfilled promise. Change Maga- 524-527. zine, 52-53. Robinson, W. S.,Jr.(1952). Indian education and Kelly, E. P.(1929, December). The Dartmouth In- missions in colonial Virginia. Journal of Southern dian. Dartmouth Alumni Magazine, 22, 122-125. History, 18, 152-168. Kershner, C. 1.(1970, Winter). Eleazar is outdone. Rouse, S. D. (1916). Colonel Dick Johnson's Choc- From Dartmouth, 20, 13-14. taw Academy: A forgotten educational experi- Kickingbird, K., & Kickingbird, L. (1979). A short ment. Ohio Archaeological and HistoricalSociety history of Indian education, part 1. American In- Publications, 25, 18-23. dian Journal, 5, 13-16. Salisbury, N. R. (1974). Red, puritans: "The praying Kickingbird, L. (1976). A case for Indian cor'-olled Indians" of Massachusetts Bay and John Eliot. community colleges. American Indian Journal of the William vld Mary Quarterly, 31, 27-54. Institute for the Development of Indian Law, 2(6), 5-11. Saslow, H. L., & Harrover, M. J. (1968). Research on Kidder, R. M. (1984, May 29). Turning "sunwise" at psychological adjustment of Indian youth. Ameri- Navajo college. Christian Science Monitor, pp.1, can Journal of Psychiatry, 125(2), 224-231. 5-6. Sinte Gleska gets its accreditation. (1983, January- McCurdy, J. (1984, January). U.S. effort to seize cam- February). Wassaja, p. 6. pus of D-Q U blocked by court. Chronicle of Higher Szasz, M. C.(1980)."Poor Richard" meets the Education, p. 4. American Indian: Schooling for young women in Martin,D.(1974,May). Communitycolleges, 18th century Connecticut. Pacific Historical Review, Haskell Indian Junior College. Change Magazine, 49(2), 215-125. 6(4), 55-56. Thornton, R. (1978). American Indian studies as an Medicine, B. (1975). Self-direction in Sioux educa- academic discipline. American Indian Journal, 2(3 & tion. Integrated Education, 13(6), 15-17. 4), 10-19. Mendel, E. (1979, April 4). D-Q University funding Training for leadership: The Navajo school adminis- suspended. Sacramento Union, p. Al, A3. trator's program. (1978). Carnegie Quarterly, 16(1), Middleton, L. (1980, February 11). Indian tribal col- 1-4. leges accuse the U.S. bureaucrats of delaying $85 million Congress authorized. Chronicle of Higher Education, pp. 1, 12. Middleton, L. (1980, February 19). Indian college Books charges federal harassment. Chronicle of Higher Education, p. 4. Morgan, B. G. (1988, June-July). The Navajo tribal Adams,E. C.(1946).AmericanIndianeducation. scholarship program. Navajo, 1(11), 16-19. Morningside Heights, NY: King's Crown Press.

10 List of References 129

Artichoker, J., & Palmer, N. (1959). The Sioux Indian Horse,P. G.(1979).Finalreport, American Indian goes to college. Vermillion: University of South Da- highereducationconsortiumresearchprojectto kota, Institute of Indian Studies. strengthen local economic and human resource develop- Astin, A. W. (1977). Four critical years. San Francisco: ment through Indian community colleges in the old Jossey-Bass. west region. Denver: American Indian Higher Edu- Astin, A. W., et al. (1982). Minorities in American cation Consortium. higher education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Iverson, P. (1981). The Navajo Nation. Albuquerque: Axtell, J.(1981). The European and the Indian. New University of New Mexico Press. York: Oxford Press. Jennings, E (1976). The invasion of America: Indians, Baird, W. D. (1974). The Chickasaw people. Phoenix: colonialism and the cant of conquest. Chapel Hill: Indian Tribal Series. University of North Carolina Press. Bass, W. P.(1969). The American Indian high school Kohout, K., & Kleinfeld, J. (1974). Alaska Natives in graduate in the southwest. Albuquerque: Southwest higher education. Fairbanks: Institute of Social and Cooperative Educational Laboratory. Economic Research, University of Alaska. Berkhofer, R. F. (1965). Salvation and the savage. Lex- Liberty, M. (Ed.). (1978). The American Indian intel- ington: University of Kentucky Press. lectuals. In 1976 Proceedings of the American Ethno- Berkhofer, R. E (1978). The white man's Indian. New logical Society. St. Paul: West Publishing. York: Alfred A. Knopf. Lindquist, G. E. E.(1944). The Indian in American Berry, B. (1972). The histories of American Indian Life. New York: Friendship Press. education. In American Indian Reader: Education. Logsdon, G. (1977). The University of Tulsa: A history, San Francisco: Indian Historian Press. 1882-1972. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. Bowden, H. W. (1981). American Indians and Christian McCallum, J. D. (1939). Eleazar Wheelock. Hanover, mission: Studies in cultural conflict. Chicago: Univer- NH: Dartmouth College Publications. sity of Chicago Press. McNickle, D. A. (1973), Native American Tribalism. Brubacher, J. S., & Rudy, W. (1958). Higher education London: Oxford University Press. in transition. New York: Harper & Row. Marberry, M. M. (1947). The Golden Voice: A biography Cash, J. H., & Wolff, G. W. (1974). The three affiliated of Isaac Kalloch. New York: Farrar, Strauss and Co. tribes (Mandan, Arikara, and Hidatsa). Phoenix: In- Meriam, L., et al. (1928). The problem of Indian admin- dian Tribal Series. istration. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University. Cash, J. H., & Wolff, G. W. (1976). The Ottawa people. Morison, S. E. (1936). Harvard College in the seven- Phoenix: Indian Tribal Series. teenthcentury.Cambridge: Harvard University Deloria, V., Jr. (1974). Indian education confronts the Press. seventies,Vol 5, Future concerns.Oglala, SD & Pratt, R. H. (1964). Battlefield and classroom: Four de- Tsai le, AZ: Navajo Community College, Ameri- cades with the American Indian, 1864-1904. New Ha- can Indian Research Associates. ven: Yale University Press. Dial, A., & Eliades, D. K. (1972). The Lumbee In- Price, J. A. (1978). Native studies: American and Cana- dian and Pembroke State University. In American dian Indians. Toronto: McGraw Hill-Ryerson Ltd. Indian Reader: Education. San Francisco: Indian His- Prucha, F. P. (1976). American Indian policy in crisis: torian Press. Christian reforms and the Indian, 1865-1900. Nor- Forbes, J., et al. (1970). Handbook of American Indian man: University of Oklahoma Press. studies and chronology of American Indian history. Prucha,F. P (1979).The churches and the Indian Davis: University of California, Tecumseh Center. schools, 1888-1912. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Fuchs, E., & Havighurst, R. (1972). To live on this Press. earth: American Indian education. Garden City, NY: Richards, C. E. (1974). The Oneida people. Phoenix: Doubleday. Indian Tribal Series. Gibson, A. M. (1980). The American Indian, prehistory Richardson,L. B.(1933).An Indianpreacherin to present. New York: D. C. Heath. England. Hanover, NH: University Press of New Gridley, M. E. (1971). Indians of today. New York: England. ICPF. Roessel, R. A., Jr. (1979). Navajo education, 1948-1978: Harmon, G. D. (1941). Sixty years of Indian affairs. Its progress and its problems. Rough Rock, AZ: Na- Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. vajo Curruculum Center, Rough Rock Demonstra- Henry, J. (Ed.). (1972). The American Indian Reader: tion School. Education. San Francisco: Indian Historian Press. Sando, J. (1976). The Pueblo Indians. San Francisco: Hertzberg, H. W. (1971). The search for an American Indian Historian Press. Indian identity. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Satz, R. N. (1975). American Indian policy in the Jack- Press. sonian era. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. 130 List of References

Szasz, M. C. (1974). Education and the American In- Indians into medicine. (1986). INMED Fact Sheet. dian: The road to self determination, 1928-1973. Albu- Grand Forks: University of North Dakota, School querque: University of New Mexico Press. of Medicine. Szasz, M. C. (1988). Indian Education in the American Lane, J. M. (1982). The four W's: An institutional his- Colonies, 1607-1783. Albuquerque: University of tory of the Cheyenne River Community College. Paper New Mexico Press. presented at the Fourteenth Annual Dakota His- Underhill, R. (1953). Here come the Navajo! U.S. De- torical Conference. Dakota State College, Madi- partment of the Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs. son, South Dakota. Lawrence, KS: Haskell Institute. Leitka, E. (1973). Program assessment: University with- Unrau, W. E., & Miner, H. C. (1985). Tribal disposses- out walls, Flaming Rainbow University, Tahlequah, sion and the Ottawa Indian university fraud. Norman: Oklahoma. Albuquerque: Bureau of Indian Affairs. University of Oklahoma Press. Locke, P. (1973). A survey of college and university pro- Waddell, J. 0., & Watson, 0. M. (Eds.). (1971). The grams for American Indians. Boulder: Western Inter- American Indianinurban society.Boston: Little, state Commission for Higher Education. Brown. Locke, P. (1973). Higher education: Background and im- Washburn, W. E. (1975). The Indian in America. New plications for American Indians. Boulder: Western In- York: Harper & Row. terstate Commission for Higher Education. Locke,P. (1977).IssuesinAmerican Indianpost- secondary education.Boulder: Western Interstate Reports and Presentations Commission for Higher Education. Locke, P. (1978). A survey of college and university pro- grams for American Indians. Boulder: Western Inter- American Association of Indian physicians. (1974). state Commisson for Higher Education. Report on Numbers of Indians in professional health McGrath et al. (1962). Higher education of southwestern programs. Indians with reference to success and failure. (Cooper- American Indian Higher Education Consortium. ative Research Project 938, Office of Education, (n.d.). American Indian Higher Education Consor- Department of HEW). Tempe: Arizona State Uni- tium. Denver: AIHEC. (Received 1978) versity. American Indian Programs in Social Welfare. (1986). MPH Program for American Indians and Alaska Na- Employment of Graduates, 1981-86. Berkeley: Uni- tives.(1986). Employment of Graduates, 1971-86. versity of California. Berkeley: University of California. Amiotte, L., & One Feather, G. (1973). A future of Native American Research Association. (1979, Janu- higher Indian education, community colleges. In- ary 19). Survey and report on tribally controlled com- dian Education in the 70s. Institute for the Develop- munity colleges for the Cheyenne River Community ment of Indian law. College. Albuquerque: Bureau of Indian Affairs. Berry, B. (1968). The education of American Indians: A Oppelt.1. T. (1975). Consultation on student services survey of the literature, final report. (Project No. 7- atNavajo CommunityCollege,summaryreport. 0813, Office of Education, Bureau of Research). Denver: American Indian Higher Education Con- Columbus: Ohio State University. (ERIC No. ED sortium. 026 545) Peniska, J. N., & Bailey, G. A. (1977). American Indi- Brightman, L. L. (n.d.). An historical over view of In- ans in higher education. Paper commissioned by the dian education with evaluations and recommendations. National Association of Student Personnel Ad- El Cerrito, CA. (Received 1978) ministrators, Region IV West. Portland: National Bronson,R. (1932).Advancededucationsurvey, Association of Student Personnel Administrators. (10972-1933-800-GS, NA). Reagan, R.(1983). Quoted inWassaja, January- Center of Indian Studies (n.d.). Overview of back- February. ground and history of reservation community colleges Sando, J. S. (1969). Teach Indians to succeed. Paper and Black Hills State College. Spearfish: Black Hills presented at workshop for counselors of Indian State College. (Received 1978) students, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces. Harvard American Indian Program. (1974). Fourth Selinger, A. D. (1968). The American Indian high school AnnualReport,1973-74.Cambridge:Harvard graduate: After high school what? Portland: North- Graduate School Education, Harvard University. west Regional Education Laboratory. Hatathli, N. (1970, April 21). Navajo Control. Position Shannon, W. G. (1972, October 26-28). Providing paper. Many Farms, AZ.: Navajo Community Col- education services to American Indians: A responsibility lege. of community colleges.Report on the American List of References 131

Indian Conference, Spokane, Washington: Ameri- Hunt, M. L.(1946). Trends in Indian education: can Association of Community and Junior Col- Historically treated (Master's thesis Ohio State leges, American Indian Programs. University). U.S. Department of the Interior. (1975). Indian educa- Isaac, L., Jr. (1980). American Indian administrators tion resources center bulletin, 3(3). Albuquerque: Bu- of tribally chartered community colleges: Back- reau of Indian Affairs. grounds, role, and conflicts (Doctoral dissertation, U.S. Department of the Interior. (1976). Indian Educa- University of Arizona). tion Resources Center Bulletin, 4(10). Albuquerque: King, H. C. (1963). The education of the American Bureau of Indian Affairs. Indian: A history of the major approaches (Mas- Vineyard, W. E.(1972). SIPI Assesses vocational ter's thesis, Willimantic State College). needs. A report on the institute on the American In- Kinsey, M. A. (1975). Indian education at Ft. Lewis dian student in higher education. Canton, NY: St. College, Durango, Colorado (Doctoral disserta- Lawrence University. tion, University of Tennessee). Kolhoff, K. E(1979). Flaming Rainbow: From a Sioux visio, to a Cherokee reality (Doctoral disser- Dissertations and Theses tatir,Union Graduate School). Layri,n, M. E. (1942). A history of Indian education in the United States (Doctoral dissertation, Uni- Armstrong, N. A. (1967). Sheldon Jackson sconces: versity of Minnesota). A documentary history of Sheldon Jackson Junior Le Beau, E. A. (1980). A survey to determine the College, Sitka Alaska, 1878-1967 (Education spe- motivational factors affecting American Indian cialist thesis, George Peabody University). students who have attended Cheyenne River Baird, W. D. (1965). Spencer Academy: The Choctaw Community College (Doctoral dissertation, Uni- "Harvard," 1842-1900 (Master's thesis, University versity of South Dakota). of Oklahoma). Leitka, E. (1973). A study of the effectiveness of Bode, C. (1957). The origin and development of Ba- existing native American studies programs in cone College (Master's thesis, Tulsa University). selected universities and colleges (Doctoral disser- Burgess, B. J. (1976). A study of the attitudes, char- tation, New Mexico State University). acteristics, and opinions of native American stu- McDonald, J.F. (1981). An assessment of accredita- dents majoring in liberal arts at Haskell Indian tion practices in developing Indian community Junior College (Doctoral dissertation, University colleges compared with non-Indian community of Kansas). colleges in the Norhtwest (Doctoral dissertation, Clark, R. 0. (1972). Higher education programs for University of Montana). American Indians at selected southwestern col- McNamara, P. P. (1982). American Indians in higher leges and universities (Doctoral dissertation, Uni- education: A longitudinal study of progress and versity of Southern California). attainment (Doctoral dissertation, University of Fischbacher, T (1967). A study of the role of the fed- California at Los Angeles). eral government in the education of the American Morris, H. W. (1954). A history of Indian education Indian (Doctoral dissertation, Arizona State Uni- in the United States (Doctoral dissertation, Ore- versity). gon State College). Fox, G. E. (1943). An experiment in Indian education O'Brien, C. A. (1975). The evolution of Haskell In- (Master's thesis, George Washington University). dian Junior College, 1884-1974 (Master's thesis, Harrison, W. G. (1977). A survey of Indian educa- University of Oklahoma). tion in five selected Alberta community colleges: Pace, A. L. (1976). The education of American Indi- Some models and recommendations (Doctoral dis- ans in community colleges: Some implications sertation, Washington State University.) fromthreedisciplines(Doctoraldissertation, Renshaw, L. D. (1935). A history of the Cherokee Washington State University). tribal schools since the civil war (Master's thesis, Porter, H. M. (1955). The education of the American University of Oklahoma). Indian (Master's thesis, Ohio University). House, L. L. (1974). The historical development of Schmeeckle, F. R. (1966). American Indian educa- Navajo Community College (Doctoral Disserta- tion, 1845-1865 (Master's thesis, Louisiana State tion, Arizona State University). University). Hoxie, E E. (1977). Beyond savagery: The campaign Walker-McNeil,P. L.(1979). The Carlisle Indian to assimilate the American Indians, 1880-1920 school, a study of acculturation (Doctoral disserta- (Doctoral dissertation, Brandeis University). tion, American University). 132 List of References

Wheeler, J. L. (1966). A history of United States In- North Central Association of Colleges and Schools. dian education, 1789-1845 (Master's thesis, Louisi- (1978). Report of a Visit to Flaming Rainbow Univer- ana State University). sity, December 11-12, 1978. Tahlequah, OK: Flam- ing Rainbow University. Flaming Rainbow University, Status Study. (1978). Tah- lequah, OK: Flaming Rainbow University. Institutional Documents FortBerthold Community College,1980-81Catalog. (Alphabetically by Name of Institution) (1980). New Town, ND: Fort Berthold Community College. Fort Lewis College Catalog, 1976-77. (1976). Durango, BaconeCollegeAnnualBulletin,1978-80.(1978). CO: Fort Lewis College. Muskogee, OK: Bacone College. Rationale for the Establishment of Fort Peck Community Ethnic Analysis of Indian Students at Bacone, 1977-78. College. (n.d.). Poplar, MT Fort Peck Community (1978). Muskogee, OK: Bacone College. College. (Received 1982) Bacone College. (1979). Indian Higher Education Ques- Fort Peck Community College Catalog 1981-83. (1981). tionnaire, Muskogee, Oklahoma. Poplar, MT Fort Peck Community College. Chavers, D. (1979). The feasibility of an Indian uni- Stiner, C. (1972). The Haskell Transition Evaluation. versity at Bacone College. Muskogee, OK: Bacone Research and Evaluation Report No. 7. Lawrence, College. KS: Haskell Indian Junior College. Blackfeet Community College, 1981-82 Catalog (1981). Haskell Indian Junior College Bulletin, 1977-79. (1977). Browning, MT: Blackfeet Community College. Lawrence, KS: Haskell Indian Junior College. Profile: 1976-1982 and Projections to 1985-86. (1981, Haskell Enrollment Status Report: Official Fall Enroll- March).Browning, MT Blackfeet Community ment 1978. (1978). Lawrence, KS: Haskell Indian College. Junior College. Brigham Young University. (1979) Indian Higher Edu- Haskell Self-Study Report. (1978, June). Presented to cation Questionnaire, Provo, Utah. the North Central Association of Colleges and Blodgett,H.(1935).Samson Occam. Dartmouth Secondary Schools. Lawrence, KS: Haskell Indian Manuscript Series, 3(1). Hanover, NH: Dartmouth Junior College. College Publications. New Directions-A Focus Book. (n.d.). Santa Fe, NM: Cheyenne River Community Enrollment Statistics, 1981. Institute of American Indian Arts, Division of Stu- (1981). Eagle Butte, SD: Cheyenne River Commu- dent Life Development. nity College. Institute of American Indian Arts Catalog,1977-78. The Ganado Story. (n.d.) Ganado, AZ: College of Ga- (1977). Santa Fe, NM: Institute of American In- nado, Office of Public Relations. dian Arts, Bureau of Indian Affairs. College of Ganado, 1977-78 Catalog. (1977). Ganado, Institute of American Indian Arts Status Study Report. AZ: College of Ganado. (1977). Presented to the North Central Association CollegeofGanado:HistoricalInformation.(1979). of Colleges and Secondary Schools and National Ganado, AZ: College of Ganado, Humanities Association of Schools of Art. Santa Fe, NM: Insti- Division. tute of American Indian Arts. College of Ganado Catalog, 1980-81. (1980). Ganado, Inupiat University of the Arctic. ',n.d.). Barrow, AL: In- AZ: College of Ganado. upiat University of the Arctic. (Received 1978) College of Ganado: Profile and Update. (1980, February). Little Big Horn College. (1980) Crow Agency, MT Lit- Ganado, AZ: College of Ganado. tle Big Horn College. D-Q University Catalog, 1976-77. (1976). Davis, CA: Application for Candidacy Status. (1981). Presented to D-Q University. the North Central Association of Colleges and D-Q University, Fact Outline. (n.d.). Davis, CA: D-Q Schools. Fort Totten, ND: Little Hoop Community University. College. Dull Knife Memorial College, Annual Report FY 1980. Navajo Community College Catalog, 1971-72. (1971). (1980). Lame Deer, MT Dull Knife Memorial Many Farms, AZ: Navajo Community College College. Navajo Community College General Catalog, 1975-77. Dull Knife Memorial College,Case History.(1981). (1975). Tsai le, AZ: Navajo Community College. Lame Deer, MT Dull Knife Memorial College. Report of the President, 1975-76. (1976). Tsai le, AZ: Dull Knife Memorial College Catalog, 1981-82. (1981). Navajo Community College Press. Lame Deer, MT: Dull Knife Memorial College. Nebraska Indian Community Cc' ,e Catalog, 1982-1984. Flaming Rainbow University Catalog.(1977). Tahle- (1982). Winnebago, NB: Nebraska Indian Commu- quah, OK: Flaming Rainbow University. nity College. List of References 133

Og lala Sioux Community College, Final Report. (1978). Turtle Mountain Community College Annual Report. Pine Ridge, SD: Oglala Sioux Community Col- (1982, May 12). Belcourt, ND: Turtle Mountain lege. Community College. Og lala Sioux Community College Enrollment. (1978). Turtle Mountain Community College Catalog, 1982-84. Pine Ridge, SD: Oglala Sioux Community Col- (1982). Belcourt, ND: Turtle Mountain Community lege. College President's Report, 1979-80. (1980). Kyle, SD: Oglala Sioux Community College. Graduate Survey Statistics, 1974-81. (1981). Kyle, SD: Personal Interviews Oglala Sioux Community College. Annual Report, 1980-81. (1981).Kyle, SD: Oglala Sioux Community College. Adams, Howard. (1984, March 30). Davis, CA: Uni- Og lalaSioux Community College Catalog,1981-82. versity of California-Davis. (telephone) (1981). Kyle, SD: Og lala Sioux Community Col- Chapman, Miriam, (1983, September 20). Winne- lege. bago, NE: Nebraska Indian Community College. Oglala Sioux Community College Graduation, Pow-wow, (telephone) and Dance Contest Program.(1982). Three Mile Emhoolah, John, Jr.(1978, April 7). Denver, CO: Creek, SD: Oglala Sioux Community College. American Indian Higher Education Consortium. Ottawa University Bulletin, 1972-73. (1972). Ottawa, *Fresquez, Anthony. (1982, September 20). Kyle, SD: KS: Ottawa University. Oglala Sioux Community College. American Indian Studies. (1977). Pembroke, NC: Pem- Gipp, David,(1988, August .2).Bismarck, ND: broke State University. United Tribes Educational Technical Center. (tele- Pembroke State University General Catalog, 1976-77. phone) (1976). Pembroke, NC: Pembroke State University. Hill, Gwen. (1983, September 20). Sisseton, SD: Sis- Pembroke State University.(1979).IndianHigher seton Wahpeton Community College. (telephone) Education Questionnaire, Pembroke, North Caro- Jackson, Dean. (1988, October 17). Tsai le, AZ: Na- lina. vajo Community College. (telephone) Solis!:Kootenai CommunityCollege,1980Catalog. *Juneau, Carol. (1982, September 3). Browning, MT (1980).Pablo, MT Salish Kootenai Community Blackfeet Community College. College. LaPointe, Donald. (1984, January 3).Baraga, MI: Salish Kootenai College: An Informational Booklet for the Ojibwa Community College. (telephone) TribalCouncil,Federal GovernmentOfficials,and Lawrence, Robert, & Casimer, Jeannette. (1983, Sep- Members of Congress.(1982).Pablo, MT: Salish tember 27). Lummi Island, WA: Lummi Commu- Kootenai Community College. nity College. (telephone) Sinte Gleska College Tribal Report. (1976). Rosebud, Mackonnel, Sandra. (1985, January 18).Sisseton, SD: Sinte Gleska College. SD: Sisseton Wahpeton Community College. (tele- Sinte Gleska College Catalog, 1982-83. (1982). Rose- phone) bud, SD: Sinte Gleska College. *McDonald, Joseph. (1983, September 2). Pablo, MT Self Study Report of Sinte Gleska College. (1982). Pre- Salish Kootenai College. sented to the North Central Association of Col- *Martinez, Carol, & Lane, Jack. (1982, September leges and Schools by Lionel Bordeaux, President. 17). Eagle Butte, SD: Cheyenne River Community Rosebud, SD: Sinte Gleska College. College. Southwestern Indian Polytechnic Institute. (1979). *Matter, Donald, Davis, Rose, & Belgarde, Joyce. Indian Higher Education Questionnaire, Albuquer- (1982, September 14). Fort Totten, ND: Little Hoop que, New Mexico. Community College. Southwestern Indian Polytechnic Institute Catalog, 1978- *Mohatt, Gerald. (1982, September 17). Rosebud, 79. (1978). Albuquerque, NM: Southwestern In- SD: Sinte Gleska College. dian Polytechnic Institute. *Monnette, Gerald "Carty." (1982, September 13). Standing Rock Community College. (1977). Fort Yates, Belcourt,ND:TurtleMountainCommunity ND: Standing Rock Community College. College. Standing Rock Community College, 1982-83 Catalog. *Ridenhower, Marilyn. (1982, September 8). Poplar, (1982). Fort Yates, ND: Standing Rock Community MT: Fort Peck Community College. College. Roessel, Robert. (1981, April). Greeley, Colorado. Turtle Mountain Community College: An Experimenta- *Rowland, James, & Pond, Doreen.(1982, Au- tioninSelf Determination. (1982). Belcourt, ND: gust 26). Lame Deer, MT: Dull Knife Memorial Turtle Mountain Community College. College. 134 List of References

Shepro, Carl. (1988, August 10). Barrow, AK: North National Advisory Council on Indian Education. Slope Higher Education Center. (telephone) (1974).First annual reporttothe congress of the Stein, Wayne, and Barden, Jack.(1982, Septem- United States, Part 2. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Gov- ber 16). Fort Yates, ND: Standing Rock Commu- ernment Printing Office. nity College. National Advisory Council on Indian Education. Stenberg, Bill. (1988, August 8). Sitka, AK: Sheldon (1976). Indian education: The right to be Indian. Jackson College. (telephone) Third annual report to the Congress of the United Tippeconic, John. (1975, August). Tsai le, AZ: Na- States. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Print- vajo Community College. ing Office. *Windy Boy,Janine.(1982,August25).Crow National Advisory Council on Indian Education. Agency, MT Little Big Horn College. (1978). Coordination and cooperation: An emerg- Yellowbird,Bennett.(1982, September 10). New ing phenomenon. Fifth annual report to the Congress Town, ND: Fort Berthold Community College. of the United States. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Gov- *Tape recordings of these interviews in the author's ernment Printing Office. files. National Council on Indian Opportunity. (1972). Be- tween two milestones. First report to the president of the United States by the special subcommittee. Wash- ington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. Letters to the Author Nichols, R. Testimony before the House Subcommittee on Post-secondary Education, Hearing on Title III of the Higher Education Act. March 29, 1979. Adams, Howard. (1979, July 21). Personal communi- Nixon, R. M. (1969). Statement made on September cation, University of CaliforniaDavis. 27, 1968. Indian Record, January 1969, p. 1-2. Deloria, Philip S.(1979, November 29). Personal Treaty between the United States of America and the communication, Albuquerque, NM: American In- Oneida, Tuscarora and Stockbridge Indians dwelling in dian Law Center. the country of the Oneidas. December 2, 1794, 7 Stat- Dixon, Ross (1979). Personal communication, Bar- utes, pp. 47-48. row, AK: Inupiat University of the Arctic. U.S. Bureau of the Census, (1973). Census of the Goff, Dick M. (1979, March 20). Personal communi- population.1970Subjectreports.Finalreport, cation, Sitka, AK: Sheldon Jackson College. PC(2)-1F, Washington, D.C. Peniska, Joe N. (1979, March 29). Personal commu- U.S. Bureau of the Census. (1983). 1980 Census of nication, Ganado, AZ: College of Ganado. the population. Social and economic characteristics. Risling, D. (1977, May). Personal communication, Vol. 1, Chapter C, United States summary Part 1, Davis, CA: D-Q Iniversity. Washington, D.C. Strout, George M. (1979, March 8). Personal com- U.S. Congress, House. Navajo Community College As- munication, Muskogee, OK: Bacone College. sistance Act of 1971. Pubi:c Law 89-192. Szasz, Margaret C. (1980, June 30). Personal com- U.S. Congress, House. Indian Education Act of 1972, munication, Albuquerque, NM. Title IV. Public Law 92-318. Education amend- Tippeconic, John W. (1977, May 3). Personal com- ments of 1972. munication, Tempe, AZ: Arizona State University. U.S. Congress, House. Education Act of 1975. Public Law 93-638, 93rd Congress, 2nd session, 88 stat- utes, January 4, 1975. U.S. Congress, House. Tribally controlled community Federal Documents college assistance act of 1978. Public Law 95-471, 95th Congress, 2nd session, H.R. 9158. Washing- ton, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. Kappler, Charles, compiler, (1904).Indian Affairs, U.S. Congress, House. Osage Indian Tribe, Oklahoma. Laws and Treaties. Vol. 2, No. 4 Washington, D.C.: Subcommittee on Indian Affairs of the Committee Government Printing Office. on Interior and Insular Affairs. House Concurrent IndianClaims Commission (August10,1951). Regulation #108. 83rd Congress, 1st Session, July Doc. 303,"Petition,Trust Lands inKansas," 22, 1953. pp. 2-3. Library Division, Kansas State Historical U.S. Congress, House. (1978). Tribally controlled com- Society. munity college assistance act. Hearing before the Indian Claims Commission, (1967). Doc. 303, 14, subcommittee on post secondary education and "Amended Final Award," pp. 677-78; 81 Stat. 166. labor, May 18 and June 14,1978. Washington, Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

1 List of References 135

U.S. Congress, House. (1982). Oversight hearing on of ethnic minorities based on the 1970 census, vol. 3, tribally controlled community college assistance act. American Indians. Arlington, VA: Urban Associates. Subcommittee on postsecondary education of the U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. committee on education and labor. 97th Congress, (1976, Dec.6). HEW News, Washington, D.C.: 1st session, July 23, 1981. Washington, D.C.: U.S. U.S. Government Printing Office. Government Printing Office. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. U.S.Congress, House.(1983).Reauthorizationof Office of Civil Rights. (1978). Racial, sex, and ethnic tribally-controlled community colleges. Hearing be- enrollment data from institutions of higher education, fore the subcommittee on post secondary educa- vol 2. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Print- tion of the committee on education and labor. ing Office. 97th Congress, 2nd session. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. U.S. Government Printing Office. (1982). Degrees conferred 1978-79, American Indi- U.S. Congress, Senate. (1969). Indian education: a na- ans and Alaska Natives. Digest of Education Statis- tional tragedya national challenge. Special Senate tics, 1981-82. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government subcommittee report, S. rept. 91-501. Washing- Printing Office. ton, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. U.S. Department of Interior. (1973). Higher education U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. evaluation: Student characteristics and opinions,re- (1980). Biennial racial and ethnic enrollment data from search and evaluation. (Report series no. 20-A). Al- institutions of higher education. Washington, D.C. buquerque, NM: Bureau of Indian Affairs. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. U.S. Statutes, Vol. 49, p. 1458. (1936). Amendment to (1974). A study of selected socioeconomic characteristics the Johnson O'Malley Act of 1934 INDEX

Academies, 6 funding of higher education for Indians, greatest need, 122 Acoveda, Dr. Jorge, 71 funding sources, other than federal government, 122 Acoya, Clarence, 22 independent Indian colleges, future of, 124-125 Administrators, of tribal colleges, 81, 89-90 identity of Indian college students, 126 preparation of Indians, 81, 89 Indian higher education enrollments, recent plateau of, 125 qualifications of, 81, 89 Indian Medical School, feasibility of, 124 problems of, 81, 89 national Indian university, pros and cons of, 122, 123 Alaska, University of, 107 Indian students, need for remedial programs, 120 Alaska Natives at, 108, 111 professions, need for more Indians in, 125 Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act, 1971, 107-108 rural and urban Indians, differences in education, 121-122 Alaska Natives in higher education, study of, 1963-74, 108 three federal two-year Indian colleges, status and future of, Alaska Methodist University, 107, 108 123-124 Alaska Pacific University, Alaska Natives at, 108 tribally controlled colleges, a new era, 119 Albuquerque, University of, 97 tribally controlled colleges, importance of in self determina- Alcatraz, Indian occupation of, tion and bicultural education of Indians, 126 All Indian Pueblo Council, 96, 99 accreditation of, 120 American Association of Indian Physicians, 100 major objectives, attainment of, 120.-121 American Baptist Church, 1(19 are they worth the expenditures?, 121 and Ottawa University, 13 two-year colleges, more than one-half of Indians students en- American Indian Higher Education Consortium (AIHEC), xi, 38, rolled in, pros and cons, 120 74, 76, 86, 107, 120 American Indian higher education, summary, 116-119 founding of, 76 missionary period, 116-117 headquarters, move to Washington, D.C., 76 failure of, 116 mission of, 76 federal period, 117 college administrators, support of, 76 boarding schools, 117 leaders, 1979, 76 Meriam Report, 117 funding of, 76 Kennedy Report, 117 American Indian College Fund, 76 federal policy of no Indian education beyond American Indian and Alaskan Native Higher Education Con- secondary, 117 ference, First Annual, 78 federal two-year colleges, founding of, 117 accreditation of tribal colleges, 88 -89 Indian tribes, long dedication of some to education, 117 American Indian Administrator Training Program, 98 tribal college period, 117-119 enrollment in, 1970-75, 98 Navajo Community College, founding of, 117-118 rating of, by students, faculty, and administrators, 98 enrollment in, 1979, 118 universities participating in, 98 factors underlying development of, 118 American Indian higher education, 1980s, analysis, 119-126 independent colleges founded for Indian education, 118 bicultural education, need for, 125-126 percentage of Indian students in tribally controlled colleges, enrollment data, need for accurate, 121 118

14S 138 Index

Tribally Controlled Community College Assistance Act, need for, 58 1978, 118 objectives of, major, 58 pluralistic society, 119 population and area served, 57 American Indian Law Center, 27, 101 Blackfeet Writing Company, 58 at the University of New Mexico, 101 Blackfox, Regina, 105 enrollments, 1974 and 1976, 101 Black Hills State College, 40, 48, 112 Frederick M. Hart, first director, 101 Bluedog, Kurt, 54 graduates of, 101 Blue Eagle, Acee, 22 Indian-controlled non-profit corporation, 1976, 101 Blue Earth, Imogene, 45 Special Scholarship in Law for Native Americans, 101 Blue Mountain Community College, 104 American Indian, definitions of, 113 Boarding schools, Federal Indian, failure and criticisms of, 19-20 American Indian Movement (AIM), 32 Bordeaux, Lionel, 43 American Indian and Alaskan Native Higher Education Boudinot, Elias, 7 Conference, 78 Bourassa, I. N., 9 American Indian Satellite Community College, see Nebraska Boyle, Dr. Frederick, 104 Indian Community College, 51-52 Boyle, Robert, support of Indian education, 3 Amiotte, Lowell, 85 Brady, Rev. John G., 23 Angapak, Nelson, 103 Brafferton Building, at William and Mary, 3 Antioch College, 107 Brant, Joseph, 4 Arctic Slope Regional Corporation, 106 Brant, Joseph II and Jacob, 4 Arikara Tribe, 55-56 Brigham Young University, 108-109 Arizona State University, 34 Brooks, Dexter, 102 Armstrong, Gen. Samuel C., 17 Brooks, Dr. Martin, 102 Assiniboine Tribe, 59 Brown, Gov. Jerry, 71 Astin, Alexander, 85 Brown, Sylvan C., 48 Athletes, at Carlisle Indian School, 18

Caddiska Centinna (Little Hoop), 52 Bacone, Almon C., quote, 21 Cagey, Sam, 67 Bacone College, 109, 117, 122, 124 California, University of, Berkeley, 99-100 accreditation of, 1G9 California, University of, Davis, 69-70 American Baptist Church, 109 Carlisle Indian School, 18-21, 117 enrollment decrease, 109 athletics at, 18 enrollments of Indians, 109; founding of, 21 attitudes of students, 20 four-year college, proposal to change to, 109 curriculum, 18 governance of, 109 enrollment, first year, 18 objectives of, 109 failure of, 18-19 Badwound, Elgin, 40 forced acculturation at, 20 Brady, Steve, 71 funding for, 18 Banks, Dennis, founder of AIM, 32, 70-71 later off reservation hoarding schools, 19-20 Baptist Church, support of Choctaw Academy, 8 objective of assimilation, 18 Barden, Dr. Jack, 45 outing system, 18- Belgarde, Joyce, 53 pattern for later boarding schools, 19 Bender, Charles "Chief", 18 positive and negitive results of, 20-21 Berkhofer, Robert, 111, 116 Richard H. Pratt, founder, 18 Bible, printed in Indian language, 2 closed, 1918, 19 Bicultural persons, education of, 125 Carnegie Corporation, 98 Bighorn, Ernie, 60 Cartcr, Pres. Jimmy, 86 Bighorn, Jake, 60 Casimer, Jeannette, 67 Bingham, Jerusha, 6 Catholic Church, and Indian education, 15 Bismarck Junior College, 45 Center of Indian Studies, Black Hills State College, 112 Blackfeet Community College, 57-58 Central Arizona College, 104 accreditation, 58 Central Oregon Community College, 104 degrees offered, 58 Chanku, Clifford, 54 dispersed delivery system, 58 Charlie, Melvin, 107 enrollments, decline of, 58 Cheeshahteaumuck, Caleb, 2 Flathead Valley Community College, bilateral agreement Cherokees, literacy of, 8 with, 58 Cherokee National Female Seminary, 9-11 funding from PL95-471, 58 became Northeastern Oklahoma State University, 10 inadequacy of physical facilities, 58 Cherokee National Male Seminary, 9-11 leaders in establishment of, 58 Cherokee Tribe, committment to education, 10

1 ii Index 139

Cheyenne River Community College, 47-49 Contract schools, 15 affiliations with Northern State College and Presentation Coombs, Madison, criticism of Keni,edy Report, 28-2° College, 48 Cordero, Carlos, 73 area and people served, 47 Creath, Jacob, 8 college courses on reservation, 48 Creek Tribe, support of Bacone College, 21 decentralized courses, 48 Croatan Normal School, 22, see also Pembroke State University degrees and programs, 48 Croatan Tribe, 22, see Lumbee Tribe, 22 early college leaders, 48 Cross cultural conflict, problem for Indians, 18-19, 125-126 enrollments, 48 Crew Central Education Commission, 63 funding, lack of sufficient, 49 Crow Tribe, 122 isolation, 48 Custer, George A., 62 Laketa language and culture, 48 physical facilities, 48 students reasons for attending, 48 D-Q University, 69-73, 87, 118, 124, Chickasaw Tribe, post Civil War schools, 11 accreditation, 71, D-Q U. placed on probation, 1979, 72 Chitty, Henry, 104 accusations of mismanagerner.'., low enrollments and viola- Chivington, Col. J. M., 61 tions of federal regulations, 71 Choctaw Academy, 8-9 acquisition of site by sit-in, 69 factors in success, 15 Chicano board members, resignation of, 71 Choctaw Tribe, early schools, 7 degrees and programs, 70 post removal schools, 11 Department of Education, audit by, 73 Christianity, Dennis Banks, employment of, 71 decreased emphasis in federal period, 30 enrollments, problems with, 71-73 as a factor in failure of Indian education, 14 Federal Bureau of Investigation, 71 and John Eliot, 2 federal funding suspended, 72 federal government, charges of harrassment by, 72 missionary schools, 1 Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter Day Saints, (Mormon Fazio, Rep. Vic, support of D-Q U, 72 Church), 108 Forbes, Jack D., proposal for a national Indian university, 69; Claymore, tv11.:.lael, 48 leadership of, 71 Clifford, Leroy, 76 founding of, 69 College of Ganado, 73-75, 87, 124 Hoopa Valley and Sobaba tribes, chartered by, 71 accreditation, 74 institutional objectives, 70 Board of Regents, changes in, 74 Native Americans and Chicanos, populations served, 69 closed, 1986, 75 organized into three colleges, 70 degrees and programs, 74 qualification for funding from PL95-471, 71 emphasis on transfer programs, 74 Risling, David, defends D-Q U, 72 enrollments, 74 significance of name (Deganawidah-Quetzelcoatl), 69 funding from PL95-471, 74 special programs, 70 graduates, 75 summary of controversy, 73 University of California-Davis, attempt to acquire site, 70 Hopi Tribe, chartered by, 74 Navajo Academy, 74 Wilkins, Dist. Judge Philip, 73 need for, 73 Dakota State College, SD, 55 Northern Arizona University, agreement with, 73 Davis, Rose, 49, 53 Presbyterian Church, independence from, 74 Dawes Act, General Allotment Act, 1887 private gifts, support from, 74 effect on American Indians, 16 special programs and services, 74 Dawson Community College, 60, 63 Deganawidah-Quetzelcoatl University, see D-Q University, 69 Collier, John, 24 Colonists, lack of support for Indian education, 14 Degrees conferred or American Indians and Alaska Natives, Colored Highschool, founded by Cherokee Tribe, 10 1975-76 and 1978-79, 114, Table 8 Community college movement, influence on the developmentof Deloria, Philip S., 101 tribally controlled colleges, 32 Deloria, Vine Jr., 46 Community colleges, views on concerning education of Ameri- Dartmouth College, 4-5, 109-110 can Indians, 84-86 attrition of Indian students, 110 Amiotte, Lowell, 85 enrollments of Indians, 110 Astir, Alexander, 85 increase in Indian students, 109-110 Dolan, W. W., 84 Indian Cultural Center, 110 Kickingbird, Lynn, 85 Kemeny, Pres John, 109, 110 Old West Report, Perry Horse editor, 85 Indian mascot, criticism of, 110 One Feather, Gerald, 85 project to attract Indian students, 110 Department of Education, United States, 70, 73 Sando, Joe S., 84-85 Continental Congress of 1775, 5 DeWolfe, Percy, 58

1r ; PqrAl pw,F, p v e , 140 Index

Dial, Adolph, 102 faculty, 105 Dolan, W. W., 84 financial problems of, 105-106 Donner Foundation, 64 flexible, invidualized learning program, 104 Dorris, Michael, 110 key staff of, 104 -105 Doyan Ltd., 1(17 !earning centers, 105 Dull Knife, Chief, 61 mission of, 105 Dull Knife Memorial College, 61-63 nontraditional students, 105 administration and staff, 63 strengths and weaknesses of, 106 Chiefs Little Wo It and Dull Knife, 61 Union of Experimenting Colleges, member of, 104 conflicts in development of natural resources, 63 Flathead Valley Community College, 58, 66 enrollments, 63 Flower, [)r. Judson H., 62 federal funding, effects of reduction in, 63 Forbes, Jack D. 69, 71 leaders in founding of, 62 proposal for Indian university, 27 Miles Community College, agreement with, 62 quote, 23 Northern Cheyenne Tribe, history, 61 Foreign Missionary School at Cornwall, 6-7 objectives of, 62 Fort Berthold Reservation, 122 people, Northern Cheyenne, 63 Fort Berthold Community College, 55-57 reservation, energy development on, 62, 63 accreditation, 56 Sand Creek Massacre, 61 colleges, cooperative agreements with, 56 degrees offered, 56 enrollments, decline in, 57 Eastern Montana College, 63 1..inding from PL95-471, 57 Eastern plains and prairie tribes, tribally controlled colleges of, goals of, 56 49. -55 need for, 56, 57 Echohawk, Larry, 109 physical facilities, 56 Education Act of 1965, Title Ill (PL89-329), 32 Three Affiliated Tribes, 55-56 Eliot, Rev. John, 1-3, 116 Fort Lewis College, 102-103 Emhoolah, John Jr., 76 boarding school, founded as, 102 Indian graduates of, 103 Indian programs, stability of, 103 Faculty of tribally controlled colleges, 80-81 Indian students, perceptions of, 103 misconceptions concerning, 81 Intercultural Program, 103 morale of, 81 noted graduates, 103 preparation of, 81 enrollment of Indians, 102-103 proportion of Indians in, 81 tuition, conflict over, 102-103 retention of, 81 free for Indians, 102 Far northern plains tribes, tribally controlled colleges of, 55-65 two-year college, started in 1933, 102 Fazio, Rep. Vic, 72 Ft. Marion, Florida, education of Indian prisoners at, 17 Federal aid, for church schools for Indians, 15 Fort Peck Community College, 59-61 Federal Bureau of Investigation, 72 accreditation, 60 Federal and independent Indian colleges enrollments, 1982, 119, degrees and programs offered, 60 Table 9 enrollments 60 Federally controlled two-year Indian colleges, 94-98 funding, lack of, 60-61 federal appropriations, 1977, 98 leaders in founding of, 60 future of, 98 mission of, 60 graduates of, 1982-83, 98 Miles Community College and Dawson Community College, Haskell Indian Junior College, 94-96 assistance of staffs, 59 Institute of American Indian Arts, 96-97 PL95-471, funding from, 61 Southwestern Indian Polytechnic Institute, 97-98 population and area served, 58-59 Fenton, Karen, 66 physical facilities, inadequacy of, 60 Fishinghawk, Jean, 105 Tribal Council, support of, 60 Five Civilized Tribes, 7, 117 Fort Peck Reservation, 122 decline of schools, early 20th century, 10 Four-year college status, of tribal colleges, 84 school systems and removal, 7 Fund for Improvement of Postsecondary Education (FIPSE), 76 schools in Indian Territory, 9 Flagship universities, Indian enrollments in, 115 Flaming Rainbow University, 104-106, 118, 124 Garrison Dam, 56 accreditation report, 106 General Allotment Act, 1887, 7, 16 curriculum, organization of, 105 superseded by, Chitty, Henry, director of, 104 Geohring, Dan, 104 educational counseling and referral agency, founded as, 104 G.I. Bill (Public Law 346), 25 enrollments and degrees, 105 Gipp, David, 45, 46 Index 141

Gipp, Gerald, 46 Sheldon Jackson Junior College, 110-11 Goff, Richard M., 110 problems of independent institutions in attracting Indian stu- Gookin, Daniel, quote, 2 dents, 109, 111 Gorman, Guy, 34 Indian Claims Commission, award to Ottawa Tribe, 13 Gorman, Dr. Howard, 34 Indian College, 2 Gray Bear, Elvina, 45 Indian college students, Great Awakening, influence on Indian education, 3 enrollment plateau in the early 1980s, 125 identity confusion of. 126 Indian Cultural Center, 110 Hamilton College, 6, 117 Indian Education Act of 1972 (PL92-318), support of Indian con- Hampton Institute, education of Indians it, 17 trol of education, 33 Hart, Frederick M., 101 Indian education, failure of federal programs, 1870-1968, 29-30 Harvard College, 98, founding of, 2 Indian education, increased study of in the 1950s and 60s, 26 Haskell, Dudley C., 21 Indian annuities, federal for Indian education, 6 Haskell Indian Junior College (Haskell Institute), 21, 94-96, 117, Indian education, over emphasis on negative aspects, 28-29 122, 123, Indian Health Care Improvement Scholarships, 99 academic programs, change in, 95 Indian higher education enrollments, 112-115 accreditation, 94 estimated enrollments of Indians, 113, Table 7 enrollment, decrease in, 95 civil rights action and legislation, effect on Indian faculty morale, 95; founding of, 21 enrollments, 118 history of, 95 dedicated individuals, attempts to provide Indian education, 118 Indian blood, requirement to attend, 94-95 degrees conferred on Indians, 1975-76 and 1978-79, 114, Indian leaders, attendance at, 95 Table 8 junior college status, 1970, 94 higher education, various definitions of, 113 need for, 96 high school, high attrition of Indians in, 115 pan-Indian organizations, 95 inflated at most institutions of higher education, 113 student body, chacteristics of, 95 Indian, many definitions of, 113 students, academic ability of, 95 Indians, as most underrepresented group in higher educa- Haskell Institute, see Haskell Indian Junior College, 94-96 tion, 115 Hatathli, Ned, 34, quote, 36 Indian population, rapid growth of, 114-115 lehaka Sapa College, 70 Indian youth, as the most valuable tribal resource, 118 lenderson, Rev. Thomas, 8 lack of accurate Indian enrollment figures, 112-113 Henry Kendall College, see Tulsa University, 11 "melting pot" versus a pluralistic society, 118 Hidatsa Tribe, 55 need for tribally controlled colleges, 115 Higher education, confusion in definition of, 113 prestigious institutions of higher education, Indians under- Higman, Howard, 40 represented in, 115 Hill, Joan, 22 state schools with largest Indian enrollments, 1982, 102, Hilligross, Dr. David, 104 Table 5 Hillirre, Penny, 67 two-year colleges, high proportion of Indians enrolled in, 115 Honahni, Dr. Daniel, 74 use of questionable data on Indian enrollments, 113-114 Hoopa Valley Tribe, 71 Indians into Medicine Programs (INMED), 99 Hopi Tribe, 74 graduates of, 1985, 99 Horse, Perry, 76, 85 Indian Health Care Improvement Scholarships, 99 House Concurrent Resolution #108, 25 Indians served, 99 House, Lloyd, 21, 36 North Dakota, at University of, 99 Houser, Schyler. 54 numbers of participants, 99 Hovey, Richard, 5 song objectives of, 99 Howard, Phyllis, 56 programs and materials, 99 Howard University, compared to provisions for Indian educa- progress of, 99 tion, 15, 27, 122 Indian Job Corps, 67 Howe, Ray, 40 Indian medical school, proposal for, 100-101, 124 Hunter, Bob, 40 Indians, most underrepresented in higher education, 29 Hurley, Patrick J., 21 Indian Normal School of Robeson County, see Pembroke State Hutchinson, Clinton C., 11-12 University, 22 Hutchinson, Sarah, 71 Indian professionals, lack of, 125 Indian Removal Act, 7 Indian Reorganization Act, 1934, Independent institutions with large enrollments of American Indian Rights Association, 16, support of Dawes Act by, 16 Indians, 1980, 108-111 Indian school teachers, need for, 98 Bacone College, 109 Indian Self Determination and Assistance Act, 1975 (PL93-638), Brigham Young University, 108-109 85; Dartmouth College, 109-110 support for tribally controlled colleges, 32, 33

I 5 2 142 Index

Indian studies pro,-rams, 111-112, Kickingbird, Lynn, 85 attrition of Indians at schools with, 111-112 Kills Straight, Birgil, 40 Center of Indian Studies, Black Hills State College, 112 Kimball Union Academy, 4 criticisms of, 112 King Philip's War, 2 evaluation data lacking, 112 Kirkland, Rev. Samuel, 6, 116 funding for, 111 Klamath Tribe, termination of, 26 motivation for establishing, 111 programs in 1971, 111 survey of, 1972-73, Ill Lake Mohonk meetings, 16 Indian four-year university, 123 Lake Region Community College, 52 Indian Technical Assistance Center, BIA, 61 Land, Vernon, 67 Indian University, 21, see also Bacone College, 109 La Pointe, Donald, 68 Indian national four-year university, discussion of, 84 Latin Grammar Schools, 6 Indian youth, as a tribal resource, 119 Lawrence, Dr. Robert, 68 Institute of American Indian Arts, 27, 96-97, 112, 123, Le Beau, Ellsworth A., 48 All-Pueblo Indian Council, attempt to gain administration of, 96 LeBlanc, Thomas, 54 BIA, authority removed, 97 Legislation for Indian Boarding schools, 19 Coilege of Santa Fe, move to campus of, 96 Leupp, Francis E., 18 contributions to Indian art, 96-97 Little Big Horn Community College, 63-65 controversy over control of, 96 administration and staff, 63 enrollment, 96 degrees offered, 64 mission of, 96 Donner Foundation, study by, 64 physical facilities, 96 enrollments, 65 programs and degrees offered, 96 federal funding, 65 seconary school, phase out of, 96 Miles Community College, Dawson Community College, and staff, study of off-reservation boarding schools, 96 Eastern Montana College, agreements with, 63, 64, 65 Institutions for the education of American Indians and Alaska need for, 63 Natives, recent, 104-108 physical facilities, inadequacy of, 65 Flaming Rainbow University, 104-106 top priorities of, 64 Inupiat University of the Arctic, 106-107 Windy Boy, Janine, leadership of, 65 North Slope Higher Education Center, 107 Little Hoop Community College, 52-54 Tanana Chiefs Land Claims College, 107 accreditation of, 52 Inupiat Center for Information, Language, and Information enrollments, 52 (ICICL), 106 funding from Title III, 52 Inupiat University of the Arctic, 106-107, 118 goals of, 52 accreditation of, 106 Lake Region Community College, bilateral agreement with, 52 closed in 1981, 107 physical facilities, 53 degree programs, 106 population served, 52 enrollment, 107 significance of name, 52 philosophy of, 106 staff members, 53 population and area served, 106 Little Wolf, Chief, 61 support services and special programs, 106-107 Local control of schools, denied American Indians, 14 Iwaski. Dr. Martha, 96 Locations of tribal and federal Indian colleges, Map 1, inside back cover Locke, Patricia, 88 Jackson, Pres. Andrew, 7 London Company, 3 Jackson, Dean, 34, 36, 39 Lumbee Tribe, 102 Jacobs, Helmut, 40 Lummi College of Fisheries and Aquaculture, see Lummi Com- Jarvis, Michael, 107 munity College, 67-68 Jewett, Dr. Kieth, 40 Lummi Community College, 67-68 John F. Kennedy Center, 52 accreditation, 67, 68 Johnson-O'Malley Act, 1936, enrollment, decline in, 68 Johnson, Col Richard, 8-9 fisheries education, importance of, 67 Jones, Ide lette, 12 formerly Lummi College of Fisheries and Aquaculture, 67 Jones, John T. (Taut'), 11-12 graduates, employment of, 68 Juneau, Carol, 58 PL95-471, ineligible for funding from, 68 programs, increase in, 68 Whatcom Community College, bilateral agreement with, 67 Kalloch, Isaac S., 11-12 Kemeny, John, 109, 110 Kennedy, Sen. Edward, 28 Mandan Tribe, 55 Kennedy, Sen. Robert F., 28 Manuelito (Hastiin Ch'il Haajin), quote on education, 34 Index 143

Map I, Tribal and federal Indian colleges in the United States, National Indian Education Association, 83 location of, inside back cover National Indian university, proposal for, 69 Marshall, Arlene, 48 National Study of Indian Education, 1972, Marshall, Joe, 43 Native American Church, 95 Marvin, James, 21 Native Emphasis Week, 111 Mary College, 56 Navajo Academy, 7:1 Mascot, Indian at Dartmouth College, 110 Navajo Administrators Training Program, 98-99 Masta, John, 5 funding of, 98 Master of Public Health, 99-100 participants in, 98 alumni, employment of, 100 program description, 98 BIA, appropriations, 1977, 100 purpose of, 98 California, at University of (Berkeley), 99-100 Navajo Advocates Program, 74 graduates, 1972-85, 99-100 Navajo Alcoholism Training Program, 74 Indian students served, 99 Navajo Community College, xi, 33-39, 117, 121 objective being met, 100 accreditation of, 38 specialties in, 100 Board of Regents, 38 tribes participating in, 100 curricular conflicts, 39 Master of Social Welfare, 100 degrees and programs, 37, 38 California-Berkeley, at University of, 100 early funding, 34, 38 graduates, 1983-85, 100 enrollments, 1969-88, 36; increases, 36 program, 100 founding leaders, 34 Matter, Donald, 53 funding, lack of, 38 Mayville State College, ND, 49 graduates, 36 McDonald, Joe, 66, 89 Many Farms, campus at, 34 McDonald, Peter, 21, 34 Ned Hatathli Cultural Center, 35 McKay, Jim, 67 objectives of, 37 McKenzie, Dr. Taylor, 100 pattern for other tribal colleges, 39 McNally: Bob, 60 PL95-471, funding from, 38 Medical school, American Indian, proposal for, 100-101 problems, 38 lack of funding, 101 Roessel, Robert, founding president, 34 rationale for, 100-101 Shiprock Branch, 36 McKenzie, Dr. Taylor, supporter of, 1977, 100 students, 37-38 Medicine, Bea, 46, quote, 46 Tsai le Campus, 35; isolation of, 35 Medicine Women, book, 99 Navajo Community College Assistance Act (PL89-192), 35 Menominee Tribe, termination of, 26 Navajo People, 34; adaption to changes, 39 Meriam, Lewis, 23, 117 Navajo Reservation, 33-34 Meriam Report, 1928, 16, 26, quote, 24 Navajo Tribal Council, scholarship fund, 25 Michigan Tech, 69 Nebraska Indian Community College, 51-52 Mike, Richard, 103 basic purpose of, 51 Miles Community College, 60, 62, 63, 65 candidate for accreditation, 52 Millich, Arlene, 103 courses offered, 51 Minnesota, University of, 42, 52, 54, 98 funding from PL95-471, 52 Minot College, 56 objectives, short range, 51 Missionaries, worked for Indian education, 14 PL95-471, influence on organization, 52 Missionary period, failure of in Indian education, 13-15 students, 51 Missionary schools for Indians, support of, 6 tribes served, 51 Mitchell, George, founder of AIM, 32 Ned Hatathli Cultural Center, 35 Mohatt, Gerald, 43 New Mexico, University of, 103-104 Momaday, Al, 22 Albuquerque and Gallup campuses, 103 Monnette, Gerald "Carty". 49 enrollments, 103 Moore, W. L., 22 Nixon, Pres. Richard, quote on Indian self determination, 32 Moor's Charity School, 3-4 North Carolina General Assembly, 22 More, Col. Joshua, 4 North Central Association of Colleges and Schools, 74, 94, 96, Mormon Church, see Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter Day 97, 105, 106, 109 Saints, 108 North Dakota State University-Bottineau Branch, 49 North Dakota, University of, 56, 99 North Slope of Alaska, 106 Nadeau, Dale, 49 North Slope Higher Education Center, 107 Nakai, Raymond, 34 branch of University of Alaska-Fairbanks, 107 National Advisory Council on Indian Education, (NACIE), 83 enrollment, 107 National Center for Educational Statistics, 114 governance of, 107 National Congress of American Indians, 83 North Slope Regional Corporation, 107

15,1' 144 Index

Northeastern Oklahoma State University, 103, 105, see also Omaha Tribe, 51 Northeastern State Normal School, 10 O'Neal, Carole, 48 Indian education at, 103 One Feather, Gerald, 40, 85 large enrollment of Indians, 103 Oneida Academy, 6, see also Hamilton College students from Five Civilized Tribes, 103 Ottawa Tribe, Northeastern State Normal School, 10 see also Northeastern award from Indian Claims Commission, 13 Oklahoma State University, 103 move to Indian Territory, 12 Northeast Technical Community College, Norfolk, Nebraska, 57 Ottawa University, 11-13, 117 Northern Arizona University, 34, 74 Outing system, Carlisle Indian School, 18 Northern Cheyenne Tribe, 122 Northern Michigan University, 69 Northern State College, South Dakota, 48 Pan-Indian leaders, development of, 122 Northland Pioneer College, 93, 103 Parker, Drusilla, 72 extension centers, 103 Pembroke State College for Indians, 22, 101, see also Pembroke large enrollment of Indians, 103 State University Northwest Association of Schools and Colleges, 66, 67, 106, 110 Pembroke State University, 101-102 Northwest Education Laboratory, study of Indian education, assimilation, objective of, 102 1968-69, 27 American Indian Studies Program, 101-102 Notre Dame University, 42 curriculum, 102 development of, 101-102 enrollments, Indian, 102 Objectives and goals of tribally controlled colleges, 83 founded for education of local Indians, 101 differences among schools, 83 Indian graduates, nutstanding, 102 differences between administrators' rankings and written Lumber Tribe and, 102 objectives, 83 Pennsylvania State University, 98 four predominant objectives, 83 l'equot Tribe, 4 administrators' rankings of, 83 Physical facilities of tribally controlled colleges, 81-82 Occum, Samson, 4, 14 attractiveness of, 82 O'Donnel, Mike, 66 inadequacy of, 81-82 Old West Report, 85 library holdings, need for, 82 Off-reservation boarding schools, enrollments, Table 1, 20 needs of, 82 criticisms of, 20-21 plans for the future, 82 failure of, 20-22 Piya Wiconi Center, 41 Oglala Lakota College, 40-42, 124, see also Oglala Sioux Com- Pitchlynn, Peter, 9 munity College Platero, Dillon, 34 accreditation, 41 Pluralistic society, 119 affiliations with South Dakota State University and University as related to Indian education, 126 of South Dakota, 40 Pratt, Richard H., 16, 17-19, 117, 118 Black Hills State College, support of, 40 founding of Carlisle Indian School, 17 Colorado, University of, early support of, 40 Praying Indians, villages of, 1 degrees offered, 41 Presbyterian Church, 73, 74 early leaders, 40 Spencer Academy, administration of, 11 enrollment growth, 41 Presbyterian School for Girls, 11, see also Tulsa University, 11 follow up of graduates, 1974-82, 42 Presentation College, South Dakota, 48 graduates, Spring 1982, 42 Protestant churches, and Indian education, 16 lack of funding, 42 Protestant-Catholic conflict over Indian schools, 16 Piya Wiconi Center, 40 Pumshire, John, 4 PL95-471, funding from, 42 Puritanism, and Indian education, 1 purposes of, 42 Oglala Sioux Community College, 40, see also Oglala Lakota College Quetzelcoatl College, 70 Oglala Sioux Tribe, intratribal conflict, 32 Ojibwa Community College, 68-69 Chippewa Tribe, LAnse -Vieux Desert Band of, 68 Racism, as a factor in the failure of Indian education, 14-15 college closed, 69 Reagan, Pres. Ronald, 88, 122 enrollment, 68 Red Bird, Stanley, 42 LaPointe, Donald A., founder, 68 Red Medicine Road, book, 99 Michigan Tech, classes closed, 69 Reid, Alexander, 11 P1.95-471, ineligible for funding from, 68 Relocation of rural Indians to urban centers, 1950s, 26 Old Person, Earl, 58 Ridenhower, Marilyn, 60 Old West Report, 85 Riley, Earl L., 22 Olguin, John P., 110 Risling, David, 71, 72, 73 Index 145

Robertson, Gyla, 54 assistance of other institutions, 42 Robeson Technical College, 102 degrees and programs offered, 44 Rockefeller Hall, 21 dispersed delivery system, 44 Rockefeller, Mrs. John D., 21 enrollments, 43 Roessel, Robert, 34, 36 faculty, unique characteristics of, 44 Roessel, Ruth, 34, 36 funding, 44 Roger Williams University, 11, see also Ottawa University from PL95-471, 44 Rogers, Norman, 40 leaders in founding, 42 Roose, Phil, 40 name, significance of, 42 Ross, Chief John, 10 need for, 42 Rough Rock Demonstration School, 34 proposal for, 1966, 42 Rowland, Allen, 62 physical facilities, inadequacy of, 44 Rowland, Ted, 62 student attrition, 44 Sioux Tribe, Fort Peck, 59 Sisseton Wahpeton Community College, 54-55 Sabatannen, L. V, 5 accreditation, 55 Sakakawea, Lake, 56 Dakota State College, affiliation with, 55 Salish Kootenai College, 65-67, see also Salish Kootenai enrollment, 54 Community College faculty, low morale of, 54 accreditation, 66 financial instability of, 54 assimilation of Indian residents, 66 funding from PL95-471, 54-55 degrees offered, 67 leaders in founding of, 54 enrollments, 67 Minnesota, University of, agreement with, 54 Flathead Tribe (Salish and Kootenai), 65 physical facilities, 54 Flathead Valley Community College, satellite center of, 66 population and area served, 53-54 objectives of, 66-67 purpose of, 54 population served, 66 Sitting Bull, Chief, 45n PL95-471, funding from, 67 Skill Center, Standing Rock Community College, 46 Salish-Kootenai culture, preservation of, 67 Slater, Jerry, 66 teaching centers, 67 Smith, Gary, 107 Salish Kootenai Community College, 65, see also Salish Soboba Tribe, 71 Kootenai College Society of American Indians, 95 Sand Creek Massacre, 61 Societal changes in the 1960s, influence on Indian higher educa- Sando, Joe S., 84-85, quote tion, 31 Sandoz, Mari, 61 South Dakota State University, 40 Santa Fe. College of, 96 South Dakota, University of, 40, 42 Santa Fe Indian School, 27 Southwestern Educational Laboratory, study of Indian educa- Santa Rosa Junior College, 101, 104 tion, 1968-79, 27 Santee Sioux Tribe, 51 Southwestern Indian Polytechnic Institute, 97-98, 124 Sassamon, John, 2 accreditation, 97 Scholarships for Indians, 1930, 24 controversy over, 97 Scholarships, funded by Indian tribes, 25 enrollments, 97 Schurz, Carl, 17 Indian blood, requirement for attendance, 97 Scotch Society, 4 programs offered, 97 Seneca, Martin, 109 staff, 97 Sequoyah, (George Guess), 7 students, goals of, 97 Shafroth, Gov. John F., 102 tribes with students attending, 97 Sheldon Jackson Junior College, 107, 110-111, 114, 124-125 Special Law Scholarship for Native Americans, 1(11 Alaska, University of, proposal to merge with, 111 Special senate Subcommittee on Indian Education (Kennedy enrollment decreases, 110, 111 Report) 1969, 28 graduates, proportion of Indians, 1987, 111 Spencer Academy, 11 Indian enrollments, 110-111 Spotted Tail, Chief (Sinte Gleska), 42 learning center, Title Ill, 111 Standing Rock Community College, 45-47 Sheldon Jackson Institute (School), 23, see Sheldon Jackson accreditation, 46 Junior College, 111 Bismarck Community College, affiliation with, 45 Shortbull, Thomas, 40 Community College Committee, 1971, 45 Silas, Herman, 72 cultural retrieval, 46 Simons, Abraham, 4 degrees and programs, 46 Simons, Daniel, 4, 5 emphasis on academic programs, 46 Sinte Gleska College, 42-44, 121, 124 funding from Title 111 grants, 46 accreditation, 44 funding from PL95-471, 47 area and people served, 43 objectives of, 46

Pr) 146 Index

people served, 45 common problems of Indian administrators, 89 Skill Center, headquarters, 46 experience, lack of among first Indians, 89 student enrollments, 46 need for training, 89 tribal college leaders,45 contributions of, 90 State institutions of higher education, Indian enrollments in the four-year college status, 84 1980s, 101-104 attained by two tribal colleges, 84 Fort Lewis College, 102-103 plans of other schools, 84 New Mexico, University of, 103-104 funding of, 86-88 Northeastern Oklahoma State University, 103 great need for, 86 Northland Pioneer College, 103 Tribally Controlled Community College Assistance Act 1971, Pembroke State University, 101-102 importance of, 86-88 Institutions with largest Indian enrollments, 1982, 102, Table 5. Navajo Community College Assistance Act, 1971, 84 Stein, Wayne, 49 similarities of, 76 Student services at tribally controlled colleges, 82-83 sources of information on, 78 assessment of, need for, 82-83 students attending, 78-80 counseling, 82 summary of characteristics, p.77, Table 3 day care, 82 Tribal colleges, conclusions concerning, 90-93 needs at residential and commuter schools, 82 accreditation, progress toward, 91-92 social activities, athletics and student government, 82 two colleges that have closed, 93 varying provisions for, 82 colleges in danger of closing, 93 Students, in tribally controlled colleges, 78-80 contributions to tribes, other than educational, 90 nontraditional, 78 criticisms of, 92; lack of validity of, 92 characteristics of, 78 cultural preservation and transmission, a unique goal, 90 age, 78 degrees granted, 1980-82, 92 characteristics contributing to success, 80 delivery systems, several types of, 91 females outnumber males, 79-80 data needed for longitudinal study of students, 90 proportion of Indians in student bodies, 79 factors related to strengths and success, 93 underrepresented in colleges and universities, 79 four common objectives, "0 Sun Rhodes, Dennis, quote, 41 importance in Indian self determination, 126 Szasz, Margaret C., x, quote lack of public knowledge of tribal colleges, 91 obstacles to success of, 92 physical facilities, generally inadequate, 90 Tanana Chiefs Conference, 107 prospects for the future, varying, 91 Tanana Chiefs Land Claims College, 107 significant contributions to Indians and other reservation agreements with other institutions, 107 residents, 90 area and population served, 107 strengths of, 93 enrollment, 1977, 107 United States, tribal colleges in the, 1982, 77, Table 3. objective of, 107 Tribal Colleges of the Sioux tribes, 39-49 programs, 107 Tribally controlled colleges, external influences on the develop- Tanana Chiefs Conference, founded by, 107 ment of, 83-84 tribally controlled Indian colleges, similarity to, 107 American Indian Higher Education Consortium, 83 Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act, 1971, 107 national American Indian organizations, support of, 83 Tecumseh, 8 non Indian faculty and administrators, contributions of, 83 Teepee Order, 95 other colleges and universities, support of, 83 Telep, Michael, 60 Tribally Controlled Community College Assistance Act of 1978, Termination policy, 25-26 (P1.95-471), 38, 42, 44, 46, 54, 67, 76, 86-88, 107, 118, 122, Tewanima, Louis, 18 America! Indian Higher Education Consortium contribution Tiburcio Vasquez College, 70 in p..ssage of, 76 Three Affiliated Tribes, 55-56 appropriations, based on Indian enrollment, 87 Thorpe, George, 3 appropriations to colleges. FY 1980-81, 88, Table 4 Thorpe, Jim, 18 authorized appropriations, 87 Title III, Higher Education Act of 1965, grants to Indian pro- definition of tribally controlled college, 86 grams, 1979, 32 eligibility for, 87 Tribal colleges, summary and analysis, see also individual feasibility study required, 87 colleges problems of, 87-88 accreditation of, 88-89 purposes of, 87 attitudes of administrators, 1982, 89 Reagan, Pres. Ronald, vetoes funding, 1983, 88 initial negative attitude to regional accreditation, 88 significance of, 86 McDonald, Joseph, survey of administrators and faculty, 89 Tulsa University, 11 plans for an Indian college accrediting association, 88 -89 Turtle Mountain Community College, 49-51 progress toward accreditation, 89 accreditation, 50 administrators at, 89-90 enrollment, 50 Index 147

funding from PL95-471, 50-51 Walbroek, Elaine, 100 graduates, follow up of, 50 Ward, William, 8 Mayville State College, support from, 49 Warm Springs, Confederated Tribes of, 104 North Dakota State University-Bottineau Branch, bilateral Warner, Glen "Pop", 18 agreement with, 49 Warriax, Dr. James, 102 objectives of, major, 49 Washington, Treaty of, 1825, 8, 11 physical facilities, 50 Watt, James, 26, 88, population served, 49 Weeks, Benjamin P., 22 people and reservation, unique characteristics of, 50-51 Westminster College, Missouri, 104 programs, 50 Western Association of Schools and Colleges, 71, 72 Title III, grant support from, 49 Whatcom Community College, 67 Two Eagle, Rhonda, 41 Wheeler-Howard Act, see Indian Reorganization Act, 1934, 25 Two Hawk, Lester, 43 Wheelock, Rev. Eleazar, 3-5, 109, 110, 116 Twiss, Hattie, 40 Whitaker, Rev. Nathaneil, 4 Tydings, James, 43 White, Bernard, 45 White Hat, Isadore, 43 White Owl, Sherry, 43 Umatilla, Confederated Tribes, 104 Wilkins, Dist. Judge Philip, 73 United States Office of Civil Rights, 113, 114 William and Mary College, 3; Indian College at, 3 United States Supreme Court, ruling of 1954 outlawing segrega Windy Boy, Janine, 63 tion in public schools, 22 Winnebago Tribe, 51 University programs for the preparation of Indian professionals, Wooden legs, Dr. John Jr., 62 98-101 Woo ley, Jacob, 4 American Indian Administrator Training Program, 98-99 World War II, influences on Indian higher education, 25 American Indian Law Center, 101 Wounded Knee, South Dakota, occupation of in 1973, 32 American Indian medical school, proposals for, 100-101 Wright, Lyle, 107 contributions of, 101 Indians into Medicine (INMED), 99 Master of Public Health Program, University of California- Yakima Reservation, first Indian federal boarding school on, 16 Berkeley, 99-100 Yankton, Pfc. Paul Jr., 52 Master of Social Welfare, University of California-Berkeley, 100 Yazzie, Allen, 34 Navajo Administrators Training Program, 98 Yellowbird, Bennett, 56 Navajo Teacher Education Program, 98 Yellowhair, Chester, 34 University Without Walls, 104 Yolo County Farm Bureau, 72 Yolo County Taxpayers, 72

Vineyard, William, 97 Virginia, Indian education in colonial (Henrico College), 3 Zimmerman, William, 25

15S et '