DOCSLIB.ORG

The Phonology and Phonetics of Jamaican Creole Reduplication

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
The Phonology and Phonetics of Jamaican Creole Reduplication THE PHONOLOGY AND PHONETICS OF JAMAICAN CREOLE REDUPLICATION DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of the Ohio State University By Shelome A. Gooden, B.A., M.A. ****** The Ohio State University 2003 Dissertation Committee: Approved by Professor Donald C. Winford, Co-adviser ________________________ Co-advisor Associate Professor Elizabeth V. Hume, Co-adviser Linguistics Graduate Program Professor Mary M. Beckman ________________________ Co-adviser Linguistics Graduate Program i © Copyright by Shelome Gooden 2003 i ABSTRACT This dissertation is an extensive treatment of the phonological and phonetic properties of Jamaican Creole (JC) reduplication. While reduplication is thought to be a typical feature of Creole languages and has been studied in the past, to date little work has been done on the phonetic or morpho-phonological properties of the process. Complementing the analysis of reduplication developed in this work, is an analysis of the prosodic system of the language. The analysis posited, treats the prosodic system of JC as a stress-based system in which lexical contrasts are signaled by differences in the alignment of the F0 contour with the word. Reduplication processes in JC are similar in form and semantics to those found in other Caribbean English Creoles. The processes are described and analysed from an Optimality Theoretic perspective. The phonological aspect focused on delimiting the constraints on the segmental properties of reduplication processes. The observation is that the JC reduplicant is a prosodic foot which copies its base completely. Further, it is shown that when the required phonological conditions cannot be satisfied, there is no reduplication. The phonetic aspect investigated how the phonological constraints on reduplication interact with the phonetic properties of reduplicated words. Particular ii attention is paid to intensive and distributive reduplication processes, which yield segmentally identical words. Specifically, it is shown that distributive reduplications pattern like other words in the language. Consequently, they are treated as a single prosodic word with a single nuclear pitch accent. Intensive reduplications pattern differently and are analysed as two prosodic words with a prenuclear pitch accent and a nuclear pitch accent. This work has import firstly for our understanding of the productivity and scope of reduplication in Jamaican Creole. It also contributes to our understanding of the relationship between word-level prosody and the semantic functions of reduplicated words in Creole languages in general. Thus, this dissertation represents an important step towards our understanding of the relatively understudied area of Creole prosodic systems. iii Dedicated to my grandparents, Lois and Vaughn iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS For the existence of this dissertation I am indebted to a great many people. For my intellectual growth, I owe a great deal to my advisors. Donald Winford’s advice both academic and personal has helped me to keep focused over the years. I consider myself blessed to have found teacher, mentor, advisor and friend in him. Elizabeth Hume has been supportive, insightful and patient during my own quest to understand the inner workings of my ‘mother tongue’. Mary Beckman has provided excellent council and support for my research on this project. Thanks also to my former teachers Hubert Devonish and Silvia Kouwenberg at the UWI Mona campus who planted the seed of interest in academic research. I especially thank Hubert Devonish for continual discussions of my research which include but are not limited to, long phone calls and prolonged office hour meetings. Thanks also for giving me access to the research facilities in the Linguistics Department at Mona during my visits home and helping me find ‘hard to find’ books and manuscripts. My fieldtrips to Jamaica were supported by the Department of Linguistics, the Office of International Affairs and the Graduate School at OSU. I thank all those v involved with the different travel committees for helping me obtain the financial support for my research. Thanks also to the administrative and computer support staff in the department, especially Jim Harmon, for technical help and for giving me more than fair share of server space to store my many sound files. I appreciate the support and help I received from my fellow graduate students. I want to thank especially Hope Dawson, Michelle Ramos-Pellicia, Misun Seo and Huang Tsan for friendship, and more importantly, sisterhood. Members of the Phonies and Changelings discussion groups in the department deserve thanks as well for providing forums for discussing my work. The incessant prayers of my mother, Hazel, and my grandmother, Agatha, have sustained through the years and my daddy, Haskel taught me that possibilities are endless and encouraged me to pursue my goals. Finally I would also like to acknowledge the support of the citizens of the Top Alston community who have been patient enough to endure my many questions about patwa. Special thanks to Sister Gloria, Miss Addy and Miss Brown for taking the time to provide me with meals. vi CURRICULUM VITAE September 6th, 1973 ......................................Born - Clarendon, Jamaica W.I. 1993.................................................................B.A. (Honors) Linguistics, University of the West Indies, Jamaica 2002.................................................................M.A. Linguistics, Ohio State University 1997- 2001.......................................................Graduate Teaching and Research Associate The Ohio State University 2001 - 2003......................................................Editorial Associate Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages PUBLICATIONS Research Publication 1. (2002). Past Time Reference in Belizean Creole. UPenn Working Papers in Linguistics. Vol. 8:3. Selected Papers from NWAV 30. 2. (2003a). Reduplication in Jamaican Creole: Semantic Functions and Prosodic Constraints. In S. Kouwenberg (ed). Twice as Meaningful: Reduplication in Pidgin and Creoles. Westminster Creolistics Series Volume 8. London. Battlebridge Publications. pgs. 93-103. vii 3. (2003b). with Silvia Kouwenberg and Darlene LaCharité. Jamaican Creole Reduplication: An Overview. in S. Kouwenberg (ed). Twice as Meaningful: Reduplication in Pidgin and Creoles. Westminster Creolistics Series Volume 8. London. Battlebridge Publications. pgs. 105 -110. 4. (2003c). with D. Winford, H. Dawson and R. Dodsworth. OSU Working Papers in Linguistics. Studies in Language Contact and Language Change. 5. (2003d). Prosodic Contrast in Jamaican Creole Reduplication. In Ingo Plag (ed). The Phonology and Morphology of Creole Languages. Linguistische Arbeiten. Tübingen. Niemeyer. pgs. 193 - 208. FIELDS OF STUDY Major Field: Linguistics Minor Fields: Phonology, Creole Linguistics, Sociolinguistics viii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Abstract................................................................................................................................ii Dedication………………………………………………………………………………...iii Acknowledgement...............................................................................................................v Vita....................................................................................................................................vii List of Maps......................................................................................................................xiii List of Tables....................................................................................................................xiv List of Tableau ..................................................................................................................xv List of Figures.................................................................................................................xviii Chapters: 1. Introduction......................................................................................................................1 1.1. Overview.................................................................................................................. 1 1.2. Goals of the Study.................................................................................................... 4 1.3. Phonological Aspects............................................................................................... 5 1.4. Phonetic Aspects.................................................................................................... 10 1.5 Broader Implications............................................................................................... 13 1.6. Theoretical Assumptions ....................................................................................... 14 1.6.1. Optimality Theory....................................................................................... 15 1.6.2. Metrical Theory .......................................................................................... 20 1.7. Structure of the dissertation ................................................................................... 25 ix 2. Reduplication in Jamaican Creole and Other Caribbean English Creoles.....................28 2.1. Introduction........................................................................................................... 28 2.2. Reduplication in Jamaican Creole..........................................................................30
Load more

Recommended publications
  • 12 English Dialect Input to the Caribbean
    12 English dialect input to the Caribbean 1 Introduction There is no doubt that in the settlement of the Caribbean area by English speakers and in the rise of varieties of English there, the question of regional British input is of central importance (Rickford 1986; Harris 1986). But equally the two other sources of specific features in anglophone varieties there, early creolisation and independent developments, have been given continued attention by scholars. Opinions are still divided on the relative weight to be accorded to these sources. The purpose of the present chapter is not to offer a description of forms of English in the Caribbean – as this would lie outside the competence of the present author, see Holm (1994) for a resum´ e–b´ ut rather to present the arguments for regional British English input as the historical source of salient features of Caribbean formsofEnglish and consider these arguments in the light of recent research into both English in this region and historical varieties in the British Isles. This is done while explicitly acknowledging the role of West African input to forms of English in this region. This case has been argued eloquently and well, since at least Alleyne (1980) whose views are shared by many creolists, e.g. John Rickford. But the aim of the present volume, and specifically of the present chapter, is to consider overseas varieties of English in the light of possible continuity of input formsofEnglish from the British Isles. This concern does not seek to downplay West African input and general processes of creolisation, which of course need to be specified in detail,1 butrather tries to put the case for English input and so complement other views already available in the field.
    [Show full text]
  • APPENDIX. Philip Baker (1940-2017) Bibliography of His Publications, 1969-2017
    Coversheet This is the accepted manuscript (post-print version) of the article. Contentwise, the accepted manuscript version is identical to the final published version, but there may be differences in typography and layout. How to cite this publication Please cite the final published version: Bakker, P. (2018). Obituary Philip Baker. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages, 33(2), 231-239. DOI: 10.1075/jpcl.00014.obi Publication metadata Title: Obituary Philip Baker Author(s): Peter Bakker Journal: Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages DOI/Link: 10.1075/jpcl.00014.obi Document version: Accepted manuscript (post-print) General Rights Copyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the public portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognize and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. • Users may download and print one copy of any publication from the public portal for the purpose of private study or research. • You may not further distribute the material or use it for any profit-making activity or commercial gain • You may freely distribute the URL identifying the publication in the public portal If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. If the document is published under a Creative Commons license, this applies instead of the general rights. This coversheet template is made available by AU Library Version 2.0, December 2017 Obituary Philip Baker (with a bibliography of his writings, not included in the printed version).
    [Show full text]
  • Multicultural London English
    Multicultural London English Multicultural London English Below are links to two recent newspaper articles about Multicultural London English. Text A is from The Guardian’s Education pages, first published in 2006. Text B is from The Daily Mail, first published in 2013. Text A: www.theguardian.com/education/2006/apr/12/research.highereducation Text B: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2498152/Is-end-Cockney-Hybrid- dialect-dubbed-Multicultural-London-English-sweeps-country.html Task one – the titles Looking closely at the titles of the two articles, compare how language is used to present the topic. Complete the table with examples and comments on the differences. Text B: ‘Is this the end of Text A: ‘Learn Jafaikan in two Cockney? Hybrid dialect dubbed minutes’ ‘Multicultural London English’ sweeps across the country’ Sentence functions Name used for new variety of English Lexis with negative connotations Discourse: what does each title suggest the article’s stance on MLE will be? © www.teachit.co.uk 2017 28425 Page 1 of 7 Multicultural London English Task two – lexical choices Both texts use the nickname ‘Jafaikan’. Text A mentions the term in the title and later in the body of the article: ‘One schoolteacher has used the term ‘Jafaikan’ to describe the new language, but the researchers insist on more technical terminology: ‘multicultural London English’.’ Text B states ‘It was originally nicknamed Jafaican - fake Jamaican - but scientists have now said it is a dialect that been influences [sic] by West Indian, South Asian, Cockney and Estuary English.’ 1. What is the effect of Text A’s attribution (even though it is done anonymously) for the origin of the name compared to Text B’s use of a passive sentence ‘It was originally nicknamed …’? 2.
    [Show full text]
  • Bermudian English: History, Features, Social Role Luke Swartz
    Bermudian English: History, Features, Social Role Luke Swartz (Final paper for Linguistics 153) Abstract Bermudian English has been long neglected in linguistic literature. After a brief introduction to the linguistic history of the Bermuda Islands, this paper examines several interesting aspects of English dialects spoken in Bermuda. First, we examine the islands’ lack of an English Creole. Next, we examine phonological features of Bermudian English and their possible origins. Finally, we close with a discussion of Bermudian dialects’ place in education and society at large. 1. Introduction Virginia Bernhard (1999: 1) notes that, just as mariners once avoided Bermuda for fear of wrecking their ships on its coral reefs, “historians of European colonization have also bypassed Bermuda.” She quotes W. F. Craven, who wrote that “the Bermudas have been largely overlooked, the significance of their history for the most part lost to sight” (xiii). Likewise, the language of the Bermudian people has been largely ignored by linguists and historians alike. Few scholars have studied Bermudian English; the last citation of any length dates to 1933. 2 Nevertheless, the Bermuda Islands present an interesting case study of English dialects, in many ways unique among such dialects in the world. Bermudian dialects of English lack a dominant creole, have interesting phonetic features, and command an ambiguous social status. 2. Background Contrary to popular belief, Bermuda is not actually part of the Caribbean. As Caribbean/Latin American Profile points out, “Often, Bermuda is placed erroneously in the West Indies, but in fact is more than 1,000 miles to the north of the Caribbean” (Caribbean Publishing Company: 51).
    [Show full text]
  • Earlier Caribbean English and Creole in Writing Bettina M Migge, Susanne Muehleisen
    Earlier Caribbean English and Creole in Writing Bettina M Migge, Susanne Muehleisen, To cite this version: Bettina M Migge, Susanne Muehleisen,. Earlier Caribbean English and Creole in Writing. Hickey, Raymond. Varieties in writing: The written word as linguistic evidence, John Benjamins, pp.223-244, 2010. halshs-00674699 HAL Id: halshs-00674699 https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00674699 Submitted on 28 Feb 2012 HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents entific research documents, whether they are pub- scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, lished or not. The documents may come from émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de teaching and research institutions in France or recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires abroad, or from public or private research centers. publics ou privés. Earlier Caribbean English and Creole in writing Bettina Migge Susanne Mühleisen University College Dublin University of Bayreuth Abstract In research on Creoles, historical written texts have in recent decades been fruitfully employed to shed light on the diachronic development of these languages and the nature of Creole genesis. They have so far been much less frequently used to derive social information about these communities and to improve our understanding of the sociolinguistics and stylistic structure of these languages. This paper surveys linguistic research on early written texts in the anglophone Caribbean and takes a critical look at the theories and methods employed to study these texts. It emphases the sociolinguistic value of the texts and provides some exemplary analyses of early Creole documents.
    [Show full text]
  • Review Article
    World Englishes, Vol. 25, No. 1, pp. 177–186, 2006. 0883–2919 REVIEW ARTICLE THE COMPARABILITY OF NEW-DIALECT FORMATION AND CREOLE DEVELOPMENT New-Dialect Formation: The Inevitability of Colonial Englishes. Peter Trudgill. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2004, viii þ 180 pp. Reviewed by SALIKOKO S. MUFWENE* This is an informative book about the development of colonial English varieties that the author also identifies as ‘‘Southern Hemisphere Englishes’’ (SHEs), spoken in New Zealand, his primary focus, in Australia, which is also very much discussed, in South Africa, and in the Falkland Islands. According to T, they all developed much later than Caribbean and North American Englishes, the other colonial varieties, which receive only occasional comparisons in this volume. T’s main argument is that they all derive most of their structural features, especially phonological (the focus of the book), directly from British English varieties. (Australian English influence on New Zealand English (NZE) is admittedly marginal, although it cannot be completely dismissed.) The process of the formation of SHEs amounts to what is identified in Mufwene (2001) as ‘‘competition and selection,’’ leading to ‘‘restructuring’’ (a phenomenon similar to gene recombination in biology). T acknowledges this process more explicitly toward the end of the book. The phrase ‘‘new-dialect formation’’ in the title, whose apparent interpretation as an outcome of several structural changes becomes clearer only as the book unfolds, should not be interpreted as a kind of change in itself. As the rest of this review shows, it is the end-result of several form- and structure-changing processes that lead to language specia- tion.
    [Show full text]
  • A Learner's Grammar of Jamaican
    A Learner’s Grammar of Jamaican Part of the Open Grammar Project Table of Contents 1. Acknowledgements . 1 2. Introduction. 2 2.1. The Open Grammar Project . 2 2.2. Source . 2 2.3. Jamaican . 3 2.3.1. Name . 3 3. Writing system . 4 3.1. Alphabet . 4 3.1.1. Overview of Jamaican alphabet . 4 3.2. Special Characters . 5 3.3. Punctuation . 5 3.3.1. Basic punctuation . 5 4. Pronunciation . 6 4.1. Vowels . 6 4.1.1. Vowel length . 6 4.1.1.1. Short vowels . 6 4.1.1.2. Long vowels . 7 4.1.1.2.1. aa . 7 4.1.1.2.2. ii . 7 4.1.1.2.3. uu . 8 4.1.2. Diphthongs . 9 4.1.2.1. ai . 9 4.1.2.2. ie . 9 4.1.2.3. uo . 11 4.1.2.4. ou . 12 4.1.3. Nasal Vowels . 13 4.1.4. Table of vowels and diphthongs . 14 4.1.5. Sounds to note . 14 4.1.5.1. ya (ia) . 14 4.1.5.2. yaa (iaa) . 15 4.2. Consonants. 15 4.2.1. Overview of Consonant Sounds . 19 4.2.2. Consonant Combinations . 20 4.2.3. Sounds to note . 21 4.2.3.1. Syllabic n . 21 4.2.3.2. Syllabic l . 22 4.2.3.3. Syllabic m . 23 4.2.4. Silent Letters . 23 4.2.5. Elided Sounds . 23 5. Morphology . 24 5.1. Nouns . 24 5.1.1. Basic Form of Nouns . 24 5.1.2.
    [Show full text]
  • Identity Among Barbadian University Students and Their Attitudes to Migrant Labor
    W&M ScholarWorks Undergraduate Honors Theses Theses, Dissertations, & Master Projects 4-2019 Identity Among Barbadian University Students and Their Attitudes to Migrant Labor Daniil Eliseev Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.wm.edu/honorstheses Part of the Anthropological Linguistics and Sociolinguistics Commons Recommended Citation Eliseev, Daniil, "Identity Among Barbadian University Students and Their Attitudes to Migrant Labor" (2019). Undergraduate Honors Theses. Paper 1309. https://scholarworks.wm.edu/honorstheses/1309 This Honors Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Theses, Dissertations, & Master Projects at W&M ScholarWorks. It has been accepted for inclusion in Undergraduate Honors Theses by an authorized administrator of W&M ScholarWorks. For more information, please contact [email protected]. LANGUAGE ATTITUDES, IDENTITY, AND MIGRATION 2 Abstract The social, political, and linguistic situations in Barbados specifically and the English- official West Indies generally are marked by the legacy of hundreds of years of colonial rule. Labor flows from poorer countries like Guyana to richer ones like Barbados calcify regional economic hierarchies that replaced regional colonial offices. Regional economic institutions like the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), as described by their Mission and Core Values, were created in part to “affirm the collective identity and facilitate social cohesion of the people of the Community” to enable the new intraregional, no longer colonial, market to take
    [Show full text]
  • New Cambridge History of the English Language
    New Cambridge History of the English Language Volume V: English in North America and the Caribbean Editors: Natalie Schilling (Georgetown), Derek Denis (Toronto), Raymond Hickey (Essen) I The United States 1. Language change and the history of American English (Walt Wolfram) 2. The dialectology of Anglo-American English (Natalie Schilling) 3. The roots and development of New England English (James N. Stanford) 4. The history of the Midland-Northern boundary (Matthew J. Gordon) 5. The spread of English westwards (Valerie Fridland and Tyler Kendall) 6. American English in the city (Barbara Johnstone) 7. English in the southern United States (Becky Childs and Paul E. Reed) 8. Contact forms of American English (Cristopher Font-Santiago and Joseph Salmons) African American English 9. The roots of African American English (Tracey L. Weldon) 10. The Great Migration and regional variation in the speech of African Americans (Charlie Farrington) 11. Urban African American English (Nicole Holliday) 12. A longitudinal panel survey of African American English (Patricia Cukor-Avila) Latinx English 13. Puerto Rican English in Puerto Rico and in the continental United States (Rosa E. Guzzardo Tamargo) 14. The English of Americans of Mexican and Central American heritage (Erik R. Thomas) II Canada 15. Anglophone settlement and the creation of Canadian English (Charles Boberg) NewCHEL Vol 5: English in North America and the Caribbean Page 2 of 2 16. The open-class lexis of Canadian English: History, structure, and social correlations (Stefan Dollinger) 17. Ontario English: Loyalists and beyond (Derek Denis, Bridget Jankowski and Sali A. Tagliamonte) 18. The Prairies and the West of Canada (Alex D’Arcy and Nicole Rosen) 19.
    [Show full text]
  • Agreement in Educated Jamaican English: a Corpus Investigation of ICE-Jamaica
    Agreement in Educated Jamaican English: A Corpus Investigation of ICE-Jamaica Inaugural-Dissertation zur Erlangung der Doktorwürde der Philologischen Fakultät der Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg i. Br. vorgelegt von Susanne Jantos aus Räckelwitz SS 2009 Erstgutachter: Prof. Dr. Dr. h.c. Christian Mair Zweitgutachter: Prof. Dr. Bernd Kortmann Vorsitzende des Promotionsausschusses der Gemeinsamen Kommission der Philologischen, Philosophischen und Wirtschafts- und Verhaltenswissenschaftlichen Fakultät: Prof. Dr. Elisabeth Cheauré Datum der Fachprüfung im Promotionsfach: 09.11.2009 Contents 1 Introduction .................................................................................................................1 2 Background to the Study ............................................................................................4 2.1 The Jamaican Language Situation......................................................................... 4 2.1.1 Historical Development of the Language Situation in Jamaica ....................5 2.1.2 New Englishes – Classification and Development......................................12 2.1.3 Linguistic Variation in New Englishes and Underlying Principles.............20 2.2 Linguistic Variation in Jamaica...........................................................................23 2.2.1 The Creole Continuum ................................................................................ 23 2.2.2 Morphosyntactic Characteristics of Jamaican English................................27 3 Previous Research
    [Show full text]
  • Draft Chapters on Saramaccan Segmental Phonology and Prosodic
    Draft chapters on Saramaccan segmental phonology and prosodic phonology Jeff Good University at Buffalo for a grammar of Saramaccan written in collaboration with John McWhorter Segmental phonology 1.1. Segment inventory 1.1.1. Introduction The consonant inventory of Saramaccan following the transcription system used here is given in Table 1.1, and the vowel inventory is given in Table 1.2. As will be discussed in section 1.1.3, all Saramaccan vowels can also appear with distinctive nasalization, and there is also a distinction between short and long vowels, as well as a wide range of vowel combinations. Symbols in pa- rentheses indicate possible marginal distinctions which may be present in the language, and the relevant facts will be discussed in sections covering the phoneme preceding the parenthesized elements. The tilde indicates sounds which are in dialectal or free variation with one another. In cases where the phonetic characterization of a sound may not be obvious from its transcriptional representation, this is indicated using a broad IPA transcription in square brackets. LABIAL ALVEOLAR PALATAL VELAR LAB-VEL GLOTTAL VL. STOPS p t tj [t͡ʃ] k kp~kw VD. STOPS b (ɓ) d (ɗ) dj [d͡ʒ] g gb~gw PRENASAL. STOPS mb [mb] nd [nd] ndj [nɟ] ng [ŋg] NASALS m n nj [ɲ] VL. FRICATIVES f s h VD. FRICATIVES v z APPROXIMANTS l j w (hw) Table 1.1: Saramaccan consonant inventory 1 FRONT CENTRAL BACK HIGH i u UPPER MID e o LOWER MID ɛ ɔ LOW a Table 1.2: Saramaccan vowel inventory The transcription system used here differs from that used in orthographic systems that have been used for the language in two important ways.
    [Show full text]
  • Reference Guide for Varieties of English 1 General
    Reference guide for varieties of English Outline structure 1 General 1.1 Investigating variation 1.1 Language change 1.2 Standard English 1.4 Nonstandard English 1.5 Historical background 2 England 2.1 Overviews 2.2 Received Pronunciation 2.3 Estuary English 2.4 Cockney 2.5 British Creole 2.6 East Anglia 2.7 South of England 2.8 West and South-West 2.9 Northern English 2.10 Other languages in Britain 3 The Celtic realms 3.1 Scotland 3.2 Wales 3.3 Ireland 3.4 Isle of Man 4 Minor European varieties 4.1 Channel Islands 4.2 Gibraltar 4.3 Malta 5 The New World 5.1 American English 5.2 Canadian English 5.3 Caribbean English 6 English in Africa 6.1 West Africa 6.2 East Africa 6.3 Southern Africa 6.4 The South Atlantic 7 English in Asia 7.1 South Asia 7.2 South-East Asia 7.3 East Asia 8 Australasia and Pacific 8.1 Australia 8.2 New Zealand 8.3 The anglophone Pacific 9 English-based pidgins and creoles 10 World Englishes 10.1 English and colonialism 10.2 ‘New Englishes’ 10.3 Nonnative Englishes 1 General Aarts, Bas and April McMahon (eds) 2006. The Handbook of English Linguistics. Oxford / Malden, MA: Blackwell. Allen, Harold B. and Michael D. Linn (eds) 1986. Dialect and Language Variation. Orlando: Academic Press. Anderson, Peter M. 1987. A Structural Atlas of the English Dialects. London. Raymond Hickey Reference guide for varieties of English Page 2 of 61 Auer, Peter, Frans Hinskens and Paul Kerswill (eds) 2000.
    [Show full text]