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Chapter 3. Society and the Individual at the Dawn of the Twenty-First

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Chapter 3. Society and the Individual at the Dawn of the Twenty-First CHAPTER 3 Society and the Individual at the Dawn of the Twenty-First Century Toni C. Antonucci1,*, Lisa Berkman2,*, Axel Börsch-Supan3,*, Laura L. Carstensen4,*, Linda P. Fried5,*, Frank F. Furstenberg6,*, Dana Goldman7,*, James S. Jackson1,*, Martin Kohli8,*, S. Jay Olshansky9,*, John Rother10,*, John W. Rowe11,*, and Julie Zissimopoulos7,* *MacArthur Foundation Research Network on an Aging Society, 1Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA, 2Harvard Center for Population and Development Studies, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA, 3Munich Center for the Economics of Aging, University of Munich, Germany, 4Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA, 5Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA, 6Department of Sociology Department, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA, 7Schaeffer Center for Health Policy and Economics, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA, 8Bremen International Graduate School of Social Sciences, European University Institute, San Domenico di Fiesole, Italy, 9School of Public Health, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA, 10National Coalition on Health Care, Washington DC, WA, USA, 11Department of Health Policy & Management, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA K.W. Schaie & S.L. Willis (Eds) DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-411469-2.00003-0 Handbook of the Psychology of Aging, Eighth edition. 41 © 20162015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 42 3. SOCIETY AND THE INDIVIDUAL at THE DAWN OF THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY OUTLINE Introduction 42 Work and Retirement 50 Policies and Practices 52 A Comment on Lifespan Psychology 43 Family Life 53 Health and Health Care 44 Policies and Practices 56 Policies and Practices 46 Summary and Conclusions 58 Education 48 Policies and Practices 49 References 58 INTRODUCTION future is perilous, and we do not aim to do so. Rather, we consider the ways in which impor- Societies exert profound influences on the tant social institutions, like the family, work, developmental paths of their citizens. Whether and retirement, are changing and consider engaged or disengaged, satisfied or dissatisfied, ways in which policies and social norms could socially embedded or lonely, healthy or disa- help or hinder wellbeing in future generations. bled; whether people feel in control of their lives Societies have long sought to shape the lives or view themselves as victims of circumstance, of their citizens. At the turn of the twentieth all are intrinsically tied to broad sociocultural century governments, communities, and fami- contexts in which people come of age. Indeed, lies crafted education in the early years of life to the historical era and related social norms into contribute to the growth of patriotic and capa- which we are born influence not only how much ble citizens. It was a time when only a minor- formal education we attain, when we marry, ity of boys or girls attended secondary school and how many children we have, but life histo- (Fussell & Furstenberg, 2005). Home economics ries also influence the efficiency with which our was developed to teach basic household skills brains process information. to young girls so that they would better man- In the last volume of the Handbook of age family life. Boys were ushered into “shop” Psychology and Aging, Warner Schaie (2011) con- classes where they learned about woodworking tributed an insightful historical analysis of the and machinery. The research community stud- role of policies, such as the GI Bill, and public ied how parenting and schooling affected adult education in shaping life course trajectories. He outcomes (e.g., The Child Guidance Study, ini- also noted more elusive cohort effects such as tiated by Jean McFarlane and her colleagues in steady and worldwide increases in (primarily) the 1920s and the Oakland Growth Study by fluid intelligence, referred to as the Flynn effect Harold Jones and Herbert Stolz in the 1930s). (Flynn & Flynn, 2012). Although investigators have tracked some of In this chapter, rather than take a historical the participants of these longitudinal studies perspective, we document current trends in into older ages, the studies were designed to health, family structure, education, work, and focus on the early stages of life. retirement and consider how these changes Now, for the first time in human history, may affect the wellbeing of future generations societies are presented with the need for an of aging individuals. Forecasting the long-term even longer view of lifespan development. We I. CONCEPTS, THEORY, METHODS A COMMENT ON LifespaN PSYCHOLOGY 43 need to ask not only how to raise children to formation and leadership of a new network. Its become productive workers and good citizens, mission was to consider how population aging but also what kind of elderly people we want will likely change societies and how best to our children to become (Berkman & Glymour, prepare for those changes. The Network on an 2006). How do we delay illness until very Aging Society includes members with exper- advanced ages? What kinds of policies and tise in developmental and social psychology, social norms might encourage family stabil- demography, economics, medicine, neurosci- ity, support, and caregiving when step-families ence, policy, political science, public health, are common and three and four generations are and sociology. The choice of Rowe to lead the alive at the same time? How can we ensure that Network was significant in that he had previ- education continues throughout adulthood? ously lead the MacArthur Network on suc- How do we ensure financial security through- cessful aging which focused on aging at the out long lives? In this chapter, we briefly over- individual level. In contrast, the unit of analysis view the current status of health, education, considered by the current Network is society, as family, work, and retirement in the United it transitions from a young age structure, rep- States. We also consider policies and practices resented by a pyramid, to an old age structure, that may optimize long-term outcomes. better represented by a rectangle and including more older, than younger, people. There is no question that population A COMMENT ON LIFESPAN aging will change life in profound and far- PSYCHOLOGY reaching ways. The Network has authored a number of articles about societies and From its inception, lifespan psychology has policies (Furstenberg, Hartnett, Kohli, & recognized that broad contextual forces pow- Zissimopoulos, 2015; MacArthur Foundation erfully shape individuals’ lives. As lifespan Research Network on an Aging Society, 2009, theory emerged in developmental psychology 2010; Ryan, Smith, Antonucci, & Jackson, 2012; in the 1970s, theorists including Paul Baltes, Zissimopoulos, Goldman, Olshansky, Rother, & John Nesselroade, Hayne Reese, and K. Warner Rowe, 2015). In this chapter, we consider how Schaie, articulated sociocultural, historical, the psychological wellbeing of individuals will biological, and social factors as key influences be affected by the fact that today, and in the on adult development. Lifespan approaches foreseeable future, people will be born into encompass multi-disciplinary perspectives and and grow old in societies with many more are, therefore, well poised to benefit from the long-surviving elders than in the past. Greater current emphasis on cross-disciplinary fertili- longevity is a profound achievement. It also zation through team science, and inter- as well presents many challenges. Chronic health prob- as multi-disciplinary collaborations. Current lems among seniors are on the rise (Martin & efforts at the National Institutes of Health, Schoeni, 2014). Disparities in old age outcomes the National Institute of Aging, the National are increasingly stark. Increases in life expec- Science Foundation, and the Institute of tancy in the last quarter century are essentially Medicine are all promoting modern instantia- occurring only among the college-educated tions of this mission. (Meara, Richards, & Cutler, 2008) while revers- The present chapter is authored by members ing among those at the very bottom of the edu- of the MacArthur Research Network on Aging cational ladder; hope that all can achieve the Societies, formed in 2008 when the MacArthur American dream is diminishing (Olshansky Foundation charged John W. Rowe with the et al., 2012). The importance of education is I. CONCEPTS, THEORY, METHODS 44 3. SOCIETY AND THE INDIVIDUAL at THE DAWN OF THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY increasing as a predictor of wellbeing and lon- Holt-Lunstad, Smith, & Layton, 2010). In con- gevity, and the absence of education is more trast, social networks that support close bonds lethal today than it was just 20 years ago with others (Antonucci, Birditt, & Ajrouch, (Olshansky et al., 2012). 2011) and emotional balance in daily life Population aging is not occurring in a vac- (Carstensen et al., 2011) predict how long peo- uum. The diffusion of technology into virtu- ple live. We maintain that the dramatic aging ally all aspects of life from social relations to of the population calls for widespread changes employment means that education is becom- in the ways that we live. Policies and practices ing increasingly essential for accessing global that support longer lives can greatly improve opportunities. Education facilitates work the individual wellbeing of everyone in our attainment, which subsequently predicts how
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