a publication of The Report on Social Norms December 2001 Working by Jeff Linkenbach, Ed.D. Paper #1

“People live with a lot his paper is written for practi- tioners of the social norms of wrong perceptions, approach to provide information on identifying and correcting ideas, and notions, T The significant influence of the media in foster- patterns of how the media fosters misperceptions of health norms. Since the health ing misperceptions of health norms has been and when they invest communications literature provides extensive discussed by Perkins (1997). Widely held views of behavioral norms are some of the strongest their life in them it is coverage of media basics, this article focuses instead on the utilization of these media skills predictors of future health behavior because what people perceive to be most typical (or nor- dangerous.” within the social norms framework. Mispercep- tions of youth fostered by the media provide the mative) is what they tend to expect and emulate case example for this working paper. in their personal behavior (Berkowitz, 1997). Thich Nhat Hanh (1999) When the focus and framing of media The paper is divided into the following sec- attention is on health through accurate portrayal tions: 1) Cultural Cataracts: How the media fos- of cultural norms, it encourages greater health. ters misperceptions, 2) Corrective Lens Surgery: Conversely, when public attention (especially Detecting and correcting common patterns of concerning youth) is directed at the extreme, how the media fosters misperceptions, 3) Media atypical behaviors of individuals, it fosters mis- Misperception Detection and Correction Guide, perceptions and associated harm. As a result of and 4) References the unprecedented behavioral changes resulting from social norms interventions, the correction of misperceptions has emerged as the single The Report on Social Norms will issue seven working papers each most preventable environmental risk factor to be year. These working papers will focus on a particular aspect of theory, addressed by health promotion specialists in research, methodology, or application of the social norms approach. The over a decade of research (Berkowitz, 2001; goal is to help advance the field of social norms by providing a lively Perkins, 1998). forum for best practices, controversial issues, and creative applications. Because of the vast influence of media on Each working paper is a “work in progress” rather than a final statement our culture, tools are needed for social norms and is offered to stimulate thought and discussion. practitioners to better detect and correct misper- Working Paper 1 by Jeff Linkenbach examines the role of the media ceptions of health norms in the media. Those in fostering misperceptions. It provides guidelines for identifying and who are successful at directing the public’s per- deconstructing negative media reports and offers positive suggestions for ception of what is “normal” are also those who how media can be used to promote health. In addition, it expands the will largely determine future health and safety traditional scope of social norms to look at the insidious cultural and trends. political effects of media fostered misperceptions. It is an important The widespread inaccu- resource that can be used to educate professionals, students, staff, and racy of how we view young people affects us key stakeholders in your community. all, for it has distorted our ability to view our We are extremely interested in your comments, reactions, and future leaders for who they really are (Males, thoughts on each working paper. You can send them to Alan Berkowitz, 1999; Rothstein, 2001). At the level of media the editor of The Report on Social Norms, or to Jeff Linkenbach, the we have allowed our common lens on the world author of this working paper. to narrow and harden in ways that serve to filter Thank you! out all of the beautiful, pervasive, varying hues Alan D. Berkowitz, Ph.D., Editor, The Report on Social Norms of youth and family cultures. Instead of seeing a Phone: 607 387-3789 • E-mail: [email protected] true picture of today’s kids as the healthy, vibrant hope of tomorrow, and perhaps the Jeff Linkenbach, Ed.D., Director, Montana Social Norms Project greatest generation to be alive (Howe & Strauss, Phone: 406 994-7873 • E-mail: [email protected] 2000), we are left only to perceive distorted shadows of negativity, and pre-defined polarized 1 extremes of a generation at risk tive that we correct our faulty views of simple and pragmatic—examine the (Astroth, 1995). We have in essence our youngest citizens so that policies data and use what works. Evidence that formed “cultural cataracts,” which are and actions do not result in furthering the social norms approach has demon- introduced and defined here as: misperceptions and encouraging harm. strated results at campus, community 1. A societal condition characterized For example, the reputed statistical and statewide levels (Linkenback & by distorted, negative views of a truth behind the often-stated sound bite Perkins, 2001) suggests that a similar sub-population, caused by a sensa- that “teens think they’re invincible” is approach to national-level media is war- ranted. tionalized, hyper-focus on rare or more myth than reality (Adler, 1993). A extreme behaviors of a small per- study which reviewed over 100 research — studies, found that adults harbor more While conducting centage of members, which are delusions of invulnerability than do workshops across the nation a question inaccurately seen as group norms. teens (Quadrel, et. al. 1993). Other lead- that always arises is “How can we (on 2. A dark and narrow view of youth, ing authorities on adoles- campus or in our communi- college students or other sub-groups cent behavior arrive at the ty) be expected to over- as presented in the media or by same conclusions (National “It is imperative that we come the larger cultural health experts, which typically Research Council, 1993). correct our faulty views forces and negative mes- results in the criminalization of Thus, the real news about of our youngest citizens sages that surround us?” In the risk and life-taking essence, how can our local health issues and increased policies so that policies and of control. behaviors of our young social norms efforts be people is that they mostly actions do not result in expected to overcome the This pattern is so entrenched that reflect the norms (standard tsunami of negativity as the adult cultural (media) lens continues furthering mispercep- behaviors) of the adults presented in the larger to maintain its collective dark tilt on the who surround them. tions and encouraging media culture, where it world and arrive at the conclusion that harm.” appears to be spring break corrupt youth and their morally inade- year-round and where the quate families are the problem with media magnifies problems today’s society, despite data which sug- Many health communications experts and communicates the myth that “every- gest a completely different view. remain unaware that by promoting a body is doing it?” Research demonstrates that even when continual awareness of problems and adults are confronted with what is pre- consequences they may have become This question, frequently asked sented as “true news stories” about posi- co-conspirators with the very harm that with an accompanying feeling of dread tive teenage behavioral trends, they con- they seek to mitigate. Rather than mea- or despair, contains an underlying faulty sistently omit or over-look the positive suring a reduction in the numbers of assumption that any local efforts are data and instead focus on the few nega- “youth at risk,” they may instead be fos- futile until the larger cultural issues that tive trends by finding ways to re-inter- tering societal conditions of “youth who surround them are addressed. While the pret the facts and numbers in order to live in risky environments” by exacer- point that we must change the larger reach a conclusion about kids being “not bating misperceptions of social norms. media in order to be effective at the good enough” (Bostrom, 2000). Ironically, the harm-focused solu- local level is important, it also repre- sents a widely held myth. The message we are sending kids is, tion appears to have become more prob- “I’m O.K. you’re at risk” exclaims lematic than the original health risk it The ever-expanding body of evi- youth advocate and scholar Kirk sought to diminish. Instead of using dence on the effectiveness of social Astroth. “That is just the beginning of media to foster cultural conditions that norms clearly demonstrates unprece- the problem,” he explains. Unfortunately nurture and support young people, the dented reductions in harmful (risk-tak- “the term ‘youth at risk” has become the view that young people need more ing) behaviors and increased protective lens through which all young people are awareness of the prevalence of harm has behaviors without attending to these viewed so that adolescence itself is seen become the problem. Focusing on risk macro-level media influences. That is to today as some awful, incurable disease supports exaggerated misperceptions of say, concentrated, localized efforts do (Astroth, 1995).” James Alan Fox of risk. This serves to increase the actual result in significant changes in behav- Northeastern University’s College of prevalence of such risk, which in turn iors and attitudes—even without attend- Criminal Justice, goes to the extreme of spawns calls for renewed focus on risk, ing to the larger backdrop of media neg- defining teenagers as “temporary and the cycle feeds upon itself. The ativity at the national level (Berkowitz, sociopaths,” who are impulsive and result is a cycle of institutional insanity, 2001; Perkins, 1998). Efforts of the immature (Fox, 1996). where we keep doing what we have Montana Social Norms Project demon- always done, while expecting different strate that macro-level social norms This inaccurate, negative image of results. influences can also work to produce young people is dangerous because the large-scale behavioral change way that we view people also deter- The litmus for evaluating which (Linkenbach & Perkins, 2001). mines how we treat them. It is impera- media approach should be utilized is

2 effects that result in a sort of cultural increasingly strict policy solutions by Since social norms campaigns tsunami of inaccurate views of the agencies reporting on the so-called epi- work in both micro and macro-levels of social environment. demic or “crisis du jour.” The topics of media, the issue for practitioners The medical profession identifies the myths periodically change with becomes one of aligning goals with physician-caused harm as iatrogenic available funding and are often oppres- resources. If the objective is to achieve effects. To the extent that these media sive in nature--targeting those groups local community impact, then do a local influences promote misperceptions of with the least ability to mobilize against media campaign. Don’t take the long health norms that are clearly associated the onslaught. A classic example way home by attempting a macro-cam- with higher risk for harm they, too, revolves around the “Myth of the paign when a more direct route is avail- should be viewed as iatrogenic in American Youth Crisis,” which inaccu- able. nature, and deserve the same “Do No rately portrays youth as being more The most common denominator Harm” ethical attention by health pro- involved with harmful behaviors than indicative of campaign success or failure fessionals to eradicate their toxic effects. the adult culture (Males, 1996). is controlling to ensure that adequate The fifteen guidelines identified below Media Warning exposure of the social norms message are a modest step in this direction. Labels are tools that put the brakes on reaches the intended target population. Health Terrorism is the momentum of myth-making media This factor has certainly been the key defined as, “the use of force or threats influences. The misperception-effect, lesson learned in our Montana campaigns for the intended purpose of improved which can result from reporting on and explains the main difference between well-being (Linkenbach, 1998).” This harm-focused media coverage, can be campaigns that have shown measurable highly traditional approach is often minimized by informing the viewer of changes in behavior and ones which did employed by health educators with the the true behavioral context and the not yield such results (Linkenbach & belief that healthier behaviors result potential side effects of misinterpreta- Perkins, 2001). from increased knowledge of risks and tion. Much in the same way that certain However, it is important for us to harm. The goal of health terrorism is to products, such as tobacco, alcohol or visualize how much more effective our “scare the health” into the target popula- pharmaceuticals, must inform con- local campaigns will be when they are tion by using fear-based strategies or sumers of potential adverse conse- couched within a supportive (or at least graphic images. Contrary to the inten- quences, the media warning label can be non-competitive) cultural media environ- tion of those employing health terrorism placed at the beginning or end of the ment. Indeed, we should all strive to such strategies actually support and media coverage to assist the media con- realize this vision of health communica- exaggerate misperceptions of the preva- sumer in maintaining an accurate per- tions, where media reflects clear, consis- lence of harm by providing a barrage of spective on health as the predominant tent, pervasive messages supportive of negative cues from the environment. norm. low-risk lifestyles. These messages Health (Norms) The best example of this tool in should accurately depict protective mea- Promotion is the antidote to health ter- practice is seen on the HECNews list sures as the norm. rorism. Generally speaking, if the goal serve at the Higher Education Center for is to increase health and decrease risks, Alcohol and Other Drug Prevention then images of good health and lowered (HEC) web site (www.edc.org/hec/) risk should be utilized. Data from social which includes the following warning norms interventions demonstrate that with each posting: messages and images that portray health “HECNews is a conduit for all as the norm and the expected behavior press coverage related to alcohol, other A tremendous amount of work result in increased health protections drugs and violence at U.S. colleges and remains to minimize those media influ- and lowered risk (Haines, 1996). Health universities. Negative news coverage of ences that are counterproductive toward (norms) promotion generates feelings of these issues is pervasive and may serve promoting accurate perceptions of the trust and an awareness that the public is to reinforce exaggerated misperceptions environment. Provided below are com- capable of handling the truth. of actual substance abuse norms. Our mon patterns for detecting and correcting Myth-Making is the cre- awareness of this news coverage should misperceptions of health norms in the ation of unproven, false collective strengthen our resolve not only to media. Some of these influences are beliefs about the risk-taking behaviors address AOD problems on campus, but direct and obvious, while others are more of a sub-population that grow into wide- also to advocate for news coverage that indirect or subtle. A commonality is that ly held beliefs by the general popula- draws attention to the responsible they all contribute to exacerbating risks tion. Once introduced to the media these majority of college students.” in the social environment by promoting myths become clichés that are recycled Problem Profiling is the misperceptions of the context of health and supported by expert opinion as if disproportionate association of a sub- behavior. Perhaps the greatest impact is they were true. Myths are usually politi- population with negative attributes or not from any one of these particular pat- cally embedded to support an agenda of problem behaviors. Historically, profil- terns, but rather from their synergistic ing has been primarily common for 3 issues of race, but also occurs with Health Headlines the viewer understands that the crisis other groups, such as youth and college put a truth tourniquet on the “If It was outside the norm of what is typical students. Disproportionate media cover- Bleeds It Leads” flow of reporting on (Linkenbach, 2000). It makes sense for age that focuses on negative incidents health and safety issues. This approach college and health administrators to serves to promote misperceptions and (pioneered by Michael Haines) gener- have mainframe sound bites ready so fear of the profiled group by the general ates news that focuses on positive trends they can address the seriousness of a public. Significant damage to the pro- and health norms instead of focusing on crisis without blowing it out of propor- filed group results because the problem sensationalized gore and extreme stories. tion. profile tends to become the dominant It is focused on the solutions rather than Deficit Focus is the way that members of the group are problems, and on assets rather than lia- process of highlighting attention toward viewed by the general public. The nega- bilities. Often the exact same data report extreme behaviors outside of the norm tive profile functions as a cultural can produce overwhelmingly positive by focusing on individuals who are void scapegoat where media attention dispro- health headlines by merely focusing on (deficient) of health or protection. portionately places blame for societal the predominant trends or findings. Overemphasis on the extreme behaviors ills onto a group so that what is defined Examples based on national trend data of the few at the level of media distorts as society’s ailment is synonymous with might state, “Schools Remain Safest the accurate behavioral context. It is the characteristics of the group (Males, Place for Kids in Society,” or classic view where the glass is seen as 1996). “Overwhelming Majority of Young Hero Celebration is Adults Prevent Impaired Driving.” Local “ Reversing the Ratio is a the media counter-balance to problem reporters and writers are usually relieved profiling. It is the practice of running to have opportunities to detail positive technique that shifts the spot- media stories which accurately portray news about their communities. light of attention from the members of a group with positive quali- Skewed Extremes consti- ties that are predominantly characteristic tute the practice of inaccurately present- problem behaviors of the few of the group as a whole. “Heroes” are ing extreme harmful behaviors, causing to the assets of the majority celebrated by featuring stories about them to appear as though they were rep- ordinary people and events that appear resentative of common, mainstream (Wallack, 2000).” extra-ordinary. Comments are made in (normative) behaviors. Media profes- the story about how the behaviors of the sionals are trained in developing stories heroes actually typify other members of based on the unusual, where “Dog Bites half empty. The ratio of resource alloca- the group and serve to reinforce the Man” is not news at all, but a story tion and negative media typically paral- prevalence of health norms. about “Man Bites Dog” gets printed. lels programs that operate from a deficit “If It Bleeds, It Leads” Statistically, it represents a focus on the focus (i.e. 90 percent of funding or is the classic media cliché that depicts extreme tails (10%) of the bell curve media coverage focused on 10 percent how stories about extreme behaviors while presenting them as the middle (90 of problem population). In addition to dominate media headlines in order to percent) average. A common occurrence supporting misperceptions, a deficit sell the media to the public. In our fast- for this skewing is due to confusing the focus promotes discouragement among paced information age where the public seriousness of an event (i.e. a youth the public with a “never enough” will often skim headlines and introduc- impaired driving tragedy) with the atmosphere, along with statements that tory paragraphs, the bold print headlines prevalence in which the event occurs. more resources could “fill” the void. set the tone and convey the primary The Main Frame is Reversing the message. Misperceptions are fostered by a way of insuring that the reader or Ratio is a technique that shifts the spot- readers who obtain only negatively- viewer grasps the true context in which light of attention from the problem biased information that focuses on prob- behaviors occur. The most obvious cor- behaviors of the few to the assets of the lems or downward health trends. A clas- rection is to create news frames which majority (Wallack, 2000). It is the clas- sic example is a headline that states, feature mainstream behavior, that 90 sic view of the glass seen as half full. “Health Officials Say State Having percent of the bell curve. Even coverage Press releases from major studies can Meth Epidemic,” when the actual use of on extreme and serious events can be be reframed to create accurate percep- the substance rose from 1 to 2 percent covered without exaggerating the con- tions of the social setting. Often the in the general population (The text in which the behavior occurs. This exact study that produces a deficit- Missoulian, 2001). When the actual approach, known as the Social Norms focused article can also be used to context is provided it is often buried far Sandwich, packages media coverage of reveal completely opposite headlines. into the article, typically after other tragic stories in Context-Event-Context For example, a study which focuses on alarming facts or stories. The harm is format. That is, the “meat” of the crisis the fact that “25 percent of youth use done because the reader is left with the story can be surrounded by the “buns” tobacco” can be reframed to mention main message that problems are epi- of the social norms context to insure that that “75 percent of youth (like their par- demic and getting worse. ents) are tobacco free, and this positive

4 healthy majority is our greatest asset for and books detail how this negatively awareness. Media- addressing those outside the norm.” skewed reporting affects public percep- supported solu- “Proactive news- Michael Haines, the director of the tion of certain groups such as youth or tions typically making ensures National Social Norms Resource Center, people of different races (Dorfman & advocate for an that stories was among the pioneers of this view- Schrialdi, 2001). A continual focus on increasingly auto- point. The ratio of resources can also be negative stories about sub-groups pro- cratic atmosphere reporting on reversed so that program and media motes misperceptions by presenting the and create policy health issues attention is commensurate with the ratio public with a false picture that contains voids to be filled make reference to of positive behaviors. Positive press a higher frequency of severe crimes, by the programs releases and featured stories that focus harm, or negative health trends than is or policies of the actual context, on community health generate commu- actually the case. For example, one cited experts. As data and trends, nity competence and enhance resiliency. analysis revealed that nearly seven out social capital so that the viewer of 10 California news stories (68 per- decreases, the The Great Oz (of media) understands the supports misperceptions by misleading cent) on violence involved youth, misperception the media public into assuming that sto- whereas youth made up only 14.1 per- environment flour- reality of the situ- ries are representative of the reality of cent of total violent crime arrests ishes because the ation.” what is occurring in society. A mysteri- (Dorfman & Schiraldi, 2001). Overall, public begins to ous reverence is often held by the public the report found that the news presents trust expert exag- about how news is generated, with the the public with a false picture of a high- geration of the problem over the reality erroneous belief that the (Great Oz) er frequency and severity of youth of their own experiences. media only prints balanced, factually crimes than is actually the case. In fact, “We the People” is researched stories. The assumption that among the 9,678 network and local TV a process of using the media to reflect stories are objectively researched, rather stories analyzed, researchers found only the attitudes and behaviors of “Most of than provided by “cut and paste” news nine instances of teens being praised for Us” ordinary citizens whose everyday making, results in misleading the public their involvement in community service health practices and attitudes are most into trusting that news releases reflect or humanitarian work. typical (“Most of Us” is the campaign social reality. In an environment of rac- Setting the Record name of the Montana Social Norms ing to meet print deadlines, stories are Straight is a process of media advocacy Project). The credibility of average citi- often printed nearly verbatim that have that provides balanced, accurate stories zens is amplified as people come to trust been spoon-fed to the media by agencies and news coverage. Proactive news- that their own experiences with health with harm-oriented agendas. making ensures that stories reporting on are more representative of what is really Behind the Curtain health issues make reference to actual going on around them than they had pre- is the process of respecting the media context, data and trends, so that the viously perceived, or more in alignment public through (misperception) media viewer understands the reality of the sit- with reality than the harmfully myopic literacy. A truthful revealing of the uation. For example, from the same views of the so-called experts. A democ- news-making process empowers the media analysis of violent crime in ratic process is supported which trusts public with a proper perspective of how California mentioned above, the record that solutions already reside in the com- a story was generated. Such industry could be set straight by mentioning that munity, and stresses that what is most practices will not quickly change so, violent stories made up 25 percent of all needed is a proper view of the over- until they do, social norms practitioners youth coverage, when only three young whelmingly healthy environment. must become aware of how to minimize people in 100 actually perpetrate, or “The Mantra” is a pro- misperceptions in the current environ- become victims of violence (Dorfman & fessionalized, techno-speak language ment. First, we can advocate for the Schiraldi, 2001)—a sober reminder which communicates a basic message to media to begin printing truthful dis- about how to interpret the content of the the public that “the problem” is so big claimers about what percentage of the story.A content analysis of local media that average citizens can’t be expected story was researched versus “cut & coverage can develop a “report card” on to understand or solve it. Community paste” and who provided the press the track record of balanced coverage. members become confused and over- release. Second, social norms practition- “Step Aside Mortals” is a whelmed by the mantra, so they disen- ers must operate in the current environ- process of disengaging ordinary people gage from tangible ways that could ment by creating positive stories that from solving community-based social become part of the solution of correcting spread hope and truth to counter those of problems by communicating expert misperceptions. Different organizations despair and misperceptions. exaggerations of harm over the over- have their own agency-specific mantras, Off-Balanced Reporting whelmingly common health experiences but the generalized formula cites expert is the disproportionate coverage of of citizens. Misperceptions are solidified opinions about what it will take to make harmful, non-normative media, which by institutionalizing community solu- a difference by using concepts and results in an overall environment of neg- tions, which seek to increase problem phrases connected by filler words (con- ative media coverage. Numerous studies noted here as “rata”), so that a typical

5 prevention mantra sounds something fear for an issue pre-empts a reactive photo depicting the prevalence of the like, “THE rata rata PROBLEM rata, solution. When a credible governmental issue (i.e. 20 percent) in relation to nor- CRISIS rata rata COMPLEX rata, rata or research agency uses junk science, mal (i.e. 80 percent) behavior. The point WIDESPREAD rata rata LONG TERM the misperception effect can be even is that the image alone should leave the rata, NO SILVER BULLETS rata rata more detrimental. Additionally, as the viewer with the proper impression of COMPREHENSIVE, rata rata MULTI- public starts to equate all research with that which is normative and that which FACITED rata STRICTER POLICIES, being junk science, they tend to mistrust is outside the range of typical behavior. rata rata INCREASED RESOURCES credible scientific data. Septic Semantics consist rata rata!” Scientific Rigor is of the use of toxic words and phrases The Mantra is often based on an insti- the foundation of the social norms that inaccurately distort the true context tutional insanity which touts that doing approach to prevention and is the basis of a predominantly healthy social envi- more of the same things that have always for all strategic interventions. Adhering ronment. Misleading phrases and word been done in the past will somehow pro- to the rigor of sound social science associations like college binge drinking, duce different results in the future. For methods promotes confidence in cam- or the epidemic of youth violence get example, tough love policies evolved into paign messages and in outcomes. Data recycled and create false images which three strikes, which hardened into zero based on rigorous science serves to gen- distort accurate perceptions of the nor- tolerance—all of which basically produce erate news stories. Replication of suc- mative environment (Perkins, DeJong & zero results (Skiba, 2000). cessful studies builds on-going support Linkenbach, in-press). Language is “The Data” is the for future campaigns. incredibly powerful, because it is hallmark sound bite for the social norms Shock Photos are photo through our choice of words that we approach to prevention. As opposed to and film images which focus on extreme communicate our view of the world. aligning with any particular agenda, the events and crises and leave the viewer Septic semantics reflect the wide- social norms media solution is a pragmat- with a distorted view of the true social spread nature of misperceptions in our ic focus on “what works.” The data gener- context. Fear-based emotional reactions culture. A classic example is the use of ates an understanding of the process that are often more easily remembered than the phrase, “We must change social promoting mainstream positive behaviors those depicting typical norms and norms,” when referring to a non-norma- generates more of the same. strengthen the viewers’over-exaggera- tive behavior. In most cases, an over- Nothing has served to build momen- tion of problems. Even when the content whelmingly dominant, positive social tum for support for correcting misper- of an article is overwhelmingly positive norm already exists, but it needs to be ceptions of health norms better than out- and reflects accurate social norms, the strengthened so that the extreme behav- come data demonstrating 18-21 percent accompanying photo is negative and iors of smoking or impaired driving can reductions in heavy alcohol use by col- inconsistent. For example, the content of be diminished. lege students in less than a two-year a story may stress how the majority of Another common example is the period of time. The combination of sig- college students are engaged in prevent- confusion between the seriousness of a nificant outcomes (data), produced from ing impaired driving, but the associated problem and the prevalence in which it refreshingly, positive social norms mes- image may be that of a crash scene com- occurs. Certain health issues such as sages, continues to enlist community plete with ambulance and hugging sur- impaired driving or sexual assault are advocates who work to shift attention vivors. Repeated exposure to negative incredibly serious threats, even if they from problem-focused agendas. Simply images not only desensitizes a target are rare occurrences from a norms per- stated, the most powerful counter to the audience to the seriousness of the health spective. drone of non-researched ideologies is issue but serves to normalize the occur- Verbal Victories successful data which continues to breed rence of such behaviors. incorporate the use of words and phases more success. The Picture of that accurately portray the true context Junk Science is the Health is the practice of showing photos of an overwhelmingly healthy social process of conducting opinion “push and film clips that are consistent with environment. If our view of the social polls” for the purpose of generating promoting majority health norms. The scene continually focuses on the reality media based on concerns or fear. This cliché that says “a picture is worth a of normative behavior, it will be reflect- process is one that is borrowed from the thousand words” really applies when it ed in our choice of language. We need to political environment where biased, non- comes to promoting accurate under- use phrases which characterize a compe- validated surveys are posed to a popula- standing of the prevalence of health tent youth—most of whom are already tion in order to generate the perception norms. Media stories on health norms healthy, or trusting in community. Verbal of support for a particular political poli- should utilize images that are consistent victories result whenever the reader or cy initiative. The results are then with those norms. Even when the story viewer accurately comprehends the “pushed” into the media through a press is covering the seriousness of a tragic prevalence of healthy norms. release as if they were based on a sound event, an image-reference shows that it Film Phlegm is the dis- scientific process. Generating concern or only affects the minority of the popula- tortion of the prevalence and acceptabili- tion. One technique is to use a graph or ty of health risks as seen in the enter- 6 tainment industry though television and Media Misperception Iatrogenic Effects Misperception Healthful Effects motion pictures. Modeling health-com- Detection (harmful side effects) Correction (social (healthful benefits) promising behaviors such as smoking or norms tool) the non-use of seatbelts can serve to dis- Health Terrorism Generates concern, fear Health (Norms) Fosters trust, community tort the prevalence and acceptability of and reactive policies Promotion competence based on such behaviors. For example, research based on overgeneraliza- accurate views. tions. demonstrates how violence in music, car- Myth Making Compounding misinfor- Media Warning Contextual disclaimer toons or movies serves to normalize such mation and partial truths Labels warns reader of poten- behaviors. From a social norms perspec- foster ‘crises du jour.’ tial overgeneralization & tive, the promotion of healthy, lowered- misperception. risk lifestyles in the entertainment indus- Problem Profiling Negative attributes dis- Hero Celebrating Positive qualities accu- try is an important component of com- proportionately attached rately characterize group municating an accurate picture of an to sub-groups create cul- norms and recognize tural scapegoats. heroes. overall healthier culture. However, “If It Bleeds, It Bold titles and lead sto- Health Headlines Bold titles and lead sto- because part of the purpose of the enter- Leads” ries focused on prob- ries focused on health tainment industry is to provide an escape lems of the few mislead norms accurately inform from the routine and normalcy of life, so viewer about context. viewer. the parallels with misperceptions may not be as obvious as appear on the sur- Skewed Extremes Data and stories repre- The Main Frame Data and stories correct- face. senting extreme behav- ly framed or “sand- iors portrayed as if rep- wiched” within accurate A Movie Marvel is resenting mainstream context of majority an infusion of healthy normative mes- norms. (norms). sages and images into the film, television Deficit Focus Focus on behavior out- Reverse the Ratio Asset-focus on protective and music industries. Role models are side of norm creates norms empowers through created when popular actors, characters negative inaccurate positive majority expec- or musicians uphold healthy attitudes or views (Glass_empty). tations (Glass_full). The Great Oz (of Public deceived by Behind the Media literacy promotes behaviors practiced by the majority of a media) assumption that negative Curtain public understanding group. Images of low-risk alcohol use, or media reflects objective that “cur & paste news” wearing bicycle helmets help to normal- research and reporting. skews actual context. ize desired behaviors. Contrary to a com- Off-Balance Disproportionate media Setting the Proportionate media mon belief that representatives of the Reporting coverage leads to Record Straight coverage leads to factual entertainment industry do not welcome overexaggeration of risk understanding by public. inclusion of such content or agendas into and harm. “Step Aside Passive public accep- “We the People” Ordinary citizens active- their art, many are quite open to becom- Mortals” tance of exaggeration ly involved in dispelling ing partners in health by utilizing the and professionalization truth and counteracting power of their mediums to promote of the problem by expert distorted, toxic views of social health. The entertainment industry opinion. “experts.” is a significant pillar of our culture and “The Mantra” Public disengaged and “The Data” Public engaged and must be embraced as an ally. overwhelmed by state- empowered through ments that problem is understanding achiev- BADvertising is the mar- too big to actually solve. able results. keting of non-normative, health-risk Junk Science Public mislead by Scientific Rigor Scientific rigor estab- behaviors. This marketing occurs by results of “push polls” lishes credibility of commercial advertisers who are seeking designed to generate data-driven process sup- to increase product sales by normalizing concern and policy sup- porting norms. their product. For example, certain sport- port. ing events (car racing, women’s tennis, Shock Photos Emotionally-laden photo The Picture of Images and graphs pro- images and film clips of Health vided to reflect healthy or rodeo) are often sponsored by the extreme incidents distort norms and inform view- tobacco industry, which seeks to create view of accurate norms. er of true social context. the perception that use of their product is Septic Semantics Language is used which Verbal Victories Proper phrases and a normal part of life. inaccurately distorts words used to be consis- Social marketers such as health and prevalence of non-nor- tent and accurately por- prevention specialists also serve to nor- mative health problems. tray health norms. Film Phlegm Entertainment industry Movie Marvels Film and TV programs malize the use and associated harm of models false norms. promote healthy norms. tobacco use by designing images which BADvertising Product marketing and Social Norms Marketing campaigns model (brand) the very behaviors they health counter-advertis- Marketing promote and brand seek to “counter-market.” As far as mis- ing result in branding healthy norms. perceptions are concerned, the intent, or false norms.

7 funding source of the marketer (whether they be pro- or anti-harm), is indistin- Ad l e r , N. (1993). “Sense of invulnerability doesn’t drive teen risks.” AP A Mo n i t o r , p.15 guishable as long as both advertising Astroth, K. (1995). “I’m Okay, You’re At Risk: Beyond Ephebiphobia and Toward Research.” Issue #4 of Monograph on Youth in the 1990’s. Ed. A. Richards and J. Boccarro. Nova Scotia, Canada: You t h outcomes result in increased mispercep- Research Unit, Dalhousie University Halifax, tions of the prevalence of the harmful Berkowitz, A.D. (1997). “From Reactive to Proactive Prevention: Promoting an ecology of health on campus,” behavior. Essentially, BADvertising is in AHandbook on Substance Abuse for College and University Personnel, ed. By P.C. Rivers and E. characterized by support of mispercep- Sh o r e , W estport, CT: Greenwood Press, Chapter 6. tions of health norms. Berkowitz, A.D. (2001). The Social Norms Ap p r oach: Theory, Research and Annotated Bibliography. Posted on the Higher Education Center Social Norms Website: www.e d c . o rg / h e c / s o c i a l n o r m s / . Social Norms Bostrom, M. (2000). Social Policy Report reference list on Strategic Frame An a l y s i s . Marketing is the use of general market- Dorfman, L. and V. Schiraldi. (2001). “Off Balance: Youth, Race & Crime in the News.” U.S. Department of ing strategies to promote awareness of Justice Report, Building Blocks for You t h . normal (health) behavior to a particular Fox, J.A. In Bender, D. and Leone, B. (1997) Eds. Juvenile Crime. San Diego: Greeenhaven Press, pp 92-93. target population. The result of rigorous Haines, M. “ASocial Norms Approach to Preventing Binge Drinking at Colleges and Universities.” (1996). A social marketing campaigns is a shift in publication of the Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Drug Prevention, U.S. Government Printing misperceptions of health norms and a Of fice document No. 197-523-950. measured shift in attitudes or behaviors. Hanh, Thich Nhat (1999). Going Home: Jesus and Buddha as Brot h e r s , New York: Penguin Putnam Inc. Howe, N. and W. Strauss. (2000). Millenials Rising: The Next Great Generation. New York: Vintage Books. Linkenbach, J.W. (1998). “Beyond Health Terrorism.” From Power Point presentation at 1st Annual Conference The tools presented in this paper on the Social Norms Model. Big Sky, MT. can assist social norms practitioners in Linkenbach, J.W. (2000). “7 Step Montana Model of Social Norms Training” Presented at the Vir ginia Higher their efforts to detect and correct mis- Education Social Norms Conference. VAAlcohol Beverage Control Board, Richmond, VA. perceptions of health norms in the Linkenbach J.W. & Perkins, H.W. (2001). Unpublished evaluation reports from Montana social norms project. media. The challenge is great, because Males, M. (1996). The Scapegoat Generation: Am e r i c a ’ s War on Ad o l e s c e n t s . Monroe, ME: Common Courage many professionals are not aware that Pr e s s . focusing continually on problems and Males, M. (1999). Framing Youth: 10 myths about the next generation. Monroe, ME: Common Courage Press, 19 9 9 . consequences can backfire and produce National Research Council (1993). Losing Generations: Adolescents in High-Risk Settings. Washington, D.C.: iatrogenic effects. Any media that National Academy Press, p. 84. results in supporting misperceptions of Perkins, HW(1997). “College student misperceptions of alcohol and drug norms among peers: Exploring caus- health norms is essentially an example es, consequences, and implications for prevention programs,” Designing alcohol and other drug prev e n - of where the solution has become a tion programs in higher education , Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Prevention 177-206. greater problem than what it originally Perkins, H.W. (1998). “Effectiveness of the social norms approach demonstrates 18-21% reductions in less than intended to solve. To the extent that we 2 year periods of time.” Big Sky, MT: National Conference on the Social Norms Model. can be more alert to these distortions Perkins, H.W., W. DeJong, & J.W. Linkenbach. (in-press). “Estimated blood alcohol levels reached by ‘binge’ and produce media that promotes health, and ‘non-binge’drinkers: Asurvey of young adults in Montana.” Psychology of Addictive Behaviors. we will contribute to the solution and Quadrel, M.J., Fishhoff, B. & Davis, W. (1993). Adolescent (In)vulnerability. American Psychologist, 48 : 1 0 2 - not to the problem. 116 . Finally, we must reach across mod- Rothstein, R. (2001). “LESSONS: of Schools and Crime and Gross Exaggeration.” New York Tim e s 7 February 20 0 1 . els of health communication and devel- Skiba, R. (2000). “Zero Tolerance, Zero Evidence: An analysis of school disciplinary practice.” # SRS2 of op new guidelines for presenting health Policy Research Report. Indiana Education Policy Center: 2000. issues. Much additional research, writ- The Missoulian (2001). “Health officials say state having meth epidemic,” 15 September 2001. ing and reflection will occur beyond this Wallack, L. (2001). From presentation on Media Advocacy. Presented at the Pan American Service’sWinter initial working paper. We will continue Institute. Bozeman, MT. to strive for a vision of health communi- cations where all media reflects clear, Working Papers is published by PaperClip Communications. It is a publication of The Report onSocial consistent, pervasive messages support- Norms. Working Papers is published seven times per year. Copyright 2001. No portion of this newslet- ive of low-risk lifestyles that accurately ter may be reproduced without the express written consent of PaperClip Communications, Inc. 54 depict protective measures as the norm. Plauderville Ave. • Garfield, NJ 07026 • 973 . 546 . 3097 • fax 973 . 478 . 3599 • www.Paper-Clip.com. Editorial Advisory Board: William DeJong, Ph.D., Higher Education Center • Pat Fabiano, Ph.D., Western Washington University • Jeanne Far, Ph.D., Washington State University • Michael Haines, M.S., National Social Norms Resource Center • Koreen Johannessen, M.S.W., University of Arizona • Jeff Linkenbach, Ed.D., Montana State University • H. Wesley Perkins, Ph.D., Hobart and William Smith Colleges (NY) Editorial Staff: Alan Berkowitz, Ph.D., Editor Joellen Collins-Cardona Sharon Gordon Julie Phillips Andy McLaughlin, Publisher

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