Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-01205-9 — Syrian Identity in the Greco-Roman World Nathanael J

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Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-01205-9 — Syrian Identity in the Greco-Roman World Nathanael J. Andrade Index More Information

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 Maccabees, , , ,  Armenian tiara and Persian dress,   Maccabees, , , , ,  as Roman citizen,  Commagene as hearth,  Abgar X (c. –), , ,  compared with Herod I,  Abgarid dynasty of Edessa,  culture and cult sustained by gods,  Abidsautas, Aurelios (Beth Phouraia), , dexiosis, , ,   Galatians, ,  Achaemenid Persians, , , , , , , , Greek and Persian divinities,  , , , ,  Greek, Persian, and Armenian ancestry, ,  Acts of the Apostles,  Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem), , ,  hierothesion at Nemrud Dag,˘ , ,  Agrippa, Marcus Vipsanius, ,  hybridity, , ,  Akkadian cuneiform, , , , , , ,  Nemrud DagasDelphi,˘  Alexander III of Macedon (the Great) (– organizes regional community, , ,  bce), , , , , , , , , , priests in Persian clothing,  , , , , , ,  sacred writing of,  Alexander of Aboniteichos (false prophet), , statues of himself, ancesters, and gods,   successors patronize poleis,  Alexander, Markos Aurelios of Markopolis,  trends of his reign, ,  Anath/Anathenes, , , , , , , Tych¯e, ,   Antiochus I, Seleucid (– bce), , ,  Antioch among the Jerusalemites (Jerusalem), Antiochus II, Seleucid (– bce),  , , , , , , , , ,  Antiochus III, Seleucid (– bce), , , Antioch at Daphne, , , , , , , , , , ,  , , , , , , , , , , Antiochus IV of Commagene (– ce), , , , , , , , , , , , ,  , , , , , , , , , Antiochus IV, Seleucid (– bce), , , , , , , , ,  , , , , , , , , , , , , bilingual/multilingual Alexander, , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  , , ,  Greek citizens, , , ,  and Jews of Jerusalem, , , , , , , Greek citizens, construct canal,  ,  Antioch in Persis,  confers Greek polis status upon Near Eastern Antioch on the Chrysorhoas (Gerasa), , , ethnics,   consolidates network of Greek city-states,  Antioch on the Cydnus (Tarsus),  municipal coins minted during his reign,  Antiochus I of Commagene (c. –c.  bce), tries to ﬁnish temple of Zeus Olympius,  , , , , , , , , , , , , Antiochus, Antiochene Jew, ,  , , , , , , , , , , , , Antoninus Augustus Pius, Titus Aelius , , , , , ,  Hadrianus (– ce), ,  Armenian tiara and Greek diadem,  Antonius, Marcus, , , , , , 



 Index

Anu-uballit Kephalon,  Syrians as, , , , , , , , , , Anu-uballit Nikarchos,  , , , , , , , , , Apamea on the Euphrates, ,  , , , , , , , , , Apamea on the Orontes, , , , , , ,  , , , , , , , ,  worshipping Samya,  Agrippa, Lucius Julius, , , , , Atargatis, , , , , , , , , ,  , ,  Belios Philippos, Aurelios,  Athenodorus of Tarsus, ,  Greek citizens, ,  Athens, , , , , , , , , , , , Greek citizens, Near Eastern idioms,  , , , , , , , , , , Apamea, treaty of, , , ,  , ,  Arabia (province), , , , , , , Augustus, Gaius Julius Caesar (Octavianus) ( , ,  bce– ce), , , , , , , , , Arabian god,  , ,  Arabic (language), , , ,  Aurelianus Augustus, Lucius Domitius Arabs, , , , , , ,  (Aurelian) (– ce), , , , , Arabian tribes,   deﬁned in work not by self-ascription, but as Aurelius Antoninus Augustus, Marcus an ethnicity framed by Greeks and (– ce), , ,  Romans,  Avidius Cassius, Gaius,  engage in Greek and “Arab” civic Azzanathkona, ,  performances,  ethnic, , , , , , , , , , Baal-shamin, , , ,  , , , , , ,  at Palmyra,  ethnic, deﬁned by Greeks and Romans, Babatha of Mahoza, , ,   Babylon, , , , , , , , , , express Arabness through diverse cultural ,  idioms,  Babylonians, , , , , , ,  Greek and Arab categories overlap,  baetyl, ,  Greek citizens as,  Bar Kochba revolt,  integrated into Gerasa’s citizen body,  barbarian(s), , , , , , , , , , , integrated into Gerasa’s civic council,  , , , , , , , , , provincial category, , ,  , , , , , , , , , their cultural presence at Palmyra,  , , , , , , , , , Aramaic, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  , , , , , , , , , Bardaisan, ,  , , , , , , , , , Bel, , , , ,  , , , , , , , , , at Palmyra, ,  , , ,  Bel Marduk at Babylon, , ,  Arameans, , , , , , , , , , , Bel/Belos at Apamea,  ,  Ben Sira, Text of,  deemed to be Syrians, , ,  Berossus of Babylon, ,  Archias of Antioch (poet),  Berytus, , , ,  Ardashir I (Sasanian) (c. – ce),  Bilingualism, , , , , , , , , , Aristides, Publius Aelius, ,  , , , , , , , , , Arsameia on the Euphrates (Gerger),   Arsameia on the Nymphaius, , , ,  at Palmyra,  Artabanus III (II) of Parthia (c. – ce), , Borsippa cylinder,   boul¯e/civic council, , , , , , , , , Assyrians, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  , , , , , , , , , deemed to be Syrians, , , ,  , , , , , , , 

Index 

Antioch at Daphne, , , ,  Coele Syria Apamea on the Orontes, , , , , , koinon, , ,   province, ,  defining characteristic of Greek civic life, region associated with the Decapolis,   Seleucid district, , , , , ,  Dura-Europos, , , , , , , colonia, , , , , , , , , ,  , , , , , , ,  Gerasa, , , , ,  colonialism,  hegemony,  civilizing,  Palmyra, , , , , , , , , Greek, , , , , , ,  , , , , , , , , , intersecting models for,  , , , , , , , , , settler,  ,  state,  stimulates social and cultural transformations, colonnade, , , , , , , ,   bricolage, , , , , ,  Antioch at Daphne, ,  Brutus, Marcus Junius,  Apamea on the Orontes, , , , , , Byblus,  ,  Gerasa, , , ,  Caesarea Maritima, , , , , , , Palmyra, , , , , , , , , , , ,   dispute between Greeks and Jews,  Commagene, , , , , , , , , , , SyriansasGreeksin, , , , , , , , , , , , , Caesarea Panias/Philippi, ,  , , ,  Callinicus of Petra (sophist), ,  as part of Syrian ethnos,  Canatha, , , ,  divine personification, ,  Arabs at,  “hybrid” regional community,  Avidios Agrippa,  integrated into Syrian province, ,  Ruphenos, “Arab”,  koinon, ,  Syrians at,  Constantinople,  Thaimos Ioulianos, son of Saados, , , , covert prestige, ,  , ,  creolization, , , , , , , , , , , , Caracalla, Marcus Aurelius Severus Antoninus , , , , , , , , ,  Augustus (– ce), , , , , , cultural translators/translation, , , , , , , , ,  , ,  Cassius Longinus, Gaius,  culture, , , , , , , , , , Charax Spasinou, , , ,  , ,  Cicero, Marcus Tullius, , , , , , , , (As)Syrian in On the Syrian Goddess, , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  , ,  Antiochus I of Commagene,  distrusts Antiochus I,  as performed,  on Archias and Philodemus,  as practice,  on Gabinius and Syrians,  as produced,  on Greekness,  as produced and performed,  on Greeks of Cilicia,  barbarian,  on Syrians,  civic, , , , , , , , , , on Syrians, Asiatics, and Jews,  , ,  province as theater,  classical, , , , ,  provincials as actors,  Commagenian, , , , , , ,  Cilicia/Cilicians, , , , , , , , , , Commagenian as heterogenous, ,  , , , , , , , , , , , , debated concept,  , , , , , , , ,  defined,  province, , , , ,  diverse significance, , ,  civic tribe, , ,  expresses social identification,  Gerasa,  fluid, but experienced as fixed, , 

 Index

culture (cont.) of Hellenistic Greeks,  Greek, , , , , , , , , , , , , , Palmyrene, , ,  , , , , , , , , , , , , Palmyrene, integrates Greek idioms,  , , , , , , , , , , , , Palmyrene, intersects with Greekness, , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  , , , , , , , , , , , , provincial, , , , , ,  , , , , , , , , , , regionally diverse in Syria,  , , , , , , , , , Roman, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  , , , , , , , , , Roman, as experienced,  , , , , , , , , , Roman, as performed,  , , , , , , , , , Roman, discrepant,  , , , , , ,  Roman, dynamic and diverse,  Greek and (As)Syrian in On the Syrian Roman, integrates “native” idioms, ,  Goddess,  Roman, intersects with Greek culture, , , Greek, as defined by scholars, ,   Greek, as experienced, ,  Roman, reconstituted by poleis,  Greek, as Greekness,  Roman, shares idioms with Greek culture,  Greek, as performed,  shaped by civic affiliations,  Greek, at Dura-Europos,  signification,  Greek, discrepant, ,  sophistic, , , , , , , , Greek, dynamic and diverse, , , , , , ,  ,  subjects experience as unified and stable,  Greek, expresses Romanness,  Syrian, , , , , , , , , , , Greek, expresses Syrianness,  , , ,  Greek, integrates “native” idioms, ,  Syrian, as Assyrian, , ,  Greek, intersects with Palmyrene culture, , Syrian, as Assyrian and integrating Greek  idioms,  Greek, intersects with Roman culture, , , Syrian, as experienced,  ,  Syrian, defined,  Greek, intersects with Syrian culture, , Syrian, dynamic and diverse, , , , , , ,   Greek, not determined by assimilation,  Syrian, integrates Greek idioms, , , , , Greek, not static, ,   Greek, reconstituted by poleis,  Syrian, intersects with Greek culture, ,  Greek, shares idioms with Roman culture,  Syrian, intersects with Greekness, ,  Greek,sharesidiomswithSyrianculture, Syrian, reconstituted by poleis,  Greek, symbols of,  Syrian, shaped by Roman imperialism,  Greek, Syrians indigenize, , , , ,  Damascus, , , , , ,  hybrid, but experienced as pure, ,  Danaboi, ,  indigenous, reconstituted by poleis,  Delphi, ,  Jewish,  Dexippus of Athens,  local, , , , , , , ,  dimorphism/dimorphic, , , , , ,  local, dynamic and transforming,  Palmyra, , , , ,  material, , , , , , , , , , vicinity of Dura-Europos,  ,  Dio Cocceianus, Cassius, ,  Near Eastern, expresses Greekness,  Dio of Prusa (Chrysostom), , , , , Near Eastern, expresses Romanness,  , , , , , , , , , Near Eastern, intersects with Greekness and , , ,  Romanness,  First Tarsian Oration, , , , , , never unitary or dualistic,  , , , , ,  new forms, ,  Second Tarsian Oration,  of Greek civic polities, , , ,  Dionysias (Soada), 

Index 

discourse, , , ,  Edessa, , , , , , , , , , “barbarian,” Greeks imitate,  ,  and polis, , ,  Elagabal, , , , , ,  between rulers and cities,  Elagabalus, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus civic, , , , , , ,  Augustus (– ce), , , , , defined,  , , ,  epigraphic, “honorific”,  Emesa, , , , , , , , , , Palmyrene,  , ,  regional,  dynasty of, , ,  Roman imperial, , , , , ,  epigraphy/inscriptions, ,  Domitianus Augustus, Titus Flavius Caesar as texts and material objects,  (Domitian) (– ce),  bolster civic ethos,  Douranoi,  civic Greekness,  doxa, , , , , , , , , , facilitate the interpretation of other texts and , , , , ,  materials,  defined, ,  for the life/health of, ,  Greek culture,  in honor of, ,  in Lucian, Justin Martyr, and Tatian, ,  instruments and symbols of Greek civic produced and performed,  formations,  Dura-Europos, , , , , , , , , shape contexts of discourse and performance, , , , , , , , , ,  , , , , , , , , , significance,  , , , , , , , ,  ethnicity, , , , , , , , , , , , Adadiabos, son of Zabdibolos,  , , , , , , , , , , Alexander Ammaios, son of Epinikos, , , , ,  , , ,  as a mode of cognition,  cult of Palmyrene gods,  as location of putative descent,  different connotations of the names Dura and at Dura-Europos, , , ,  Europos, ,  cognitive construction,  Greek citizens, , , , , , ,  constructed and contested,  Greek citizens, informed by ethnicity,  expressed by diverse idioms,  Greek citizens, Near Eastern ethnics as,  Greek, , , , , ,  Greek citizenship, , , , ,  Greek, at Dura-Europos, , ,  Greek citizenship and ethnic Greeks,  Near Eastern ethnics as Greek citizens,  Greek citizenship includes ethnic Syrians and performed,  Near Eastern ethnics,  Syrian, , , , , ,  Greekness,  Syrian, conveyed through Greek idioms,  Greeks call Europos,  ethnos, , ,  Hairanes, Palmyrene priest, ,  Arabian, regional social category, , ,  Iabsymsos, son of Abdaathes, ,  Sahrˇ , in the Sasanian empire, ,  kinship, , , , , , ,  Sahrˇ , Iranian,  Konon, son of Nikostratos, ,  Syrian, , , , , , , , , , , , Palmyrene gods, ,  , , , , , , , , , Palmyrenes,  , , , , ,  sanctuary for Aphlad, , ,  Syrian, and Dura-Europos,  sanctuary for Artemis, ,  Syrian, and koinon/koina,  sanctuary for Atargatis, , , , , , Syrian, and Palmyra, , , , , ,  , , ,  sanctuary for Azzanathkona, ,  Syrian, and Phoenicians (Syro-Phoenicians), Seleukos/ Bar‘ateh,  , ,  temple of Adonis,  Syrian, as defined under the Romans,  temple of Bel (outside walls),  Syrian, classified as an ethnicity by the temple of the Gadde,´  Seleucid empire,  temple of Zeus Kyrios/Baal-shamin,  Syrian, cognition and commonality, , , temple of Zeus Sot¯ er¯ (Palmyrene gods),  

 Index

ethnos (cont.) , , , , , , , , Syrian, cultural significance, , , ,   Syrian, deemed Assyrian,  at Apamea on the Orontes,  Syrian, deemed Assyrian and Aramean, ,  at Jerusalem,  Syrian, defined by Roman imperialism,  at Palmyra, , , , ,  Syrian, described by Strabo, ,  comprised of citizens classified as both Greek Syrian, diverse “civic” founders,  and Syrian,  Syrian, dynamic and diverse,  determined by ethnicity under Seleucids,  Syrian, regional social category, , , , , discourses and performances determine , , ,  legitimate Greekness,  Syrian, shifts through time,  ethnic Syrians participate in,  Syrian, structured by Greek polities, , , expressed in Aramaic,  , , ,  extended to ethnic Greeks under the Syrian, under Hadrian,  Seleucids,  Syrian, under Septimius Severus,  integrates diverse ethnic elements,  Syrian, under Trajan,  integrates Near Eastern idioms,  Eumenes II (– bce),  intersects with Syrianness,  Europaioi, , , , , , , , , , Near Eastern ethnics obtain under Antiochus , , , , , , , , , IV,  , , ,  of Syria and greater Judea,  variations of culture,  Favorinus of Arles, ,  Greek language, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , Gabinius, Aulus, ,  , , , , , , , , , , Gadara, , , , , , ,  , , , , , , , , , Gauls/Galatians, , ,  , , , , , , , , , Genethlius of Petra,  , , , , , , , , , Gerasa, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  , , , , , , , , , at Palmyra,  , ,  Greekness, , , , , , , , , , , , , , Arabs integrated into Gerasa’s civic body, , , , , , , , , , , , ,  , , , , , , , , , , , , Greek citizens,  , , , , , , , , , , , Greek citizens, Arab identifications,  , , , , , , , , , , Greek citizens, Near Eastern ethnics and , , , , , , , , , , symbols,  , , , , , , , , , , Germanicus Julius Caesar, , ,  , , , , , , , , , Gospel of Mark, ,  , , , , , , , , , Greco-Macedonians/Macedonians, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  , , , , , , , , , defined as Greek in the Seleucid empire,  , , , , ,  Greek citizenship/politeia, , , , , , , , , as what diverse subjects defined as their Greek , , , , , , , , , , , , culture,  , , , , , , , , , , , , at Dura-Europos, , ,  , , , , , , , , , , , , at Palmyra, ,  , , , , , , , , , , , civic, , ,  , , , , , , , , , , civic, at Palmyra,  , , , , , , , , , , classical,  , , , , , , , , , defined,  , , , , , , , , , , different and new at Palmyra,  , , , , , , , , , discrepancy,  , , , , , , , , , dynamic and diverse, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 

Index 

ethnic,  citizens, as citizens of Roman coloniae,  expressed through culturally diverse or Near citizens, at Dura-Europos,  Eastern symbols,  citizens, audience for elites/councilors,  expressed through Near Eastern idioms,  citizens, defined by Greek ethnicity under the feigned,  Seleucids,  integrates Near Eastern idioms, , ,  citizens, distinct from peasants/villagers, , intersects with culture of “other”,  ,  intersects with Palmyrene culture,  citizens, entitled to benefactions,  intersects with Romanness, , , ,  citizens, ethnic Greeks as,  intersects with Syrianness, ,  citizens, ethnic Syrians as, , ,  intersects with Syrianness and Romanness, citizens, ethnic Syrians, Phoenicians, and ,  Arabs as,  not always classically Greek,  citizens, Jews as, , , ,  not static or classical,  citizens, Near Eastern ethnics as,  performed,  citizens, Phoenicians as,  polyvalent,  citizens, sustained by Roman imperialism,  signified in various ways,  citizens, Syriac-speaking/writing,  structured by imperialism,  citizens, under Herod I,  Syrians express,  ethnic, , , , , , , , , , , , transforming, ,  , , , , , , , , , , variety of expression,  , , , , , ,  Greeks, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ethnic and civic coterminous under the , , , , , , , , , , , , Seleucids,  , , , , , , , , , , , , ethnic, as citizens, ,  , , , , , , , , , , , , ethnic, at Dura-Europos, ,  , , , , , , , , , , ethnic, at Seleucia on the Tigris,  , , , , , , , , , , ethnic, in Parthia,  , , , , , , , , , , ethnic, members of Greek polities in Parthia, , , , , , , , , ,  , , , , , , , , , factions engaging in violence against Jews,  , , , , , , , , , hybrid civic performances,  , , , , , , , , , imitation, defined,  , , , , , , , , , imitations, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  , , , , , , , , , in India,  , , , , , , , , , gymnasium, , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  , , , , , , ,  antagonisms with Jews, , , , , , , ,  Hadad, , ,  as actors, , , , ,  Hadrian, Phoenician sophist,  as Syrians, , , , , ,  Hadrianus Augustus, Publius Aelius Traianus as Syro-Phoenicians,  (Hadrian) (– ce), , , , , , as viewers, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  , , , , , , ,  becoming Greek through paideia,  Hasmoneans, , , , , , , , , citizen elites, ,  ,  citizens, , , , , , , , , , , , , Hatra, , , , , , ,  , , , , , , , , , , , Heliodoros, son of Dion,  , , , , , , , , , , Heliopolis-Baalbek, ,  , , , , , , , , , , HerodAntipasofJudea, , , , , , , , , , , Herod I of Judea (– bce), , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  ,  in Commagene,  HerodPhilipofJudea, citizens, affinities with Jews,  Herodian (author), , , , , 

 Index

Herodian Hairanes, son of Odaenathus, , , Roman, different from Seleucid, , , ,   Herodians of Judea, , , , , , , Roman, discrepancy, ,  , , ,  Roman, social categories,  Herodotus, , , , , , , , , Roman, systematic difference, ,  , , , , ,  Sasanian, , , , , , , ,  Hierapolis/Manbog/Bambyce, , , , , , Sasanian, different from Parthian,  , , , , , , , , , Seleucid, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  ,  recognized as a Greek city,  Seleucid, and the Syrian ethnos,  Hieropolis-Castabala,  Seleucid, decline, ,  hierothesion, , , ,  Seleucid, different from Roman, ,  humanitas, ,  Seleucid, ethnic divisions, ,  hybridity, , , , , , , , , , , , , Seleucid, Greek citizenship,  , , , , , , , , , , , , Seleucid, social categories,  , , , , , , , , , shapes knowledge, , , ,  , , , , , , , ,  shapes provincial subjectivity, ,  interpellation, , , ,  Iamblichus of Chalcis (philosopher),  Iranians, , ,  Iamblichus, author of Babyloniaca, , , , Ituraeans, ,  ,  ius Italicum, , , , , ,  identity and culture,  Jason, chief priest of Jewish temple, , , , measured by social performance and ,  signification,  Jebel Khalid (settlement), , ,  performance and identification,  Jerusalem, , , , , , , , , , , problems with the term,  , , , , , , , , ,  imperial cult, , , , , , ,  and Antiochus IV, , , , , , , ,  imperialism and Hadrian,  defined,  Jesus of Nazareth,  Greek, , , , , , , , ,  Jewish Revolt, First (–/ ce), , , , Palmyrene Roman, , , , , , , , , , ,  ,  Jews, , , , , , , , , , , , , Parthian, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  , , , , , , , , , , affinities with Greeks, , ,  , , , , , , , , , and Antiochus IV, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  , ,  and Hadrian, ,  Parthian, different from Sasanian,  antagonisms with Greeks, , , , , Roman, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  , , , , , , , , , , , , as Antiochenes at Jerusalem,  , , , , , , , , , , , , as Greek citizens, , , , ,  , , , , , , , , , , as Syrians,  , , , , , , , , , , at Dura-Europos,  , , , , , , , , , , conflict with Greeks at Caesarea,  , , , , , , , , , , cultivate Greek culture, , , ,  , , , , , , , , , integrated into Greek civic bodies,  , , , , , , , , , resist full assimilation into Greek civic bodies, , ,   Roman, and Greek civic councils,  some translate as “Judean”,  Roman, and the Syrian ethnos, ,  under Herod I, ,  Roman, different from Parthian, , , Josephus, , , , , , , , , , , ,  , , , , , , , 

Index 

against Apion, ,  Lucian of Samosata, , , , , , , Antioch at Daphne,  , , , , , , , , , cultivates Greek culture,  , , , , , , , , , distinguishes Assyrians from , , , , , , , ,  Syrians/Arameans,  (As)Syrian culture (Syr. D.),  on Caesarea, , ,  actor assumes Greek and Syrian masks on Greeks and Syrians, , ,  (Syr. D.),  on Seleucia on the Tigris, ,  actors become what they perform,  on Syrians/Arameans, , ,  actors produce models, ,  Syrian ethnos integrates Judea,  actors scrutinized by rivals,  Judea Against the Ignorant Book Collector, ,  administrative district/province governed by Alexander, ,  Herodians/Roman magistrates (pre- ce), and imperial knowledge,   Apology, ,  as the land of the Jews, , , ,  biography difficult to verify, ,  greater, , , , , , , , , , categories of Greek and Syrian intersect , , , , , ,  (Syr. D.), ,  greater, as part of the Syrian ethnos, , , challenges premises of infallible knowledge,   greater, defined by Strabo,  challenges prevailing assumptions about region, , , , , , ,  indigeneity (Syr. D.),  Roman province (post- ce), , , , corpus’ sophistic traits,   Council of the Gods, ,  Julia Domna, ,  critiques doxa and imperial knowledge,  Julius Caesar, Gaius, ,  critiques genre,  Jupiter Capitolinus, , , ,  critiques Greek paideia and Roman Justin Martyr, , , , , , , , hegemony, , , ,  , , , , ,  critiques Herodotean ethnography, , , actors and theater,   critiques classical origins,  critiques Herodotean ethnography (Syr. D.), critiques production of divinities, ,  ,  doxa, , ,  critiques history/historiography, , , mim¯esis,   world as theater,  critiques imperial ordering of knowledge,  critiques origins, models, and genres, ,  katoikia, , , , , ,  critiques origins, models, and pasts, , , kinship  at Palmyra, , , ,  critiques performance,  Kochba, Simon bar,  critiques Roman imperialism (Syr. D.),  koinon/koina critiques social positioning, ,  koinon of Coele Syria,  critiques sophistic categories (Syr. D.),  of Syrian ethnos, , , , , , , , , critiques sophistic culture,  , ,  critiques sophistic masculinity (Syr. D.), , of Syrian ethnos (Syria, Coele Syria,  Phoenicia, Commagene),  critiques the classical past and categories,  of Syrian ethnos,defined, critiques the production of knowledge,  of Syrian ethnos, peer polity cultural categories as disputed questions network/commonwealth,  (Syr. D.),  Kombabos, , , , , ,  declamation as performance, ,  destabilizes boundary of Greek and Syrian Latin, , , , , , , , , , , , binary,  , , , , , , ,  destabilizes boundary of Greek and Syrian Letter of Mara bar Serapion,  binary (Syr. D.), , ,  linguistic ideology,  destabilizes gender categories,  Longinus (sophist at Palmyra), ,  destabilizes gender categories (Syr. D.), 

 Index

Lucian of Samosata (cont.) narrator as viewer and spectacle (Syr. D.),  destabilizes Greek and Syrian cultural binaries narrator shifts cultural positions and masks (Syr. D.),  (Syr. D.),  destabilizes distinction between narrators as actors,  representations and material world narrators as actors (Syr. D.),  (Syr. D.),  Nigrinus, ,  Dialogues of the Courtesans, ,  On Dance, , , , , ,  Dialogues of the Dead,  On Salaried Positions,  dispositions of his corpus,  On the Syrian Goddess, , , , , , , , Double Indictment,  , , , , , , , , , doxa, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  , , , , , , , , , engages classical literature, ,  , , , , ,  entanglement of Greek and Syrian categories On the Syrian Goddess, as Greek (Syr. D.),  representation and Syrian adaptation,  Eunuch, ,  On the Syrian Goddess,asSyrian False Critic, ,  indigenization of Herodotian Fisherman, , ,  (mis)representation,  Greek representations transform Syrian On the Syrian Goddess, authenticity,  culture (Syr. D.),  On the Syrian Goddess, continuities with Greek viewers as Syrian actors (Syr. D.), , broader Syrian practice, ,   otherness,  Greekness of Syrians scrutinized,  Peregrinus, ,  Heracles,  performance, , , ,  Hermotimus,  performance and cultural production, , Herodotean viewer as Syrian actor (Syr. D.),  , , , , ,  performance creates cultural difference historian/ethnographer as actor,  (Syr. D.),  historians as actors, , ,  performance generates models, origins, and history as performance, , ,  pasts,  How to Write History, , ,  performance generates models, origins, pasts, Icaromenippus, , , ,  and genres,  Images,  performance generates social categories and imitation as becoming and producing,  historical pasts,  In Defense of Images,  performance produces cultural categories incoherence of Greek and Syrian categories (Syr. D.), ,  (Syr. D.), ,  performance produces models and copies, instability of binary categories (Syr. D.),   instability of cultural positioning (Syr. D.), performance produces models and pasts, ,   intersection and antagonism of Greek and Platonic dialogue,  barbarian culture, ,  production of cultural difference,  intersection and antagonism of Greek and production of cultural difference (Syr. D.), Syrian culture (Syr. D.), , , ,   interweaves genres,  production of divinities, , , ,  issue of authorial intent,  production of divinities (Syr. D.),  Lovers of Lies,  production of Greek and barbarian culture, mim¯esis produces models,   name conveys unstable identiﬁcation,  Prometheus in Words,  narrator as actor,  Rooster,  narrator as Greek and Syrian (Syr. D.),  Sacriﬁces,  narrator as Greek subject and barbarian other Scythian,  (Syr. D.),  sophistic viewer as Syrian actor (Syr. D.),  narrator as Herodotean ethnographer and stages outsiders or barbarians who perform as other (Syr. D.),  Greeks, 

Index 

standard/sign (Syr. D.), , , , , , , Nabataeans, , , , , ,   Near Eastern Symposium,  used generically in text for idioms not Syrian culture as dynamic and transforming introduced by Greeks or Romans,  (Syr. D.), ,  Nemrud Dag,˘ , , , , , , , , , Syrian culture integrates Greek idioms (Syr. ,  D.), , , , , , , , ,  Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus Syrian culture intersects with Greek culture, (– ce), ,  ,  Nicholaus of Damascus, , , , , Syrian culture intersects with Greek culture  (Syr. D.), ,  Nicostratus of Trebizond,  Syrian narrators/characters, ,  Nisibis, ,  Syrians adapt Greek narratives of Syrian past nomads, , , , , , , , , , (Syr. D.), ,  , , , , , , , , , Syrians as Assyrians,  ,  Syrians express Syrianness through Greek Nysa-Scythopolis, , ,  idioms (Syr. D.),  Greeks and Syrians at,  Syrians indigenize Greek myths, practices, and narratives (Syr. D.), ,  Odaenathus, Septimius, , , , , , Syrians integrate Greek (mis)representations , , , , , , ,  into practices (Syr. D.),  overt prestige, , , , , , , , Syrians integrate Greek (mis)representations  into Syrian culture (Syr. D.),  Syrians police Greekness,  paideia, , , , , , , , , , , , Teacher of Rhetors,  , , , , , , , , , texts as performance, ,  , , , , , , , , , Toxaris,  , ,  True Histories, , , , , ,  Palmyra, , , , , , , , , , underlying sameness beneath cultural , , , , , , , , , , difference (Syr. D.),  , , , , , , , , , viewers as actors, , , ,  , , , , , , , , , viewers as actors (Syr. D.), , ,  , , , , , , , , , , world as theater, , , ,  , , , , , , , ,  world as theater (Syr. D.),  Alexander, son of Alexander,  Zeus the Tragedian, ,  and Hadrian, , ,  Zeuxis, ,  architecture,  art,  Maccabean revolt, , ,  called Tadmor in Aramaic,  Magnesia on the Meander,  citizen audience, ,  Magnesia on the Sipylus, , ,  citizens belong to Greek politeia,  Manetho,  citizenship intersecting with kinship and Mariades of Antioch,  clientage,  Meleager of Gadara, ,  civic context,  Menelaus, chief priest of Jewish temple, , , civic discourse,   civic topography,  mestizaje (m´etissage), , , , , , ,  cultural tensions, , ,  metropolis, , , , , , , , , , dimorphism, , , , ,  , ,  diverse social afﬁliations,  Middle Ground, , , , , , , , , , dynasts of, , ,  , , , ,  funerary structures,  Mithridates I Callinicus of Commagene Greek and Aramaic inscriptions,  (– bce), ,  Greek and Palmyrene as intersecting Mithradates VI of Pontus (c. – bce),  categories,  Mohammed,  Greek citizens, , , , , , Mopsus/Seleucia on the Pyramus,  

 Index

Palmyra (cont.) insurgency, , , , ,  Greek citizenship/politeia, , , , , Jews,  , , , , , , , , , Panhellenic League (Panhellenion), , , , ,  , ,  Greek polis, ,  Parthians, , , , , , , , , , , , Greekness, , , , , , ,  , , , , ,  its Roman empire, , , ,  Paul of Samosata,  kinship, , , , , , , , , peasants/villagers, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  ,  peer polity network/commonwealth, , , , Males Agrippa, son of Iaraios, ,  , , , , , , , , , , , , Malichos, son of Olaies,  , , , , , , , , , , Markos Oulpios Iaraios,  , , , , , , , , , Ogelos, son of Makkaios, ,  , , , , , , , , , priests of Bel,   Roman colonia,  and Palmyra, , , , , , , Romanness, , ,   Soados, son of Boliades, , , , , , audience for Greek performances and cultural  expressions, ,  Soraichos, son of Hairanes,  facilitated by civic councilors, , ,  status as Greek polis debated, , ,  facilitated by client kings, , ,  Tariff Decree, , , ,  koinon/koina, , ,  temple of Baal-shamin, , , , , , league of poleis Hell¯enides,   of Syrian ethnos, , , ,  temple of Bel, , , , , , , , provides criteria for shaping Greekness, , , , ,  ,  tomb of Elahbel,  performance, , , , , , , , , , , tomb of the Three Brothers, ,  , , , , , , , , , , Zebeidos, son of Nesa,  , , , , , , , , , Palmyrenean (Aramaic), , , , , , , , , , , ,  , , , , , , , , , and polis, , , ,  , , , , , , ,  civic, , , , , , , , , , , Palmyrenes, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  , , , , , , , , , creates difference and conceals sameness,  ,  defined,  antagonistic to mainstream Greek culture, Dio of Prusa, , ,   diverse significations,  as citizens, , , , ,  doxa, , , , , , ,  as Greeks and Romans,  generates models in Lucian’s corpus,  as Hadrianoi,  Greek, intersects with Roman, , ,  as Roman subjects,  Greek, intersects with Roman and Syrian,  common identification, , , , Greek, intersects with Syrian, , ,   Greekness, , , , , , , , , , , culturally diverse,  , , , , , , , , , , , distinct from other Greeks,  , , , , , , , , , , dynasts, ,  , , , , , , , , , Greek citizenship/politeia, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  ,  Greekness, , , , , ,  Greekness, and Jews,  Greekness and Palmyreness intersect,  Greekness, shaped by civic councils,  Greekness, Romanness, and Palmyreness history, , , , ,  intersect,  identity,  indigenous culture, ,  inscriptions as, , , , , 

Index 

Lucian of Samosata, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  , , , , , , , , , , Palmyrene, , ,  , , , , , ,  produces cultural categories, , ,  and discourse, ,  provincial, , , , ,  and performance, , , ,  Roman, intersects with Greek, , ,  defined, community of citizens,  Roman, intersects with Syrian and Greek,  defined, recognized as a collective Greek Romanness, , , , , , ,  organism,  shapes meaning of signs,  defines and reconstitutes changing boundaries sophistic, , , , , ,  between Greeks and Syrians,  Syrian, intersects with Greek, , ,  discrepancy, , , , ,  Syrian, intersects with Greek and Roman,  Dura-Europos as,  Syrianness, , , , ,  elides differences between Greeks and Syrians, Syrianness, and Jews,   texts as, , , , ,  framework of signification, , , , , , Pescennius Niger Augustus, Gaius (– ce),  ,  integrates anthesis of Greek/non-Greek,  philhell¯en, ,  integrates ethnic Syrians, , , ,  Philippus Augustus, Marcus Julius (Philip the integrates Near Eastern ethnics, , , , Arab) (– ce),  , , ,  Philo of Alexandria, , , , , ,  integrates Phoenicians,  Philo of Byblus, ,  interweaves diverse cultural idioms, , ,  Philodemus of Gadara,  Jews, , , ,  Philopappus, Julius Antiochus Epiphanes,  obtains recognition as Greek from Greek peer philorhomaios¯ , ,  polity network,  Philostratus (elder), , , , , , , official status and implications,   Palmyra as, ,  Phoenicia, , , , , , , , , , , , reconstitutes culture, ,  , , , , , , ,  redefines what is Greek,  as Syro-Phoenicia,  shapes Greek affiliations,  koinon, ,  shapes Greekness, , , , , , , , , Seleucid district extending to Gaza/Pelusium, ,  ,  shapes social affiliations and strategies of Phoenician language, , , , , ,  subjects,  Phoenicians, , , , , , , , , , shapes Syrianness, , , , , , ,  , , , ,  stabilizes boundaries between Greeks and as Syro-Phoenicians, , , , , , Near Eastern ethnics,  , ,  transforming,  ethnic, , , , , , , , , ,  under Parthians,  in Dio of Prusa, , , , ,  under Romans, , , ,  in Greek literature,  under Seleucids, , ,  physiognomy, ,  Pompeius Magnus, Gnaeus, , , , , , , Piso, Gnaeus Calpurnius, , ,  , , , , ,  polis, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , Posidonius of Apamea, , ,  , , , , , , , , , , , , présence américaine, ,  , , , , , , , , , , , , Ptolemies of Egypt, , ,  , , , , , , , , , , , , Publicius Marcellus, ,  , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , Qalaat Faqra, ,  , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , Rhodes, ,  , , , , , , , , , Roman citizenship, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 

 Index

Romanness, , , , , , , , , , , at Antioch at Daphne,  , , , , , , , , , at Palmyra, ,  , , , , , , , , , , civic council,  , , ,  Greek polis, framework of,  defined,  Lucian of Samosata, , , , , , discrepancy,   expressed through Near Eastern idioms, , of standard/sign,   polyvalence,  intersects with Greekness,  signs (see symbols), , , , , , , , intersects with Syrianness and Greekness, , , , , , , ,   polyvalence, , , ,  Syrians express in complex and diverse ways, shared by intersecting cultural frameworks,   transforming, ,  signify diverse intersecting categories, , , Romans, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  , , , , , , , , , , , , underlying unity, ,  , , , , , , , , , , Smyrna, ,  , , , , , , , , , Sol Invictus,  , , , , , , , , , sophists, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  , , , , , , , , , imitation,  , , , , , , , , , Rome, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  , , , , , , , , , Strabo of Pontus, , , , , , , ,  , , , , , , , , , symbolic universe, , , , , , , ,  ,  symbols (see signs), , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , Samosata, , , , , , , , ,  , , , , , , , , , , , Samya, , ,  , , , , , , , , , , Sandon/Sandan, ,  , , , , , , , , , Sebaste, , , , , , ,  , , , , , , ,  Second Sophistic, , , , ,  syngeneia, , ,  Seleucia on the Tigris, , , ,  Syria, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , GreeksandSyriansat, , , , , , , , , , , , , Seleucis , , , , , , , , , , , , Seleucid district, , ,  , , , , , , , , , , , , Seleucus I, Seleucid (– bce), , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  , , , , , , , , , , Seleucus II, Seleucid (– bce), ,  , , , , , , , , , , Seleucus III, Seleucid (– bce),  , , , , , , , , , , Seleucus IV, Seleucid (– bce), , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  , , , , , , , , , s¯emeion, , , , , , , , ,  , , , , , , , , , Septimius Severus Pertinax Augustus, Lucius , , , , , , , , , (– ce), , , , ,  , , , , , , , , , Shapur I (Sasanian) (c. – ce), , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  , , , , , , , , ,  Sidon, , , , , , , , ,  defined by Romans,  Sidonians of Shechem,  distinct of Seleucis, , ,  signification, , , , , , , , , , , Greek,  , , , , , , , , , , koinon,  , , , , , , , , , province distinct from Syria Palestina,  , , ,  province of Coele Syria, ,  Antiochus I of Commagene,  province of Oshroene, 

Index 

province of Syria Palestina, , , ethnic, at Seleucia on the Tigris,   ethnic, become Greek citizens of Roman province of Syria Phoenice, ,  Dura-Europos, ,  Roman province(s), , , , , , , , , ethnic, excluded from Greek polities in , , , , , , , , , , Parthia,   ethnic, not integrated into Seleucid Greek Syriac (Aramaic), , , , , , , , , communities,   express Greek identifications/Greekness,  Syrianness, , , , , , , , , , , , , , Greek expressions of,  , , , , , , , , , , , , hybrid civic performances,  , , , , , , , , , , Jews as,  , , , , , , , , , Phoenicians, Syro-Phoenicians,  ,  provincial category,  defined,  reconstitute categories of Greek, Syrian, dynamic and diverse,  Roman, Arab, and Persian,  expressed through Greek idioms,  ruled by Greek Seleucid empire,  expressed through vast cultural spectrum, sameness and difference in relation to Greeks,   intersects with Greekness,  subjectivity of,  intersects with Greekness and Romanness,  Tarsus, , , , , , , , , , , , transforming, ,  , , ,  Syrians, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , Tatian, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  , , , , , , , , , , , , actors and theater,  , , , , , , , , , , critiques classical origins,  , , , , , , , , , , critiques production of divinities,  , , , , , , , , , doxa, ,  , , , , , , , , , mim¯esis,  , , , , , , , , , world as theater,  , , , , , , , , , , Tel Maresha,  , , , , , , , , , temple communities, , , , , , , , , , ,  , , , , ,  as (As)Syrians, , , ,  Theophilus of Antioch,  as actors,  Third Space, , , , , , ,  as Greeks, , , ,  Thirteenth Sibylline Oracle, , , , as Syro-Phoenician,   become Greek citizens, ,  Tigranes II of Armenia (– bce), , , culturally diverse,   deemed to be Assyrians, ,  Titus Flavius Caesar Vespasianus Augustus deemed to be Assyrians and Arameans, , (– ce), , ,   Traianus Augustus, Marcus Ulpius Nerva deemed to be different from Assyrians,  (– ce), , , , , , , , define themselves as Greeks or Romans , , , , , , ,  through Near Eastern idioms,  Tych¯e, , , , , ,  ethnic, , , , , , , , , , , , , of Dura, , ,  , , , , , , , , , , of Palmyra, , ,  , , , , , , , , , Tyre, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,   Tyriaion, , ,  ethnic, as Greek citizens, ,  ethnic, as Hell¯enistai,  Uranius Antoninus, Lucius Julius Aurelius ethnic, at Dura-Europos, , , , , Sulpicius Severus,  , ,  Uruk, , , , 

 Index

Vaballathus, son of Zenobia, , , ,  Zeno of Pontus/Artaxias III of Armenia,  Vespasianus Augustus, Titus Flavius Caesar Zenobia, Septimia, , , , , , , (– ce), ,  ,  villagers, , , , ,  Zeugma, , ,  Vologasias, , ,  Zeus Olympius, , , , , , , , , Vonones I of Parthia (– ce),  